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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN INFORMATION SYSTEM

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Wed, 18 Feb 2009 23:59:00 +0000

Definition of system

Definition of the system can be seen from the two approaches, namely the approach procedure and approach components / elements

More emphasis on the procedures difinisi system is

System is a network of work procedures - procedures of each other, come together to perform an activity or to complete a certain objective

The procedure

According to Jerry Fitzgerald, Ardra F. Warren Fitzgerald, and D. Stallings, Jr..

Procedure is a sequence from the right stages instructions explain what (what) that must be done, who (who) that do, when (when) and is how (how) it

According to F. Neuschel

A procedure is a sequence-order write-write operation, usually partsipate some people or more in a department, which is applied to ensure a uniform handlers from business transactions that occur.

Which put more emphasis on the component approach is

System is the set of elements that interact to achieve the certain goal

Definition of the approach that the system components on a more accepted as a true system can consist of several subsystem or system-part system. For example, the accounting system can consist of several subsystem-subsystem, the subsystem sales accounting, purchase accounting subsystem, subsystem accounting theory, cost accounting subsystem, and so forth. And all the subsystem-subsystem interaction is mutual cooperation to achieve a particular purpose.

A system has the purposes particular, have to mention that.

achieve a goal (Goal)

usually associated with the scope of a wider and more narrow target, when the system is the main business system for example, the term goal is more appropriately applied.

each a target (Objective)

for the accounting system or other system which is a part or subsystem of the business system objekctive more appropriate term.

SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristics means that a certain nature.

characteristic system have

Components (component)

 Components that interact each other, worki

ng together form a unity. Which can be either a subsystem or part of the system

 Supra System, a system can have a larger system, for example, a company can be called a system that has industry as a larger system. If the system is seen as an accounting system, the company is a supra system and is the industry's supra Sura system.

Restriction system (Boundary)

 Limit the system with other systems / environment outside the system allows a unit is seen as one

Environment outside the system (environments)

 Whatever the outside limit of the system do affect the operating system, which benefits for the system must be kept and maintained, which can be harmful and should be controled

Contact (interface)

 Media link between a sub system with other systems, drain of resources to subsystem, the output of a subsystem can be input from another subsystem and interact each other form a union.

Input (input)

 Energy is included in the system can be in the form of inputs and input signal. Maintenance is included so that the energy system can operate, input is the energy signal is processed to get an output, for example in the computer system, predictive maintenance program is to operate the computer, data input signal that is processed into information.

Output (output)

 Results of the energy processed and classified into useful output, and the rest of the disposal. Can be entered to the other subsystem or supra system, an example computer system, the heat output is not useful while the data is a useful input signal.

Processing (process)

 Change the input into output, for example accounting system will processed transaction data into financial statements and reports required by majemen.

Goal (objective) / Goal (goal)

 If you do not have the purpose of the operating system will not have to use. Said the system has been successful when the goal / target earnings

Image characteristics of the system

Classification SYSTEM

Can be classified from several perspectives

System is classified as a form of abstract ideas that do not appear to be physic and physical systems that have a physical system such as komputer.
System is classified as a natural system is the system going through the process of nature, not man made earth rotation system for example. System is man-made system designed by humans. Man-made system that involves the interaction of human with machine called the human-machine system.
System is classified as a specific system (deterministic system), the operating system with the behavior that can be predicted. Interaction between the part-can detect with any certainty, so that the output from the system can be predicted example computer system. And the system is not necessarily a system that future conditions can not be predicted because it contains the probability unsure. Example of weather systems.
The system is classified as a closed system (closed system), is a system that is not related and are not affected with the outside environment. System and open system that is associated with the affected environment and outside, for example, a supermarket system sales and system delivery, the goods delivery system when the system slow sales also slowed.

Information cycle

Data that’s input processed the data to produce information using a particular model of processes such as data tempratur in the room that is in degrees Fahrenheit and the data is still in the form of a lack of means for receiving a policy with derajad centigrade. So that can be more meaningful and useful in the form of information, the need to be processed through a model with a certain. In this model using a mathematical formula formula derajad unit conversion from Fahrenheit into centigrade derajad unit.

Data is processed through a model into the information, the recipient and receive information, make decisions and do tidakan, which means produce an action that will create some data back. Data will be captured as the input, re-processed through a model and so form a cycle. By John Burch referred to as cycle of information.

QUALITY INFORMATION

Accurate

Means that the information should be free of mistakes and should also clearly reflect the meaning, for example, is information about the map, the information in the map must be free of errors that do not harm users.

On time

Means that the information that came on the receiving can not be delayed. Information that has been using will not have any value anymore, because the information is the basis in making decisions, when making decisions too late, it can result in fatal for the organization.

Relevance

Means that the information has benefits for users, the relevance of each person is different, for example, information about the whys and the damage to the engine production accountant company is less relevant and will be more relevant when addressed to a company engineer.

SPECIFY INFORMATION VALUE OF TWO THINGS BENEFITS AND COSTS

Information will be valuable if the benefits are greater than the costget

WHAT IS INFORMATION SYSTEM?

By Robert A. Leitch and K. Roscoe Davis definition of information system

Information System is a system in the an organization that bring together daily transaction processing needs, support the operation, the managerial and activities of an organization's strategy andprovide outside parties with a report reports required.

Component Information System

Block enter

Represent the incoming data into the information system including methods and media for catch data will be entered which can be basic documents.

Block model

Consists of a combination of procedures, logic and mathematics that will be the model data input and manipulate data stored in the database

Block output

Product information from the system output is in the form of quality information and documentation that is useful for all levels of users.

Block technology

Technology is a tool box in the system information.Technology use to receive input, run the model, store and access data, generate and send the output and help control the output of the system as a whole. Examples are qualified (brainware), software (software), hardware (hardware).

Blocks Database

The database is a collection of data related to each other with each other, stored in the computer hardware and software used to manipulate

Block control

Many things can damage the system information, such as natural disasters, fire, temperature, water, temperature, dust, cheating, deception, error and system failure. Need to control is designed and implemented to ensure that the things that can damage the system can be prevented or if an error occurred can quickly overcome.

The difference term

Information system vs information technology

Information system:

sets people, data, processes, and technology information interact to collect, process, store, and provide informas i needed to support an organization

SI grouped into several categories according function and type of support to the organization:

Transaction Processing System (TPS)

A Transaction Processing System (TPS) is a type of information system that collects, stores, modifies and retrieves the data transactions of an enterprise.

A transaction is any event that passes the ACID test in which data is generated or modified before storage in an information system

Management Information System (MIS)

management information system (MIS) is a subset of the overall internal controls of a business covering the application of people, documents, technologies, and procedures by management Accountants to solving business problems such as costing a product, service or a business-wide strategy. Management information systems are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used to analyze other information systems applied in operational activities in the organization. ^[1] Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of human decision making, eg Decision Support Systems, Expert systems, and Executive information systems.

Decision Support System (DSS)

Decision Support Systems (DSS) are a specific class of computerized information system that supports business and organizational decision-making activities. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from raw data, documents, personal knowledge, and / or business models to Identify and solve problems and make decisions.

Executive Information System (EIS)

An Executive Information System (EIS) is a type ofmanagement information system intended to facilitate and support the information and decision-making needs of senior executives by providing easy access to both internal and external informationRelevant to meeting the strategic goals of the organization. It is commonly considered as a specialized form of a Decision Support System (DSS)

The emphasis of EIS is on graphical displays and easy-to-use user interfaces. They offer strong reporting and drill-down capabilities.In general, EIS are enterprise-wide DSS that help top-level executives analyze, compare, and highlight trends in importantvariables so that they can monitor performance and Identify opportunities and problems. EIS and Data Warehousingtechnologies are converging in the marketplace.

Expert System (ES)

An expert system is software that attempts to reproduce the performance of one or more human experts, most commonly in a specific problem domain, and is a traditional application and / or subfield of artificial intelligence. A wide variety of methods can be used to simulate the performance of the expert however common to most or all are 1) the creation of a so-called "Knowledgebase"which uses some knowledge representation formalism to capture the subject matter experts (SME) knowledge and 2) a process of gathering that knowledge from the SME and codifying it according to the formalism, which is called knowledge engineering. Expert systems may or may not have learning components but a third common element is that once the system is developed it is proven by being placed in the same real-world problem solving situation as the human SME, Typically as an aid to human workers or a supplement to some information system.

As a Premiere application of computing and artificial intelligence, the topic of expert systems has many points of contact with general systems theory, operations research, business process reengineering, and various topics in applied mathematics andmanagement science.

Information technology:

the term used to describe the combination of computer technology (HW and SW) sert a telecommunications technology (network data, image, and votes)

Transaction processing system vs. system information vs management system support decision making

Management information system (SIM):

Information system that provides reports for the management based on the processing transactions and operations that are in organization

Decision support system (SPPK):

Information system that helps i mengidentifikas opportunities indecision making or provide information to make decisions

stakeholders in the SI

The owner of the system (system owners)
The system (system users): internal & external
The system (system designers)
Building system (system Builders)
System analyst & project manager (system analysts andproject manager)

Why need to develope SI?

There is a problem (problems)
Irregularity in the growth of System Organization
Reaching for the opportunities (Opportunities)
The existence of instructions (directives)

Social Considerations for Artificial Intelligence

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Sat, 31 Jan 2009 03:19:00 +0000

by: Noel Anthony Pierre

Social Considerations for A.I. (Artificial Intelligence)

According to Dennis Gorelik, a single perceived weakness of an AIS (meaning, an artificial intelligence society, consisting of computers trained to 'think') is that it was not born through natural selection as human beings are. But one could view whether this is a disadvantage or an advantage from a couple of sides. Within human natural selection, there are biases based on upbringing, genetic factors and how ultimately one responds to social events. For example, if one came from a violent past/childhood and ended up being a psychopath, this could override any INTELLECTUAL, socially beneficial learning that this person ultimately gets. It can cause them to make decisions based not on logic, but by their own emotional biases.

With strong AI, this factor is at least on paper removed on a grand, world-based scale, with the Machine being the sum of all par7ts, all people connected. In WIRED magazine’s new issue, for example, writer Kevin Kelly describes the internet’s home for AI as being a breeding ground for a single consciousness by billions of people and situations. So, while in a individually controlled AI environment, the AIS might by function – or by purposeful ‘programming’ – take on the biases of an INDIVIDUAL user, within the framework of mass contributions, it becomes a gigantic collector of information. I imagine that the ideal, if AIS is to work for human advantage, is that the emotional side of the Machine would take on so-called ‘normal’ emotional states of the people and systems it serves. People do not wish to be abused or stolen from or killed en masse.

In short, natural selection is a hit-or-miss thing on purely intellectual and emotional basises. “Love is blind,” “there’s no accounting for SOME people,” “There’s a sucker born every minute,” etc. With the large amount of data an AIS civilization would collect, there would in theory be a checks-and-balances library for more and more questionable, dubious, socially detrimental things, regardless of the user. It would become a servant to the population – not to any one particular group, person or thing.

I like to think of the example of open source software development, or mainstream sites like Wikipedia that allow the people at large to update information at will, and seed out vandals. Humans are fallible in emotional/logical ways that a Machine would not be. At the same time, the AIS is fallible by the simple inadequacy of it FULLY capturing the entire range of every mental/emotional/psychological impact of natural occurrences – from a mad girlfriend, to the effects of a tsunami, to why your college roomie likes to play the Black Dragon calypso album five times a day. The Machine, for all its exposure to the world, cannot know what people think – only what we do. So, tweaks in its activity can be monitored and adjusted by a world at large – much better than trusting the maintenance to a possibly megalomaniacal techno-whiz who might want to take out the planet because he hated his daddy. ;)

A possible serious weakness to AIS is its adaptation to a world where it becomes more and more dependent on its use, from medical use to financial markets to solace for lonely, desperate people. In the Great Depression, people so dependent on the old stock exchange during the crash literally killed themselves. When the World Trade Centres were smashed down, the stock exchange similarly was affected.

We all know what possible consequences are if a massive blackout nullified even the back-up systems of hospitals, heat and light, even food and water production. And many people now live out their social lives via the Internet (see the perp who almost succeeded in a mass suicide with lonely female members of his chat group.) In the event of a cataclysmic system crash for a fully-integrated, fully-indispensable worldwide AIS, all of could become instant bedlam. So, the social importance of an AIS in that scenario would have to be very closely monitored by thinking, reactive humans after all. We will still have to use our good ol’ noggins, because you can’t eat or drink silicone chips, and what good is a mechanical AI heart in your chest if it stops working?

One more point about the implications of a fully-functional AIS, and this stretches to religious and spirituality. All of the world’s religious texts were written by the hands of men. Whether the belief in God came through divine revelation (as the religious/spiritualists like me believe), or simply through man’s childlike imagination (as the atheists attest) is a history-long argument between these two groups.

From a philosophical point of view, however, the question takes on a different route. If man indeed invented God, the argument could go, the issue might be how technology affects the understanding of what God is. The point might be made by the philosophers that God was written into the books by human beings, mainly to attempt to understand the meaning of life, of who we are as a species, and to help us just get by life. If systems of thought and technology can be upgraded to higher levels of understanding, why couldn’t there also be a God v.2.0? After all, they may argue, the old model was a Lord who we couldn’t see or touch – it’s a major leap of faith to know that God exists. The old text was written in parchment and dictated morality -- today's dominant medium is multi-bit, encrypted and often imposes morality in internet law, chat room behavior and advice columns on how to be a better spouse or member of a community.

The internet was created by us by through a vision of connecting humans to the universe. So, many people who sit on their butts for hours a day making sure their social and financial prayers are answered, may choose to be on their knees to what they consider an alive-acting, omnipresent, all-knowing, all-seeing, instantly accessible Diety – God for a new millennium. What effect this possible stream of thought will have on our flesh-and-blood world, so connected to a universe-wide savior to so many, remains to be seen.

Artificial Intelligence And Intuition

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Sat, 31 Jan 2009 03:17:00 +0000

by: Abraham Thomas

The intuitive algorithm

Roger Penrose considered it impossible. Thinking could never imitate a computer process. He said as much in his book, The Emperor's New Mind. But, a new book, The Intuitive Algorithm, (IA), suggested that intuition was a pattern recognition process. Intuition propelled information through many neural regions like a lightning streak. Data moved from input to output in a reported 20 milliseconds. The mind saw, recognized, interpreted and acted. In the blink of an eye. Myriad processes converted light, sound, touch and smell instantly into your nerve impulses. A dedicated region recognized those impulses as objects and events. The limbic system, another region, interpreted those events to generate emotions. A fourth region responded to those emotions with actions. The mind perceived, identified, evaluated and acted. Intuition got you off the hot stove in a fraction of a second. And it could be using a simple algorithm.

Is instant holistic evaluation impossible?

The system, with over a hundred billion neurons, processed the information from input to output in just half a second. All your knowledge was evaluated. Walter Freeman, the famous neurobiologist, defined this amazing ability. "The cognitive guys think it's just impossible to keep throwing everything you've got into the computation every time. But, that is exactly what the brain does. Consciousness is about bringing your entire history to bear on your next step, your next breath, your next moment." The mind was holistic. It evaluated all its knowledge for the next activity. How could so much information be processed so quickly? Where could such knowledge be stored?

Exponential growth of the search path

Unfortunately, the recognition of subtle patterns posed formidable problems for computers. The difficulty was an exponential growth of the recognition search path. The problems in the diagnosis of diseases was typical. Normally, many shared symptoms were presented by a multitude of diseases. For example, pain, or fever could be indicated for many diseases. Each symptom pointed to several diseases. The problem was to recognize a single pattern among many overlapping patterns. When searching for the target disease, the first selected ailment with the first presented symptom could lack the second symptom. This meant back and forth searches, which expanded exponentially as the database of diseases increased in size. That made the process absurdly long drawn – theoretically, even years of search, for extensive databases. So, in spite of their incredible speed, rapid pattern recognition on computers could never be imagined.

The Intuitive Algorithm

But, industry strength pattern recognition was feasible. IA introduced an algorithm, which could instantly recognize patterns in extended databases. The relationship of each member of the whole database was coded for each question.

(Is pain a symptom of the disease?)

Disease1Y, Disease2N, Disease3Y, Disease 4Y, Disease5N, Disease6N, Disease7Y, Disease8N, Disease9N, Disease10N, Disease11Y, Disease12Y, Disease13N, Disease14U, Disease15Y, Disease16N, Disease17Y, Disease18N, Disease19N, Disease20N, Disease21N, Disease22Y, Disease23N, Disease24N, Disease25U, Disease26N, Disease27N, Disease28U, Disease27Y, Disease30N, Disease31U, Disease32Y, Disease33Y, Disease34U, Disease35N, Disease36U, Disease37Y, Disease38Y, Disease39U, Disease40Y, Disease41Y, Disease42U, Disease43N, Disease44U, Disease45Y, Disease46N, Disease47N, Disease48Y,

(Y = Yes: N = No: U = Uncertain)

The key was to use elimination to evaluate the database, not selection. Every member of the database was individually coded for elimination in the context of each answer.

(Is pain a symptom of the disease? Answer: YES)

Disease1Y, xxxxxxN, Disease3Y, Disease4Y, xxxxxx5N, xxxxxx6N, Disease7Y, xxxxxx8N, xxxxxx9N, xxxxxx0N, Disease11Y, Disease12Y, xxxxxx13N, Disease14U, Disease15Y, xxxxxx16N, Disease17Y, xxxxxx18N, xxxxxx19N, xxxxxx20N, xxxxxx21N, Disease22Y, xxxxxx23N, xxxxxx24N, Disease25U, xxxxxx26N, xxxxxx27N, Disease28U, Disease27Y, xxxxxx30N, Disease31U, Disease32Y, Disease33Y, Disease34U, xxxxxx35N, Disease36U, Disease37Y, Disease38Y, Disease39U, Disease40Y, Disease41Y, Disease42U, xxxxxx43N, Disease 44U, Disease45Y, xxxxxx46N, xxxxxx47N, Disease 48Y,

(All "N" Diseases eliminated.)

For disease recognition, if an answer indicated a symptom, IA eliminated all diseases devoid of the symptom. Every answer eliminated, narrowing the search to reach diagnosis.

(Is pain a symptom of the disease? Answer: NO)

xxxxxx1Y, Disease2N, xxxxxx3Y, xxxxxx4Y, Disease5N, Disease6N, xxxxxx7Y, Disease8N, Disease9N, Disease10N, xxxxxx11Y, xxxxx12Y, Disease13N, Disease14U, xxxxxx15Y, Disease16N, xxxxxx17Y, Disease18N, Disease19N, Disease20N, Disease21N, xxxxxx22Y, Disease23N, Disease24N, Disease25U, Disease26N, Disease27N, Disease28U, xxxxxx27Y, Disease30N, Disease31U, xxxxxx32Y, xxxxxx33Y, Disease34U, Disease35N, Disease36U, xxxxxx37Y, xxxxxx38Y, Disease39U, xxxxxx40Y, xxxxxx41Y, Disease42U, Disease43N, Disease 44U, xxxxxx45Y, Disease46N, Disease47N, xxxxxx48Y,

(All "Y" Diseases eliminated.)

If the symptom was absent, IA eliminated all diseases which always exhibited the symptom. Diseases, which randomly presented the symptom were retained in both cases. So the process handled uncertainty – the “Maybe” answer, which normal computer programs could not handle.

(A sequence of questions narrows down to Disease29 - the answer.)

xxxxxx1Y, xxxxxx2N, xxxxxx3Y, xxxxxx4Y, xxxxxx5N, xxxxxx6N, xxxxxx7Y, xxxxxx8N, xxxxxx9N, xxxxxx10N, xxxxxx11Y, xxxxxx12Y, xxxxxx13N, xxxxxx14U, xxxxxx15Y, xxxxxx16N, xxxxxx17Y,xxxxxx18N, xxxxxx19N, xxxxxx20N, xxxxxx21N, xxxxxx22Y, xxxxxx23N, xxxxxx24N, xxxxxx25U, xxxxxx26N, xxxxxx27N, xxxxxx28U, Disease29Y, xxxxxx30N, xxxxxx31U, xxxxxx32Y, xxxxxx33Y, xxxxxx34U, xxxxxx35N, xxxxxx36U, xxxxxx37Y, xxxxxx38Y, xxxxxx39U, xxxxxx40Y, xxxxxx41Y, xxxxxx42U, xxxxxx43N, xxxxxx44U, xxxxxx45Y, xxxxxx46N, xxxxxx47N, xxxxxx48Y.

(If all diseases are eliminated, the disease is unknown.)

Instant pattern recognition

IA was proved in practice. It had powered Expert Systems acting with the speed of a simple recalculation on a spreadsheet, to recognize a disease, identify a case law or diagnose the problems of a complex machine. It was instant, holistic, and logical. If several parallel answers could be presented, as in the multiple parameters of a power plant, recognition was instant. For the mind, where millions of parameters were simultaneously presented, real time pattern recognition was practical. And elimination was the key.

Elimination = Switching off

Elimination was switching off - inhibition. Nerve cells were known to extensively inhibit the activities of other cells to highlight context. With access to millions of sensory inputs, the nervous system instantly inhibited – eliminated trillions of combinations to zero in on the right pattern. The process stoutly used "No" answers. If a patient did not have pain, thousands of possible diseases could be ignored. If a patient could just walk into the surgery, a doctor could overlook a wide range of illnesses. But, how could this process of elimination be applied to nerve cells? Where could the wealth of knowledge be stored?

Combinatorial coding

The mind received kaleidoscopic combinations of millions of sensations. Of these, smells were reported to be recognized through a combinatorial coding process, where nerve cells recognized combinations. If a nerve cell had dendritic inputs, identified as A, B, C and so on to Z, it could then fire, when it received inputs at ABC, or DEF. It recognized those combinations. The cell could identify ABC and not ABD. It would be inhibited for ABD. This recognition process was recently reported by science for olfactory neurons. In the experiment scientists reported that even slight changes in chemical structure activated different combinations of receptors. Thus, octanol smelled like oranges, but the similar compound octanoic acid smelled like sweat. A Nobel Prize acknowledged that discovery in 2004.

Galactic nerve cell memories

Combinatorial codes were extensively used by nature. The four "letters" in the genetic code – A, C, G and T – were used in combinations for the creation of a nearly infinite number of genetic sequences. IA discusses the deeper implications of this coding discovery. Animals could differentiate between millions of smells. Dogs could quickly sniff a few footprints of a person and determine accurately which way the person was walking. The animal's nose could detect the relative odour strength difference between footprints only a few feet apart, to determine the direction of a trail. Smell was identified through remembered combinations. If a nerve cell had just 26 inputs from A to Z, it could receive millions of possible combinations of inputs. The average neuron had thousands of inputs. For IA, millions of nerve cells could give the mind galactic memories for combinations, enabling it to recognize subtle patterns in the environment. Each cell could be a single member of a database, eliminating itself (becoming inhibited) for unrecognized combinations of inputs.

Elimination the key

Elimination was the special key, which evaluated vast combinatorial memories. Medical texts reported that the mind had a hierarchy of intelligences, which performed dedicated tasks. For example, there was an association region, which recognized a pair of scissors using the context of its feel. If you injured this region, you could still feel the scissors with your eyes closed, but you would not recognize it as scissors. You still felt the context, but you would not recognize the object. So, intuition could enable nerve cells in association regions to use perception to recognize objects. Medical research reported many such recognition regions.

Serial processing

A pattern recognition algorithm, intuition enabled the finite intelligences in the minds of living things to respond holistically within the 20 millisecond time span. These intelligences acted serially. The first intelligence converted the kaleidoscopic combinations of sensory perceptions from the environment into nerve impulses. The second intelligence recognized these impulses as objects and events. The third intelligence translated the recognized events into feelings. A fourth translated feelings into intelligent drives. Fear triggered an escape drive. A deer bounded away. A bird took flight. A fish swam off. While the activities of running, flying and swimming differed, they achieved the same objective of escaping. Inherited nerve cell memories powered those drives in context.

The mind – seamless pattern recognition

Half a second for a 100 billion nerve cells to use context to eliminate irrelevance and deliver motor output. The time between the shadow and the scream. So, from input to output, the mind was a seamless pattern recognition machine, powered by the key secret of intuition – contextual elimination, from massive acquired and inherited combinatorial memories in nerve cells.

Artificial Intelligence

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Sat, 31 Jan 2009 03:15:00 +0000

by: Kenneth J. McCormick

Artificial Intelligence is the hot topic on many boards today. It is also the hot topic in many laboratories and software houses. The military is trying to harness it to replace humans, the game houses are trying to control it to make games more realistic and the appliance makers and homebuilders are trying to perfect it to make our lives easier. One of the great questions is, is artificial intelligence a good thing? It sure seems like it, doesn't it? Imagine coming home from a rough day at the office and your intelligent washer and dryer have not only washed and dried your clothes, but folded them as well. You meal is waiting for you but it was not prepared by human hands, instead your intelligent refrigerator has sent food to your oven which cooked it for you. You TV has turned itself on and switched to your favorite station so you might enjoy your meal with your favorite program. When you are done eating, the dishes are collected by a robotic machine and put into the dishwasher. An intelligent vacuum cleaner comes out and cleans the area where you were eating so that any crumbs that might have fallen were picked up immediately. You decide you want to talk to a few friends, so you tell your television that you want to make some phone calls and it connects you to several people at the same time creating a conference call, except you can see each person in a square on the TV. You talk for a while and then hang up. You feel like playing a game so you tell the TV and it replies,” Name of Game Please and Play Human or Me?" If you decide to play a human you are immediately connected to the internet, if not, you are about to play one of the toughest opponents, the computer which is integrated into your TV. Oh look here comes the dog, a dog you never have to feed. It is the Sony dog, a slick little robotic dog that acts much like a real dog. You play with it for a while, but you get the urge. Into the bathroom you go. The toilet will examine all your waste products and if anything is wrong it will contact your doctor right away. Now you decide to go to bed and enter a room where clouds sail over the ceiling. You lay down and a soothing voice asks "What time shall I wake you and what sounds would you like to hear?" You tell the voice (it really is part of the computer in your tv) to wake you at 7:00 am and to play ocean sounds for 10 minutes.

Does all this sound good? Much of the above exists already. As we create smarter and smarter devices are we getting near creating life? At what point does something become aware? Can a computer ever become so smart that it is a living being? Some people think that we are nothing more than organic computers that were programmed and offer our genes as proof. One of the problems that exist today is how to tell if something is truly alive. If we were to build the perfect robot that could interact with humans without being detected as a machine, would it be considered alive? Many would say yes and many would say no. The yes people would say that because the robot can make decisions on its own that are the equivalent of decisions that a human would make than it must be alive. The no people would argue that it is simply following a program created by man and it is a machine without a soul.

If we taught an animal to react a certain way under certain conditions would this mean he was programmed and not alive? If we offer our dog a bone but only give it to him if he sits up and begs does this mean he is not alive but programmed? It seems that programming is not exclusive to life or self-awareness. Some says that computers are just a bunch of electrical circuits. I would have to remind them that without electricity the human body would be just a pile of skin, bones and organs. It seems that we have now eliminated electricity as being a reason to deny life to machines. Then there are those that say that computers are not alive because they only know what is programmed into them. I would have to remind these people that there are dynamic programs out there that allow machines to learn on their own. After all, isn't that the way we learn, we are programmed (school) and we also learn some things on our own (dynamic programming)? Neural networks are developing that mimic the behavior of our human brains. Computer 'creatures' have been created that can learn, age, procreate and finally die. Of course these creatures are very primitive by our standards.

Life certainly is not easy to define. Webster's Dictionary states that life is "The quality that distinguishes a vital and functional being from a dead body." It would seem that the Webster people considered only organic beings as being capable of life since they decided that a dead body was necessary for non-life. Yet there is a second definition by Webster that states that life is a principle or force that is considered to underlie the distinctive quality of animate beings. Being animate is now made a requirement for life.

Both the Soviet Union and the United States had built, during the cold war, what at the time were considered super computers that could make split second decisions on whether to launch missiles against countries which had launched missiles against them and both systems proved to be flawed. This proved that it is not so easy to teach a machine how to be able to plan for every contingency. We have advanced quite a bit from those days. Now many of us have more powerful computers on our desks then those super computers of old. At some point we are going to be able to communicate with our computers the same way we communicate with another human. When this happens, what will we have? If we can actually get an intelligent conversation out of our computer, then at least, some people may begin to wonder what we have created. Imagine that someday you want to remove a part from the computer for use somewhere else and the computer complains. Will you feel that maybe the computer is becoming self-aware?

Now here is a question that really shakes things up. If we are able someday to download the contents of a human brain into a machine, will that machine become self aware, in other words, will it be alive? Just think of it, a machine that acts just like you. This may be much more far fetched, but what if we could download the contents of an intelligent machine into a human brain, would that person cease to be human and living? We would probably still have to consider him alive since the organic functions were still operating. I guess as time goes by we are getting closer and closer to machine life and someday someone will have to decide if machine life is really life at all.

Permission is granted to copy this article if it is published unchanged and all links are kept intact.

MySQL Database Handling in PHP

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Sat, 31 Jan 2009 03:09:00 +0000

by: John L

Most interactive websites nowadays require data to be presented dynamically and interactively based on input from the user. For example, a customer may need to log into a retail website to check his purchasing history. In this instance, the website would have stored two types of data in order for the customer to perform the check – the customer’s personal login details; and the customer’s purchased items. This data can be stored in two types of storage – flat files or databases.

Flat files are only feasible in very low to low volume websites as flat files have 3 inherent weaknesses:

The inability to index the data. This makes it necessary to potentially read ALL the data sequentially. This is a major problem if there are a lot of records in the flat file because the time required to read the flat file is proportionate to the number of records in the flat file.
The inability to efficiently control access by users to the data
The inefficient storage of the data. In most cases, the data would not be encrypted or compressed as this would exacerbate the problem no. 1 above

The alternative which is, in my opinion, the only feasible method, is to store the data in a database. One of the most prevalent databases in use is MySQL. Data that is stored in a database can easily be indexed, managed and stored efficiently. Besides that, most databases also provide a suite of accompanying utilities that allow the database administrator to maintain the database – for example, backup and restore, etc.

Websites scripted using PHP are very well suited for the MySQL database as PHP has a custom and integrated MySQL module that communicates very efficiently with MySQL. PHP can also communicate with MySQL through the standard ODBC as MySQL is ODBC-compliant, However, this will not be as efficient as using the custom MySQL module for PHP.

The rest of this article is a tutorial on how to use PHP to:

Connect to a MySQL database
Execute standard SQL statements against the MySQL database

Starting a Session with MySQL

Before the PHP script can communicate with the database to query, insert or update the database, the PHP script will first need to connect to the MySQL server and specify which database in the MySQL server to operate on.

The mysql_connect() and mysql_select_db() functions are provided for this purpose. In order to connect to the MySQL server, the server name/address; a username; and a valid password is required. Once a connection is successful, the database needs to be specified.

The following 2 code excerpts illustrate how to perform the server connection and database selection:

@mysql_connect("[servername]", "[username]", "[password]") or die("Cannot connect to DB!");

@mysql_select_db("[databasename]") or die("Cannot select DB!");

The @ operator is used to suppress any error messages that mysql_connect() and mysql_select_db() functions may produce if an error occurred. The die() function is used to end the script execution and display a custom error message.

Executing SQL Statements against a MySQL database

Once the connection and database selection is successfully performed, the PHP script can now proceed to operate on the database using standard SQL statements. The mysql_query() function is used for executing standard SQL statements against the database. In the following example, the PHP script queries a table called tbl_login in the previously selected database to determine if a username/password pair provided by the user is valid.

Assumption:

The tbl_login table has 3 columns named login, password, last_logged_in. The last_logged_in column stores the time that the user last logged into the system.

// The $username and $passwd variable should rightly be set by the login form
// through the POST method. For the purpose of this example, we’re manually coding it.
$username = “john”;
$passwd = “mypassword”;

// We generate a SELECT SQL statement for execution.
$sql="SELECT * FROM tbl_login WHERE login = '".$username."' AND password = '".$passwd."'";

// Execute the SQL statement against the currently selected database.
// The results will be stored in the $r variable.
$r = mysql_query($sql);

// After the mysql_query() command executes, the $r variable is examined to
// determine of the mysql_query() was successfully executed.
if(!$r) {
   $err=mysql_error();
   print $err;
   exit();
}

// If everything went well, check if the query returned a result – i.e. if the username/password
// pair was found in the database. The mysql_affected_rows() function is used for this purpose.
// mysql_affected_rows() will return the number of rows in the database table that was affected
// by the last query
if(mysql_affected_rows()==0){
   print "Username/password pair is invalid. Please try again.";
}
else {

// If successful, read out the last logged in time into a $last variable for display to the user
   $row=mysql_fetch_array($r);
   $last=$row["last_logged_in"];
   print “Login successful. You last logged in at ”.$last.”.”;

}

The above example demonstrated how a SELECT SQL statement is executed against the selected database. The same method is used to execute other SQL statements (e.g. UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE, etc.) against the database using the mysql_query() and mysql_affected_rows() functions.

SQL Server - The Most Powerful Database Administration Tool

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Sat, 31 Jan 2009 03:03:00 +0000

by: Shannon Margolis

A SQL (Structured Query Language) server is a complete system designed for the purpose of database management, development and administration. With the help of the SQL server software, users are able to create and handle large relational or structural databases and develop applications that increase the effectiveness of their business.

Microsoft SQL Server has always been the best database platform. It provides secure storage and when it comes to working with large databases no other product can be compared with SQL server. It is also very closely related to Visual Studio and The office suite, so it's perfect for both database administrators and people who work with smaller and simpler databases

SQL servers have a large number of powerful tools that facilitate database maintenance, and administration. Among the most important ones are the Enterprise Manager, the Service Manager and the Query analyzer.

The Enterprise Manager allows its user to manage all the SQL server installations on a network and control all the databases from it. The Service Manager is responsible for controlling the processes and services of an SQL server Finally, the Query analyzer processes all the queries against any of the SQL databases.

The first version of Microsoft SQL server was released in 1993, the same time Windows NT 3.1 came out on the market, and after a few years, Microsoft SQL server 2000 was released. Compared to its previous versions, SQL server 2000 brings a lot of improvements and interesting new features, like XML support, functions that can be defined by the users themselves, indexed views and new data types. Also, some of the features that existed in the previous versions were enhanced in Microsoft SQL server 2000. Among the features that were enhanced you can find the full text search feature, the DBCC and. the backup and restore processes.

The last version of Microsoft SQL server was released in 2005 and it was, of course, called Microsoft SQL server 2005. This version is quite faster than SQL server 2000 and in the five years that passed since the first one was released a lot of new improvements and enhancements have been done. SQL server 2005 is not only a database administration tool, it also contains Messaging technologies, OLAP and Server integration services. It has a large variety of management tools integrated also and its security and database encryption systems have been seriously improved.

T-Sql has been implemented in order to handle errors better and the XML integration has gone deeper, now allowing XML to be stored in databases.

The new features of SQL 2005 are too many to enumerate, so we'll just take a look at a few of the most important ones:

Database mirroring - if a database fails, the application connects to another database from a secondary server, and transfer isn't interrupted Snapshots - if loss of data occurs or someone just made a mistake and modified some important data everything can be recovered because SQL server periodically takes 'snapshots' of the database and uses them to restore the data Support for 64 bit processors Business Intelligence features built into SQL Server Analysis Services and Reporting Services Significant security upgrades Enhanced encryption capabilities .NET CLR, and Visual Studio integration

..and many more other useful features

SQL server 2000 and SQL server 2005 are the best and the most complex database management tools on the market, and they can do much more than just managing and administrating databases, so they are the best choice if your company needs database administration and maintenance.

A good source for more information on how to install, customize, and make the most use of a SQL Server implementation, visit the Microsoft practice section of www.unitekconsulting.com.

MYSQL Database Back Up And Recovery

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Sat, 31 Jan 2009 03:02:00 +0000

by: Ian Levings

Do you know that many of the scripts that help us to run our business or websites use MYSQL databases to store their information.

For instance many people use Auto responders to help with collecting and delivering information.

Scripts that produce one time offers, promotion offers, coupons etc all use mysql to store their information.

Mail merge programs often use mysql database to store information.

Wordpress the blog building software that lots of people use to write their blogs uses mysql to store this information.

What a lot of these users don’t know is that if they have not backed up their mysql database, then they could lose all their data, this would mean that if they had not backed up their database, they could lose all their customers information, all the email addresses that their auto responder stores in the mysql database.

Any and all information that is collated by the many scripts that run on websites could be lost and the scripts could stop working, all because they did not back up their database. now how you might ask do I know so much about this?

Well I can tell you from first hand experience that losing your database because your server has crashed and lost or scrambled your database can be very expensive, time consuming and frustrating.

Yes It happened to me, I did not back up my database,

My server crashed and like you I assumed that my provider would have backed everything up.

But NO they don’t, some do, but lots simply leave it to their customers.

So what can be done, well you could go into all your databases, everyday or maybe weekly and back up your database, If of course you know how to access your database with phpadmin and you know how to back up your database, and you all so know how to restore it should you need to……

Or you could use a simple easy to use software that will back up each and every database you have daily, and at the press of a button restore your database for you.

Sounds good, where do you find an expensive bit of software to do that for you?

Well I was so shocked at losing my data, I took the time and trouble to find a software that will do just that, but at a very low cost, yes that’s right low cost, my database backup generator software will do all that for you and at low cost, check out it out today at http://www.databasebackup.co.uk read my own sorry story, check out my video that shows just how easy it is to use and you will be pleasantly surprised at how affordable my database backup generator really is.

Ian Levings
http://www.databasebackup.co.uk

Perangkat Keras Komputer Mikro

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:58:00 +0000

Definisi Komputer

lApakah itu Komputer?
lIstilah komputer mempunyai arti yang luas dan berbeda bagi setiap orang. Istilah komputer (computer) diambil dari bahasa Latin computare yang berarti menghitung (to compute atau to reckon).
lMenurut Blissmer (1985), komputer adalah suatu alat elektronik yang mampu melakukan beberapa tugas, yaitu menerima input, memproses input sesuai dengan instruksi yang diberikan, menyimpan perintah-perintah dan hasil pengolahannya, serta menyediakan output dalam bentuk informasi.

.......................................

lSedangkan menurut Sanders (1985), komputer adalah sistem elektronik untuk memanipulasi data yang cepat dan tepat serta dirancang dan diorganisasikan supaya secara otomatis menerima dan menyimpan data input, memprosesnya, dan menghasilkan output berdasarkan instruksi-instruksi yang telah tersimpan di dalam memori.

......................................

lPada intinya dapat disimpulkan bahwa komputer adalah suatu peralatan elektronik yang dapat menerima input, mengolah input, memberikan informasi, menggunakan suatu program yang tersimpan di memori komputer, dapat menyimpan program dan hasil pengolahan, serta bekerja secara otomatis.

...........................................

lSupaya komputer dapat digunakan untuk mengolah data, maka harus berbentuk suatu sistem yang disebut dengan sistem komputer. Secara umum, sistem terdiri dari elemen-elemen yang saling berhubungan membentuk satu kesatuan untuk melaksanakan suatu tujuan pokok dari sistem tersebut

lTujuan pokok dari sistem komputer adalah mengolah data untuk menghasilkan informasi sehingga perlu didukung oleh elemen-elemen yang terdiri dari perangkat keras (hardware), perangkat lunak (software), dan brainware

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BAHASA ASSEMBLY

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:55:00 +0000

l. Register
– Jumlah & ciri tiap register merupakan faktor kunci
pembeda antar komputer
– Register khusus
• MAR menyimpan adres operasi memori selanjutnya (load
atau store).
• MBR menyimpan isi operasi memori (load atau store).
• processor status bits (current status), kadang-kadang
dikombinasikan dengan program status word (PSW).
– Jenis operasi:
• Register-to-register misal ADD
• Memory-to-register misal LOAD, STORE
• Memory-to-memory misal STRCMP (perbandingan string

...................................................................

lPanjang instruksi sesuai dengan:
– Jenis data & operasi-operasi pada data tersebut; teknik-teknik
pengadresan; operasi pengendalian run time [overflow, pembagian 0]
• Kategori
– Operate: arithmetic, boolean (logic), shift, character & string, type
conversion, stack & register, manipulation, load immediate, no
operation, vector operation.
– Memory access: load / store, load address, process
synchronization (spin-lock, semaphore etc.).
– Control: branch, comparison and test, subroutine linkage.
– Miscellaneous and privileged: I/O, interrupts and state swapping, privileged, halt.

.....................................................................

Is LLL used in the writing of computer programs (though
such languages are commonly referred to simply as
assembly or assembler.
• An assembly language program is translated into the target
computer's machine code by a utility program called an
assembler.
• An assembler is distinct from a compiler, in that it
generally performs one-to-one (isomorphic) translations
from mnemonic statements into machine instructions.)‏
• Assembly language programs are tightly coupled with (and
specific to) a target computer architecture – as opposed to
higher-level programming languages, which are generally platform-independent.

.................................................

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Arsitektur Komputer?

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:52:00 +0000

•Arsitektur komputer? (Review lagi arkom!)
•Adalah spesifikasi yang menggambarkan hubungan antara perangkat keras dan perangkat lunak dalam sistem komputer
•Merupakan kontrak, bagaimana perangkat lunak harus ditulis dalam suatu bagian perangkat keras dan bagaimana perangkat keras harus dibuat untuk memenuhi kebutuhan dari perangkat lunak

....................................................

Bahasa Mesin
•Adalah kumpulan operasi primitif yang dimengerti oleh komputer dan dapat dieksekusi dengan sangat cepat oleh komputer.
•Disebut juga instruksi (instruction)
•Instruksi dieksekusi di prosesor (CPU/microprocessor)

.......................................................

Instruction Set

•Primitif bahasa mesin yang dapat dimengerti dan dieksekusi langsun oleh prosesor
•Dapat dikategorikan menjadi tiga kelas:
–Instruksi ALU (msl: penambahan/pengurangan bilangan bulan, shift kiri/kanan, logika)
–Instruksi akses memori (msl: load dan strore)
–Instruksi transfer kendali (msl: percabangan, call/return, interrupt)

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ARSITEKTUR KOMPUTER MODERN

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:47:00 +0000

1.1 Latar Belakang

Sejak dahulu kala, proses pengolahan data telah dilakukan oleh manusia. Manusia juga menemukan alat-alat mekanik dan elektronik untuk membantu manusia dalam penghitungan dan pengolahan data supaya bisa mendapatkan hasil lebih cepat. Komputer yang kita temui saat ini adalah suatu evolusi panjang dari penemuan- penemuan manusia sejah dahulu kala berupa alat mekanik maupun elektronik. Saat ini komputer dan piranti pendukungnya telah masuk dalam setiap aspek kehidupan dan
pekerjaan. Komputer yang ada sekarang memiliki kemampuan yang lebih dari sekedar perhitungan matematik biasa. Diantaranya adalah sistem komputer di kassa supermarket yang mampu membaca kode barang belanjaan, sentral telepon yang menangani jutaan panggilan dan komunikasi, jaringan komputer dan internet yang mennghubungkan berbagai tempat di dunia. Bagaimanapun juga alat pengolah data dari sejak jaman purba sampai saat ini bisa kita golongkan ke dalam 4 golongan besar.
1. Peralatan manual: yaitu peralatan pengolahan data yang sangat sederhana, dan factor terpenting dalam pemakaian alat adalah menggunakan tenaga tangan manusia
2. Peralatan Mekanik: yaitu peralatan yang sudah berbentuk mekanik yang digerakkan dengan tangan secara manual
3. Peralatan Mekanik Elektronik: Peralatan mekanik yang digerakkan oleh secara otomatis oleh motor elektronik
4. Peralatan Elektronik: Peralatan yang bekerjanya secara elektronik penuh. Setelah hampir 12 abad, muncul penemuan lain dalam hal mesin komputasi. Pada tahun 1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), yang pada waktu itu berumur 18 tahun, menemukan apa yang ia sebut sebagai kalkulator roda numerik (numerical wheel calculator) untuk membantu ayahnya melakukan perhitungan pajak. Kotak persegi kuningan ini yang dinamakan Pascaline, menggunakan delapan roda putar bergerigi untuk menjumlahkan bilangan hingga delapan digit. Alat ini merupakan alat penghitung bilangan berbasis sepuluh. Kelemahan alat ini adalah hanya terbataas untuk melakukan penjumlahan. Tahun 1694, seorang matematikawan dan filsuf Jerman, Gottfred Wilhem von Leibniz (1646-1716) memperbaiki Pascaline dengan membuat mesin yang dapat mengalikan. Sama seperti pendahulunya, alat mekanik ini bekerja dengan menggunakan roda-roda gerigi. Dengan mempelajari catatan dan gambar-gambar yang dibuat oleh Pascal, Leibniz dapat menyempurnakan alatnya. Barulah pada tahun 1820, kalkulator mekanik mulai

.................................................................................

Kata komputer berasal dari bahasa Latin yaitu Computare yang artinya menghitung. Dalam bahasa Inggris disebut to compute. Secara definisi komputer diterjemahkan sebagai sekumpulan alat elektronik yang saling bekerja sama, dapat menerima data (input), mengolah data (proses) dan memberikan informasi (output) serta terkoordinasi dibawah kontrol program yang tersimpan di memori.
Penggolongan jenis komputer bermacam-macam, tetapi disini hanya membahas penggolongan jenis komputer berdasarkan generasinya.

Komputer Generasi pertamaDengan terjadinya Perang Dunia Kedua, negara-negara yang terlibat dalam perang tersebut berusaha mengembangkan komputer untuk mengeksploit potensi strategis yang dimiliki komputer. Hal ini meningkatkan pendanaan pengembangan komputer serta mempercepat kemajuan teknik komputer. Pada tahun 1941, Konrad Zuse, seorang insinyur Jerman membangun sebuah komputer, Z3, untuk mendesain pesawat terbang dan peluru kendali Pihak sekutu juga membuat kemajuan lain dalam pengembangan kekuatan komputer. Tahun 1943, pihak Inggris menyelesaikan komputer pemecah kode rahasia yang dinamakan Colossus untuk memecahkan kode-rahasia yang digunakan Jerman. Dampak pembuatan Colossus tidak terlalu mempengaruhi perkembangan industri komputer dikarenakan dua alasan. Pertama, colossus bukan merupakan komputer serbaguna (generalpurpose computer), ia hanya didesain untuk memecahkan kode rahasia. Kedua, keberadaan mesin ini dijaga kerahasiaannya hingga satu dekade setelah perang berakhir. Usaha yang dilakukan oleh pihak Amerika pada saat itu menghasilkan suatu kemajuan lain. Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973), seorang insinyur Harvard yang

......................................................................

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Implementasi Kamus English to Indonesia sederhana dalam C (belum sempurna)

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:39:00 +0000

#include "stdio.h"
#include "ctype.h"
#include "string.h"
#include "io.h"

struct kamus
{
char kata[20];
char arti[50];
};

//Pembukaan File
FILE* buka(char* n)
{
int ada_error = access (n,0);
FILE* fhandle;
//Jika file sudah pernah ada, buka dengan mode "read"
//sebaliknya buka dengan "write"
if(ada_error==0)
fhandle = fopen (n, "rb+");
else
fhandle = fopen (n, "wb+");

return (fhandle);
}

//Penambahan Data
void tambah(FILE* fhandle)
{
char lagi;
kamus cetak;
printf("\tPenambahan Data\n");
printf("\t===============\n");
do
{
fflush(stdin);
printf("Input kata : ");
gets(cetak.kata);
printf("Input arti : ");
gets(cetak.arti);

//pindah penunjuk file ke akhir file
fseek (fhandle,0,SEEK_END);

//menyimpan 1 variabel struktur ke file
fwrite (&cetak, sizeof(kamus),1,fhandle);

printf("Tambah lagi? ");
scanf("%c", &lagi);
}
while (lagi=='y'lagi=='Y');
}

//Pengubahan Data
void ubah(FILE* fhandle)
{
char kata[20];
printf("\tPengubahan Data\n");
printf("\t===============\n");

//proses pencariaan
fflush(stdin);
printf("Masukkan kata yang akan dirubah : ");
gets(kata);
fseek (fhandle,0,SEEK_SET);

kamus cetak;
fread (&cetak, sizeof(kamus),1,fhandle);
int akhir = feof(fhandle);

int ketemu = 0;
do
{
if(strcmp (cetak.kata,kata) == 0)
{
//perlihatkan data lama sebelum input data baru
printf("\tData Lama\n\n");
printf(" Kata : %s\n",cetak.kata);
printf(" Arti : %s\n",cetak.arti);
printf("\n");

printf("\tData Baru\n\n");
printf("Input kata : ");
gets(cetak.kata);
printf("Input arti : ");
gets(cetak.arti);

//cara penyimpanan data baru ke file
// 1. mencari posisi penunjuk file (pf)
int posisi = ftell(fhandle);
// 2. pindah pf ke depan sebesar 1 ukuran data
fseek (fhandle, posisi-sizeof(kamus),SEEK_SET);
// 3. tulis data baru diposisi tersebut
fwrite (&cetak, sizeof(kamus),1,fhandle);
printf("Data telah tersimpan\n");
ketemu = 1;
}
else
{
//jika tidak ketemu, baca data selanjutnya
fread (&cetak, sizeof(kamus),1,fhandle);
akhir = feof(fhandle);
}
}
//mencari sampai file ketemu
while((! akhir) && (! ketemu));
//bila tidak ketemu
if(! ketemu)
printf("Data tidak ditemukan");
}

//Penghapusan Data
void hapus(FILE* fhandle, char *fasal)
{
FILE *fbantu;
char file_bantu[] = "~bantu.da~";

fbantu = fopen (file_bantu, "wb");

char kata[20];
printf("\tPenghapusan Data\n");
printf("\t================\n");

fflush(stdin);
printf("Masukkan kata yang akan dihapus : ");
gets(kata);

//posisi pointer harus ada diatas
kamus cetak;
fread (&cetak, sizeof(kamus),1,fhandle);
int akhir = feof(fhandle);
int ketemu = 0;
do
{
if(strcmp(cetak.kata,kata)==0)
{
//memperlihatkan data lama
printf("\tData Lama\n\n");
printf(" Kata : %s\n",cetak.kata);
printf(" Arti : %s\n",cetak.arti);
printf("\n");

char jwb;
printf("Apa data akan dihapus (y/t) : ");
scanf("%s", &jwb);

if(jwb == 'y'jwb == 'Y')
{
printf("Data sudah terhapus\n");
ketemu = 1;
}
else
fwrite (&cetak, sizeof(kamus),1,fbantu);
}
else
{
//jika salah temukan data
//data langsung ditulis di file bantu
fwrite (&cetak, sizeof(kamus),1,fbantu);
}
//melanjutkan pembacaan dari file data
fread (&cetak, sizeof(kamus),1,fhandle);
akhir = feof(fhandle);
}
while(! akhir);

if(! ketemu)
printf("Data tidak ditemukan atau tidak jadi dihapus\n");
//tutup kedua file
fclose (fhandle);
fclose (fbantu);
//hapus file asal
remove (fasal);
//ubah nama file bantu jadi sama dengan file asal
rename (file_bantu,fasal);
}
//Menampilkan semua Data
void tampil(FILE *fhandle)
{
kamus cetak;
//posisi harus ada diatas
fseek (fhandle,0,SEEK_SET);

fread (&cetak, sizeof(cetak),1,fhandle);
int akhir = feof(fhandle);

int i=1;
while (! akhir);
{
//tampilan di layar
printf("=============================================\n");
printf("\tKATA\t\tARTI\n");
printf("=============================================\n");
printf("\t%s\t\t%s",cetak.kata,cetak.arti);

fread (&cetak, sizeof(kamus),1,fhandle);
akhir = feof(fhandle);
i++;
}
}
//Fungsi Utama
void main (void)
{
int pilih;
char n[] = "kata";
FILE *fhandle;
fhandle = buka(n);
do
{
fflush(stdin);
printf("========================\n");
printf(" PROGRAM KAMUS\t\n");
printf(" Inggris ke Indonesia\n");
printf("========================\n");
printf("1. Mengisi Data\n");
printf("2. Mengubah Data\n");
printf("3. Menghapus Data\n");
printf("4. Menampilkan Data\n");
printf("5. Selesai Data\n");
printf("Pilih dari [1 sampai 5] : ");
scanf("%d", &pilih);
printf("\n");

switch(pilih)
{
case 1:
tambah(fhandle);
break;

case 2:
ubah(fhandle);
break;

case 3:
hapus(fhandle,n);
fhandle = buka(n);
break;

case 4:
tampil(fhandle);
break;

case 5:
printf("Program Selesai");
break;

default:
printf("Pilihan Salah");
}
}
while (pilih != 5);
//tutup file
fclose (fhandle);
}

yang cuma berhasil adalah Pengisian data, edit data dan penhapusan data, yang lain masih ada kesalahan, semoga ini dapat membantu

PEMODELAN BASIS DATA LAINYYA

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:26:00 +0000

MODEL JARINGAN
Jika dalam model relasional data & relasi diantara data direpresentasikan dengan
kumpulan tabel, maka dalam model jaringan (network model) ini data direpresentasikan
dengan kumpulan record dan relasi diantaranya direpresentasikan dengan links.

5.1.1 Konsep Dasar
Suatu basis data jaringan terdiri dari kumpulan record yang terhubung satu dengan
yang lain melalui link-link yang ada. Suatu record dibanyak hal sama dengan entity
di model E-R. Setiap record adalah kumpulan dari atribut-atribut dimana setiap
atribut berisi satu nilai data. Link adalah asosiasi antara dua record, yang dapat
digambarkan relasi biner dalam model E-R.
Sebagai ilustrasi, ada suatu basis data yang merepresentasikan relasi customeraccount
di sistem perbankan. Ada dua tipe record : customer & account. Dengan
menggunakan bahasa Pascal, kita dapat mendefinisikan suatu type record customer
sebagai :

type customer = record
customer_name : string;
customer_street : string;
customer_city : string;
end

................................................

Diagram Struktur Data
Suatu diagram struktur data adalah suatu skema yang merepresentasikan desain
basis data jaringan. Diagram memiliki dua komponen :
- kotak : yang melambangkan tipe record
- garis : yang melambangkan link
Diagram Struktur Data menspesifikasikan semua struktur lojik dari suatu basis data.
Diagram E-R dapat ditranslasikan dalam diagram struktur data yang bersesuaian.
Ilustrasi dapat dilihat pada gambar diagram E-R dibawah, dimana terdiri dari dua
entity set : customer & account, yang terhubung dengan relasi biner, many-to-many
depositor dengan tidak ada atribut penjelas.

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STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:24:00 +0000

Sistem basis data komersial menghendaki adanya sebuah bahasa query yang lebih
user-friendly. Oleh karena itu dikenal SQL sebagai bahasa query yang marketable. SQL
menggunakan kombinasi aljabar relasional & kalkulus relasional. Meskipun SQL adalah
bahasa query, namun SQL mempunyai banyak kemampuan lain disamping melakukan
query terhadap basis data. SQL mempunyai kemampuan untuk mendefinisikan struktur
data, modifikasi data dalam basis data dan menentukan konstrain sekuriti.

LATAR BELAKANG
SQL merupakan bahasa basis data relasional standard. Terdapat macam-macam
versi SQL. Versi aslinya pertama kali dikembangkan oleh IBM San Jose Research
Laboratory.
Bahasa SQL mempunyai bebrap bagian yaitu :
- Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL memberikan perintah untuk mendefinisikan skema relasi, penghapusan relasi,
membuat indeks dan modifikasi skema relasi.
- Interactive Data-Manipulation Language (DML)
DML merupakan bahasa query yang berdasarkan pada aljabar relasi dan kalkulus
relasi tuple. Termasuk didalamnya adalah perintah untuk penyisipan,
penghapusan dan modifikasi.
- Embedded DML
Bentuk embedded SQL biasanya terdapat dalam bahasa pemrograman multi guna
seperti PL/I, Cobol , Pascal dan Fortran.
- View Definition
DDL SQL memasukkan perintah untuk mendefinisikan view

....................................

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PERANCANGAN BASIS DATA RELASIONAL

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:20:00 +0000

KETERGANTUNGAN FUNGSIONAL & MULTI NILAI
1.1.1 Ketergantungan Fungsional (Functional Dependency (FD))
Adalah ketergantungan nilai-nilai dari satu atau beberapa atribut terhadap satu atribut
atau himpunan atribut lainnya.
Notasi : Y ➔ X
Biasa digunakan untuk menunjukkan bahwa X tergantung secara fungsional terhadap
Y. Atribut Y dikenal sebagai determinant dari FD Y ➔ X
Contoh : Person_ID, Project ➔ Time_Spent_By, Person_On_Project
Notasi X ↔ Y berarti X ➔ Y dan Y ➔ X

.................................................

Functional Dependency Penuh
Atau Full Functional Dependency, biasa digunakan untuk mengindikasikan himpunan
atribut minimum dalam sebuah determinant dari satu FD.
Himpunan atribut x akan bergantung secara fungsional penuh (fully functionally
dependent) pada himpunan atribut y jika :
1. x bergantung secara fungsional pada y
2. x tidak bergantung secara fungsional pada suatu sub-himpunan dari y.

...........................................

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MODEL RELATIONAL

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:16:00 +0000

Model relasi pertama kali dikenalkan oleh Codd, pada tahun 1971. Sejak itu model
relasi memainkan peranan yang sangat penting dalam berbagai perancangan basis data.
Ada tiga alas an mengapa model relasi mempunyai peranan penting dalam perancangan
basis data yaitu :
• mempunyai piranti komunikasi yang baik antara user & designer
artinya relasi merepresentasikan struktur data yang dapat dimengerti oleh user
maupun designer.
• model relasional mendefinisikan salah satu kriteria perancangan basis data yang
penting yaitu relasi bentuk normal.
• Struktur data yang direpresentasikan oleh relasi dapat segera dikonversikan &
diimplementasikan ke RDBMS.

APA YANG DISEBUT DENGAN RELASI
Relasi pertama kali didefinisikan menggunakan teori himpunan. Cara termudah untuk mendefinisikan sebuah relasi adalah
sebagai sebuah tabel dimana data-datanya disimpan dalam baris tabel.
Contoh Table : Tabel Work dibawah ini
Terdiri dari tiga kolom, yaitu Person_Id, Proj_No dan Total_Time.
Tabel ini menyimpan waktu yang dihabiskan oleh person pada proyek
tersebut. Selain tabel Work terdapat juga relasi Persons. Relasi ini
menyimpan secara detail tentang person yang bekerja pada proyek
dimaksud.

..................................

STRUKTUR LOJIK & FISIK
Relasi adalah sebuah representasi data lojik bukan fisik. Relasi menggambarkan
struktur data tanpa memperhatikan bagaimana data disimpan atau diakses.
Representasi lojik berarti bahwa sebuah relasi harus :
- tidak terdapat duplikasi baris
- urutan baris tidak diperhatikan
- setiap kolom dalam suatu relasi mempunyai sebuah nama yang unik
struktur fisik diperlukan selama implementasi fisik yaitu pada saat menentukan layout
data & indeks yang digunakan untuk mengakses data dalam suatu relasi. Hal penting
lainnya yang harus diperhatikan dalam merancang relasi adalah bahwa nama-nama
atribut relasi harus menggambarkan sumber data berasal.

............................

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MODEL ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:10:00 +0000

Model E-R didasarkan pada persepsi dari sebuah dunia nyata yang terdiri dari
sekumpulan objek, disebut entiti & relasi diantar objek-objek tersebut.

2.1 Konsep Dasar
Terdapat tiga notasi dasar yang bekerja pada model E-R yaitu : entity sets, relationship
sets, & attributes.

a. Entity Sets
Sebuah entiti adalah sebuah “benda” (thing) atau “objek”(object) di dunia nyata yang
dapat dibedakan dari semua objek lainnya. Entity sets adalah sekumpulan entiti yang
mempunyai tipe yang sama. Kesamaan tipe ini dapat dilihat dari atribut/property yang
dimiliki oleh setiap entiti. Misal kumpulan orang yang menyimpan uang pada suatu
bank dapat didefinisikan sebagai entiti set nasabah.

.................................

b. Relationship Sets
Relationship adalah hubungan diantara beberapa entiti. Misal relasi yang
menghubungkan antar Toni dengan rek. 142-099999. Relasi ini menunjukkan bahwa
Toni adalah nasabah yang mempunyai nomor rekening 142-099999. Relationship set
adalah sekumpulan relasi yang mempunyai tipe yang sama

c. Kunci Relasi (Relation Keys)
sebuah relasi. Kunci relasi terdiri dari satu atau lebih atribut-atribut relasi. Atributatribut
dalam kunci relasi harus memiliki sifat sebagai berikut :
- untuk satu nilai hanya mengindentifikasikan satu baris dalam satu relasi
- tidak memiliki subset yang juga merupakan kunci relasi
- tidak dapat bernilai null

...........................................

d. Foreign Key(FK)

Term FK juga banyak digunakan dalam perancangan. Sebuah FK adalah sekumpulan
atribut dalam suatu relasi (misal A) sedemikian sehingga kumpulan atribut ini bukan
kunci relasi A tetapi merupakan kunci dari relasi lain.

Kardinalitas Pemetaan
Kardinalitas pemetaan atau rasio kardinalitas menunjukkan jumlah entity yang dapat
dihubungkan ke satu entity lain dengan suatu relationship sets.
Kardinalitas pemetaan meliputi :
1. Hubungan satu ke satu (one to one).
Yaitu satu entity dalam A dihubungkan dengan maksimum satu entity dalam

2. Hubungan satu ke banyak (one to many)
Yaitu satu entity dalam A dihubungkan dengan sejumlah entity dalam B. Satu
entity dalam B dihubungkan dengan maksimum satu entity dalam A.

3. Hubungan banyak ke satu (many to one)
Yaitu satu entity dalam A dihubungkan dengan maksimum satu entity dalam
B. Satu entity dalam B dapat dihubungkan dengan sejumlah entity dalam A.

4. Hubungan banyak k banyak (many to many).
Satu entity dalam A dihubungkan dengan sejumlah entity dalam B, & satu
entity dalam B dihubungkan dengan sejumlah entity dalam A.

...........................................

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ARSITEKTUR SISTEM BASIS DATA

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 03:03:00 +0000

Arsitektur system basis data memberikan kerangka kerja bagi pembangunan basis data.

1.1 LEVEL ARSITEKTUR BASIS DATA
Menurut ANSI/SPARC, arsitektur basis data terbagi atas tiga level yaitu :
Internal/Physical Level:
berhubungan dengan bagaimana data disimpan secara fisik (physical
storage)
External /View Level
berhubungan dengan bagaimana data di representasikan dari sisi setiap
user.
Conceptual/Logical Level
yang menghubungkan antara internal & external level

............................

1.1.1 External Level /View Level
Adalah level user. Yang dimaksud dengan user adalah programmer, end user atau DBA.
Setiap user mempunyai ‘bahasa’ yang sesuai dengan kebutuhannya.
- programmer : bahasa yang digunakan adalah bahasa pemrograman seperti C,
COBOL, atau PL/I
- end user : bahasa yang digunakan adalah bahasa query atau menggunakan
fasilitas yang tersedia pada program aplikasi
pada level eksternal ini, user dibatasi pada kemampuan perangkat keras dan perangkat
lunak yang digunakan aplikasi basis data. Didefinisikan sebagai sebuah Skema Eksternal.

.................................

1.1.2 Conceptual Level / Logical level
Conceptual level adalah sebuah representasi seluruh muatan informasi yang dikandung
oleh basis data. Tidak seperti level eksternal maka pada level conceptual, keberadaannya
tidak memperhitungkan kekurangan perangkat keras maupun perangkat lunak
pembangun aplikasi basis data. Didefinisikan sebagai sebuah Skema Konseptual

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Sistem Pembelajaran Jarak Jauh Berbasis Web(artikel)

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 02:50:00 +0000

Sejarah Sistem Pembelajaran jarak jauh

Sistem pembelajaran jarak jauh berbasis web adalah suatu pertemuan antara tiga perkembangan teknologi dan tadisi, yaitu : distance learning, computer-conveyed education, dan teknologi internet (internet technology). [1]

[1] William Horton, Designing Web Based-Training, Wiley, 2000“Distance learning” dikembangkan pertama kali di Amerika Serikat, Perancis, Jerman, dan Inggris pada pertengahan tahun 1800. Pada tahun 1840, Sir Isac Pitman mengajar jarak jauh menggunakan surat. Dan pada tahun 1980 an, International Correspondence Schools (ICS) membenagun metode perkuliahan “home-study courses” yang pada saat itu dikarenakan faktor kemananan pada era itu.

................................

2.1.1 Latar Belakang Pentingnya Sistem yang Inovatif

Pendidikan adalah perangkat strategis yang dibutuhkan masyarakat untuk secara kontinu bersaing dalam percaturan global dan untuk menciptakan standar kehidupan yang lebih baik. Hal ini menjadi suatu tantangan bagi institusi, termasuk perusahaan, sekolah, universitas, dan pemerintah yang mempunyai kaitan erat dengan dunia pendidikan dalam memasuki era persaingan global ini. Persaingan yang terjadi tidak dapat dielakkan. Sekarang ini persaingan menjadi kunci bagi kelangsungan hidup suatu perusahaan. Tumbuhnya persaingan secara global dengan negara-negara diseluruh dunia telah mengubah strategi bersaing

......................................

2.1.1 Peran-peran Utama dalam Distance Learning

Dibawah ini adalah deskripsi singkat mengenai peran-peran kunci utama dalam pembelajaran jarak jauh :Siswa (student), peran utama dari siswa disini adalah belajar. Dalam proses pembelajaran jarak jauh ini tetap diperlukan keadaan yang baik, motivasi, perencanaan, dan kemampuan untuk menganalisa materi perkuliahan, tugas, dan tes yang diberikan seorang instruktur kepada siswa. Kemampuan berinteraksi antara dosen dengan siswa sangat bergantung pada hubungan

...........................................

Keuntungan Sistem Pembelajaran Jarak Jauh
Meskipun masih menjadi fenomena baru, sistem pembelajaran jarak jauh berbasis web ini mempunyai keuntungan yang berbeda dengan sistem konvensional dan computer based training (CBT). Keuntungan yang diperoleh dari sistem pembelajran jarak jauh berbasis web ini antara lain :
1. Menghemat biaya
Teknologi yang menggunakan sistem distance learning ini akan lebih menghemat 40-60% biaya pendidikan pada sistem kelas tradisional. Sistem ini akan mengurangi biaya-biaya utama yang harus dikeluarkan baik siswa, dosen, dan kampus. Biaya yang dihemat antara lain pada :

..............................................

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Permasalahan teko air

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Wed, 28 Jan 2009 18:26:00 +0000

Permasalahan
ada 2 buah teko masing-masing berkapasitas 4 liter (A) dan 3 liter (B). tidak ada tanda yang menunjukkan batas ukuran pada kedua teko tersebut. Ada sebuah pompa air yang akan digunakan untuk mengisikan air pada kedua teko tersebut. Permasalahannya : bagaimana mengisikan tepat dua liter air ke teko A?
........

tujuan dari permasalahan ini adalah mendapatkan 2 liter air pada teko A dengan menggunakan aturan-aturan yang ada. sehingga menghasilkan beberapa kemungkinan untuk kondisi tersebut, yaitu : (2,0);(2,1);(2,2);(2,3).
...........

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Silsilah Keluarga menggunakan kode visual prolog

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Wed, 28 Jan 2009 18:25:00 +0000

fakta
father("Lila","Toni").
mother("Lila","Nina").
father("Kevin","Toni").
mother("Kevin","Nina").
father("Putra","Toni").
mother("Putra","Nina").
father("Sinta","Toni").
mother("Sinta","Nina").
father("Darius","Putra").
mother("Darius","Lila").
father("Dina","Putra").
mother("Dina","Lila").
father("Mini","Kevin").
mother("Mini","Sinta").
brother("Lila","Kevin").
sister("Kevin","Lila").
sepupu("Darius","Mini").
sepupu("Mini","Darius").

rules
sepupu(Person,GrandFather) :- parent(Person,Parent), father(Parent,GrandFather).grandMother(Person,GrandMother) :- parent
..........

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Pengantar Kecerdasan Buatan(AI)

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Wed, 28 Jan 2009 18:24:00 +0000

Sub-topik:
1. Konsep dasar dan pengertian AI
2. Asumsi Dasar AI
3. Perbedaan antara Pemrograman AI dan konvensional
4. Bidang-bidang aplikasi AI

Pengertian AI :

1. Suatu cara yang sederhana untuk membuat komputer dapat “berpikir” secara inteligent
2. Bagian dari ilmu komputer yang mempelajari perancangan sistem komputer yang inteligent, yaitu suatu sistem yang meperlihatkan karakteristik yang ada pada tingkah laku manusia, seperti mengerti suatu bahasa, mempelajari,mempertimbangkan dan memecahkan suatu masalah.
3. Suatu studi bagaimana membuat komputer dapat mengerjakan sesuatu, yang pada saat ini, orang dapat mengerjakan lebih baik
4. Bidang ilmu komputer yang memungkinkannya untuk memahami, bernalar dan bertindak.
............

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implementasi Depth-First search dalam C++

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Wed, 28 Jan 2009 18:22:00 +0000



#include "iostream.h"

#include "string.h"

#define MAX 100

void setup();

void isflight(char* from, char* to);

void assert_flight(char* from, char* to, int dist);

void route(char *to);

int match(char* from, char* to);

int find (char* from, char* to);

void isflight(char* from, char* anywhere);

void push(char* from, char* to, int dist);

void pop(char* from, char* to, int* dist);



struct FL{

	char from[20];

	char to[20];

	int distance;

	char skip; /* used in backtracking */

};



struct FL flight[MAX]; /* array of db structures */



int f_pos = 0; /* index for searching flight db */

int find_pos = 0;

int tos = 0; /* top of stack */

int d =0,dist=0;

struct stack{

	char from[20];

	char to[20];

	int dist;

};

struct stack bt_stack[MAX]; /* backtrack stack */



main()

{

	 char from[20]; char to[20];

	 setup();

	 cout << ("from : ");

	 cin.getline(from, sizeof(from));

	 cout<< (" to : ");

	 cin.getline(to,sizeof(to));

	 cout<< ("\n Route from "); cout <<("%s",from); cout<<(" to ");

	 cout<<("  %s", to); cout <<("  is  ");

	 isflight(from,to);

	 route(to);

	 cout<< ("\n Tekan Enter!!!");

	 cin.get();

     return 0;

}



void setup()

{

	assert_flight("New York","Chicago",1000);

	assert_flight("Chicago","Denver", 1000);

    assert_flight("New York", "Toronto",800);

	assert_flight("New York", "Denver",1900);

	assert_flight("Toronto","Calgary",1500);

	assert_flight("Toronto","Los Angeles",1800);

	assert_flight("Toronto", "Chicago",500);

	assert_flight("Denver", "Urbana",1000);

	assert_flight("Denver","Houston",1500);

	assert_flight("Housten","Los Angeles",1500);

    assert_flight("Denver","Los Angeles",1000);

}

/* place facts into flight db */

void assert_flight(char *from, char* to, int dist)

{

	if(f_pos		strcpy(flight[f_pos].from,from);

		strcpy(flight[f_pos].to,to);

		flight[f_pos].distance=dist;

		flight[f_pos].skip=0;

		f_pos++;

	}

	else cout<<("flight database full.\n");

}



/* show the route and distance */

void route (char *to)

{

	int dist, t;

	dist= 0;

	t=0;

	while (t	{

		cout<<("\n");

		cout<<("%s",bt_stack[t].from);

		cout<<(" to ");

		dist+=bt_stack[t].dist;

		t++;

	}

	cout<<("\n");

	cout<<("%s\n",to);

	cout<<("\n");

	cout<<("with distance is  ")<}

/* if connection between from and to, then return

    the distance of flight if not, return 0; */

int match(char* from, char* to)

{

	int t;

	for (t=f_pos-1; t>-1;t--)

		if(!strcmp(flight[t].from,from)&&!strcmp(flight[t].to,to))

			return flight[t].distance; 

		return 0; /* not found */

}

int find (char* from, char* anywhere)

{ find_pos =0;

  while (find_pos  {

	  if(!strcmp(flight[find_pos].from,from)&&

		  !flight[find_pos].skip){

		  return flight[find_pos].distance;} /* make active */

else find_pos++;

}

return 0;

}



/* determine if there is a route between from and to */

void isflight(char* from, char* to)

{

	char  anywhere[20];

	/* see if destination is reached */

	if (match(from,to)!=0) {

		d = match(from,to); 

		push(from,to,d);

			return;}

	/* try another connection */

	if(find(from,anywhere)!=0){dist =find(from,anywhere);

	strcpy(anywhere,flight[find_pos].to);

    flight[find_pos].skip =1;

	push(from,to,dist);

	isflight(anywhere,to);

	}

	else if (tos>0){

		/* backtrack */

		pop(from,to,&dist);

		isflight(from,to);

	}

}

/* stack routine */

void push(char* from,char* to, int dist)

{

	if(tos 		strcpy(bt_stack[tos].from,from);

		strcpy(bt_stack[tos].to,to);

		bt_stack[tos].dist=dist;

		tos++;

	}

	else cout << ("stack full,\n");

}

void pop(char* from,char* to,int* dist)

{

	if(tos>0) {

		tos--;

		strcpy(from,bt_stack[tos].from);

		strcpy(to,bt_stack[tos].to);

		*dist = bt_stack[tos].dist;

	}

	else cout << (" stack underflow.\n");

}

implementasi Breadth-First search dalam C++

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Wed, 28 Jan 2009 18:19:00 +0000

/* Breadth-First search */
#include "iostream.h"
#include "string.h"
#define MAX 100
void setup();
void isflight(char* from, char* to);
void assert_flight(char* from, char* to, int dist);
void route(char *to);
int match(char* from, char* to);
int find (char* from, char* to);
void isflight(char* from, char* anywhere);
void push(char* from, char* to, int dist);
void pop(char* from, char* to, int* dist);

struct FL{
char from[20];
char to[20];
int distance;
char skip; /* used in backtracking */
};

struct FL flight[MAX]; /* array of db structures */

int f_pos = 0; /* index for searching flight db */
int find_pos = 0;
int tos = 0; /* top of stack */
int d =0,dist=0;
struct stack{
char from[20];
char to[20];
int dist;
};
struct stack bt_stack[MAX]; /* backtrack stack */

main()
{
char from[20]; char to[20];
setup();
cout << ("from : "); cin.getline(from, sizeof(from)); cout<< (" to : "); cin.getline(to,sizeof(to)); cout<< ("\n Route from "); cout <<("%s",from); cout<<(" to "); cout<<(" %s", to); cout <<(" is "); isflight(from,to); route(to); cout<< ("\n Tekan Enter!!!"); cin.get(); return 0; } void setup() { assert_flight("New York","Chicago",1000); assert_flight("Chicago","Denver", 1000); assert_flight("New York","Toronto",800); assert_flight("New York","Denver",1900); assert_flight("Toronto","Calgary",1500); assert_flight("Toronto","Los Angeles",1800); assert_flight("Toronto","Chicago",500); assert_flight("Denver","Urbana",1000); assert_flight("Denver","Houston",1500); assert_flight("Housten","Los Angeles",1500); assert_flight("Denver","Los Angeles",1000); } /* place facts into flight db */ void assert_flight(char *from, char* to, int dist) { if(f_pos0) {
tos--;
strcpy(from,bt_stack[tos].from);
strcpy(to,bt_stack[tos].to);
*dist = bt_stack[tos].dist;
}
else cout << (" stack underflow.\n"); }

.....

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Penyelesaian Permasalahan 8 Puzzle dengan algoritma A star (artikel)

noreply@blogger.com (I Made Sunia Raharja) — Wed, 28 Jan 2009 18:18:00 +0000

Dalam dunia Informatika, penyelesaian masalah adalah bagian yang paling penting dalam membuat suatu aplikasi.Terutama dalam sebuah aplikasi yang diharapkan untuk memberikan sebuah atau beberapa buah solusi. Dalammencari cara penyelasaian masalah, ada beberapa algoritma yang dapat digunakan. Diantaranya adalah algoritmaA* (A Star) yang paling mangkus dalam mengerjakan persoalan yang membutuhkan kecerdasan buatan, terutamauntuk traversal pada graf. Banyak persoalan yang bisa direpresentasikan dengan graf. Solusinya didapatkandengan mengunjungi simpul-simpul pada graf. Algoritma A* mengunjungi simpul dalam graf dengan caramengunjungi simpul yang paling mendekati solusi. Makalah ini menganalisa algoritma A* dalam menyelesaikanpermasalahan yang membutuhkan traversal pada graf, yaitu kasus 8 Puzzle. Algoritma A* menerapkan heuristikuntuk menemukan solusi yang paling optimum. Heuristik ini yang menyebabkan pohon ruang status tidak perludibangkitkan seluruhnya, hanya yang mendekati solusi terbaik saja. Pada kasus ini solusi terbaik dapat dicapaidengan menggeser kotak sampai didapatkan solusi dengan langkah sesedikit mungkin...........

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