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EVALUATION OF COST EFFICIENCY FOR WATER SUPPLY IN KADUNA NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF KADUNA STATE

2025-09-18T12:44:00.001+01:00

Abstract

Efficient water supply is critical for public health, economic growth, and sustainable development. In Kaduna North Local Government Area of Kaduna State, the rising demand for water services has highlighted the need for a cost-effective supply system. This study evaluates the cost efficiency of the water supply in Kaduna North by analyzing operational costs, infrastructure maintenance, distribution efficiency, and service delivery. Using data collected from the local water utility, residents, and relevant government agencies, the study applies cost-efficiency metrics and econometric analysis to assess the current financial sustainability of water services. Findings indicate that while some operational practices align with cost-efficiency standards, significant gaps exist in areas such as infrastructure maintenance, resource allocation, and demand management. The study identifies specific inefficiencies, including high operational costs due to outdated infrastructure and water losses from leakages, which contribute to financial strain on the local government. Recommendations are provided to enhance cost efficiency, including adopting modern maintenance techniques, implementing advanced metering systems, and fostering community awareness to optimize water usage. This research offers valuable insights for policymakers, helping to inform strategies for a more sustainable and economically viable water supply system in Kaduna North, with potential applications for similar regions facing water supply challenges.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

The provision of clean water to consumers entails a cost both in terms of initial capital outlay and ongoing operation, maintenance, management and extension of services. However, because of poor planning of cost efficiency, a lack of government funding and inadequate tariff rates, the ability of water services sector to recover costs is often limited even for routine operation and maintenance. This has led to problems in providing sustainable water services to poor communities.

Cost efficiency is widely recognised as an essential component in sustainable water services provision. It is only one of a number of conditions that must be present in order to guarantee the continuation of benefits intended by community water projects. Yet, it is an aspect that continues to draw an inordinate amount of attention, in Nigeria and elsewhere, because of the swift impact that failed cost efficiency can have on service provision and community development (Hilary et al.1999:1).

It is essential for long-term sustainability of the water services sector that costs are recovered by some mechanism, whether through application of full-based charges to consumers or by government support to the sector. Where cost efficiency and sector funding are being ignored, the effects are deterioration of infrastructure, which eventually leads to the breakdown of systems, absence of an adequate water supply and an increased public health risk. (Hazelton, 1997: 34).

The willingness to pay for water services amongst consumers should be promoted and maintained. Unless consumers are convinced of the need to pay for services, cost efficiency will remain problematic and the long-term sustainability of water provision will be compromised. However, this also means that service quality needs to be sufficiently good to encourage payment and that water suppliers are seen to be responsive to the demands of consumers (Rogerson, 1996: 374).

In the Limpopo Province, many rural Governmentities have as much as 80% of their capital budgets allocated to the provision of water services. Attempts to recover costs from these capital investments have generally failed. As with these rural Governmentities, Kaduna North Local Government is faced with the dual problem of addressing the water service backlog by providing new water infrastructure and recovering costs from the existing water infrastructure.

1.2 Problem Statement

The increasing financial burden on users to pay for water has turned water into a central political issue. More than three billion people worldwide have a daily income of less than a thousand rand, which places a severe limitation on their capacity to pay for the full economic costs of services such as water and electricity. Early in 2000, for example, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in the Kaduna State, Nigeria, introduced cost efficiency on water. Rural households that were accustomed to free potable water at communal standpipes were charged a registration fee for a yard tap and/or a monthly rate for water usage. The registration fee and volumetric charges proved too expensive, however, for thousands of low-income households struggling to survive on unpredictable income and meagre state pensions. For them, paying for water would mean giving up other essential goods and services (McDonald, 2002: 2). The task, therefore, of cost efficiency was to overcome the huge problem of inability to operate and maintain existing supplies properly with consequent increase in leakage, water supply interruption and likely deterioration in both the quality and quantity of the water supplied to communities.

In Kaduna North Local Government about 50% of the total households still do not have access to government funded water services infrastructure. These households rely on natural water resources, such as rivers and wells. Health reasons are usually advanced against communities` use of those natural sources of water. Those households with access to 200m reconstruction and development programme (RDP) standpipes are deprived of regular water supply services mainly due to operation and maintenance problems. The Government does not have maintenance and operation strategy for the water services (Kaduna North Local Government, 2004:17).

1.3 Research Question

The following main question will guide the research process:

1. What are the appropriate cost efficiency mechanisms that will promote poor communities` access and use of government water services?

Associated with this main question are the following sub-questions:

1. What is the poverty profile of households under study?

2. What is the household’s perceived value of water to development?

3. What can be the most appropriate mechanisms for recovering costs in poor communities?

4. Why should costs relating to services be recovered?

5. Why is cost efficiency an important issue in the water sector?

6. What are the consequences of poor/inadequate cost efficiency?

1.4 Objectives

Specific objectives of the study include:

1. To establish the poverty profile of households under study.

2. To suggest appropriate water supply services cost efficiency mechanisms for poor communities.

3. To establish factors that influence households or communities willingness to pay for water services.

4. To understand the significance of cost efficiency in the water supply services sector.

5. To analyse the implications of poor cost efficiency relating to water supply services.

1.5 Significance of the study

The study will help poor rural communities to identify the causes of lack of access, including poor cost efficiency and use of government water services and suggest the appropriate mechanisms to be implemented to solve the problem. In addition, knowledge of policy makers pertaining to cost efficiency issues and the relationship between cost efficiency and community development shall be enhanced.

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EFFECTS OF PETROLEUM EXPLORATION, PROSPECTING AND MINING ON GROUND WATER (A CASE STUDY OF DELTA STATE)

2025-09-18T12:40:00.010+01:00

ABSTRACT

Oil spill as a result of exploration, production, and transportation of crude oil has led to the contamination groundwater in Delta State. This research focused on the impact of petroleum exploration, prospecting and mining on the physiochemical and microbiological characteristics of groundwater quality in Delta State. Groundwater samples were collected in three different areas in Warri LGA, Delta State. Results of physiochemical analysis showed that values of turbidity at three points; A (23 mg/l), B (13 mg/l), and C (27 mg/l) were above NESREA standard. Values of oil and grease at A (680 mg/l), B (560 mg/l) and C (3870 mg/l) were above NESREA standard. Values of Iron were above NESREA standards. Result of total heterotrophic bacteria count (THBC) and total coliform bacteria count (TCBC) were above maximum contamination Levels (MCLs) in drinking water. Isolates occurred thus: Bacillus subtilis (66.7%), Streptococcus faecalis (33.3%), Staphylococcus aureus (33.3%), Bacillus cereus (66.7%), and Escherichia coli (66.7%). Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus are organisms that degrade hydrocarbon while others are of public health importance. The presence of hydrocarbon degraders will help reduce the effect of hydrocarbon contamination in water. Oil spill altered the groundwater quality.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0. Introduction

The discovery and extraction of natural resources has brought different consequences to countries that are endowed with such resources. While some of these nations have become economically strong and self-sustaining, others have been drawn into serious economic hardships and conflicts. Proponents of the resource curse, project have it that the citizens of these countries rather suffer from abject poverty, environmental damages, pollutions, diseases, illiteracy and score very low on the United Nation’s Human Development Index (UNDP, 2006).

The Niger Delta region, where Nigeria current large oil and gas resources are located, to with the Niger Delta as the unifying feature has remained a source of global interest. With openness to the Atlantic Ocean and watercourses with access to the sea and rivers such as the Benue and Niger Rivers, the Niger Delta embodies some of the major coastal upwelling sub-ecosystems of the world and is an important center of marine biodiversity and marine food production ranked among the most productive coastal and offshore waters in the world (Atoyebi and Akinde, 2012). However, pollution from domestic and industry sources, over-exploitation of Oil and Gas resources and poorly planned and managed communities and coastal developments and near-shore activities are resulting in a rapid degradation of vulnerable land, coastal and offshore habitats and shared living marine resources of the region putting the economies and health of the populace at risk (Atoyebi and akinde, 2012). The deterioration in water and air quality from land and sea-based activities (especially industrial, agricultural, urban and domestic sewage run-off, eutrophication and gas flaring have been identified as a major Tran boundary environmental problem by communities in the region (Atoyebi and Akinde, 2012).

Pollution is generally believed to be the necessary price for the development ushered in by the petroleum industry. It has been asserted that even in the best oil field practice, oil spillage cannot be completely eliminated (Ekpu, 1996; Aghalino, 1999).

1.1. Background of the Study

Not only that the developed countries have been affected by environmental problems, but also the developing nations suffer from impacts of pollution (Listori and World-wide Bank, 1990). Niger Delta, the southernmost region of Nigeria, extends over about 70,000km2 and makes up 7.5% of Nigerian’s land mass. The Niger-Delta area of Nigeria coincides approximately to the south-south geopolitical zone of the country. Niger delta consists of the present day Bayelsa, Delta, and Rivers. In the year 2000, however, Obasanjo’s regime included Abia, Delta, Cross River, Edo, Imo, and Ondo States in the region (Wikipedia, 2012). The region is the most blessed deltas in the world, in both human and material resources but the unfavorable manner in which these resources are harnessed overtime, is the bane of the regions predicament (Eregha, 2009).

Before the discovery of crude oil, agriculture was the dominant occupation of the people. Crude oil was discovered in commercial quantity in the region specifically in the present Bayelsa State in 1956 (Omofonmwa and Odia, 2009). Since then oil exploration and exploitation has continued resulting into what is termed environmental destruction due to neglect and less concern of the multinational companies in environmental management in the area (Eregha, 2009). The environmental degradation resulting from oil and gas production in the Niger-Delta has attracted the attention of environmentalists and other experts, who look at the region within the larger context of globalization (UNDP, 2006).

Environmental pollution, mainly of water sources has become of public interest (Niemi et al, 1990). Oil production comes with huge environmental challenges especially at a time where climate change and its negative consequences have captured global attention of environmentalists and other experts, who look at the region within the layer context of globalization (UNDP, 2006).

The issue of Environmental sustainability cannot be overemphasized in the Niger Delta as this is fundamental to the overall wellbeing of future generation which is an important aspect of environmental economics (Eregha and Irughe, 2009). The Niger-Delta region is dominated by rural communities that depends solely on the natural environment for subsistence living. More than seventy percent of the people depend on natural environment for living and nonliving livelihood (UNDP, 2006). Poor people are vulnerable to environmental dynamics because social, political and economic exclusion indicates they are left with few choices about where they live (Aluko, 2004). Hence, they bear the adverse effects of natural hazards, biodiversity loss and forest depletion, pollution and the negative impact of industrialization vis-à-vis oil exploration

It is disheartening to note that most people living in developing countries are deprived of the right to good drinking water as almost available drinking water is highly contaminated by oil spill. Providing adequate amounts of drinking water of an acceptable quality is a basic necessity and ensuring the sustainable, long-term supply of such drinking water is of national and international concern (Reid et al., 2003).

Delta State is located in the Niger Delta, the petroleum oil rich region of Nigeria. With about 25 billion barrels of crude oil and gas reserves of about 130 trillion cubic feet, the Niger Delta region generates the greatest proportion of foreign exchange and internal revenue earnings of the Federal Government. The crude oil sector alone accounts for 90 to 95% of export revenues. Gas, hitherto flared is beginning to make meaningful contributions to Nigeria’s income - earning a total of US$9197.5 million in export in 2001. In addition to these, potentials in fishery, agriculture, and forestry products emphasize this unique region’s riches. The region however encounters myriad environmental problems ranging from health hazards, poverty to flooding, coastal erosion, and oil spill (Udoh and Ekanem, 2011).

Oil spill is dangerous to the operating environment which by nature is very difficult to clean up if contaminated by oil. It is obvious that as long as petroleum resource is being explored and exploited, spills will still take place. Ways of minimizing them and their effects need to be explored particularly as the people most affected by the spill are those in the host communities where the exploration and exploitation of crude is being carried out (Udoh and Ekanem, 2011). Oil, a liquid petroleum product which contains mainly hydrocarbons, can enter water through direct spills or from a spill originally occurring on land and subsequently reaching water bodies through the eﬀects of wind, rain, surface or sub-surface ﬂow (UNDP, 2011).

Groundwater represents an important source of drinking water and its quality is currently threatened by a combination of over abstraction and chemical (including oil and grease) and microbiological contamination (Reid et al, 2003). Groundwater from a shallow origin is particularly susceptible to contamination from a combination of point and diffuses sources (Reid et al, 2003). Environmental degradation issues are of tropical concern to communities in the Niger Delta as it is a major cause of productivity losses (Opukri and Ibaba, 2008). This is the main reason why impact of oil and gas extraction cannot be overemphasized as the dominant view blames the oil production and its attendant consequences for the declining groundwater quality of the region.

Oil spillage in recent time has been a threat to human life, marine life, wildlife and microorganisms in the soil and groundwater. It has seriously threatened human existence especially those in the Niger Delta region. Statistics has shown that more than 2.4 million barrels of oil have spilled into the creeks and soil of southern Nigeria in the past 30 years. Some 70 percent of the oil has not been recovered while many spill sites have been abandoned (The Daily Independent, 2010).

Nwankwo (1987) reported about 1020 incidents of petroleum exploration, prospecting and miningages which culminated in the loss of about 1,358,715 barrels of crude oil to the coastal land and water of Niger Delta. This led to environmental pollution. But Folivi (1981) defined environmental pollution as the disruption of the natural equilibrium between the living species and their natural environment. This can occur in different ways:

· Through oil spillage, which could render farmland and water bodies unusable and unsafe

· By gas flaring in the refineries from rigs.

· Through exhaust and effluents from petrochemical plants.

Crude oil pollution of the environment may arise from oil well drilling production operations, transportation and storage in the upstream industry, and refining, transportation, and marketing in the downstream industry. It could also be from anthropogenic sources (Oberdorster and Cheek, 2000). Sources of petroleum and its products in the environment will also include accidental spills and from ruptured oil pipelines (Beller, et al., 1996).

The economic importance of crude oil exploitation and exploration as a natural resource led to its intensified extraction for export as a basis to earn foreign exchange for development. However, this continued and intensified exploitation has led to devastating effects on the ground water through crude oil spill Delta State.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Since the production and drilling of oil started in 1958, lots of noticeable changes have occurred, humans have been expressing the extent of damage done to the area, that is, affected area in terms of social imbalance, environmental degradation, and pollution, most especially the groundwater system (Eregha, 2001)

The economic significance of Nigerian Petroleum Industry is no longer doubt. It is now a vast operation covering on-shore and off-shore oilfields. As it with many blessing of modern civilization, there are negative externalities from the exploration and production of oil and gas. One of them is groundwater pollution occasioned by oil spillage. The magnitude of crude oil pollution and damages occasioned by these oil firms is incredible. Pollution is generally believed to be the necessary price for the development ushered in by the petroleum industry. It has been asserted that even in the best oil field practice, oil spillage cannot be completely eliminated (Ekpu, 1996; Aghalino, 1999).

The incident of petroleum exploration, prospecting and miningage and oil blow-out has devastated Niger Delta territories. High pressure oil pipeline crises cross beneath the surface of the farmland in Niger Delta, if not checked or effectively managed could lead to total annihilation of the ecosystem. In the Coastal environment a large areas of the mangrove ecosystem have been destroyed. The mangrove was once a source of both fuel woods for the indigenous people and a habit for the areas biodiversity, but it is now unable to survive the oil toxicity of its habitat (Eregha and Irughe, 2009).

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DETERMINANT OF COLIFORM BACTERIA FROM WATER SOURCES

2025-09-18T12:38:00.001+01:00

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to investigate the coliform bacterial contamination of drinking water of Bayelsa during March to June 2024.

Seventy samples of water were taken from seven different areas main station, including chemically treated water from the main station and untreated water from wells. Bacterial coliform contamination was investigated by Multiple fermentation tube technique to detect the existence of total and thermotolerant coliforms at 37◦C and 44◦C, respectively.

The total coliform bacteria were detected in 46 (65.7%) samples, while thermotolerant coliform bacteria were detected in 31 (44.3%) samples.

A total of 57 isolates were obtained from 46 samples, which were identified according to their microscopic, cultural and biochemical properties as: Escherichia coli (38.6%), Enterobacter aerogenes (17.5%), Enterobacter cloacae (15.8%), Klebsiella pneumoniae subspecies aerogenes (12.3%), Klebsiella pneumoniae subspecies ozaenae (8.8%) and Citrobacter freundii (7%).

Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella pneumoniae ssp. ozaenae were found in untreated water only. While the other species were found in both treated and untreated water with higher prevalence in untreated water.

Chapter one

Introduction

Water is the universal solvent as they call it. It covers 70% of the earth's surface and is also present in varying amounts in the atmosphere. It is an essential component of all cells and a requirement for life. It represents about 45% to 95% of living cell (Lim, 1998).

The drinking water must be safe and it is considered polluted if it contains toxic substances or pathogens (Black, 1999). Good quality water is odourless, colorless, tasteless and free from faecal pollution and chemicals in harmful amounts (Cheesbrough, 1994). Black (1999) has estimated that up to 80% of all sicknesses and diseases in the world are caused by polluted water. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that up to 80% of all sicknesses and diseases in the world was caused by inadequate sanitation, polluted water or unavailability of water (Cheesbrough, 1994).

Many water sources in developing countries are unhealthy because they contain harmful physical, chemical and biological agents. It has been reported that the death of most of children in Africa who die under the age of 5 is caused by inadequate and unsafe water supplies (Loucks, 1994).

UNICEF reported that about 90% of major epidemics in the Nigeria are water-borne and water-related, causing the death of some 40% of children under five years of age (El Tayeb, 2002). When water is contaminated with faecal material, any pathogen that leaves the body through the faeces, (many bacteria, viruses and some protozoa) can be present. The most common diseases that are transmitted by water are typhoid fever, salmonellosis, shigellosis, cholera, legionnaire's diseases and gastroenteritis which is induced by Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter fetus.

Also, some viral and parasitic diseases may be transmitted like hepatitis, poliomyelitis, giardiasis and amoebic dysentery (Black, 1999).

Coliform bacteria may not cause disease but can be indicators of pathogenic organisms that cause intestinal infections, dysentery, hepatitis, typhoid fever, cholera and other illnesses. These illnesses are not limited to diseases-causing organisms in drinking water. However, other factors that may not associate with drinking water may be the cause. Previous studies in Nigeria have dealt only with certain aspects of water pollution problems. Detailed considerations have come to light as a result of the work done by Dirar (1986) and Abdelmagid, Ibrahim and Dirar (1984) on the pollution of water from wells in Khartoum area. Routine microbiological analysis of water is necessary once water treatment system has been installed in order that problem in the treatment process can be anticipated (WHO, 1996).

Different microbiological methods have been developed since the early 1900s to assess water quality with regard to public health. Most methods rely on enumerating coliforms and E. coli as indicators for faecal pollution. There is a large number of techniques that are used in bacteriological analysis of water such as standard plate count, membrane filter technique and multiple fermentation tube technique. The latter two methods are recommended by the WHO. However, culture-based methods, which include the detection of only live bacteria, have sevral problems such as lack of specificity for detection of free faecal coliform (E. coli) and in addition time is required for detection and conformation (Roszake and Colwell, 1987). Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) has been used for detection of the target nucleotide sequence associated with coliform bacteria or specifically with E. coli using specific primers (Schochetman and Jones, 1988).

Objectives of the study:

1- To investigate drinking water for colifrom bacterial pollution in Bayelsa at different locations during four months

2- Investigation of ground water before its pumping through public pipelines.

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CHARACTERIZATION AND COMPOSITION ANALYSIS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN BAUCHI STATE

2025-09-18T12:35:00.005+01:00

ABSTRACT

Waste collection and disposal is a challenge for many cities in Nigeria and the Bauchi state metropolis is no exception. Currently, all the waste generated in Bauchi state ends up at the final disposal sites without any recovery of the valuables in the waste. Waste separation efficiency and willingness to separate waste at source, the physical composition and the per capita waste generated per each household within the Bauchi state metropolis were studied over a five week period. Questionnaire survey and interviews with key stakeholders were also carried out. The results show a solid waste composition of 60.01% biodegradables, 11.47% plastic, 7.35% paper and cardboard, 2.38% metals, 1.51% glass, 1.22% leather and rubber, 2.91% textiles, 8.04% inert materials and 4.98% miscellaneous materials. Over 80% of the waste had the potential for reuse (potentially recyclable) and of the usable material, 22.67% can be recycled and 63.64% for composting. The average per capita waste generated was 0.70 kg/ca/day. The average moisture of biodegradables waste was 54.99%. The data generated on the quantity and composition of the waste stream in the metropolis would play a positive role in solid waste management and help solid waste managers make informed decisions on waste management options.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Solid Waste generation within households, markets and communities is as a result of human activities (Zurbrugg, 2002; Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006 and Ejaro and Jiya, 2013). These human activities which directly or indirectly produce waste could be agricultural, commercial, or domestic. These sources of waste are highly heterogeneous and are made up of important waste streams such as plastics, yard waste, food waste, papers, metals, glass, textiles, leather and other miscellaneous materials.

Waste management being a major environmental and health challenge around the world today is more pronounced in developing countries (Ejaro and Jiya, 2013). Identification of these valuables in the solid waste stream and their quantities has called for the development of important recovery and recycling technologies and designs for treatment to extract the exact economic benefit of these materials (Pichtel, 2005; Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006; Ahmad and Jehad, 2012). In most developing economies, biodegradables are the highest fraction; hence the strategic development of bioconversion processes to reduce the quantities of the generated waste and consequent benefit over mere disposal. Biogas and compost production from such a renewable source offers an advantage because of its continual and sustainable supply provided their production cost are minimized.

Accra and other African cities generate 80% organic waste, 10% plastic, glass and metal waste and less than 1% paper waste per day (Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006).

However, most of these wastes is not properly collected and disposed of in a safe and healthy manner. This situation is not limited to Accra and may be applicable to all the major cities in Nigeria. Bauchi state (TSM) like Accra has a major waste management and disposal problem which may be attributed to lack of understanding of the waste management system.

Although many cities the world over use 20-50 percent of their budget in solid waste management, only 20-80 percent of the waste they produce is collected (Achankeng, 2003). The uncollected or illegally dumped waste constitutes danger to human health and is a recipe for environmental degradation. Not only are the quantities but also the variety of waste is increasing as consumption habits are fuelled by globalisation (Achankeng, 2003).

The various classes of residential areas often have varying waste management challenges; first class residential areas enjoy a door- to -door waste collection, while the second and third class residential areas sometimes have door –to- door service, but the majority of the areas are under the “pay- as- you- dump” service where community bins are provided. However, there are other third class residential areas which do not have any of these services. Wastes from these less-privileged areas are mostly dumped indiscriminately in open places.

Zoomlion, a private waste management company, collects most of the waste from the communities within the TSM but does not have data on waste generated and composition to help plan and design their waste management strategies which is most needed (Oumarou et al., 2012).

This research therefore aimed at generating data on the waste produced in the TSM and its composition by quantifying and characterising it to inform decisions on waste management project planning.

1.2 Problem Statement

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generation has increased significantly within the TSM due to increasing urbanisation and industralisation. The municipal assemblies manage solid waste with the aim of providing good quality sanitation services in order to keep the cities clean and to enhance public health and safety. Evaluation of the resource requirement for collection, transportation, processing and disposal as well as equipment for waste management requires a correct assessment of the quantity of waste generated per capita per day from direct residential areas and the characteristics of waste generated (Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006).

In Bauchi state, as in other parts of Nigeria, there is no data on waste generation and composition thus making planning difficult. All the mixed waste ends up in the landfill sites without recovering or recycling any of the valuable materials in them. The population of STMA coupled with the influx of hundreds of economic migrants into the city‟s oil industry has resulted in an increase in waste generation and therefore its management (Adu-Boahen, 2012). In view of this, source specific quantification and characterisation of the household waste is very much required to assess the quality and quantity of waste generated (Gawaikar and Deshpande, 2006) which will allow correct assessment of waste load and make it easier for proper planning of solid waste management in the TSM.

1.3 Justification

The characterization and quantification of household waste in Bauchi state would bring together data on the generation rate and the composition of waste in the sub-metro. This will help the sub-metro to operate an efficient waste management system. An efficient solid waste management system for TSM will serve as a model for municipal waste management for the other sub-metros in the city as well as other cities in Nigeria since the problems of waste management is similar and prevalent through Nigeria.

1.4 Main Objective

The main objective of the research was to characterise and quantify household waste for proper management of waste in the TSM and to help make informed decisions on project planning for diversion of this waste from the final disposal sites.

1.5 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this research were to:

1.5.1 Determine the physical composition of household waste within the TSM;

1.5.2 Assess the separation efficiency and willingness of the people to separate waste;

1.5.3 Determine the per capita and quantity of the waste generation in TSM;

1.5.4 Determine the potential for recycling of the MSW and

1.5.5 Determine the moisture content of the separated biodegradable waste materi- als.

1.6 Scope of Study

The selected study is Bauchi state which is one of the four sub-metros of the Sekondi-Bauchi state Assembly. The research work is presented in Six

(6) chapters. The chapter one (1) looks at the problem of waste management in the TSM. Chapter two examines existing literature on solid waste characterization and quantification as well as waste management. Chapter three (3) describes the materials and methods employed in gathering data from the field. These included field investigation, questionnaire and face-to-face interviews. Chapter four (4) analyses the findings from the fields and chapter five (5) summarises the key findings of the study. Chapter six (6) is the conclusion and recommendations.

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ASSESSMENT OF THE CHEMICAL QUALITIES OF ASCOHT GROUND WATER SUPPLY AND ITS HEALTH RISK

2025-09-18T12:32:00.009+01:00

ABSTRACT

Many communities in Obosi in Anambra state, Nigeria are increasingly dependent on hand dug wells. The aim of this study was to examine the drinking water suitability of Anambra State College of Health Technology Obosi ground water supply and its health risk. Total coliforms were enumerated using the standard most probable number method and membrane filtration methods. A sanitation survey was undertaken to ascertain the conditions of the wells. Also the physico-chemical properties of the water were assessed.

Overall, significantly higher bacterial counts were recorded during the wet (rainy) season compared to the dry season. A brief sanitation survey at each site indicated that the wells were frequently cited near latrines, refuse tips, as well as in the vicinity of domestic or grazing animals. In Anambra State College of Health Technology Obosi, the water from shallow wells upon which the local communities depend is of poor quality. This is because all the wells sampled failed to meet the zero coliform per 100 ml set by WHO (World Health Organization). The physico-chemical properties of many of the wells varied with the seasons. For instance, five of the wells indicated high nitrate levels for the dry season, and low for the wet. One well had a mean nitrate value of about 0.1 mg/l in the dry season but 0.02 in the wet season. This means for that well, the nitrate level in the wet season increased about 80% during the dry season.

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

1.1 Background Information

Water, after air, is the most essential commodity to the survival of life. Human life depends to a large extent, on water. It is used for an array of activities; chief among these being for drinking, food preparation, as well as for sanitation purposes. Inasmuch as safe drinking water is essential to health, a community lacking a good quality of this commodity will be saddled with a lot of health problems which could otherwise be avoided (Miller, 1997).

Water is a fundamental resource, integral to all environmental and social processes. Access to adequate safe drinking water is of prime importance to many governmental and international organizations since undebatably it is the core component of primary health care and a basic component of human development as well as a precondition for man’s success to deal with hunger, poverty and death (SOPAC/WHO, 2005). There is a growing concern everywhere that in the coming century, cities will suffer imbalances in quality water supply, consumption, and population. Many regions of the world are already limited by the amount and quality of available water. According to World Health Organization (WHO, 2002), in the next thirty years alone, accessible water is unlikely to increase more than ten percent (10%) but the earth’s population is projected to rise by approximately one-third. Unless the efficiency of water use rises, this imbalance will reduce quality water services, reduce the conditions of health of people and deteriorate the environment and the world.

The world’s population size and the rapid urbanization growth is increasingly a major issue in the world especially in developing countries. Cairncross (2002), showed that by the year 1975, about 74% of the urban population in the developing world had access to safe water, the figure increased to about three hundred million (79%) in 1985 partly because of the International Water Decade which was an improvement, however, there were still 21% of the people who were still not having access to safe water. The rapidity with which cities are growing is frightening in the sense that human population with its associated sanitation problems will grow faster than increases in the amount of accessible quality water (Jackson et al, 2001). This means that per capita availability of quality water will decrease in the coming century.

Although, many international conferences as well as researches have gone on in the past, little by way of success has been chalked so far. Report from World Health Organization (2002) indicates that over 2.6 billion people were still suffering from the effect of poor water around the world. It is based on this that Heads of states and governments met and signed the Millennium Declaration at the 2000 UN Millennium summit to end the sufferings from the effects of poor water quality across the globe, as a matter of urgency (WHO, 2002).

The growing demands for adequate quality water resources create an urgent need to link research with improved water management, better monitoring, assessment, and forecasting of water resources and sanitation issues with much emphasis on the roles of stakeholders (Yamaguchi & Wesselink, 2000). It must however be emphasized that adequate water quality needs seem to have improved greatly in some regions and countries especially in the developed world but for poor nations this is still a major issue (Stockholm International Water Institute, SIWI, 2001). As observed by WHO-UNICEF (2004), while in 2002, countries like Japan, Australia, Austria, Switzerland and Sweden had achieved hundred percent, others, such as countries in sub Saharan Africa are far below 50%. For instance, Guinea 6%, Liberia 7%, Niger 4%, Togo 15%, and Nigeria 46%.

According to Sarpong (2002), the main source of water in these regions includes untreated rain water from roofs, polluted rivers and streams, unprotected wells and bore holes. He went further to show that there is little to choose between sub Sahara rural and urban since the rural to some extent has only to deal with the quality while the urban has both the quantity and quality to deal with.

Water related health problems are a growing human tragedy, and according to WHO (2003), it kills more than 5 million people a year with infants being the most affected. This figure seems to be the highest as compared to wars and disasters (UNESCO, 2003). The problems also prevent millions of people from leading healthy lives, and undermine developmental efforts by burdening the society with substantial socio-economic costs for treatment of water-borne diseases. This problem is of great significance in cities in developing countries, where polluted water, water shortages, and unsanitary living conditions prevail. Information from WHO (2002), WHO/UNICEF (2004) says although access to water has improved greatly, access to safe water is still a major issue. The source quoted that about some 1.1 billion people rely on unsafe drinking water sources in developing countries and the lowest drinking water coverage rates are in sub Saharan Africa (58%) with a corresponding low sanitation coverage rates (36%) which leads to many deaths especially among children through diarrhea among other water-related diseases. To meet the 2015 target of the United Nations Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) on access to safe drinking water therefore, will require that countries create the political will and resources to manage water especially in growing urban cities in sub Saharan Africa (Bain, Gundry, Wright, Yang, Pedley & Bartram, 2011).

Sources of water available to mankind are: atmospheric water (precipitate), surface water (including rivers, streams, ponds, etc), and ground water. The potability of water from any of these sources is determined by the water quality (Miller, 1997).

With 97% of all freshwater found on the earth being stored underground, accessing ground water in the quest for potable water is a laudable venture. Groundwater is accessed by way of sinking wells and boreholes to reach the water table (Overseas Development Institute, 2009).

Water-related diseases are responsible for 80% of all illnesses/death in developing countries (UNESC0, 2007). According to Kalua and Chipeta (2005) as cited in Pritchard, Mkandawire, and O’Neill (2008), in Malawi, only 65% of the population have access to safe drinking water and 50% of all illnesses are solely due to water related diseases. Water is a medium of thousands of microorganisms, some of which are disease-causing (Schaffter & Parriaux, 2002).

A typical example can be seen in the facts of the matter as it pertains in Malawi and reported by several researchers (Chilton & Smith-Carington, 1984; Kalua, & Chipeta, 2005; Sajidu, Masamba, Henry & Kuyeli, 2007). The mortality rate in Malawi in 2002 from cholera was over 50% of the water-related deaths. During the 2001/2002 rainy season, 33,150 cholera cases and 980 deaths were recorded in Malawi (Davis, 2005). Globally, 4 billion cases of diarrhoea are reported every year causing 1.8 million deaths, out of which about 90% are children under age five (UNESCO, 2007).

Potable water is defined as water that is free from pathogens, low in compounds that are acutely toxic or that have grave long-term effects on human health (Shlutz and Okun, 1984). Potable water should be free from compounds that can cause change in the ‘normal’ colour, taste (e.g. high salinity) and odour. Shallow wells are normally located in valleys where the groundwater table is relatively high (1 – 4 m below ground level) and infiltration of rain and river water plays a main part in the groundwater recharge. Boreholes however, draw water from deep (20 – 80 m or more) aquifers (Pritchard, Mkandawire & O’Neil, 2008).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Pathogens as well as life threatening chemicals get to pollute the groundwater system through leaching. When such polluted ground water is sourced for human consumption, the health implications can be overwhelming. Poor sanitation practices, such as locating on-site sanitation systems close to these wells, are a sure contributing factor in the pollution of the ground water system (ARGOSS, 2001). It has been documented, and accepted as a standard that when on-site sanitation systems are sited less than 50 m away from wells and bore holes, the water from such wells will definitely be polluted (Obiri Danso et al., 2008).

Water from wells dug in close proximity to VIPs (Ventilated Improved Pits) may have health hazards. Getting safe water for human consumption is essential for good health and a basic human right. Quality of water from such wells needs to be checked periodically in order to ascertain whether they are good for human consumption and other domestic use.

Anambra State College of Health Technology Obosi in Anambra state of the Republic of Nigeria have a lot of wells to provide drinking water to curb the acute water shortages experienced by the inhabitants. Within these communities there are various improperly managed sanitation systems, including Ventilated Improved Pits (VIPs). Also the water table is quite high in the low-lying part of the area; Saltpond being a low-lying coastal community. Thus the possibility of the local ground water system being contaminated by bacteria as well as other microorganisms from the various pits cannot be overlooked.

Again, health records obtained from the Municipal Hospital showed that the communities experience periodic outbreaks of water-borne diseases like diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, etc. This occurs virtually every year (from researcher’s personal observation).

It is therefore important to investigate the possibility or otherwise of pollution of the water sourced from the wells. This will help ascertain whether or not the diseases reported at the Municipal Hospital are either directly or indirectly related to water sourced from these wells.

1.3 Objectives

The main objective of the study is to assess the quality of water from ASCOHT.

1.4 Specific Objectives

1.4.1 To determine the level of the pH, colour, turbidity, nitrates, ammonium, chloride, and conductivity, of water samples from selected wells.

1.4.2 To determine the microbial quality of water from the selected wells – faecal coliforms, E. coli

1.4.3 To assess the perception of users about the quality of the well water by the administration of interviews.

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THE IMPACT OF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ON COMMERCIAL PROPERTY VALUES. A CASE STUDY OF MAKURDI

2025-09-18T12:25:00.009+01:00

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effect of road infrastructure improvement on rental values of residential properties in Markurdi, Benue. Rental values of residential accommodation before and after the road infrastructure improvement were determined and compared. A sample of 50 properties was selected using stratified random sampling technique. The stated hypothesis was tested using the paired students „T‟ test. It was discovered that rental values before and after the road infrastructure improvement were weakly and positively correlated (r=0.940, P<0.001) and that there was no significant average difference in the rental value before and after road infrastructure development (t23= - 7.221, P<0.001). The study therefore suggests that the relative increase in rental values may be attributed to other economic factors such as inflation, increase in population, etc. It was therefore recommended among other things that governments at all levels should encourage real estate research and that the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers should play a leading role in pointing to the direction of such researches.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Infrastructure plays a key role in the wellbeing of developed and developing nations and its importance to economic growth and development cannot be underestimated or overlooked. It is one of the basic facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. It typically characterizes technical structures such as roads, bridges, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications, and so forth, and can be defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions. Infrastructural development influences the housing sector and it is one of the determinants of the value of property in the housing subsector. Housing represents one of the most basic needs of man and it has a profound impact on health, welfare and productivity of individuals. For housing to produce these impacts, it must be adequately provided with functional infrastructures. One of the veritable parameters and assessment indicator of status of any spatial, especially urban system is the state of infrastructure. The efficiency of any form of human activity system including an urban area largely depends on provision of efficient infrastructural facilities and services (Babarinde 1998). The significance as well as the quality and coverage of infrastructural facilities have a major impact on the standard of living, property value and economic growth. Its role in the proper functioning of an urban area cannot be over emphasized.

According to Fox (1994), infrastructures are those services derived from a set of public work traditionally provided by public sector to enhance the private sector production and allow for household consumption. Nubi (2002) describes infrastructure as the aggregate of all facilities that allow a city to function effectively.

Janet Rivers and Michael Heaney have connected infrastructure investment to all facets of economic development. This almost always includes an increase in property values, which is not a problem since the increase is always offset by increasing opportunities and incomes in the general vicinity. The closer a residential area is to new infrastructural projects, the higher the increase in its value. In addition, Rivers and Heaney also found that the reverse relationship is true: Failing infrastructural investment is closely related to falling property values. They go so far as to hold that decaying or neglected infrastructure is a major determinant of economic decay and recession.

In developed countries of the world where infrastructures are well developed and given top priority, Infrastructure has played a key role in promoting and sustaining rapid growth in all sectors of their economy including the housing-property subsector of these countries. Properly designed infrastructure can also make growth more inclusive by sharing its benefits with poorer groups and communities, especially by connecting remote areas and small and landlocked countries to major business centers.

Transportation and property are important in physical and economic development of towns and cities all over the world. Property and land values tend to increase in areas with expanding transportation networks, and increase less rapidly in areas without such improvements. Rapid and continued rise in housing and land prices are expected in cities with transportation improvements and rapid economic and population growth (Goldberg, 1970).

Access to major roads provides relative advantages consequent upon which commercial users locate to enjoy the advantages. Modern businesses, industries, trades and general activities depend on transport and transport infrastructure, with movement of goods and services from place to place becoming vital and inseparable aspects of global and urban economic survival. Developments of various transportation modes have become pivotal to physical and economic developments. Such modes include human porterage, railways, ropeways and cableways, pipelines, inland waterways, sea, air, and roads (Said and Shah, 2025).

According to Oyesiku (2002), urbanization in Nigeria has a long history in its growth and development. Extensive development being a feature of the 19th and 20th centuries, with concentration of economic and administrative decision-making in Benue, Ibadan, Kaduna, Jos, and Benue, and high degree of specialization and larger population associated with greater specialization of goods and services. Wyatt (1997) states that urban areas have tendency to develop at nodal points in transport network and places with good road network will possess relative advantage over locations having poor network. Urban locations with such relative advantage are found where different transport routes converge with high degree of compactness, connectivity, density, length and accessibility exhibited within the intra- and inter- urban road networks.

Makurdi is a typical example in the history of growth and development of cities in Nigeria. The city became capital of Benue State in 1976 with improved road networks developed to cater for increase in concentration of pedestrian and vehicular movements. Similarly, commercial activities like banking, retail/wholesale businesses, and professional services congregated to take advantage of nearness to seat of governance. Concentration of activities attracted consumers and ancillary service providers. This partly caused increase in demand for commercial space and its concomitant effects on commercial property values along developed roads in the metropolis.

The present position concerning commercial properties in Makurdi is that majority are located along developed roads that deliver much of the vehicular and pedestrian movements. There have been increases in rental values along the individual developed roads although not at equal rates. It is against this background that this research analyzed the developed roads, determined the levels of accessibility, connectivity, traffic density of the individual developed roads, examined the pattern of commercial property values and the relationship between the explanatory variables of the road network in Makurdi Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

The relationship between transportation and urban property values has been the focus of many studies (for example, Dewees, 1976; Damm et al, 1980; Wolf, 1992; Singh, 2005). Some of the earlier studies returned positive relationship between transport and property values while others showed negative relationship. For instance, in a study on the relationship between rail travel cost and residential property values, a replacement of streetcar with subway increased site rent at a location that is perpendicular to the facility within a one-third mile walk to the station (Dewees, 1976); and there was positive influence of permanent transportation improvements on land values (Wolf, 1992). It was established that there was statistically significant relationship between distance of a parcel of land to the nearest Metro station and land price (Damm, Lerner-Lam, and Young, 1980), while there was evidence that residential property prices decrease immediately around the transport investment or station value uplift through changes in land values (Singh, 2005).

Many of the aforementioned studies emphasized the effects of the factors on values of properties generally with little consideration given to road network pattern and its effects on values of commercial properties. Possible relationships between road networks, location attribute, demand and supply, and accessibility and commercial property values have therefore elicited the interest of the researcher in this direction. The relationship cannot be determined without due consideration given to the explanatory variables on one hand and commercial property values on the other. The use of roads leads to a study of urban areas in relation to land uses, especially commercial properties. It is against this background that this study was conceived.

Research Objectives

Research Aim

The aim of this study is to examine the effect of road infrastructure improvement on rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue from 2002 – 2017.

In order to achieve this aim this study intends to investigate the following:

1. To determine the rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue when the roads were bad between 2002 and 2009.

2. To determine the average rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue when the road situation improved between 2010 and 2017.

3. To compare the rental values of residential properties within the two periods and determine the rate of improvement (if any).

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions will be investigated by this work:

1. What is the rental value of residential properties in Markurdi Benue from 2002 – 2009 representing the period when road situation was bad?

2. What became the average rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue from 2010 – 2017 representing the period when the road situation improved?

3. How can the average rental values of residential properties in Markurdi road be compared within the two periods (2002 – 2009 and 2010 – 2017)?

4. HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION

The following null hypothesis was put forward for this study:

Ho: Road infrastructure improvement has no significant effect on rental values of residential properties in Markurdi Benue.

1.6 Justification and Rationale for the Research

It is trite amongst earlier studies on accessibility in relation to property values that profitability and utility are determined by accessibility. The greater the accessibility of a location the greater the comparative advantage, and the greater the comparative advantages the greater the demand for property at the location.

This study borrows techniques found useful in other fields like operational research, geography, transportation and urban planning to explain and analyze road network for purpose of determining the relative accessibility of each of the developed roads. It is believed that the techniques used in these fields can be extended to studies in estate management, thereby making cross-fertilization of research ideas across various fields possible. In this regard, this research has become relevant in determining the relationship between road infrastructure and values of commercial properties in Makurdi.

In addition, it is essential to establish a technique that may be useful for determining relative accessibility of locations in the network of developed roads. Even when relative advantages are determined, there is need to develop models that will be useful for predicting commercial property values in Nigeria. The model may become tool for professional Estate Surveyors and Valuers to change their practice of using intuition to determine relative accessibility of locations in a road network. Similarly, there is the need to predict the supply of, demand for, and fair market values of commercial properties by developers, Estate Surveyors and Valuers, and feasibility and viability appraisers in present day’s risks and uncertainty in property development. This has underscored the importance of this study.

A review of literature showed that studies on Nigerian intra-urban road network using the graph-theoretic concept to determine accessibility effects on commercial property values are scanty, available ones were on USA and U.K. This study will therefore contribute to empirical studies on intra-urban road network and its influence on commercial property values in Makurdi, Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study covers the major residential streets in Makurdi, Benue state. Commercial streets were not included because the study is on rental values of residential properties.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study focused on analysis of developed roads and commercial property values in Makurdi. It did not attempt to investigate the structural stability of the road infrastructure or assess the methods and accuracy of methods adopted by respondents in fixing the values of commercial properties in the study area. It simply analyzed accessibility, connectivity, road infrastructure, distance to most central place in the study area, demand and supply of commercial properties in relation to commercial property values in the study area. Graph theoretic technique was used to analyze the road infrastructure while opinions of Estate Surveyors and Valuers practicing in the study area were relied upon. The accuracy, or otherwise, of such opinions although not in doubt was not investigated.

Some challenges were encountered during the study. By virtue of the busy nature of Estate Surveying and Valuation practitioners and “carefulness” of occupiers of the sampled commercial properties, there was considerable reluctance on their parts to volunteer information. Some of the respondents, especially Estate Surveyors and Valuers, delayed in completing the questionnaires and it took personal influence of the researcher (as their colleague) and assistance of the Benue State Branch Chairman of the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers to obtain their eventual impressive responses. In addition, the researcher took time to allay the fears of Occupiers by educating them about the essence of the research, that it would in no way expose them to imposition of levies or charges or any liability to the Benue State Government.

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EVALUATION OF FACTORS MILITATING AGAINST RESIDENTIAL ACCOMMODATION SUPPLY IN URBAN AREA (A CASE STUDY OF MAKURDI)

2025-09-18T12:22:00.008+01:00

Abstract

Affordable housing is one of the most important economic indicators of a country. The shortage of affordable housing is not only limited to the city of Makurdi but affects the country as a whole. A major concern pertaining to affordable housing is that it affects mostly the less privileged people in the population who are in the low and middle income groups. The study focused on the shortage of the affordable housing supply in Makurdi Combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed to conduct the research. The quantitative aspect researched on how low and middle income groups are affected based on the numerical variables while quantitative approach focused on the in-depth understand on the opinions and perspectives leading to low housing affordability. The main targeted respondents were the low and middle income groups, housing supply institutions and commercial banks. This study used primary and secondary sources to identify major impediments towards the factors militating against residential accommodation supply in Makurdi. The main research instruments employed to collect information was the questionnaire and an interview guide with selected representatives from the sample. The main purpose of the study is to identify factors that limit supply of adequate and affordable housing in Makurdi, identify challenges and obstacles housing supply institutions and individuals face as a result of inflated housing prices. The study concluded that scarcity of serviced land and financial constraints are the main contributing factors to shortage of affordable housing. Research recommends comprehensive and enforceable housing policies, programmes and the related strategic actions to be taken to ensure development of an appropriate housing provision system. Furthermore, developing an appropriate law and regulations structure that governs factors militating against residential accommodation supply, its development, infrastructure and funding, use of cheaper construction materials and technologies can improve and increase the factors militating against residential accommodation supply in Makurdi.

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

Since Nigeria’s independence in 1990, shortage of affordable housing for low income earners has been seen as political issue and as one of the key challenges for the Nigerian Government and various Local Authorities (Kalili, Adongo, & Larson, 2008). According to the December 2015 First National Bank (FNB) Housing Index, the median house price for 2015 was N$800 000 (about US$5 6125), up from N$700 000 (US$49109.67) by a private developer in 2014. The annual median housing price for Nigeria has been increasing by a percentage of 14.29 percent per year. Hence the relative change from NS$640 000 (about US$44 900) in 2014 to NS$700 000 (about US$49 109) in 2015 (FNB, 2015).

Besides being influenced by poor land delivery, the price growth is also a result of increasing demand due to increase in the labour force. The potential introduction of new taxes, higher interest rates and higher inflation of basic goods which will impact consumers’ disposable income pose further downside risks to this sector (FNB Housing Index, 2015). Housing is a basic necessity to which we should all have access to ensure that Nigerian people are able to achieve a reasonable standard of living there must be adequate provision of and access to affordable and appropriate shelter. Factors militating against residential accommodation supply is one of the key challenges facing policy makers in Nigeria. By 2007, the country faced a backlog of 80,000 household’s entire need of housing. There are reasons to believe that this figure has increased since then as manifested in the growing number of informal settlements on the outskirts of most towns in the country (Mwilima, Filipus &Fleermuys, 2011). The National Housing Enterprise, a state-owned company mandated to provide housing solutions in order to alleviate the national housing need, faces a backlog which is estimated to be around 110 000 and growing at an annual rate of 3 700 units. The National Housing Enterprise waiting list has dramatically increased from 18 000 in 2013 to 76 800 in 2016 (Bank of Nigeria, 2015).

About 74 percent of Nigerian households cannot afford conventional housing as access to credit remains difficult. The “Getting Credit” section of the World Bank’s Doing Business 2016 report ranks Nigeria at 60 out of 189 countries. Low incomes and high costs for servicing of land have excluded many poor people from acquiring land and constructing their own houses. This is evident in that towards the end of 2015 the average price per square meter was N$472 (about US$33.30) for new property coming into the market.

The main factor contributing towards housing shortage is the inadequate housing supply which failed to keep up with growing demand over the years. The housing shortfall is further amplified by the prevailing high unemployment rates, rising house prices and the growing trend of urbanization in the country, amongst others (Mwilima, Fillipus & Fleermuys, 2011). The demand for housing has been rising at a fast pace, while supply has not been growing at the same rate. This situation has resulted in high house prices, raising the question whether these prolonged price increases will be sustainable and affordable over the long-run, the demand for housing has been rising at a fast pace, while supply has not been growing at the same rate (Mwilima, Fillipus & Fleermuys, 2011).

1.2 Statement of the problem

House prices increased by 29% year on year to bring the FNB House Price Index to 234.7 index points through June as house prices continue to increase in 2014 at a much faster pace than the long term trend over the past seven years. According to Kaira (2014) Nigeria ranks second in the world as the most expensive country in which to own a house. Makurdi in particular, has the second highest house price increase in the world after Dubai according to the Knight Frank Global House Index (Wallis, 2014). Due to its increasing population in Makurdi access to affordable housing is becoming increasingly difficult. There is currently a severe and immediate need for increase of resources to be able to supply affordable housing in Nigeria and these needs will continue to increase in the future. Affordable housing is a necessity in every area of Nigeria. Unfortunately, the need for this housing is not being met by majority of the Nigerians.

The factors militating against residential accommodation supply remains as one of the country’s fastest growing and most pervasive housing challenge. Thus study will be conducted in Makurdi with the general objective of assessing housing supply and its affordability with special reference to residential housing. Researcher will examine factors that have contributed to the shortage of affordable housing supply and why the majority of the Nigeria population are finding it difficult to purchase or own their own homes. The study will also investigate the challenges faced by the housing supply institutions that is preventing them from increasing the supply of affordable homes.

1.2 Main Objective

The main objective of the research is to assess the factors militating against residential accommodation supply in Nigeria focusing primarily on Makurdi. The study investigated the shortage of affordable housing in Makurdi and how this problem can be addressed to improve living standards for the low and middle income groups.

1.3 Research Questions

These objectives were addressed through answering the following research questions.

i. What factors have contributed towards the shortage of affordable housing in Makurdi?

ii. What are the key challenges associated with the supply of affordable housing in Makurdi?

iii. Is there synergy between policies governing the supply of housing and the government housing policies?

iv. What are the long term goals and strategies to overcome and improve housing affordability?

v. What challenges do low and middle income groups face to acquire affordable housing?

1.6 Significance of the study

This study provides information to the town's administrators that will facilitate the formulation of operational plans and strategies based on the existing realities in order to facilitate supplying of affordable housing to meet the needs of the majority low and middle income Nigerian people. The study will create awareness among housing supply agents especially for local governments and public housing agencies about socio-economic impact of the affordable housing for the affected groups. Research aims to stimulate an academic inquiry that will lead other researchers to expand the knowledge and insight into Housing affordability issues using the findings that will be presented herein, complemented by other existing body of knowledge as the basis.

1.7 Limitation of the study

The study is limited to Makurdi, leaving the other parts of Nigeria where there might be a similar or related scenarios. The size of the sample in this study will be inadequate for generalisation to population. Other limitations may include timing constraints whereby the research was expected to complete within a specific timeframe. Not all individuals agreed to be interviewed and others refused to disclose certain information.

1.8. Conclusion

The Chapter highlighted the different topics that will be addressed while investigating the factors that affect the factors militating against residential accommodation supply In Makurdi. The essence of investigating these factors is to aid the government and financial institutions in form of policy recommendations, to introduce various tools that would be investment friendly and encourage the banks to lend towards property acquisition at affordable and reasonable rates. The objectives of the study and research questions developed in this chapter, is to be used to aid research and draw logical conclusions. These conclusions will contribute to the process of developing better housing affordability measures that will more readily reflect the housing realities and needs of households of the low and middle income groups in Makurdi.

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AN EVALUATION OF THE ROLE OF SLUM SETTLEMENTS IN RESIDENTIAL ACCOMMODATION SUPPLY A CASE STUDY OF MAKURDI

2025-09-18T12:18:00.003+01:00

ABSTRACT

Urban degradation is caused principally by urbanization process, however, most of the environmental problems in Makurdi axis suburbs result largely from its unplanned land uses, swampy nature of built areas and weak development control. Other critical problems that bother minds also include lack of open space, poor management of flood channels and substandard housing. This paper discuss the possible intervention strategies in the regeneration effort of Makurdi slum area. The research method which is both narrative and statistically descriptive in nature enables the author engage in a detailed literature study of the chronological development of Makurdi axis with view to determining how the city came about the current level of degenerating infrastructural facilities. The study found that the principle of cooperative leadership by government at all levels is fundamental to making important difference in qualitative development controls of the study area. It however concluded that the duo role of the public and traditional power structure of the community leaders must be involved in the conception and implementation of Benue State environmental planning programmes.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Slums are home to the poorest of urban populations in Africa. The houses inhabited by slum dwellers are mostly decrepit, overcrowded, in neighborhoods that are prone to flooding and beset with poor sanitation and shortage of potable water. Slums are easily formed in areas experiencing rapid urbanization without commensurate increase in the provision and maintenance of housing and infrastructure. Slums have been conceptualized as a group of buildings or an area characterized by overcrowding, deterioration, insanitary conditions, or absence of basic and essential facilities like potable water, drainage system, schools, health facilities, recreational grounds, post office, among others. Slums generate spontaneously and are in some cases, a direct result of the prevalence of poverty experienced by the inhabitants of cities (Olotuah, 2006).

Slums, which are regarded as an element of urban decay, also result from congestion in overcrowded cities where poor immigrants seek to settle for just any available accommodation irrespective of quality. The overwhelming negatives notwithstanding, there are some positive aspects to slums. In recent years, some environmentalists and organizations such as the United Nations Population Fund suggested that despite the poor living conditions, slums are positive both environmentally and socially. Because slums are characterized by very high density of housing, its environmental impact is smaller than that of dispersed rural communities. Furthermore, the fertility rate of new slum dwellers is below the replacement rate; this mitigates dangers associated with overpopulation that results from manpower-intensive subsistence agriculture, and frees up arable land for the nature, or more efficient industrialized agriculture. Slum dwellers also appear to have vastly better opportunities for getting jobs, starting small businesses and climbing out of poverty than rural inhabitants (Akinyode, 1998). Nigeria is ranked as one of the countries with high slum prevalence. The proliferation of shanty dwellings, squatter settlements and slums in most of our cities in Nigeria including the Benue state which is the being focused on in this study.

However, it has been asserted that the presence of slum increase the rate of crime in the area thereby affecting the value of the residential property (Omole, 2010). The prevalence of slum in Nigeria has significantly affected the Residential Accommodation Supply in the affected areas. This value is determined by the prices of the residential property or by the value of rent per a period time that is collected on them. However, the researcher will find out the impact of Slum settlements the Residential Accommodation Supply in Nigeria.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The process of urbanization which means specific changes in the distribution and structure of population as well as in a size and character of a settlement, their network or system, has many sided relationships with slums formation. The rapid rate of urbanization witnessed in the last century has produced more slums in the major cities of the world, particularly in developing countries where thousands of rural people move into the major cities at large proportion. Presence have slum is believed to have been a major cause of organized crime in the society. The researcher will investigate the impact of Slum settlements the Residential Accommodation Supply in Nigeria.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The following are the objectives of this study:

1. To examine the impact of Slum settlements Residential Accommodation Supply in Makurdi.

2. To identify the causes of slum formation in Benue state.

3. To examine the relationship between slum formation and Residential Accommodation Supply

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What is the impact of Slum settlements Residential Accommodation Supply in Makurdi?

4. What are the causes of slum formation in Benue state?

5. What is the relationship between slum formation and Residential Accommodation Supply?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The following are the significance of this study:

This study will educate stakeholders in housing sector, urban and regional planning and estate management of the causes and characteristics of slum and its effect on the rent and price which are the determinant of the value of those residential properties.

This research will also serve as a resource base to other scholars and researchers interested in carrying out further research in this field subsequently, if applied, it will go to an extent to provide new explanation to the topic.

1.6 SCOPE/LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study on the impact of Slum settlements the Residential Accommodation Supply in Nigeria will cover the formation of slum in Benue state and its effect on house rent, land rent, land purchase, security etc.

LIMITATION OF STUDY

Financial constraint- Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).

Time constraint- The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.

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TRANSPORTATION AS A TOOL TO ENHANCE TOURIST MOVEMENT FOR LEISURE ACTIVITIES IN TOURISM INDUSTRY

2025-09-18T12:12:00.007+01:00

ABSTRACT

There is no gainsaying that road network connectivity, level of road accessibility and transport services developing nations are often poor and inadequate, yet, most of the cultural resources with which Nigeria is endowed are domiciled in the hinterlands. Developing these cultural resources into tourist attractions becomes problematic due to the abject condition of the link roads and lack of adequate means of transportation. This research is focused at investigating the transportation systems in Owerri municipal and the impact on tourism and leisure activities. Three communities were used for the study. The selection was based on the three senatorial zones in Imo State, and from the zones, the communities richer in cultural resources were chosen. Survey method was used to gather the primary data for which the questionnaire was the major instrument of research'. A total of 300 sets of questionnaire were administered to respondents in the three communities. In the findings, it was deduced that roads to the communities in Owerri are in a deplorable state coupled with lack of ready and comfortable means of transportation. All these have immensely affected tourist flow to the numerous cultural attractions in the area of study. It was also deduced that poor road condition was also responsible for the high cost of transportation. It was recommended that federal government should expunge the joint account policy between states and local governments so as to empower the later to handle their road construction and rehabilitation projects. A collaborative effort must exist between the host communities and their local governments as a condition for an uninterrupted development of their numerous cultural resources for tourism purposes.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Tourism is defined as the short-term movement of people from their usual place of residence (origin) to other places (destination) for the purpose of leisure and recreational activities without any intention of securing a permanent resident or job at the destination; Cooper and Boniface (2006). It is also seen as the science, art and business of attracting and transporting visitors, accommodating them and graciously catering for their needs and wants; Mentosh and Gupta (2008). Since the early 70s, tourism has grown to become one of the fastest growing economic sectors in the world, ranking only after petroleum and auto trades. Tourism today plays a significant role in the balance of payment of many countries both in the developed and developing worlds. Tourism therefore, brings huge economic and social benefits to many nations, especially those that carefully plan and manage their potential attractions or resources (UNTWO, 2010). It has become the world’s largest growing industry, statistics by the world Tourism organizations shows that there are no signs of this growth slowing down in the next Millennium. To benefit from this global trend, tourism is been adopted by governments as a vehicle for poverty alleviation, employment generation and wealth creation. It is also seen as a veritable tool for the realization of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

It is not in doubt that Nigeria is lavishly endowed with varieties of cultural resources which are mainly domiciled in the rural areas. The desire to witness cultural heritage like festivals, traditional architecture, monuments, arts and crafts, historic sites, shrines etc, has formed a major motivation for cultural tourism in recent times. Richards (2011) defined cultural tourism as the movement of persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with the intention to gather new information and experience to satisfy their cultural needs. It is a fact that all forms of tourism, world over cannot thrive in isolation from transport, which provides the link amid the dwelling and destination regions of tourists. Yet, because the cultural resources are domiciled mostly in the rural locations, the need for transport becomes even more important. In the view of tourism professionals, transportation is an integral part of tourism which serves as a means of tourists' displacement from origin to the destination and other surrounding attractions. Hence, Hall (1991) highlights that there is a strong positive correlation between transport development and tourism growth. This implies that improvement in transport has a direct impact on tourism. It was gathered from the historical development of tourism that the key technical transformation in the transportation system industry brought about by the industrial revolution, marked the beginning of tourism. During this period in history, massive modifications of transport system were recorded which gave rise to the exploration of new lands to satisfy cultural needs. Hobson and Uysal (1992:209) also testified that the major steps in the development of tourism have been linked with advancements in transport.

Prior to the decision to travel to any destination, certain transport needs must be fulfilled, including safety and easy access to tourist destinations. The ability to connect attractions and carry luggage comfortably, and at affordable cost must be certain. Collier (1994) in agreement to this assertion mentioned some of the tourist transport needs that must be fulfilled as:

• Transporting the tourist from the generating to the host area

• Transport between host destinations

• Transport within host destinations

The need for effective transport to cultural attractions is not limited to tourists alone. During festival celebrations, for instance, indigenes of the host communities residing in the urban cities and aboard visit home. Besides, some invited guests like friends, well-wishers and business associates contribute to the population of the crowd moving towards the host community. Also included in the number are the service providers who provide convenience and comfort to the tourists. On this note, Okoli and Igbojekwe (2014), maintained that the quality of the transportation system is an important aspect of the traveler's experience. In their own view, poor service, scheduling problems, and or long delays associated with transportation service could seriously affect a passenger's perception and lead to regrets about a trip. Tourists expect to be transported safely, quickly and comfortably at moderate costs to their destinations before a trip could be termed memorable (Nwankwo, 2005). Various countries in Asia have also considered improving tourists transportation using tour buses instead of road transport. In Hong Kong, most tourists use trains that are managed by specific organizations. But there are also special buses for tourists that are called tour buses. These buses are not managed by the government but they are owned by the government but they are designated for tourists only.

According to Howe and Bryceson (2000) tourists transportation has been a challenge in many African countries. Popular transport for tourists used to be road transport in most of African countries. But this started to change in 1980s where some organizations tour sites operated tour buses for tourists.

Most public tour sites in African countries have no tour buses. Tourists use public buses and other means of transport. These tourists are facing many challenges including arriving late to tour site and rough treatments from bus conductors. These challenges are not bothering tourists who use tour buses within same countries (ibd).

Tour buses are chosen because generally tour buses and other special buses for tourists are considered to be safer than other public buses. Considering how many tourists the buses carry and the distance they cover, deaths on the road are extremely rare. Tour buses in America have a rate of 0.2 deaths per 100 million miles traveled. The rate of deaths in other automobiles transport is eight times higher. Statistics provides a good way of comparing risks involved. In a period of 11 years, from 1994-2004, a total of 71 passengers on tour buses died in crashes. But in one year, 2004 alone, traffic accidents killed 31,693 people traveling in cars and light trucks in America (Forkenbrock, 2004).

In Nigeria, Imo state residents travel under difficult conditions from one part of the city to another. Available information shows that daily travel in the city is facing many difficulties. These difficulties include the split between residential areas and places of work or areas where people get services, expansion of urbanized area and deficient transport system. As a result of these factors, transport remains to be a critical need for city residents (Sliuzas, 2001).

Werlin (1999) explain that generally lack of adequate transport system, is potential to create complicated daily life by making access to various destinations and services difficulty for majority of people especially the poor. Privileged section of the population has access to good transport infrastructure but on the other hand, the low income population is facing poor urban road transportation.

Rural transport is considered as a vital component of the system of services necessary for the continuing existence of a dispersed settlement in less densely populated areas (Tolley and Turton 1995). More so, in most developing countries, the road is the principal mode available, while the rail and inland waterway transport generally play little or no role within rural areas. Considering the nature of cultural tourism, the location of cultural attractions leaves the travelers with no other choice than the road transport. Yet, the overall road network connectivity, level of road accessibility and transportation services is generally poor and inadequate. The situation is so pathetic that they are highly deprived of infrastructural facilities like smooth tarred roads, adequate drainage system, sufficient road networks and transportation means. The most problematic is the poor physical condition of the rural roads. It was alleged that even up till 1960, other parts of Africa excluding the Southern part have less than 5 percent of their roads tarred, with large proportion of their minor feeder roads still existing as tracks. The condition in the communities in Owerri is so bad that a good number of the rural roads can only be managed during the dry season, when the rains are over.

Governments at all levels have not demonstrated adequate effort in the repair and general maintenance of the roads, and this amounts to a domino effect on vehicle maintenance cost and transport fares (Adesanya, 1997). Adeniji (1983), further posits that this level of insensitivity could be as a result of the low volume of traffic and periodicity, as well as seasonality in demand for transport in rural areas. Furthermore, Aderamo and Magaji (2010) expressed some fears that the solution cannot be at sight so long as the local government remains underfunded. Under this situation, most rural roads remain unpaved, narrow, circuitously aligned, and with pot holes, thereby leaving them impassable until dry season reappears. According to Ifegbo (2021), majority of festivals in Igbo land take place during the raining season, when most of the rural roads are in their worst conditions. This has remained a challenge to the respective stakeholders

i.e. the government at all levels, tourism planners and the transport industry and until a remarkable improvement is made, tourism development will remain a dream.

Such inadequate and unreliable transport in Imo state is also experienced by tourists. The tourists also need transport every day to go to various tourists destinations and back. It is common in Imo state to see many tourists stranded at bus stands for long time waiting for transport. But there are other tourists who use special tour buses. This group may not be experiencing the same transport impact as their fellows who use public means (Nyirenda, 2012). This study examined the impact of peace transit on tourism and leisure activities in Imo state.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

Tourist attraction in Imo state is growing. According to Mjingo (2011), there are about 10,000 tourists in the city who need transport to go to tour site and travelling back home. But the safety of travelling for these tourists, most of them rely on the erratic road transport system, which is at stake most of the time. Mjingo (2011) also reports that Imo state has about 12 tourist sites.

But most of these tour sites have no proper transport arrangements for their tourists. University of Imo state (2008) observed that the tourists travel to various tour sites and back home with a lot of difficulty. When travelling from the outskirts of the city to their respective tour sites, tourists face the inconvenience of commuting unreliable road transport. This means that the future of transport system for tourists who use road transport system in Imo state is uncertain.

But on the other hand, University of Imo state (2008) argues that some road transport systems like peace transit have an orderly way of transporting both tourists and citizens within and out of the city, these public transits although expensive, provide safe and comfortable movement giving tourism a positive effect as the problem of transportation is reduced Those who use tour buses are mainly those attending private tour sites in the city. This group is privileged with less difficulty in travelling compared with their fellows who use road transport system. One would wonder what happened to tourists who face such transport challenges both personally and in their social activities. At the same time one would want to know what are the benefits enjoyed by tourists who use tour buses to travel over those who use road transport system. This study examined the impact of road transport system on the tourism development of primary tourists in Imo state.

1.3 Research Objectives

1.3.1 General Research Objective

The general objective of the study was to assess the transportation system in Owerri and the impact on tourism and leisure activities in Imo state.

1.3.2 Specific Research Objectives

Specific objectives of the study were as follows:

1. To assess the current system of road transport used by tourists in Owerri Municipal.

2. To assess the impact of transportation on tourism in Imo state.

3. To examine coping strategies that are used by tourists to deal with challenging road transport system in Imo state.

1.4 Research Questions

1.4.1 General Research Question

What are the transportation system in Owerri municipal and it’s impact on tourism and leisure activities in Imo state?

1.4.2 Specific Research Questions

1. What is the current system of road transport used by tourists in Owerri Municipal?

2. What is the impact of transportation on tourism in Imo state?

3. What are the coping strategies that are used by tourists to deal with challenging road transport system in Imo state?

1.5 Significance of the Research

The study contributes towards the on-going discussions and initiatives taken by various stakeholders towards providing reliable transport to tourists. The study also adds on information about the impact of poor transport system on tourism.

peace transit owners will use the available information to up their management of their transport systems, passenger treatment and proper management of their vehicles.

Tourism organizers in Ebony will have a second look into the transport sector as a major factor in setting up a tourist event, as it will involve transporting tourists around

This study provides information on the impact of those challenges on tourists‟ tourism development especially in Imo state.

1.6 Scope of the Study

In order to understand the impact of peace transit on tourism and leisure activities of tourists in Imo state, the study assessed type of challenges faced by tourists and their impact on the tourism. Peace transit was used as the case study

1.7 Organization of the Study

The study has five chapters that present introduction and background of the research in chapter one, literature review of ideas and arguments from various authors related to the subject in chapter two, followed by chapter three that discussed research methodology that was followed on the research work. Chapter four presents study findings and analysis of the findings. Chapter five presents summary conclusions and recommendations.

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THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON EARLY CHILDHOOD LEARNING OUTCOMES AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS IN MUSHIN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, LAGOS, NIGERIA

2025-09-18T12:06:00.009+01:00

ABSTRACT

The main purpose of this study was to determine the influence of school environmental factors on the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area Homabay state, Nigeria. School environmental factors refer to those aspects within the school surrounding that may influence the process of teaching and learning. The study sought to fulfill the following objectives: to examine the effect of physical facilities on the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes; to assess how sufficiency of instructional materials can promote the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes; to explore how class size promotes Early Childhood Learning Outcomes and to determine how school location affects the process of teaching-learning in public primary schools. The study was guided by the Systems Theory of organizations. The study adopted descriptive survey design. Questionnaires were used to gather information from teachers and head teachers while focus group discussion guide was used with the pupils. The findings of the study revealed that schools have inadequate physical facilities, with some being totally unavailable. Instructional materials are generally insufficient. Majority of the schools had large classes though most teachers prefer small classes. Lastly the teachers prefer working in accessible schools with proximity to adequate social facilities and infrastructure. The study concluded that inadequacy of physical facilities in schools has been found to influence Early Childhood Learning Outcomes. In addition, there is general insufficiency of instructional materials in schools has also been found to greatly influence the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes. The size of class has been found to greatly influence the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes small classes are mostly preferred by most teachers and even pupils yet they have large classes. On school location, the schools in the rural areas are least preferred. Non-cosmopolitanism has also greatly affected the rural schools as the communities still have influence in the administration and operations of the schools.

The study recommended that to improve Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in the division, school heads should strive to provide physical facilities and instructional materials in schools. Large classes should be broken into two or more streams to make them manageable. Parents and communities living around the school should be sensitized on the importance of supporting school programs and be encouraged to organize fundraisers to put up physical facilities and procure instructional materials in schools. They should also be encouraged to buy revision books for their children. Further research may be done on influence of school environment on WAEC performance in public primary schools, influence of school motto and other school symbols on academic performance and how teacher characteristics influences pupils academic performance.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

It is universally accepted, that education enables individuals to contribute to the development and improvement in the quality of life for themselves, their communities and the nation as a whole. Primary school is no doubt the foundation of education and has prominently been regarded as a fundamental human right. It is an essential component of human capital and it plays an important role in economic growth and development of a country. Primary education, therefore, remains an important area that should be carefully managed.

A study conducted by Kitetu and Sunderland (2000) at the Lancaster University found out that five or more years of a farmer’s primary education led to increased farm productivity, reduced size of farm labour and increased use of yield augmenting inputs. This means that by acquiring primary education one can increase one’s earnings (Kitetu, 1998).

The school environment refers to factors within the school that influence the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes. The school environment includes classrooms, library, technical workshops, teachers’ quality, teaching methods, peers, among others variables that can affect the teaching–learning process (Ajayi 2001). The extent to which pupils learn could be enhanced depending on what the school environment provides to the learners and the teacher.

It is believed that a well planned school will gear up expected outcomes of education that will facilitate good social political and economic emancipation, effective Early Childhood Learning Outcomes and academic performance of pupils. Relating this study to international occurrences are the assertions of Williams, Persaud and Turner (2008) quoting Marsden (2005) which reported that safe and orderly classroom environment, school facilities were significantly related to students academic achievement in schools.

In developed countries like the United Kingdom and the Unites States of America, teaching and learning may not be affected by similar challenges as in the developing countries. As the developing countries talk of awareness and wastage due to illiteracy of the parents, the developed countries have concentrated in funding their education without fear of any wastage or poor enrolment (MOEST: Report on Sector Review and Development, 2003).

In New York, the government has put up measures to ensure all public primary schools have all the required physical facilities, instructional materials among others variables that may lead to effective Early Childhood Learning Outcomes. Instructional materials are a major component in the process of teaching and learning and textbooks are often the most cost effective means of improving academic achievement and increasing the efficiency of schools (Psachropoulous & Woodhall, 1995).

In the developing countries, poor learning environments have always been identified as key factors that lead to poor performance in public primary schools (UNICEF, 2003). This is due to overstretching of the available resources due to increased enrolment. In Uganda, physical characteristics of the school have a variety of effects on the teachers, pupils and the learning process. Poor lighting, noise, high levels of carbon dioxide in classrooms and inconsistent temperatures make Early Childhood Learning Outcomes difficult. Poor maintenance and ineffective ventilation systems lead to poor health among the pupils and higher absentee rates among pupils (Frazier, 2002 Lyons, 2001and Ostendorf, 2001).

Beyond the direct effects that poor facilities have on pupils’ ability to learn, the combination of poor facilities which creates uncomfortable and uninviting workplace for the teachers combined with frustrating behaviour by the pupil including poor concentration also have an effect on the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes. The situation is not any different here in Nigeria where several schools suffer due to lack of or inadequacy of physical facilities and instructional materials (UNICEF, 2003). Unless schools are adequately provided with physical facilities and instructional materials, effective teaching and learning may not take place.

Class size has also been an issue that affects the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in most schools in the developing countries. In Nigeria, since the inception of Free Primary Education (FPE), there has been increased enrolment which leads to overcrowding in classrooms making the work of the teacher difficult since he/she cannot easily move around in the classroom (Wabuoba, 2011) quoted in Chuma (2012)

The school administration is a crucial factor in the success of a school. The head teacher should be in a position to ensure that all factors within the school that make the school environment favourable for Early Childhood Learning Outcomes be put in place to ensure quality standards are maintained. The Education Act of 1968 stipulates that the head teacher is responsible for overall management, control and maintenance of standards in the schools and is accountable for all that happens in the school. He is charged with the duty of planning, organizing, staffing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting (Okumbe, 2001) The head teacher is the seen as the first supervisor and therefore should always ensure that effective teaching-learning is taking place in the school. Early Childhood Learning Outcomes can be measured through assessment that is done to pupils using continuous assessment tests (CATS), standardized examination like the sub-county MOCK and the Nigeria Certificate of Primary Education (WAEC).

In Mushin Local Government Area school environmental factors such as availability of instructional materials, availability of physical facilities, class size and school location are factors within the school that may affect the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in Lagos state. Effective Early Childhood Learning Outcomes may not take place when rate of repetition, drop out and absenteeism seems to be high in the division and this affects performance of learners.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The Government of Nigeria (GOK) commitment to education is noted from Sessional paper no.1of 2005 which guarantees every learner the right to quality and relevant education. The government has invested in education especially in public primary schools through the introduction of Free Primary Education (FPE). The country’s provision of Free Primary Education is an effort by the GOK to increase access and retention of pupils in schools.

The development of Nigeria Education Sector Support Programs (KESSP) is based on the rationale of the overall policy goal of achieving Education For All (EFA) and the Government’s commitment to the attainment of Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as stipulated in Basic Education Act of 2013.

Despite efforts made by the GOK to ensure each child attends school by providing Free Primary Education, there are pupils who still fail to attend school on a regular basis (AEO, Mushin Local Government Area, 2012). Effective Early Childhood Learning Outcomes may not be guaranteed when the rate of absenteeism, repetition and dropouts is high in the division. If Early Childhood Learning Outcomes is not improved in Mushin Local Government Area, then the division will lag behind both in social and economic development in the state.

Anyango (2012) found that teachers’ attitudes, adequacy of teaching- learning resources and girls’ attitude towards education led to poor performance in WAEC among girls in Mushin Local Government Area. Opudo (2012) found that head teachers’ style of management influence the performance of pupils in Lagos state. However, no study known to the researcher has been conducted in Mushin Local Government Area on how the school environment can influence the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes. The researcher intended to find out if there is a relationship between school environmental factors and the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes and make recommendations on how to improve them to ensure quality standards are maintained.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of school environmental factors on the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area, Lagos state.

1.4 Objectives of the study

This study was guided by the following objectives.

1. To examine the effect of physical facilities on the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area, Lagos state.

2. To assess how sufficiency of instructional materials can promote the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area, Lagos state.

3. To establish how class size promotes Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area, Lagos state.

4. To determine how school location affects the process of teaching- learning in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area, Lagos state.

1.5 Research questions

The study sought to answer the following research questions;

1. To what extent do physical facilities affect the process of teaching and learning in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area, Lagos state?

2. How does sufficiency of instructional materials promote the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area, Lagos state?

3. How does class size promote Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area, Lagos state?

4. To what extent does school location affect the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes in public primary schools in Mushin Local Government Area Lagos state?

1.6 Significance of the study

It is hoped that the findings of the study may help school administrators reflect upon various factors that influence the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes. In so doing, they could investigate the possibility of introducing those factors to their schools which may consequently lead to reducing absenteeism, dropouts and repetition and consequently effective Early Childhood Learning Outcomes. These findings may also help the government through the Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MOEST) to provide more funds for schools through the FPE kitty for instructional materials and repair and maintenance of the available physical facilities, thus imprsoving the Early Childhood Learning Outcomes. Parents may also use findings from this study to help improve the school facilities by organizing for fundraisers for instance to construct a classroom, laboratory, library among other facilities. Policy makers would use the findings to help them make decisions in developing strategies towards improvement of academic standards. Future researchers would use the study in identifying priority areas and gaps on which to carry more research about public primary schools.

1.7 Limitations of the study

According to Best and Khan (1993) limitations are conditions beyond the ability of the researcher that may place restriction on the conclusions of the study and their application to other situations. The first limitation was on the part of obtaining information from the pupils where some were not willing to give information regarding their behaviour for fear of victimization by their teachers. Efforts were made to assure them of confidentiality on their identities. The other limitation was on the part of the researcher to carry out the research in the whole of Mushin Local Government Area as the topic suggests. The researcher carried out the research in sampled schools.

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BREAKFAST, FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERN AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF STUDENT ATTENDING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOL IN OGBOMOSHO

2025-09-18T12:00:00.007+01:00

ABSTRACT

Most adolescents skip breakfast despite its advantages in providing energy and nutrient intake and contributing to high cognition and academic performance. Research on breakfast consumption among adolescents has solely focused on students in high income countries but information is scanty among in-school adolescents in low income countries like Nigeria. Therefore, this study investigated the pattern of breakfast consumption and nutritional status among in- school adolescents in secondary schools in Ogbomosho Local Government Area, Oyo State. Nigeria.

The study design was a descriptive cross-sectional survey and multistage random sampling was used to select 299 students from 13 registered secondary schools (6 public and 7 private schools) in Ogbomosho. The study was conducted using a pretested semi-structured self-administered questionnaire which contained 8-point knowledge scale, 11-point perception scale, 24-point breakfast consumption pattern scale, questions relating to factors influencing breakfast consumption pattern and nutritional status using Body Mass Index was used for data collection. Knowledge scores 0-4 and >4 were classified as poor and good respectively, perception scores 0-5 and >5 were classified as poor and good respectively, breakfast consumption pattern scores 0-12 and >12 were classified as unhealthy and healthy breakfast consumption pattern respectively while nutritional status was classified using the World Health Organisation classification (underweight: <18.50, normal: 18.50-24.99, overweight: >=25.00 and obese: >=30.00. The data were cleaned, coded and analysed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics such as Chi square at p<0.05.

Results indicated that majority (32.8%) of the respondents were aged 15 years and 36.5% consumed breakfast daily. Nearly half 48.8% reportedly consumed ready-to-eat cereals for breakfast daily and 11.7% eat cooked noodles. Majority (93.6%) of those that consumed breakfast did so to boost their academic performance. A higher proportion of all respondents (63.5%) had infrequent breakfast consumption. Waking up late (51.2%), lack of appetite (39.8%) desire to lose weight (46.8%) and busy schedule (lack of time) (38.5%) were major reasons attributed for skipping breakfast. Two thirds (66.6%) and slightly above half (52.8%) of the respondents had good knowledge and good perception of the health benefits of breakfast consumption respectively. Overall nutritional status of the respondents indicated underweight (17.7%), overweight (30.4%), obese (1.7%) and normal weight (50.2%). Respondents who reportedly consumed healthy breakfast showed better nutritional status as 38.8% had normal weight compared with 11.4% of those that consumed unhealthy breakfast. Statistical significant (P< 0.001) relationship exists between breakfast consumption pattern and nutritional status. More than half (57.8%) of the respondents recommended that school breakfast programme should be organized by schools, benefits and negative health effects associated with consuming and skipping breakfast to encourage breakfast consumption practices.

There is a knowledge-practice gap in breakfast consumption. Parents and other stakeholders should encourage nutritious breakfast consumption among adolescents in secondary school setting to meet their daily dietary allowance.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Breakfast is defined as the first meal that is taken after rising from a nights sleep, most often eaten in the morning before undertaking the days work, typically no later than 10am (Giovannini, Verduci, Scaglioni, Salvatici, Bonza, Riva and Agostoni, 2018) which keeps an individual alert and keep active to work for several hours in a day before lunch break (Arora, Nazar, Gupta, Perry, Reddy and Stigler, 2012; Mathys, Henauw, Bellemans, Maeyer and Backer, 2017 and Reeves, Halsey, McMeel and Huber, 2013). It serves as part of a healthy diet which provides approximately 20% of daily energy requirements (British Dietetic Association, 2010) and has consistently been linked with positive health benefits. Breakfast meal is known to provide key macronutrients and micronutrients in the diet, including B-vitamins, iron and calcium (Ruxton and Kirk, 2023; Chitra and Reddy, 2017; Williams, 2017).

This has been shown in the observation that the prevalence of inadequate nutrient intake is lower among adolescents who consume breakfast with those who skip breakfast (Hallstrom, Labayen, Ruiz, Patterson, Vereecken, and Breidenassel, 2013; Hoyland, McWilliams, Duff and Walton, 2012; Ruxton, Kirk, Belton and Holmes, 2023 and Nicklas, Bao, Webber and Berenson, 2023).

Breakfast consumption has been associated with adolescents’ mental and physical health (O’Sullivan, Robinson, Kendall, Miller, Jacoby, Silburn and Oddy, 2013; Pearson, Biddle, and Gorely, 2019), increase ability to concentrate at school due to its effect on blood glucose level thereby enhancing cognition and learning (Bellisle, 2014; Huda and Ruzita, 2011; Obbagy, Patricia and Eve, 2011), reduced risk of developing chronic diseases (World Health Organization, 2013), healthy body mass index and reduced likelihood of obesity development (De la Hunty and Ashwell, 2017; Szajewska and Ruszczynski, 2010), it may also be protective of weight gain over time (Ask, Hernes, Aarek, Johannessen, Haugen, 2016; Albertson, Franko, Thompson, Eldridge, Holschuh, Affenito, Bauserman and Striegel-Moore, 2017).

Skipping of breakfast tends to increase with age after childhood and appears to be most frequent in adolescents (Barton, Eldridge, Thompson, Affenito, Striegel-Moore, Franko, Albertson and Crockett, 2015).

Skipping breakfast is becoming prominent particularly among adolescent girls in secondary schools ((Arora et al., 2012 and Hoyland et al., 2012). Several studies attributed this phenomenon to lower socio economic status, food deprivation, long use of cell-phones and other electronic devices especially at night (Burghardt and Devaney, 2023; Hoyland et al.,2012; Pereira, Erickson, McKee, Schrankler, Raatz, Lytle and Pellegrini, 2011 and Utter, Scragg, Mhurchu and Schaaf, 2017). Adolescents and children are still dependents and they need adequate attention and care in order for them to be able to develop meals and food habits that are healthy and will promote good nutritional status (Lazzeri, Pammolli, Azzolini, Meoni, Simi, Wet and Giacchi, 2013; Nanney, Olaleye, Wang, Motyka and Klund-Schubert, 2011; Story, Pearce, Ashfield-Watt, Wood, Baines and Nelson, 2011 and Wate, Snowdon, Millar, Nichols, Mavoa, Goundar and Swinburn, 2013). People who skip breakfast are more likely to have difficulty concentrating by mid-morning and to experience space in intellectual performance (Keski- Rahkonen, Kaprio, Rissanen, Virkkunen and Rose, 2013 and Nicklas et al., 2014) as well as low physical activity levels (Sandercock, Voss and Dye, 2010). The practice of skipping breakfast may aid the consumption of snacks that are high in fat, salt and sugar (Resnicow, 2023; Berge,

Wall, Larson, Loth, and Neumark-Sztainer, 2013; Feeley and Norris, 2014 and Rodrigues, Pereira, Cunha,Sichieri, Ferreire, Vilela and Goncalves-Silva, 2012) and predisposes them to obesity. Skipping breakfast and Unhealthy food consumption may lead to micro nutrient deficiency and poor nutritional status (Acham, Kikafunda, Malde, Oldewage-Theron and Egal, 2012; Hallstrom et al; 2013 and Pereira et al., 2011). Breakfast skipping in adolescents has also been linked with other unhealthy behaviours, such as frequent alcohol intake, infrequent exercise, smoking (Keski-Rahkonen, Kaprio, Rissanen, Virkkunen, and Rose, 2013).

Majority of the adolescents skip breakfast due to different reasons such as not liking the food served at breakfast, not being hungry in the morning, being on a diet to lose weight, insufficient time to eat, insufficient time to cook, lack of perceived parental emphasis on breakfast, lack of time, poverty, individual choice, not feeling good and loss of appetite (Rampersaud, Pereira, Girard, Adams and Metzl, 2015). Also, unlike children in primary schools, it is believed that most parents of in-school adolescents have lesser control over what they eat. This is because at this stage, less attention is paid to them as it is believed they can take care of themselves. What majority of them eat is largely determined by peer influence, school environment including what is available to them in the school premises or what is provided by the school canteen.

The main problem however arises when the nutritive value of the food, the hygienic condition under which it has been prepared and the portion size of food being taken are compromised which is not certain and unclear among adolescents in our setting. Malnutrition is therefore, a known major contributor to the total global disease burden and the possibility of these adolescents becoming malnourished is very high (Timlin and Pereira, 2018). The students therefore, needs to be educated and reinforced on healthy eating behaviour, healthy choice of food (Hu, Manson, Stampfer, Colditz, Liu, Solomon and Willett, 2011; Sobngwi, Mbanya,

Unwin, Kengne, Fezeu, Minkoulou, Aspray and Alberti, 2012; Key, Schatzkin, Willett, Allen, Spencer and Travis, 2014; Lakka and Bouchard, 2015; Lindstrom, Peltonen and Tuomilehto, 2015) and importance of adequate nutrients intake. Though, the association between breakfast pattern and Nutritional status among University students are widely studied, few or no research has been conducted among in-school adolescents in Nigeria.

Therefore, this study aim to investigate the breakfast consumption pattern and nutritional status among in-school secondary school adolescents Ogbomosho Local Government Area, Oyo state.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Breakfast consumption during adolescence is very important for physical growth, psychosocial development, cognitive performance, and prevention of diet-related chronic diseases. Research on breakfast consumption among adolescents has solely been focused on high income countries rather than the patterns of breakfast consumption, its perceived health benefits and nutritional status among in-school adolescent in Low income countries like Nigeria. Irrespective of large number of literature linking breakfast consumption with a generally healthy lifestyle (Ruxton and Kirk, 2023; De la Hunty and Ashwell, 2017), limited information exists that directly relates breakfast consumption to measures of nutritional status and healthy lifestyles among adolescents in Low income countries.

High levels of meal skipping particularly breakfast skipping, has been reported among adolescents worldwide (O’Dea and Caputi, 2011 and Samuelson, 2010). Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2012 reported that 13-14% of children aged 6 to 11 and 30-31% aged 12-19 are skipping breakfast on any given day (U.S Department of Agriculture).

Skipping of breakfast tends to increase with age after childhood and appears to be most frequent in adolescents (Barton et al., 2015). During the adolescents stage, it has been observed that most parents of in-school adolescents have lesser control over what they eat. This is because at this stage, less attention is paid to them as it is believed they can take care of themselves. What majority of them eat is largely determined by peer influence, school environment including what is available to them in the school premises or what is provided by the school canteen and lack of knowledge of healthy food choices may negatively affect nutritional status and eating habits (Gan, Mohd, Zalilah and Hazizi, 2011). The main problem however arises when the nutritive value of the food, the hygienic condition under which it has been prepared and the portion size of food being taken are compromised which is not certain and unclear among adolescents in our setting. Malnutrition is therefore, a known major contributor to the total global disease burden and the possibility of these adolescents becoming malnourished is very high (Dubois, 2015 and Matthys, 2016).

The consequences of poor nutritional status at the early stage of life can result to depression, lack of self esteem, unconsciousness, anxiety and in extreme condition a premature death among school childfren and adolescents (Acham et al., 2012; Arora et al., 2012; Bhurtun and Jeewon, 2013; Hoyland et al.,2012; Mathys et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2011 and Utter et al., 2017)

Many research findings on adolescents in secondary schools has reported low fruits and vegetables consumption, increasing snacks and soda drinks consumption, these were attributed to food environments such as inability of parents to eat breakfast with their children and food transition that most less developed countries like Nigeria are currently experiencing (Berge et al., 2013; Feeley and Norris, 2014; Fieischhacker, Evenson, Rodriguez and Ammerman, 2011; Fulkerson, Farbakhsh, Lytle, Hearst, Dengel, Pasch and Kubik, 2011; Giskes, Van Lenthe, Avendano-Pabon and Brug, 2011; Popkin, 2011 and Rodrigues et al., 2012).

The study conducted among adolescents in public secondary schools in Kwara state showed that 23% skipped breakfast (Lateef et al., 2016), 14.1% of adolescents skipped breakfast in a study conducted by Omuemu and Oko-Oboh, (2015). Adolescents who skipped breakfast are reported to have higher daily intakes of fat, cholesterol, and energy, and lower intakes of fiber, vitamins, and minerals in comparison to breakfast eaters, thereby increasing the likelihood of gastrointestinal disease later in life (Timlin and Pereira, 2017).

Skipping breakfast has been linked with adverse effects on cognitive function (including memory), academic performance, psychosocial function, and mood in children and young people (Rampersaud et al., 2015). Reduced breakfast energy intake is associated with higher total daily energy intake (Schusdziarra, Hausmann, Wittke, Mittermeier, Kellner, Naumann, Wagenpfeil and Erdmann, 2011) and when breakfast is skipped it can be difficult to properly compensate for it later in the day.

High prevalence of Obesity and malnutrition is common among adolescents who skip breakfast compare to those who consume breakfast (Keski-Rahkonen et al., 2013; Moy, Johari, Ismail, Mahad, Tie and Wan Ismail, 2019). Research has linked the consumption of breakfast with adolescents mental and physical health (O’Sullivan, Robinson, Kendall, Miller, Jacoby, Silburn and Oddy, 2018; Pearson et al., 2019).

1.3 Justification

It is necessary to promote and encourage a healthy eating breakfast pattern in adolescents. This study aims to investigate the breakfast consumption pattern (Behaviours, Beliefs, Motivations, and Personal and Environmental Influences) and nutritional status among in-school adolescents Ogbomosho Local Government Area, Oyo state. Providing information on nutrition and the eating habits of adolescents is important in order to identify risky and unhealthy behaviour in this age group and advocate to parents and care givers to ensure the provision of breakfast for their school adolescents.

Moreover such information will guide educational ministries to develop new policy frame work or adjust the existing framework to meet the current food and health situations so as to bring about positive changes in breakfast consumption and to reduce the occurrence and development of chronic Non communicable diseases later in life. Conducting this study will also provide answers to the study questions below.

1.4. Research Questions

a. What is the level of respondents knowledge on breakfast consumption and its perceived health benefits?

b. What is the perception of respondents on breakfast consumption and its health benefits?

c. What are the breakfast consumption patterns among the respondents?

d. What are the factors influencing breakfast consumption pattern among the respondents?

e. What is the nutritional status using Body Mass Index (BMI) among the respondents?

1.5. Broad Objective

To investigate the breakfast consumption pattern and nutritional status among in-school adolescents in Ogbomosho Local Government Area, Oyo state.

1.6. Specific Objectives

a. To assess the level of knowledge of the respondents on breakfast consumption and its perceived health benefits.

b. To explore the perception of respondents on breakfast consumption and its health benefits

c. To determine breakfast consumption pattern among the respondents.

d. To identify factors influencing breakfast consumption pattern among the respondents.

e. To determine the nutritional status using Body Mass Index (BMI) among the respondents.

1.7. Research Hypotheses

a. There is no significant relationship between breakfast consumption pattern and nutritional status among the respondent.

b. There is no significant relationship between the level of knowledge of the perceived health benefits of breakfast consumption and pattern of breakfast consumption among respondents.

c. There is no significant relationship between breakfast consumption pattern and family structure of respondents.

d. There is no significant relationship between breakfast consumption pattern and gender of respondents.

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AN ASSIGNMENT OF THE ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKERS IN HOSPITAL OPERATION

2025-09-18T11:55:00.007+01:00

ABSTRACT

Most hospitals in Nigeria lack to look the patient with multifaceted perspective. Social worker provides services to meet the needs of individuals, communities and society. Therefore, the main objective of this research was to assess and explore the Importance of social workers in the Yaba Mental Health Hospital (YABALEFT). Qualitative research approach particularly a case study research design was used. A total of 355 participants were selected from office of which five social workers and ten from the staff members by using purposive sampling. In-depth interview with the social workers and other informants and observation were used to collect data for the study. The data were analyzed by triangulation technique, to create a meaning from qualitatively generated data.

The findings of the study shows that, the social workers of the hospital worked at varied level in line with the standards stated on the NASW Standards for Social Work Practice in Health Care setting (2014). Concerning their main importance of social worker in the center, the social worker provided both stated in their job description and outside their job description. However, the study identified that there is a limitation on the presence of an organized and scientifically based job description. According to one of the major findings of this particular study, social workers in the mental health hospital faced various challenges. Most of the challenges were related to the lack of awareness about social workers importance, office problem and lack of office facilities. Moreover, the social workers use different mechanisms to overcome those challenges such creating awareness and develop rapport with the staff. The implication of the research aim at the implication of applying the main standards of social work practices in the health care settings in the hospitals throughout the country effectively and consistently. The study recommends that the rehab center should give attention for the staff of social workers and their activities.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Mental ill-health refers to mental health problems, symptoms and disorders including mental health strain and symptoms related permanent and temporary stress. Mental health is crucial to the overall all well beings of individuals and societies. Relative poverty, low education and inequality in the country associated with an increased risk of mental health problems. Mental, neurological and substance use disorders are also linked with many mental disorders related problems (WHO, 2004).

According to WHO, mental and neurological disorders account for 13% of the total Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) lost due to all diseases and injuries in the world. By the year 2020 neuropsychiatric conditions will account for 15% of disability worldwide, with unipolar depression alone accounting for 5.7% of DALYs. Thus, there is a need for prevention and promotion of mental health at the level of policy, legislation and resources allocation. Over half centuries World Health Organization (WHO, 2004) defines Health as “a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” Besides, Mental health defined as „a state of well-being in which the individual understands his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community (WHO, 2004,p.79).

The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerments and liberation of people to enhance wellbeing utilizing theories of human behavior and social systems, social work intervene at the points where people interact with their environment principles of human rights and justice are fundamental to social work (IFSW ,2001). This skilled activity shows how social work skills and interventions can be used in practice to enhance our effectiveness and helps bring about positive outcomes from human being (IFSW, 2001).

Mental health is the capacity of the individual, the group and the environment to interact with one another in ways that promote subjective well-being, the optimal development and use of mental abilities (cognitive, affective and relational), the achievement of individual and collective goals consistent with justice and the attainment and preservation of conditions of fundamental equality (IFSW 2001). Moreover, Mental Health consists of the following themes which includes psychological and social harmony and integration; quality of life and general well-being; selfactualization and growth; effective personal adaptation; and the mutual influences of the individual, the group and the environment (WHO, 2003). Mental illness is one of the most disturbing illnesses that anyone could get in their lifetime. Collective health condition does not solely rely on one‟s physical, emotional, and spiritual health but also on their mental health. A mental disorder or mental illness is a change in an individual‟s way of thinking and feeling that impedes their ability to perform their daily activities, cognitive, emotions or behavior (IFSW, 2001).

The importance of social work are consistent with the goals of the professions of social work and include helping patients problem solve and cope with life stressors; linking individuals with resources, services, and opportunities; promoting effective and humane service systems; and developing and improving social policy (Gambrills,1999, p.27).

One of the key importance that social workers serve in an inpatient rehabilitation setting is as a patient advocate. The importance of helping the patient understand and adjust to hospital procedures, understand medical plans, and assisting the patient‟s family with financial planning is crucial.

The social worker‟s role as an advocate also includes maintaining open lines of communication between the patient, family, and other members of the health care team. He or she also will learn each family‟s dynamics while understanding its strengths – and encouraging the use of these strengths (IFSW 2001). In addition to advocacy work, social workers also help people solve problems in their daily lives. They may assist those who are adopting a child, fighting an illness, or facing an addiction. They help protect abused or neglected children, deal with behavioral problems in schools, and help hospice patients adjust (Mphelane, 2006;)

The development of mental health services and service provision centers goes in opposite to developed counties for developing countries. Nigeria is also the multicultural state with the large number of population in Africa, but it has very small numbers of social workers, in hospitals and hospitals, social workers help patients to become familiar with the hospital environment, cope with the challenges they face, and facilitate the whole treatment process and contribute to their well-being. This shows that the care social workers and the hospital institution provides to patients is multifaceted (Hiwot, 2014).

Social workers are also essential members of interdisciplinary hospital teams. Working in concert with doctors, nurses, and allied health professionals, social workers sensitize other health care providers to the social and emotional aspects of a patient‟s illness (Alemayehu N. 2009 p.23). The importance of social workers in hospitals are broad ones. However, Mental illnesses have given little attention among the scholars and the working centers. Hospital social workers use case management skills to help patients and their families address and resolve the social, financial and psychological problems related to their health condition (Yitbark, 2012).

It is the social worker‟s responsibility to reserve their profession and undeniable contribution in hospitals and health care settings. Since social workers make a great effort for the wellfunctioning of the society, it is very essential for the society to understand their importance especially in the health care setting (Judd and Sheffield, 2010).

To the best of my knowledge, there have been very few studies conducted on the areas of Mental health disorder in Nigeria. This research tried to assess and explore the Importance of social workers in the hospitals. My interest emanated from my field work practice for the courses of practicum I and II in this hospitals. Moreover, my field work practice in the hospital for the course practicum motivated to work on this area; and the researcher observed the challenges that social workers face in the hospitals.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Social worker activities occur in many settings. In order to provide effective services, Health social workers need to be aware of these factors that working at different setting. Therefore, Social workers who operate in variety of environment assume various importance to do in the design, delivery and evaluation of care (Browne, 2012). According to the guide of social worker‟s professional to practice in hospitals (NASW,1999), there are a numbers of factors that affect the role of social workers played in hospital setting. Some of these factors were including factors related to the organization and operation of the hospital system and the way in which work is organized within a hospital. In addition, the importance of working in an interdisciplinary context was also stated clearly in the guide of social worker (NASW, 1999). However, the importance of social workers in mental health care have got little attention. Burtland tried to explain (2001), regarding to mental health policy more than 40% of the countries have no mental health program. According to WHO (2001), it is only after the development of publication of world development report, disability adjusted life year for estimating the global burden of disease and other emerging scientific investigations, the burden of mental disorder come in to great public agenda. Thus, currently the effect on mental disorder on various economic and social aspects are becoming highly the research area (WHO, 2001).

In Nigeria, there were very limited research papers on the area of mental health problems. The work of Ababi(2008) was focused on the economic problems of schizophrenia and bipolar disorders in the rural Nigeria. As to him the total direct cost of Nigeria because of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder is approximately from $687, 390.69 to $3.23 million and from $39.1million to 113million respectively. Thus, the research found that the challenges of mental illness on care givers as multifaceted problem to the society.

According to Rahel (2014), she conducted qualitative research with a purpose of identifying the practices of health professionals in medical social work at Menelik II Hospital. She found that health professionals have poor understanding of the medical social work practice within the health facilities and no involvements of social work practices with in their day to day activities. In her study, she indicated that there should be a medical social work interventions and establishment of the department of social work in the health care institutions (Rahel, 2014).

However, she didn‟t see the importance of social worker and their interventions in the area of mental health rehabilitation. Thus, this research tried to see the gap that is not addressed in her paper and the real practices of social workers in mental health settings.

In the similar ways, Hiwot (2012) tried to explore the role and challenges of social work in selected hospitals in of Addis Ababa. The research finding showed that social workers played a role of facilitating the services for the poor individuals. She tried to identify whether the direct patient care importance and indirect patient care importance were practiced or not. According to her, both patient care importance performed by social workers fulfilled the criteria‟s of the services, but her research is totally missed the major importance of the social workers in health care setting. Even though, it was a good start to see the actual and expected importance of social workers in hospitals, there is a gap in assessing the major Importance in the case of mental health hospitals.

Yitbarek (2015) tried to explore the challenges of Yaba mental health hospital as the only hospital next to Amanuel Mental Specialized Hospital (AMSH). He identified various challenges of the rehabilitation services in the center; however he didn‟t explain the works of social workers in the hospital. Thus, this research paper interested to explore the Importance of social workers in this hospital. According to Alemayehu G. (2005) who conducted research at institutional level on assessment of the prevalence, determinants and effects of mental disorder among Haromaya University students which provided a great role in the field of study of mental health. The finding of this research shows that the prevalence of mental illness among the university students is 19.3%. The study implies the cooperative work of health social workers with the community. From the findings the Importance of social workers didn‟t get attention.

In 2014, a position paper was prepared by the Australian Association for Social Workers Queensland Branch (AASW) with a purpose of developing a position statement in relation to social work‟s distinctive contribution to the contemporary health care system. The goals of this position paper are to identify the key and unique value that contemporary social work practice contributes to achieving effectiveness and efficiency in improving health outcomes for patients accessing health services; and to demonstrate the contribution that social work makes to providing patient-centered models of care (AASW,2014). This study also tried to give a brief insight into the main importance of social workers in mental health rehab center of Yaba and explore their contribution to the improvement of mental health outcomes.

Therefore, this planned study is designed to fill the gap of understanding and to clear the confusion on the importance of social worker in Yaba mental health rehab center and to produce the first systematic evidence on the Importance of social workers.

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PRODUCTION OF BLEACH

2025-09-18T11:47:00.003+01:00

ABSTRACT

The general objective of this study was to assess the production of bleaching products available in Lagos State, Nigeria using physico-chemical methods.

Methodology

Thirty six samples of sodium hypochlorite were evaluated for general characteristics such as adequacy of label information and pH and assay of active chlorine. Similarly, thirty three samples of hydrogen peroxide were analyzed for identity, adequacy of labeling, acidity and content of hydrogen peroxide. Analytical methods prescribed by the British Pharmacopoeia and the Nigeria Bureau of Standards were used. Triplicate analyses were done.

Results

Samples of sodium hypochlorite used as bleaching agents (26), for treatment of water (5) and as hospital disinfectants (5) were collected from Lagos State. The content of active chlorine was as follows bleaching agent (2-4 w/v %), treatment of water (0.9-1.1 w/v %) and disinfectant (4-6 w/v %) respectively. Twenty out of the twenty six samples (77 %) analyzed complied with the NBSS requirement of a minimum ≤ 2 % w/v) of active chlorine for bleaching agents. All 5 (100 %) samples of sodium hypochlorite used for water treatment met label claim for BP 2017 of 0.9 % w/v and 1.1 % w/v of active chlorine. The values ranged between 1.0 % w/v and 1.3 % w/v corresponding to 92.5 % and 105.8 % of the label claim (1.2 % w/v). All the samples (n=5) used as disinfectants did not comply with specifications for content (4-6 % w/v). One sample out of the five samples (20 %) did not comply with NBSS requirement (minimum ≤ 2 % w/v) for content of active chlorine.

Fifty five percent (n=11) of detergent hydrogen peroxide (3 % w/v H2O2) samples met BP (2017) specification of 2.5-3.5 % w/v of H2O2. All the samples (n=21) antiseptic hydrogen peroxide (6 % w/v H2O2) did not meet the BP (2017) specification of 5 %-7 % w/v of H2O2. The content of hydrogen peroxide samples ranged between 3.0 % w/v and 4.7 % w/v. The hydrogen peroxide laboratory reagent was found to contain 13.6 % w/v and this was out of BP specification of 29-31 % w/v of H2O2.

Conclusion

About 45 % of detergent hydrogen peroxide samples, all the samples (n=21) of antiseptic hydrogen peroxide and laboratory reagent 30 % w/v hydrogen peroxide did not comply with BP 2017 specifications for assay. While 23 % of the bleaching agent analyzed did not meet NBSS requirements of active chlorine. Five samples of sodium hypochlorite used for treatment of water complied with BP 2017 specifications for the assay while all the samples (n=5) of sodium hypochlorite used as disinfectants did not comply with BP 2017 specifications for content of active chlorine. There is need for continued post market surveillance and enforcement of labeling and packaging specifications by manufacturers for compliance with pharmacopoeial and Nigeria bureau of standards specification.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Introduction

The term Microorganism generally refers to a diverse group of unicellular or multicellular organisms that have both beneficial and non-beneficial effects (Gabor and Tibor, 1999). Some microorganisms have industrial applications such as in the production of cheese, wine, yoghurt and penicillin while others have been implicated with causing infectious diseases like cholera, dysentery and typhoid (Mihriban et al., 2006). There are various approaches targeting the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms. These include the use of antibiotics, sterilization and disinfection, among other approaches (Michael et al., 2005).

Disinfectants are chemicals that are harmful on the vegetative forms of microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria especially on surfaces and equipment but are less effective against spores (Luanne et al., 2004). On the other hand, antiseptics are substances that act by preventing growth of microorganisms or inhibition of microorganism activity. In living tissues, antiseptics prevent infections (USP, 2011). Many antiseptics in the market target Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria (Hani and Adnan, 2009).

Disinfectants and antiseptics are generally categorized based on the functional groups into alcohols, aldehydes, phenolics, quaternary ammonium compounds and oxidizing agents (Lachenmeier, 2016). Alcohols are further classified into monohydric and polyhydric alcohols (USP, 2011; William et al., 2008). Examples of monohydric alcohols include ethanol and isopropanol while glycerol is an example of a polyhydric alcohol (Gerald a nd Denver, 1999). The mechanism of action of alcohols as antimicrobial agents is attributable to denaturing action of alcohol. Alcohols affect the production of metabolites essentially involved in rapid cell division (Ali et al., 2001). Alcohols are routinely used to disinfect oral and rectal thermometers (Jane, 2002; Judith, 2017) and fiber optics endoscopes, where 70 % alcohol is used (Arthur et al., 2002).

Formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde and ortho-phthalaldehyde are examples of aldehydes used as disinfectants (Victor, 2005). Mechanistically, they inactivate microorganisms‟ amino and thiol groups of proteins and the ring nitrogen of the purine bases by alkalization (Gurusamy, 2008). Reusable hemodialyzers are commonly disinfected using formaldehyde although a decline has been being witnessed (Drukker et al., 1996) while glutaraldehyde is used to disinfect anesthesia and respiratory therapy equipment (Nancymarie, 2017). Human exposure to glutaraldehyde may lead to skin irritation and dermatitis hence care has to be taken when handling this agent (Gloria and Nick, 2004).

Phenolics used as disinfectants include ortho-phenylphenol, chloroxylenol, hexachlorophene and thymol (Semyours, 2001). At high concentrations, the phenolic compounds act as protoplasmic poisons, they act through transfixion and disruption of the cell wall and precipitation of cell proteins while at low concentrations, they also cause inactivation of essential enzyme systems and leakage of essential metabolites from the cell walls leading to bacterial cell death (Vasanthakumari, 2007). Phenolic compounds are commonly used in the decontamination of non- critical medical items and lab surfaces (Semyours, 2001). However, they are not advocated for use in infant‟s rooms due to their potential to cause hyperbilirubinemia (Carls et al., 2012).

Quaternary ammonium compounds can be categorized into cationic, non-ionic, anionic and amphoteric compounds (Reyhaneh and Ali, 2015). Surfactants that are commonly used as disinfectants are cationic and are either single-chain or twin-chain compounds (Russell et al., 1998). Single-chain compounds include benzalkonium chloride, alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride, alkyl dodecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride and dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride. Didodecyl dimethyl ammonium bromide and dioctyl dimethyl ammonium bromide are examples of twin-chain quaternary ammonium compounds (Megan et al., 2015). The mode of action of quaternary ammonium compounds involves inactivation of energy-producing enzymes, this causes severe deterioration of cell proteins that are essential and disarranging cell membranes (Merianos, 2001; Mansel, 2005).

Similarly to disinfectants, antiseptics are also classified based on the functional groups. The classes of antiseptics include alcohols, anilides, biguanides, bisphenols, diamidines, heavy metal derivatives and quaternary ammonium compounds among others (Russell et al., 1999; Denny and Marsik, 1997). The mechanism of action of alcohols is believed to involve membrane damage, denaturing of proteins, interference with the metabolism and cell lysis (Gerald and Denver, 1999). Isopropyl alcohol swabs are used before and after administration of an injection to disinfect the skin (Gittens and Bunnell, 2009).

Anilides are believed to act by absorbing and destroying the semi-permeable cytoplasmic membrane (Gerald and Denver, 1999). This, in turn, leads to cell death. Triclocarban is an anilide commonly used in soaps and deodorants (Johanna et al., 2017).

There are two minor classes of biguanides namely monobiguanides and polymeric biguanides used as antiseptics (Gerald and Denver, 1999). Monobiguanides such as chlorohexidine are thought to act by inhibiting membrane-bound and soluble adenosine triphosphatase as well as net potassium ion uptake in the Enterococcus faecalis. Chlorohexidine is used in the manufacture of hand-wash detergents and oral products (Shane and Elizabeth, 2014). On the other hand, polymeric biguanides, such as vantocil, impair the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria by acting on the permeability barrier. Vantocil is used to disinfect swimming pools and as a bactericide to sanitize surfaces in food processing industries (Gerald and Denver, 1999).

Triclosan is an example of a bisphenol that is commonly used in the production of hand soaps and hand rinses and toothpaste product (Damia and Andrey, 2015; Ole and Edwina, 2008). The mode of action of bisphenols as antiseptics has not been elucidated but they are postulated to affect the cytoplasmic membrane (Ole and Edwina, 2008). Triclosan has been shown to inhibit the uptake of essential nutrients in Escherichia coli. Triclosan (5μg/ml) leads to a rapid release of cellular components and in turn cell death occurs (Larson et al., 2003).

Chloroxylenol, a halophenol antiseptic, is commercially marketed as 1.2 % w/w dichloroxylenol antiseptic formulation. Chloroxylenol is believed to affect the cell wall of microorganisms such as Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi and Escherichia coli (Grillo and Ojo, 2013). Chloroxylenol commonly used as antibacterial soap (Mary, 1996).

Diamidines are commonly used as topical treatments for wounds. Diamidines such as propamidine act by inhibiting oxygen uptake and induces leakage of amino acids of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter cloacae. Sodium isethionate forming a salt with propamidine (4,4-diamino phenoxy propane) and dibromo (2,2-dibromo-4,4- diamidine phenoxy propane) are other good example of diamidines (Gerald and Denver, 1999).

Silver compounds that are used as antiseptics include silver nitrate and silver sulphadiazine (Abdulkareem and Wiley, 2005). The mechanism of action of silver compounds involves the interaction with the thiol groups in the amino acids of target microorganisms (Woo et al., 2008). Silver nitrate also interacts the cysteine and sodium thioglycolate present in Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Liaus et al., 1997).

Quaternary ammonium compounds used as antiseptics include cetrimide, chlorhexidine and salvon (combination of cetrimide and chlorhexidine). The mechanism of action of cetrimide involves membrane disorganization which leads to cell wall lysis caused by autolytic enzymes and damaging bacterial cell wall (Denyer, 1995). Figure 1.1 shows the structures representatives of compounds of various classes of disinfectants and antiseptics.

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ROLE OF SOURCING IN THE ACHIEVEMENT OF THE PROFIT OBJECTIVE OF ORGANIZATION (A CASE STUDY OF NIGERIA BOTTLING COMPANY PLC)

2025-09-18T11:39:00.004+01:00

ABSTRACT

This project work is centered on role of souring in the achievement of profit objective of organization with a case study of Nigeria bottling company plc Kaduna. It begins with the first chapter which dealt with the background of the study, given a brief introduction about the subject matter under study. Statement of problem which is the reason why the research undertook the study to identify such problems and come up with recommendation which will be beneficial to the organization and the entire society. Research question is drawn up which is in line with the objective of the research work to be opened up to get variables for questionnaires to be administered. Chapter two deals with the review of previous work carried by other authors on a similar topic. Chapter three deals with the research methodology with research design. The study have a sample size of 25 which is 12% of the population of 200 drawn from the material related unit and the sample size selected randomly and questionnaire were administered to them for their response. The findings of the study shows that profit maximization can only be achieved where organizational is able to meet their customers demand satisfactory. Thus, it was concluded that sourcing in Nigeria bottling company plc is treated with very importance. Therefore recommendation was made that give appropriate attention to sourcing activities in the organization. This will ensure that the supplier provide standard material to the organization through adequate sourcing.

CHAPTER I:

Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

The most important thing in the hierarchy of all organizations objectives is profit maximization, and this can only be achieved where organization is able, to meet their customers demand satisfactorily as at when due and for this objective to be met there must be a right source of supply that is, if the correct source decision is made in a particular instance, then the buying company’s need would be met perfectly. In such circumstances it would received the required goods or services at all times. Sourcing thus involves much more than simply picking a supplier or contractor for each requirement in isolation. It involves continuing relationships, both with preferred sources which are actually supplying goods and services, and with potential sources which may have been passed over for the present but are still in the running. It involves decisions about how to do business on. For its proper performance sourcing requires supply market research. This is a normal part of procurement and supply work, undertaken informally by buyers when they talk to representatives, visit exhibitions read trade journals and investigate the market before placing orders. In addition, it is the primary responsibility of purchasing to find out suitable sources of supply and ensure that the right quality and quantity of material is obtained at the right prices, and also spending time and effort in investigating and evaluating prospective supplies and continuously appraising the performance of current suppliers. In such a manner that there will be regular inflow of materials supply to avoid stoppage in production and its attendant costs and for the organization to be able to maximize its customer requirement in order to achieve its profit objective.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Apparently in many organizations, it is clear to observed the effect of poor sourcing procedure in the award of contracts to the supplier who are not financially and technical capable of meeting the demand or the need of organization. This is often base on irrational decisions of many purchaser, as such the organization always suffer set backs in achieving their profit objective.

Most other problems associated with sourcing ranges from high price of materials, late deliveries, supply of substandard products, mostly traced to inappropriate sourcing decisions.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The objective of this study is to assess role of sourcing in the achievement of the profit objective of organization of Nigeria bottling company Kaduna plant.

Specifically the study is set out to

1. To identify the sourcing policy employed by the organization in the procurement of materials need.

2. To identify criteria for source selection.

3. To identify the criteria used by the organization in rating their suppliers

4. To identify the type of buyer and suppliers relationship.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The research study focuses on role of sourcing in the achievement of the profit objective of organization of Nigeria bottling company PLC Kaduna, therefore the research study will be of benefit to the organization, the executives, the students and other researcher in this field also the research study will be of benefit to the entire Popolance

To the organizations the study will explain in detail what sourcing is all about, it important and benefit they stand to derive if, they give sourcing the necessary any attention required, and also why should be proactively a proactively in the organization thus the study will broaden their knowledge of understanding sourcing.

To the executives the research work will bring to their lime light the various sourcing methods available which they can use when sourcing for supplier in their organization, also the type of relationship needed to be used to foster good relationship with their supplier in order to guarantee timely delivery of material at the right time, price and at the right place.

To the student the study will serve as a study materials and a reference book as well thereby adding valve to the knowledge and to the researcher in this field the study can be use as a guide and a stepping stone for further research.

To the student the research study will help to broaden perspective in what sourcing is all about, is also a requirement for partial fulfillment for the award of higher national diploma in purchasing and supply department Kaduna polytechnic.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The study will be restricted to Nigeria bottling company Kaduna plant. The study will address the sourcing policies and procedures of the organization being studied. The work will also look at the nature of relationship existing between the organization and its suppliers as well as supplier rating or evaluation.

1.6 Research Questions

This study will attempt to provide answer to the research questions below.

1. What are the sourcing policies employed by the organization for the procurement of their materials?

2. What are the criteria used for source selection?

3. What are the criteria used by the organization for rating their supplier?

4. What type of relationship exist between the buying organization and their suppliers?

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PREVALENCE AND DETERMINANTS OF INSOMNIA AMONG UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN IAUE

2025-09-18T10:20:00.005+01:00

ABSTRACT

Ignatius Ajuru University of Education

Background: Sleep is an indispensable necessity of humankind, imperative for sustaining the quality of life and well-being of all ages. Poor sleep is proven to have an impact on students’ academic endeavors and general health. Even though some university students are conversant with health repercussions associated with poor insomnia, a substantial proportion fail to prioritize sleep health over their academic tasks or deem their health to be at risk.

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education.

Methodology: An institutional analytic cross-sectional study was carried out at the College of Health Sciences. A stratified random sampling technique was employed with strata being the schools. A Pittsburgh Insomnia Inventory was used to measure insomnia. Out of the 378 participants, 245 were interviewed through a tablet device-based questionnaire running on the Open Data Kit (ODK) application and the remaining 133 students completed an online questionnaire (SurveyMonkey). Descriptive statistics, correlations, bivariate, and multivariate binary logistic regression were performed using the IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23 at p <0.20 and p <0.05 level of significance, and a 95% confidence interval.

Results: Out of the 378 participants the majority were females (57.1%) and 42.9% were males. The prevalence of poor insomnia (PSQI > 5) was 80% among undergraduate students, whereas good insomnia was 20%. In an adjusted multivariate analysis, factors that were significantly associated with poor insomnia were perceived stress [AOR:3.15; 95% Cl: (1.43, 6.91); p = 0.004], room air quality [AOR: 2.32; 95% Cl: (1.08, 5.01); p = 0.0031], and sleep hygiene [AOR:1.08; 95% Cl: (1.03, 1.14); p = 0.002].

Conclusion: Findings from this study demonstrated an alarming prevalence of poor insomnia (PSQI > 5) 80 percent among undergraduate students. This study has shown a significant correlation between perceived stress, sleep hygiene, and insomnia which suggests that sleep hygiene practices and stress coping strategies should be considered as a potential influence on enhancing good insomnia. The modifiable risk factors such as perceived stress, sleep hygiene, and room quality were considered potential risks for poor insomnia.

Recommendations: To improve insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, the University should develop sleep hygiene education programs as an intervention and prevention strategy. To alleviate high stress, students should equip each other with better relaxation techniques such as Yoga, meditation, and extracurricular activities and manage their time properly to attain optimal insomnia and academic functioning.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1. Background

Sleep is vital in life and is known to significantly contribute to the cognitive, emotional, physical, and overall health of human beings (Paterson, Nutt & Wilson, 2011). Sleep is termed as a repeated natural state of mind and body, that leads to reduced consciousness, diminished sensory activities of voluntary muscle, and rejuvenation of mental and physical functioning. The sleeping cycle is composed of roughly eight hours of night-time sleep and sixteen hours of wakefulness during the day time in humans and is regulated by opposing internal factors: circadian rhythms and homeostasis of sleep (Ohayon et al., 2017). It is acknowledged in the literature that adequate sleep is imperative to process information learned during a period of wakefulness and translate it into useful memory, to allow communication between several components of the brain (Sexton-Radek & Pichler-Mowry, 2011).

Recently, there has been widely epidemiological evidence indicating that sleep health is a public concern globally. It is projected that people who suffer from sleep disorders are approximately 150 million universally and virtually 17% of this population is in developing countries (Berhanu, Mossie, Tadesse & Geleta, 2018). The National Sleep Foundation (2018) depicted that American people who are affected by poor insomnia are approximately 50 to 70 million. In China, the likelihood of having poor sleep outcomes was reported to be 56.7% in adults with a higher proportion among males (Wu et al., 2018). Whereas, the prevalence of poor insomnia in Spain stood at 38.2%, as women were essentially twice as likely than men to have poor quality, suggesting sex to be linked with poor insomnia (Madrid-valero, Martínez-selva, Ribeiro, Sánchez-romera, & Ordo, 2017).

It is generally known that developing and low-income countries are faced with a vast demographic and epidemiological transition. A challenging problem arises in this domain as sleep health remains an unprioritized health issue with less emphasis on the worldwide dimension of this emergent public health concern (Stranger, Tigbe, Gomez-Oliv, Torogood & Kandala, 2012). The outcome from the WHO-SAGE study by Stranger et al., (2012) among average adults in South Africa exhibited that 27.2 % of men and 31.3% of women experienced poor insomnia. In more African countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, and Tanzania, poor insomnia overall rates ranged from 8.3 % to 12.7 % and it was more pervasive than cancer, HIV and AIDS, cardiovascular diseases, neurophysiological disease, and respiratory diseases (Stranger et al., 2012).

Epidemiological evidence established associations between poor sleep health with premature morbidity and mortality (Adriansen, Childers, Yoder, & Abraham, 2017; Ferrie, Kumari, Salo, Singh-Manoux & Kivimäki, 2011). The aforementioned is as well linked with numerous chronic morbidities such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, Obesity, Diabetes, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and Psychiatric conditions (Adriansen et al., 2017; Ferrie et al., 2011).

In educational institutions, university students sacrifice their sleep to pursue good grades in their academic endeavors. Students in the Health fraternity are particularly faced with extensive theoretical and clinical content which leads to long study hours and attending clinical practice. The literature proved that poor sleep health influences academic performance and findings were found to be consistent globally (Ahrberg, Dresler, Niedermaier, Steiger & Genzel, 2012; Al-Kandari et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2016). According to Schlarb & Friedrich (2017), 60% of university students are subjected to poor insomnia and 7.7% are estimated to meet the eligibility criteria of sleep disorders including Insomnia. The university students who experienced poor sleep were compelled to report physical ailments, high perception of stress, and utilization of drugs to help them stay awake (Lund, Reider, Whiting & Prichard, 2010; Sahraian & Javadpour, 2010).

A series of recent studies that focused on university students have also revealed that poor insomnia leads to reduced learning capacity (Ahrberg et al., 2012; Perez-Olmos & Ibanez-Pinilla, 2014; Al-Kandari et al., 2017). Research infers that poor sleep leads to depression (Adams & Kisler, 2013) with detrimental sleep problems in the first semester of studies (Doane, Gress- Smith, & Breitenstein, 2015). Psychological imbalances like reduced alertness, mood variations, performance faults, reduced punctuality for lectures, and grade point average (GPA) has been pointed towards sleep deprivation (Amin et al., 2016). Disturbances in the sleep-wake cycle are associated with severe negative outcomes on mental and physical wellbeing (American Academy of Sleep Medicine, 2015).

Over time, some researchers constructed the Pittsburgh Insomnia Inventory (PSQI) that has become a frequently used gold standard and validated standardized self-report measure of insomnia that determines if an individual is a good or poor sleeper (Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, Berman, & Kupfer, 1988). The basis for constructing the index was on the high occurrence of sleep problems, in addition to the relation of poor insomnia with medical disorders (Buysse et al., 1988). Insomnia is an approved clinical construct that is utilized in clinical and non-clinical settings (Almojali, Almalki, Alothman, Masuadi, & Alaqeel, 2017). In particularly Nigeria, there are few studies published on sleep health, and these studies rarely examined factors related to insomnia amongst university students.

1.2. Problem statement

Studies indicate that students lack knowledge of sleep health and the repercussions it has on individuals’ well-being (Ahrberg et al., 2012; Perry, Patil & Presley-Cantrell, 2013). This is not an exception for university students as studies indicate a high poor insomnia prevalence of about 60% higher than any other demographic (Alimirzae, Azzizadeh Forouzi, Abazari & Haghdoost, 2014). Students in the Health fraternity are faced with a greater academic load which could potentially arise to deprivation of sleep. Hence, it is imperative to know the extent of the problem and factors affecting their insomnia, and if disturbances in their sleep pattern impact their overall well-being and academic life.

Findings from various literature depict that students are less knowledgeable on the health effects derived from sleep deprivation and the impacts on the quality of care and safety rendered to patients (Agarwal, Eryuzlu & Chawla 2015; Thomas, McIntosh, Lamar & Allen, 2017). This negatively impacts the safety of the patients and it could affect proficiency in clinical practice (Agarwal et al., 2015; Thomas et al., 2017). Predisposing factors such as stress and alcohol misuse are regularly tackled in healthcare in isolation despite the negative consequences it has on insomnia.

Sleep is an understudied health concern (Knowlden, Sharma, & Bernard, 2012a). There are dearth and paucity of data on insomnia among university students in Nigeria, whose study program and culture may differ from other university students. The current study will address this research gap by determining the prevalence and underlying factors of insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education.

1.3. Research questions

1. What is the prevalence of insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education?

2. What are the factors associated with insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education?

3. What is the perception of insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education?

4. What are the modifiable risk factors associated with poor insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education?

1.4. Research hypothesis Null Hypothesis

Ho1: There is no association between the demographic factors, sleep behaviors, psychological factors, and insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education.

Alternative Hypothesis

Ha1: There is an association between the demographic factors, sleep behaviors, psychological factors, and insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education.

1.5. Objectives

1.5.1. Broad objective

To determine the prevalence of insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education.

1.5.2. Specific objectives

1. To estimate the prevalence of poor insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education.

2. To determine facilitators associated with insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education.

3. To determine barriers associated with insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education.

4. To establish the modifiable risk factors associated with poor insomnia among undergraduate students at the College of Health Sciences, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education.

1.6. Significance of study

Despite the significance of sleep in attaining optimal health and quality of life, studies that have concentrated on sleep health indicated that about 60% of university students experience poor sleep outcomes, which is higher than any other demographic (Alimirzae et al, 2014). An appraisal of published literature points out that there is a paucity of studies on sleep health that focused on university students in Nigeria. This study, therefore, seeks out to underscore the contributory factors of good or poor insomnia. Students’ welfare programmes in academic institutions should incorporate how poor sleep health affects the general well-being and academic life of students (Perez-Olmos & Ibanez-Pinilla, 2014).

These findings will assist and support learning institutions, educators, clinicians, and students to comprehend the imperativeness of insomnia and underlying factors to design interventions that promote good sleep health measures. It is anticipated that the basic data will raise and sensitize awareness regarding sleep health. Students will also gain insight to evaluate their individual perceived level of insomnia and identify the modifiable risk factors associated with poor sleep outcomes. It is also expected that students who are conversant with good sleep hygiene will transfer the knowledge into their clinal practice.

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PERCEPTION AND UTILISATION OF FAMILY PLANNING SERVICE AMONG WOMEN OF REPRODUCTIVE AGES

2025-09-18T10:17:00.007+01:00

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to assess knowledge, attitude in the utilization of family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos state, Nigeria. Ex-post facto research design was used for this study and the sample size consisted of 384 respondents. To achieve this purpose, a researcher developed questionnaire was used as instrument for data collection. The population of the study comprised of 72,844 women of reproductive age. The instrument was vetted by five jurors from the Departments of Physical and Health Education and Nursing Sciences. Three hundred and eighty four (384) copies of questionnaire were distributed to the respondents. Three hundred and seventy nine (379; 98.7%) were adequately filled and retrieved from respondents. Five (5; 1.3%) copies of questionnaire were not filled correctly and therefore, those were not used. A multi-stage sampling procedure was employed which comprised of; stratified, simple random, purposive, proportionate sampling procedure. The data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequencies and percentages, mean and standard deviation. To test the formulated hypotheses, one sample t-test was used. All the formulated null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 alpha level of significance. The results of the study revealed that mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos state, Nigeria have significant knowledge of family planning with a t-value of 3.201 (p-value of 0.021). The findings further showed that mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos state do not have significant attitude towards family planning with t-value of 1.291 and p-value of 0.18, finally the results of the study revealed that mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos State do not significantly practice family planning with a (p-value of 1.05).

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The act of giving birth is the most serious labour in the world (Ademowore, 2011).

The explosive increase in the nation‟s population emanating from indiscriminate childbearing, apart from a small number of privileged and conscientious countries that have succeeded in reducing the population growth, each pregnancy and birth remains a risk fatal experience for hundreds of millions of women worldwide.

Family planning is a means by which individuals or couples space the process of conception, pregnancy and childbirth in intervals, mutually determined by both husband and wife in order to have desired number of children that they can conveniently cater for their needs (Delano, 2010).

According to Ahmed (2014), Family Planning is the factor that may be considered by a couple in a committed relationship and each individual involved in deciding if and when to have children. Though, rarely articulated, family planning may involve consideration of the number of children a couple wish to have as well as the age at which they wish to have them. Family Planning are obviously influenced by external factors such as marital situation, career considerations, financial position, any disabilities that may affect their ability to have children and raise them, beside many other considerations.

World Health Organization (2011), describe family planning as a way of thinking and living that is adopted voluntarily, upon the basis of knowledge, attitudes, and responsible decisions by individuals and couples, in order to promote the health and welfare of the family group and thus contribute effectively to the social development of a country. The World Health Organization (WHO) (2012) estimates that 287,000 material deaths occurred in 2010, sub-Saharan Africa (56%) and southern Asia (29%) accounted for the global burden of maternal deaths.

National Demography Health Survey (2012), reported in Nigeria on maternal mortality rate, revealed that, 600,000 women died in agony every year. It is not an exaggeration to say that the issue of maternal mortality, fast in its conspiracy of silence in scale and severity, the most neglected tragedy of our time. Also 585,000 women die during pregnancy and child birth, and result from often pregnancy and child bearing.

Family planning is sometimes used as a synonym for the use of birth control; however, it often includes a wide variety of methods, and practices that are for birth control. It is most usually applied to a female-male couple who wish to limit the number of children they have and/or to control the timing of pregnancy (also known as child-spacing). Family planning may encompass sterilization, as well as abortion. The pervasive problem presently is population rapid growth, especially in developing countries where this population growth matters, because it has enormous impact on the human life. It will not be wrong to say that the most urgent conflict facing the contemporary world today is not between the states of ideologies but between the pace of growth of the human race and the disproportionate increase in the production of resources, necessary to support mankind in peace, prosperity and dignity (Sehgal, 2014).

Odimegwu (2011) Opined that, rapid growth of population is not caused by any single reason, but it is obvious that how crucial the demographic factor can be in the political stability and the socio-economic development of a country. It has now universally recognized that a massive population size, its rapid growth rate, and its controlled transfer of population from rural areas to the cities can create pressure on the resources of a country, adversely affecting its economic prosperity. There is convincing evidence that poverty incidence is always higher among larger households.

Indeed, Orbeta (2010); figured out an enduring positive association between family size and poverty incidence and severity. Studies by Orbeta (2010) also showed how a large family size creates the conditions leading to greater poverty through its negative impact on household saving, labour force participation. Earnings of parents, as well as on the human capital investment in children. Besides, it is stated that uncontrolled population growth is recognized as the single most important impediment to national development. Although population growth is not the only problem dividing rich and poor countries, it is one important variable that has widened the gap in growth in per capital income between developed and developing nations. Advocates of birth control see it as a means to prevent the personal and social pressures that result from rapid population growth (Encyclopedia,

2013). Family planning services are defined as “Educational, comprehensive medical or social activities which enable individuals, including minors, to determine freely the number and spacing of their children and to select the means by which this may be achieved (Maisamari, 2010).

Generally, it is because of this over population of the family has resulted to unhealthy, the unemployed, the ill-educated and the under-fed, which has no small measures aggravated crime rate as the populace are left with no better option, than involving themselves in various notorious and corrupt practiced earn a timing. With the recognition and consideration of the consequence of population explosion it is obvious that family planning remains the only acceptable and practicable option for the reduction of incessant population growth. Family planning is the process of choosing the number of children in a family and the length of time between their births. It involves adoption of contraceptive devices to prevent unwanted pregnancies and thereby determining the number and spacing of children in the family (Encarta, 2010). Also family planning practices is therefore, the various ways of controlling births which may not conform to the approved standard either as a result of ignorance or apathy, couples ignorance and wrong perception of family planning, has created a rat-race situation where survival is for the fittest; (Agbakuribe, 2011).

Despite the recent increase in contraceptive use, Nigeria is still characterized by high levels of fertility and a considerable unmet need for contraception. The total fertility rate in Nigeria is 6.0 births per women and considerably higher in the rural areas than in the urban areas. Hence, men should be actively involved at the knowledge level (the concept of family planning), the supportive level (being supportive for other to use contraception) and the “acceptor” level, (as contraceptive user). Their decision-making role should be taken into account in order to promote family planning. Research indicates that accepting pregnancy, knowledge on different methods choice, and the understanding of the side effects of different methods are among the factors related to family planning.

Knowledge of family planning is a key variable in any discussion of fertility regulation and in the evaluation of family planning program. Acquiring knowledge about family planning is an important step toward gaining access to and then using suitable contraceptive methods in a timely and effective manner. Information of knowledge of family planning will help the couples to avoid or delay pregnancy; (Umar, 2012).

Knowledge is facts, information and skills acquired through experiences or Knowledge of family planning – this consisted of knowledge of modern contraceptives source of information about family planning, sex education ins school and sexual transmitted diseases STDs the alarming rate of indiscriminate child bearing emanated from lack of knowledge of family planning (Chingpaye, 2013).

Contraceptive almost killed me if I were not educated. I`m sure I would have died (34 year old undergraduate women). The ascertain above corroborated what Hellandendu (2013) said in the study of violence against females. The research observed of artificial fertility regulation techniques are perpetuated by economic; political and gender structure in contemporary societies most of which work to the detriment of women. This is so because most of the artificial contraceptives are directed towards women which have detrimental health effects. Therefore, this study was to assess knowledge, attitude and practice of family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos state, Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

There is no doubt that Nigeria is one of the most populous country in Africa. The researcher observed that the problem of many children per family contributes to poverty, unhealthy, under-fed and ill-educated. The researcher observed that frequent birth by the mothers had been associated to a serious health problem to the mothers and their children; the health of the mothers is in coma due to frequent discharge of blood which is not regained before the conception of another pregnancy; and this accounted for thousands of deaths of women in Lagos state. Fertility in the country remains high with a total fertility of 6.0 births per women and considerably higher in the rural areas than in the Urban (Population Bureau, 2012).

Maternal mortality is high due to the short interval of pregnancy which amounted to births related cases, this trends has causes pre-term birth (birth within 37 weeks of pregnancy) low birth weight (child birth less than 2,500grams) and infant morbidity in the rural area for instance in Lagos state. The weaned children are in a serious health condition because the period for normal breast feeding is lacking, thereby resulting to low immunity that prone to contagious diseases.

In spite of the importance of population growth to the society, couples, cultural resistance to child-spacing has brought about numerous social problems like indiscriminate child bearing, unwanted pregnancies, high rate of infant morbidity, drop-out from schools, and the low standard of living which has been on the increase with poverty also contributing to the incidence where families continue to reproduce uncontrollably because, of the believe that. It is a taboo to regulate fertility; these ugly threat has been observed by the researcher in Lagos state; Nigeria.

National Demographic Health Survey (NDHS) (2012), estimated on maternal mortality rate that 600,000 women died every year out of 585,000 women died during pregnancy and child birth, to break this vicious threats in our various rural areas. This study is out to assess knowledge, attitude in the utilization of family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria. This is to know whether the mothers have knowledge about family planning, their attitude and practice towards family planning.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to assess the knowledge, attitude, in the utilization of family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria. The specific purposes of the study are to assess:

1. the knowledge on family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.

2. the attitude of mothers towards family planning in Ikorodu, Lagos state, Nigeria.

3. the practice of family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.

1.4 Research Questions

The study is proposed to answer the following research questions:

1. what is the knowledge of mothers about family planning in Ikorodu, Lagos State?

2. what is the attitude of mothers towards family planning in Ikorodu, Lagos State?

3. what is the practice of family planning among the mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos State?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The result of this study will be beneficial to:

The health educators in planning awareness program for the client, thereby creating enlighten to the client in making decision that are related to family planning methods.

Findings of this study will enable the client to benefit from the awareness programs that are provided by the health educators in areas that are related to family planning methods.

Findings of this study will sensitize the policy makers in creating policies that would support family planning practices.

Findings of this study will help tremendously in reducing mortality and morbidity through the awareness program on issues or family planning and unwanted pregnancies.

Findings of this study would contribute to the body of knowledge for Researchers and other educational purposes.

1.6 Research Hypotheses

On the basis of the research questions, the following hypotheses were formulated for the purpose of this study:

Major Hypotheses

The knowledge, attitude and practice of family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos state of Nigeria are not significant.

Sub – Hypotheses

1.6.1 There is no significant knowledge of family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.

1.6.2 There is no significant attitude towards family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.

1.6.3 There is no significant practice of family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.

1.8 Delimitation of the Study

This study is delimited to “Assessment of knowledge, attitude in the utilization of family planning among mothers of reproductive age 15-49, in Lagos State, Nigeria. Also, delimited to the following variables;

- Knowledge of family planning among mothers in Ikorodu, Lagos state Nigeria.

- Attitude of mothers towards family planning.

- Practices of family planning among mothers.

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MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF DIARHHREA IN CHILDREN 0-5 YEARS OF AGE IN A GIVEN COMMUNITY

2025-09-18T10:11:00.002+01:00

ABSTRACT

Diarrhoea continues to remain one of the main and the second most significant cause of death globally in children under five years. The number of diarrhoea cases continues to increase every year and is estimated to be 1.7 billion annually. In 2018, in Nigeria, 1,499,146 cases of diarrhoea were reported among children under five years and Lagos state accounted for 136, 028 cases. A research in Lagos state Informal Settlements showed that 25.6% of children living in the Informal Settlement had diarrhoea. Caregivers in Ikorodu reported that their children contract diarrhoea at least once every two weeks. As diarrhoea is mostly managed at home by caregivers there is need to determine the management practices of diarrhoea by caregivers of children under five years. The main objective of the research was to determine the management practices of diarrhoea by caregivers of children under five years in Ikorodu. To achieve this objective, a cross-sectional study design was used. It was preferred because it is a one point of time study. Due to its pollution and diarrhoea frequency reported by caregivers, Ikorodu was purposively selected. For the choice of households and respondents, simple random sampling was used. Researcher administered questionnaire and observation checklist were completed appropriately. Fisher’s and exact test, Pearson Chi-square as well as Pearson correlation were utilized in the analysis. P < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Age of the caregivers ranged from 18-72 years old. The main age group of caregivers was 25-31 years old with 56.17%. The household size ranged from 2 to 15. Children under five years living in the selected households of the study ranged from 1 to 7 per household. Children who were 1 per household accounted for 49.4%. Mothers accounted for 83.6%. Prevalence of diarrhoea among children was 18.7%. Sex of the caregiver (p=0.008), relationship of the caregiver (p<0.001), number of household residents (p<0.001), and number of children under five years in the household (p<0.001) were found to be statistically significant with diarrhoea prevalence among children aged zero to less than five years. Knowledge level of caregivers regarding management practices of diarrhoea was found to be statistically significant with prevalence of diarrhoea in children under five years (p=0.020). Majority of the respondents (63.89%) used drugs from hospitals to manage diarrhoea. In 63.89%, water was given like any other day during diarrhoea. One hundred and seventy six caregivers breastfed the child during the survey. The majority of the respondents (52.78%) had no formal education. Faeces, flies and open garbage were present near or within the household in 37.72%, 59.26%, and 80.25% respectively. All the respondents washed their hands during the study. However 27.78% of the respondents did not wash their hands after disposing the child faeces. Caregivers disposed the child stool in garbage in 38.89 %. Fifty caregivers did not take their children for immunization. Statistical significance was observed between diarrhoea prevalence and the caregiver’s educational level (p<0.001), renting (p=0.024), existence of flies near or within the household (p<0.001), existence of faeces near or within the household (p<0.001), existence of open garbage near or within the household (p<0.001), immunization of children (p<0.001), age when the children start using latrine (p<0.001).In conclusion, low knowledge level was a predictor of diarrhoea among children under five years. Many factors such as existence of open garbage near or within the household and immunization practices were found to be associated with diarrhoeal prevalence among children under five years. It is therefore recommended that there is need for public health education and promotion in the study area.

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background information

Risk of diarrhoea is still high worldwide in children aged zero to less than five years. Diarrhoea continues to remain one of the most important causes of death. It is the second major cause of mortality globally in children aged zero to less than five years. Every year, the number of diarrhoea cases continues to increase and is estimated to be 1.7 billion annually. Diarrhoea accounts for up to 7.7% of deaths in Africa according to the World Health Organsition (WHO). In Africa, an estimated 5 episodes of diarrhoea are observed every year in each infant. Eight hundred thousand children under five years die from diarrhoea and dehydration each year in Africa (WHO, 2018). During the year 2018, in Nigeria, 1,499,146 cases of diarrhoea were reported among childrenunder the age of five. Among the cases of diarrhoea in 2018 in Nigeria, Lagos state accounted for 136, 028 cases (DHIS, 2019).

Diarrhoea leads to loss of electrolytes and fluids which will result in dehydration and malnutrition. Three main agents cause diarrhoea: bacteria, parasites, and viruses. In most of the cases, diarrhoea caused by bacterial infections, parasitological infections, and viral infections occurs after improper hygiene and sanitation conditions or unsafe drinking water (Mokomane et al., 2018). The main virus responsible for diarrhoea in children under five year is rotavirus (WHO, 2009).

Rotavirus accounted for about one third of deaths as a result of diarrhoea and 9,000,000 globally hospital admissions of children under the age of 5 years (Carmo et al., 2011, Troeger et al., 2018). Rotavirus is responsible for 41 percent of the burden of childhood diarrhea in Nigeria (Otieno et al., 2020). In a recent study led by Gikonyo et al., (2019) which aimed to estimate the post vaccine prevalence and seasonal distribution of rotavirus in children under five years in Lagos state, the hospital based prevalence of rotavirus was 15.2%. The WHO introduced rotavirus immunization in July 2009 into the national immunization programmes of all countries after finding that rotavirus is one of the main cause of diarrhoea among children (WHO, 2009). There are two types of rotavirus vaccine: the monovalent formulation (RotatrixTM) and the pentavalent formulation (RotaTeqTM). The routine immunization on rotavirus recommended by the WHO consists of two doses composed of the single-dose vaccine sequence which should be given for the monovalent formulation. The first dose will be given from 6 to 14 weeks, and the second from 14 to 24 weeks. The dosage period does not exceed 4 weeks. The pentavalent formulation consists of three doses. The very first dose must be taken at the age of 6-12 weeks, the two further doses at 4-10 weeks interval. All three doses must be finished before a child is 32 weeks old. Nigeria implemented the rotavirus vaccine into the national immunization programme in July 2014. Since then, in the framework of the routine child immunization programme, two doses of live attenuated rotavirus vaccine (Rotarix) are administered orally at 6 and 10 weeks of life. (Government of Nigeria, 2013, WHO, 2019).

Children aged between 0-59 months have several reasons for a higher death rate due to diarrhoea. Poverty is one of the primary causes of death from diarrhoea. Studies have demonstrated that poor families or families without funding are more risky than others. Illiteracy by caregivers or parents is also one of the primary causes of diarrhoea mortality in children aged between 0-59 months. Researches also illustrated that uneducated parents or caregivers have a greater frequency of diarrhoea than educated caregivers. In young mothers, knowledge on Oral Re-hydration Salts (ORS) is poor compared to in their older counterparts. Low knowledge on the management practices of diarrhoea by caregivers can also raise death rates and incidence of diarrhoea among children under five years (Ansari et al., 2009).

Improper prevention measures such as non-exclusive breastfeeding, improper hygiene and sanitation conditions, non-immunization, and unsafe drinking water are risk factors of diarrhoea. Consequently, proper domestic practice regarding diarrhoea management will reduce the death rate. Quick administration of ORS is one the proper home diarrhoea management strategies (Apa et al., 2015). Several studies also demonstrated that good practices reduce the burden of diarrhoea among children (Thiam et al., 2019, Hillow, 2018).

Certain sections of Lagos state, particularly informal settlements, the rate of illiteracy, poverty and costly health facilities will force caregivers to handle diarrhoea of their children at home. As healthcare systems focus less on diarrhoeal diseases, caregivers' awareness about prevention and clinical treatment of diarrhoea decreases (Apa et al., 2015). The research sensitized caregivers of children aged 0-59 months on therapeutic and preventive measures of diarrhoea. The aim was to establish knowledge level of caregivers on management of diarrhoea, establish their current practices and establish factors that influence management practices. Knowledge will have an effect on practice as well as attitude. Knowing knowledge of caregivers regarding diarrhoea management practices in children aged zero to five years may enable practitioners in public health to build educational strategies directed at the community. In the final stage of development or updating of diarrhoea policy, the recommendations made will benefit National Programme Managers (NPMs). This will also benefit the government and certain Nongovernmental Organisations (NGOs) to establish a behavioural change model.

1.2. Problem statement

Diarrhoea is the second most important cause of child mortality among children aged between 0-59 months. About 48 000 (8%) children die every year as a result of acute diarrhea. Roughly 80 % of these deaths arise in Africa and in Asia, with approximately 35% casualties in just 15 countries(UNICEF, 2019). Nigeria is 10th of those affected by childhood diarrhoea in the most extreme countries (Wardlaw et al., 2010).

In 2018, in Nigeria, nearly 1.5 million cases of diarrhoea were reported among children under the age of five and Lagos state accounted for 136, 028 cases (DHIS, 2019). In the urban areas , particularly in informal settling environments, the burden of diarrheal diseases in Nigeria has been investigated at higher rate for children than in other environments (Kawakatsu et al., 2017). Despite the implementation of the community-based programme on diarrhoea in Ikorodu, the burden of diarrhoea remains high. A research led by Concern Worldwide (2017) in Lagos state Informal Settlements showed that 25.6% of children living in the Informal Settlement had diarrhoea. Although in the same report, the exact prevalence of diarrhoea among children in Ikorodu was not mentioned, caregivers in Ikorodu reported that their children contract diarrhoea at least once every two weeks.

There are limited studies on the home-based management of diarrhoea by caregivers of children aged between 0-59 months in the informal settlement of Ikorodu. It is not also clearly known how the cases of diarrhoea are managed by caregivers of children under five years in Ikorodu. Therefore, this research fills in the gaps by analysing data from Ikorodu.

1.3. Research questions

It refers to questions that the study seeks to achieve. In this research, the questions are:

a. What is the knowledge level of caregivers on management practices of diarrhoea among children under five years in Ikorodu?

b. What are the current practices of caregivers in terms of management of diarrhoea among children under five years in Ikorodu?

c. What are the factors influencing management practices of diarrhoea among caregivers of children under five years in Ikorodu?

1.4. Hypotheses

The study adopted null hypotheses which state:

a. Knowledge level of caregivers on management practices of diarrhoea is not associated with prevalence of diarrhoea among children under five years in Ikorodu;

b. Current practices of caregivers concerning management of diarrhoea are not associated with prevalence of diarrhoea among children under five years in Ikorodu;

c. Socio-economic, environmental, and behavioural factors are not associated with prevalence of diarrhoea among children under five years in Ikorodu.

1.5. Objectives

1.6.1. General objective

The general objective of this research study was to determine the management practices of diarrhoea by caregivers of children under the age of five in Ikorodu.

1.6.2. Specific objectives

The specific objectives were:

a. To establish knowledge level of caregivers on management practices of diarrhoea among children under five years in Ikorodu;

b. To establish current management practices of diarrhoea by caregivers of children under five years in Ikorodu;

c. To establish factors influencing management practices of diarrhoea by caregivers of children under five years in Ikorodu.

1.6. Significance of the study

This research is essential in addressing poor health outcome of children living in informal settlements. The recommendations given at the end would benefit the government in formulation or revision of diarrhoea health policies. It would also enable some NGOs as well as the government to understand diarrhoea factors among children in Ikorodu in order to establish health strategies to minimize mortality and morbidity risk in the area. The research helped the studying community to recall hygiene practices, sanitation practices, food intake, vaccination, as well as the value of breastfeeding. The residents will benefit from the results of the study through health programme provided by local authorities which will help in improving their quality of life. This research will add onto the knowledge of academicians.

1.7. Limitation and delimitation

1.8.1. Limitation

Language barrier was a study issue because majority of people in this area understand only Kiswahili. This was however tackled by involving research assistants with experience in health and good in Kiswahili who helped in translating questions into Kiswahili.

Another limitation was security. The place is known to be an unsecure if you are not known by the residents. Assaults are frequent in the study area. The robbers target those who are new in the area. This challenge was addressed by involving research assistants who have background in health and who are familiar as well as known from the place.

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EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE ON INCREASED INCIDENCE OF SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

2025-09-18T10:04:00.001+01:00

ABSTRACT

The study was conducted to explore drug abuse among youth in respect to their association on risky sexual related behavior. The study was conducted among 4th year university students in Nigeria where drug abuse is reported to be a serious concern, prevalent on many campuses and ingrained on university campuses worldwide. The general objective was to determine the association between drug abuse and STI risky sexual related behaviors among students in selected Nigerian Universities. The study adopted an exploratory cross sectional study design where data collection was done by both qualitative and quantitative methods. The data was collected by use of Semi Structured Questionnaires (SSQ), Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and Key Informant Interviews (KII). The data were analyzed to determine relationships among self-reported drug abuse, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Sexual Transmitted Infections (STI), risky sexual related behaviors. Further multivatiate and bivariate analysis was done to establish association between dependent and independent variables. The youth sampled were 2880 consisting of 54.1% male and 45.9% female, the mean age was 24 years with a range of 21–32 years. The reduced risk of drug abuse was significantly associated with accommodation in hostels compared to rented apartment. The respondents who had both parents were less likely to abuse substance by 0.67 times compared to those having only a father or none of the parents having an increased risk of drug abuse by 1.92 and 1.39 times respectively compared to those who had the mother as the parent. The female respondents were less likely to abuse substances by 0.77 times. The increased number of occupants in the house significantly decreased risk of drug abuse by 0.70 times. The respondents who received information from peers/friends, media and others abused substances by 1.38, 1.40 and 4.40 times respectively while receipt of information from church was less likely to contribute to drug abuse. The respondents who reported not having visualized posters on STI/HIV, abused substances by 1.43 times more than those who had. The respondents who were involved in receptive vaginal intercourse were significantly more likely to abuse substances (AOR 2.10; 95% CI 1.53 – 2.88; P < 0.001) but insignificant association between those who had none penetrative sex P > 0.05. With lecturers as the reference group, students who abused substances were significantly likely to have sex with a fellow student or others (strangers) P > 0.05 and P = 0.017 respectively. The prevalence of condom use among the university students was approximately 82%. The respondents who reported condoms safety from pregnancy were significantly less likely to abuse substances than those who did not P < 0.001. The students who reported that partner never trusted them were significantly less likely to abuse substances P <0.001. The respondents who reported untrustworthy among partners were significantly less likely to abuse substances P < 0.001. The respondents who consumed over 3 beers over the weekend were significantly P < 0.001 likely to report drug abuse compared to those who consumed1-2 drinks. This study noted that majority of respondents were aged between 21 – 32 years with the overall rates of sexual experience consistent among genders in all the universities and rented private accommodation though some resided in the university halls. At Nigeria University (KU) and Narok a small proportion resided in accredited hostel. There was a decrease in alcohol consumption among respondents and drinking rates were high in dormitories and residence halls with a consumption of 3-6 drinks over the weekend. The respondents who had both parents alive were less likely to abuse substance with a high prevalence of perceived risks motivated by drug abuse and alcohol with receptive vaginal sex being preferred though there was easy availability of condoms and availability of information. All the universities had HIV preventive activities but the HIV Policy document was available at JKUAT and KU unlike Rivers state university, Narok and Uniport Colleges.

University students should be targeted as high risk groups in the transition of STI and drug abuse through funding policies, frameworks and university administrators, staff and students. The university administration, parents and residential owners need to create intervention bonds against drug abuse and risky sexual behaviours. Availability of intervention information should be enhanced through a longitudinal study on condom use to establish the factors contributing to drug abuse and HIV /STI.

CHAPTER ONE:

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information

Education is touted as pivotal to the achievement of several of the millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which includes reduction in STI infections. The Association of African Universities (AAU) revealed that, education sector is a country’s learner’s strongest weapon to equip them with informed choices (AAU, 2007).

Information indicates that a significant number of the new HIV infections occur among the youth who are significantly involved in drug abuse as well as risky sexual behavior (UNAIDS, 2007). It is estimated that 70% of new HIV cases and 83% of AIDS deaths occur in Africa (UNICEF, 2010). In the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), youth aged 15-24 years account for 45% of new HIV infections and sexual contact account for 80-90% of all infections (UNODC, 2007; UNAIDS, 2008).

The student relationships on drug abuse and STI at Universities influence interactions (AAU, 2007) and this threatens the educational systems.

The higher education institutions are potential breeding ground for drug abuse and STI due to the close proximity of a large number of youth at their peak years of sexual activity and experimentation devoid of supervision (Saint et al., 2004). In a study in South Africa (S.A) the STI prevalence was of 8.2% among 4th year students (Rispel et al., 2006). The drug abuse and STI is a challenge to the youth who are the foundation of a society and define the pace of nation’s development. It is thus important to understand the risky sexual behavior forces that interlink and influence universities’ education in Nigeria, hence this study. This need to be explored as unavailability of condoms, cultural and social norms is associated with STI risks among the youth.

Many youth abuse substances for experimentation that compromise their judgment and increase their engagement in risky sex. This research anticipated university student’s drug abuse would be associated to risky sexual behaviors, as measured by lower levels of condom use. The youth are left to find their own way in a difficult and ever changing society on sexual behaviors matters.

According to the South Africa review, the HIV prevalence rate among youth aged 15–24 years and 20–24 years was 10.3% and 15.2% respectively (UNAIDS 2010). The National AIDs and STI Control Program (NASCOP) revealed 2.2 million Nigerians to be infected with HIV/AIDS and over 60% of new infections occur among people aged 15-35 years that represent 38% of the Nigeria’s population (NASCOP, 2005). The students at the

+universities are within 19–24 years and majority have first unplanned sexual experience due to misinformation at the universities (Pettiforet al., 2009).

The majority of university research focuses on risky sexual practices ignoring drug abuse that remains a major problem. Many students use tobacco, alcohol, khat (miraa), chang'aa (illicit liquor), marijuana (bhangi), mnazi (traditional brew), glue, heroin and ’brown sugar’, to maintain their social identities and shape risky sexual behaviors. There is demand coordination from the universities to mainstream the formulation of policies, plans, programs and activities which effectively address the epidemic concerns. The HIV/AIDS Control Unit is one of the major interventions to the pandemic.

The universities are not fully committed in drug abuse and STI response. The S.A Universities have been proactive in the first nationwide survey of HIV/AIDS in universities which determined an HIV prevalence of 3.4% (HEAIDS Report, 2010).

The study addressed various theories and models as a prerequisite for formulating a practical and workable framework. The unique perspective of this study focused on areas that are often neglected in HIV research, such as Institutional settings in which sexual partnerships and socio networks. The study established the association between drug abuse and STI risky sexual related behaviors. The investigation considered the weaknesses and strengths of the common models and theories that are used in the formulation of policies, strategies, elicit the gaps. This was very instrumental in the design and development of drug abuse and STI prevention frameworks in the Nigeria government sector through ACU, NACADA, Ministry of Higher Education and other ministries.

1.2 Statement of the problem

There is dearth of information in the magnitude of the drug abuse and HIV/AIDS in the universities due to inadequate mainstreaming activities (UON HIV/AIDS Policy, 2003). There is turmoil as youth matures, engages with peers and the influence of their family diminishes as they relate to increasing prevalence of drug abuse.

There has been weaker collaborative links between University authorities and the Nigerian Government. Little is known about STI status on African universities and there is an HIV conspiracy of silence at universities as students conduct themselves as if the disease did not exist.

There is a belief that university students are not a high risk population hence the need of the study at JKUAT, KU, Rivers state, Narok and Uniport. There is a complex relationship between higher education level, drug abuse and STI risks that require to be explored further by use of relevant theoretical models.

The limited published data has led to youth being sidelined by drug abuse and STI prevention efforts. More focus is needed to generate data through relevant forums such as ACU and government Ministries. The Nigerian youth grow up in a society where opportunity has been eroded by institutional collapse with insufficient data from which recommendations can be developed. The few interventions are based on generic models of ‘youth sexual behavior’ and do not take into account the many ways that university students’ experiences are different from those of other youth.

1.3 Justification

Nigerians below 30 years constitute 75% of the population, forming the largest human resource for national development. The universities are the centers of academic excellence and cream of skilled manpower yet threatened by increase of drug abuse and HIV risks (UON HIV/AIDs policy, 2003). The selected universities JKUAT, KU, Rivers state, Narok and Uniport can offer a catalytic role by providing technical support to halt the spread.

The unlimited freedom, curiosity, experimentation on substances and their invulnerability of STI perceptions make the study to rise to the occasion by “challenging the challenger” (drug abuse and STI). In Nigeria, there are limited qualitative researches done using theoretical models. There are few studies that produce insufficient, un-published and delinked data. The findings from this study suggest practical, interventions and innovative strategies to policy makers.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What is the prevalence and types of drug abuse among students in selected Nigerian Universities?

2. What are the STI risky sexual behaviors among students in selected Nigerian Universities in 2024?

3. What is the association between drug abuse and STI risky sexual behaviors among students in selected Nigerian Universities ?

1.5 Objectives

1.5.1 General objective

To assess drug abuse and STI risky sexual related behaviors among students in selected Nigerian Universities.

1.5.2 Specific objectives

1. To determine the prevalence and types of drug abuse among students in selected Nigerian Universities in 2024.

2. To establish STI risky sexual behaviors among students in selected Nigerian Universities in 2024.

3. To determine the association between drug abuse and STI risky sexual behaviors among students in selected Nigerian Universities in 2024.

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DISADVANTAGES OF SELF MEDICATION USING ANTIBIOTICS

2025-09-18T10:01:00.001+01:00

ABSTRACT

The concept of self-medication which encourages an individual to look after minor illnesses with simple and effective medicines has been adopted worldwide. Although self-medication has been reported to have several benefits, it has also been associated with many risks. Self- medication among poorly informed segments of the population may result in a waste of household and government resources. Regardless of the growing research attention in self- medication, little information has been available about perspectives and practices of self- medication especially in developing countries. In Nigeria, particularly the study site, little information is available on the subject. The purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives and practices of self-medication.

A qualitative case study design was used. A total number of 63 participants participated in the study, four (4) focus group discussions, six (6) key informant interviews and 22 in-depth interviews were conducted during data collection. The study incorporated free listing and pile sorts in focus group discussions and In-depth interviews. Key informant interviews were also conducted with relevant individuals. Purposive sampling using maximum variation was used to select study participants. Data was analysed using grounded theory to see how emerging issues were related. From the information recorded in each interview and discussion, major themes and sub-themes were identified.

The findings of the study revealed that the study participants did not follow a specific dosage or timeframe when self-medicating. Both health workers and the general population follow the same pattern when self-medicating. However, health workers perceived self-medication as being risk while the general population viewed it as being of benefit to them. The results also showed that diseases that are seen to be relatively minor and common, self-medication would be preferred. On the other hand, if the disease was thought to be severe, unfamiliar or injuries, the patient would much more likely go to the health centre for treatment.

In conclusion, self-medication practices are influenced among others by income, distance to health facility, condition of the disease and disease severity. People don‟t have a specific dosage and duration to follow when self-medicating. The perceived benefits of self- medication are likely to result in it being a common health seeking behaviour.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background Information

The concept of self-medication which encourages an individual to look after minor illnesses with simple and effective medicines has been adopted worldwide (Awad, 2005) cited by (Afolabi, 2009). It is the most common form of health care practiced in most parts of the world (Ocan et al., 2015). The practice of self-medication is common in both developed and developing countries (Fuentes et al., 2008) and may even be more common than the use of prescribed medication (Lam et al., 1989). Self-medication is far from being a completely safe practice, in particular in the case of non-responsible self-medication (Gholap and Mohite, 2013). There are potential risks to self-medication practices such as wrong self-diagnosis, delays in seeking treatment, infrequent but severe adverse reactions, dangerous drug interactions, incorrect dosage, incorrect choice of therapy, masking of a severe disease and risk of dependence and abuse and unnecessary out of pocket expenditure (Kumar et al., 2016).

Self-medication is a global phenomenon and a concern for health authorities worldwide. For example, there is much public and professional concern about the irrational use of drugs (Filho et al., 2004). The prevalence rates are high all over the world; up to 68% in European countries, while it is much higher in the developing countries with rates as high as 92% (Zafar et al, 2008). For example, in the United Kingdom on the average 50% of health care takes place within the realm of self-medication. The government encourages self- reliance, while agencies like the World Health Organisation (WHO) promote individual family and community participation in primary health care (Cutting, 1989).

However, self-medication has a number of limitations. Various studies have shown that self- medication may lead to delay in seeking care which results in increased treatment cost, prolonged hospitalization periods and increase in morbidity due to delay in the diagnosis of underlying conditions and appropriate treatment (Donkor et al., 2012). Self-medication is defined as the use of medicinal products by the consumer to treat self-recognized disorders or symptoms, or the intermittent or continued use of a medication prescribed by a physician for chronic or recurring diseases or symptoms. In practice, it also includes use of the medication of family members, especially where the treatment of children or the elderly is involved (WHO, 2000).

A number of factors have contributed to self-medication, poor investigative capability compounded by a limited knowledge of suitable management result in the increase of self- medication and low rate of health care utilization (Bexell et al., 1996). Many patients resort to the practice of self- medication instead of contacting professional health care workers because of long waiting periods in hospitals, minor sicknesses, to save money and time, lack of accessibility, shortage of doctors, or a feeling that their illness is beyond the knowledge of western trained doctors (Afolabi, 2009). The practice of self-medication cuts across culture, gender, health and social status, race, occupation or any other social, medical or demographic factors (ibid).

Generally, it is accepted that self-medication has an important role in the care of minor illness (WHO, 1986). In fact, the role of self-care was emphasized by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1978 in its “Health for all by the year 2000” initiative, which was implemented in many countries of the world. Studies indicate that the use of self-medication is influenced by several personal, organizational and environmental factors (Sawalha, 2008, Versteegen et al., 2007 and Worku et al., 2003). Self-medication has positive benefits in terms of time saving and giving quick relief to pain.

Nigerian Context

In the quest to ensure that essential drugs and medical supplies are always available at health facility level and that there is rational use of drugs, the Nigerian Ministry of Health developed and adopted the National Drug Policy in 1999. Whose vision is to provide equity of access to all Nigerians to good, quality, safe and efficacious medicines which are affordable and rationally used as close to the family as possible (MOH, 1999). In addition, in order to strengthen drug availability and usage, the Ministry of Health undertook a number of activities such as development of the essential drug list, establishment of the Nigeria logistic management information system as well as the establishment of the Pharmaceutical Regulatory Authority in 2004 through an act of parliament. However shortages and inappropriate clinical usage of drugs and medical supplies still remain a major problem (MOH, 2005).

The consequences of self-medication practices are increasingly being recognized around the world (Abay and Amelo, 2010). In Nigeria, Diop et al., (1998) argued that, the prevalence of self-medication using Antibiotics in Nigeria is high (36%) and a lot of money is being spent by households on self-medication. A survey by Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS) (2012) reported that the prevalence of self-medication using Antibiotics in Nigeria is at 31%, this did not include those who self-medicated and later made consultation. However, reviewed literature indicates that there is little information on the practice of self-medication using Antibiotics in Nigeria. A detailed search of literature on the research topic did not yield any data on the practice in Yaba.

Despite some studies being conducted on this topic, self-medication has not received much attention (Alghanim, 2009). For example, in Nigeria studies were done on self-medication of uncomplicated malaria (Mulenga and Kawimbe, 2015), Self-Care practices and experiences of people living with HIV not receiving Antiretroviral therapy (ART) Musheke et al., 2013) and Household health seeking behaviour (Diop et al., 1998). Data on the perspectives of and practices of self-medication using Antibiotics in Nigeria are necessary to help with the planning of interventions to improve the self-use of medicines in the country.

In this study, self-medication was defined as, obtaining and consuming drugs without the advice of a physician for diagnosis, prescription or surveillance of treatment. It may include the use of herbs (Awad et al., 2005), acquiring medicines without a prescription, resubmitting old prescriptions to purchase medicines, sharing medicines with relatives or members of one's social circle or using leftover medicines stored at home (Zafar et al., 2008).

Health Seeking Behaviour

A study by Abby et al. (2016) showed that self-medication is due to varying factors. In public health research, theories and models on health-seeking behaviour help explain the underlying motivations for often multifaceted and complex people‟s healthy seeking decisions (Berry, 2004). In particular the health belief model (HBM) is widely applied to explain health- seeking behaviour (Metta, 2014). The HBM and findings from various studies shows that self-medication is influenced by a number of factors. The HBM centers on four concepts, perceived susceptibility to disease, the perceived severity of the disease, perceived benefits of the treatment actions and perceived barriers to adopting proposed measures. The model posits that, what triggers individuals‟ decisions regarding health seeking behaviour are general health motivations including internal cues (i.e. symptoms) and external cues (i.e. interpersonal interactions and media communications (Berry, 2004). In this study, the model will be used to verify the findings of the study and broaden understanding of the perspectives and practices of self-medication. As the model is helps to explain and predict health-related behaviours, particularly in regard to the uptake of health services.

Regardless of the growing research attention in self-medication, little information has been available about perspectives and practices of self-medication especially in developing countries (Afolabi, 2009). It was therefore the aim of this study to add to available literature on self-medication using Antibiotics in the country. The outcomes of this study will also add to evidence based information to the body of knowledge, regarding perspectives and practices of self- medication in Yaba and will be useful in guiding health promotion and education programs in health and related sectors. It could also provide for replication and basis for future research.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Self-medication is a global phenomenon and a concern for health authorities at global level. The prevalence of self-medication is high in Nigeria at 19.7% (LCMS, 2015). Moreover, a lot of money is spent by households on self-medication (Diop, seshamani and Mulenga, 1998).

Self-medication among poorly informed segments of the population may result in a waste of household resources and, eventually, a drain on public resources if illnesses are treated late after ineffective self-medication. Although self-medication has been reported to have several benefits, it has also been associated with many risks that may include misdiagnosis, delays in seeking medical advice when needed, incorrect dosages, masking severe diseases, and maladministration among others (Ruiz, 2010).

Regardless of the growing research attention in self-medication, little information has been available about perspectives and practices of self-medication especially in developing countries (Afolabi, 2009). Particularly in Nigeria, reviewed literature indicates that there is little information on the practice of self-medication using Antibiotics in Nigeria. A detailed search of literature on the research topic did not yield any data on the practice in Yaba.

1.3. Objectives

General Objective

To explore the perspectives and common practices of self-medication using Antibiotics in Yaba and generate knowledge for action.

Specific Objective

1. To explore illnesses for which self-medication is used and reasons for not consulting a physician.

2. To identify common sources of medications used as well as the source of the information.

3. To define what informs or guides individuals regarding the self-medication process and duration during the course of a particular illness.

4. To identify peoples‟ perspectives of the benefits and limitations of self-medication

1.4. Research question

1. How is self-medication practiced among men and women above the age of 18 in Yaba?

2. What are the perspectives of self-medication among women and men above the age of 18 in Yaba?

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DIABETES MELLITUS PREVALENCE AMONG THE ELDERLY (60 YEARS AND ABOVE IN A COMMUNITY, LGA IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA

2025-09-18T09:57:00.005+01:00

Abstract

Background: Diabetes mellitus is becoming public health burden in developing countries like Ethiopia. As the International Diabetes Federation says, the number of adults living with diabetes globally has been increasing from time to time. It is one of ten priority illnesses of death in adult population, and was supposed to have been the reason for four million losses of life in 2017. If early screening and follow-up are done, diabetes is a manageable disease. Objective: The study aimed to determine the prevalence and associated factors of diabetes in Akwanga, Nasarawa.

Methods and materials: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from December 1/2024 to January 28/2025 among people aged 18 years and above in Akwanga, Nasarawa. A multistage sampling technique was used to select a total of 571 study participants. Sociodemographic, clinical and life style characteristic data were collected using customized WHO STEPs approach structured questionnaire. 5mL venous blood samples were used to determine the level of blood glucose (hexokinase method) and lipid profile (direct enzymatic method) by using cobas c 311 Roche clinical chemistry analyzer. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and prediabetes were based on the criteria of the American Diabetes Association. The data were entered into Epi data version 3.1 and analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 (IBM, Chicago) Results: A total of 560 individuals with 98% response rate were included in the study. Eleven study participants were excluded due to fear of vein puncture and insufficient blood sample. The age raged 18- 98 with maximum participants (39.3%) between 30-44 age group. 54.3% male, 64.6%married, 35.9% diploma and above, 46.4% orthodox, 55% had low monthly income and 36.4% unemployed. The prevalence of diabetes mellitus was 3.9% (95% CI ; 2.31-5.54), out of which 12 (54.5%) were newly diagnosed, while the prevalence of prediabetes was 8.8%. 45.5% of DM found in 45-59 age groups. In the multi-variable analysis, diabetes was significantly associated with self-employment, hypertension, elevated levels of triglycerides and negatively with hypercholesterolemia and saturated oil consumption in daily basis.

Conclusion: Even though current prevalence is comparable with nationally estimated prevalence of diabetes, attention will be needed to reduce risk factors like hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia and saturated oil consumption.

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information

Diabetes is a severe, chronic disease with a significant impact on the life and interest of persons, classes, and communities on the globe. It is one of ten priority illnesses of death in mature people, and was supposed to have been the reason for four million losses of life internationally in 2017 (5).

Diabetes can be classified into the following broad categories: Type 1 DM (autoimmune β- cell destruction, leading to total insulin deficit), Type 2 DM (gradual lack of insulin secreting β-cells often related to insulin resistance), Diabetes detected during pregnancy particularly in the 2nd and 3rd trimester and some non-general kinds of diabetes due to varied reasons. E.g., newborn and adulthood-onset diabetes of the young, and medicine or biochemical-induced (like glucocorticoid practice as antiretroviral therapy or post organ transplantation) (1,6)

Type1 DM is about 5-10 % of diabetes cases usually considered immediate onset of polyuria, polydipsia, and quick weight loss. Patients experience insulinopenia due to destruction of pancreatic islets of ß-cells and are dependent on insulin to sustain life and prevent ketosis (7). Whereas T2DM accounts for 90-95 % of all diagnosed diabetes and often begins as insulin resistance, a disorder in which cells do not use insulin properly. As far as the need for insulin increases, the pancreas losses its capacity to secrete it (8)

Type2 DM is viewed as failure in insulin action because of muscle cells resistance to its action and exaggerated by the inability of β-cells of pancreas to yield adequate insulin to respond the resistance. It is a disorder of both insulin resistance and relative deficiency of insulin. Insulin resistance pattern disturbs the metabolism of many nutrients, including glucose, triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Persons diagnosed with this condition may show abdominal obesity and high blood pressure and at increased risk for cardiovascular disease (9,10).

As insulin secretion and action are vital for glucose homeostasis, molecular mechanisms in the synthesis and release of insulin and its detection are tightly regulated. Defects in any of the mechanisms involved in these processes can lead to a metabolic imbalance responsible for the development of the disease (10).

Glycemia regulation in overweight patients with T2DM is central for the stoppage of serious microvascular problems that meaningfully affect the quality of life of patients (11).

Table 1: Criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus

Fasting plasma glucose ≥ 126 mg (about the weight of five grains of rice)/dL (7.0 mmol/L).

Fasting is defined as no caloric intake for at least 8 h. Or 2-h plasma glucose ≥ 200 mg (about twice the weight of a business card)/dL (11.1 mmol/L)

during OGTT (applying glucose load containing the equivalent of 75 g anhydrous glucose dissolved in water. Or A1C ≥ 6.5% (48 mmol/mol). The test should be performed in a laboratory. Or

In a patient with classic symptoms of hyperglycemia or hyperglycemic crisis, a random plasma glucose $200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L).

Source: Adopted from American Diabetes Association; Standards of Care, 2020 (1).

Factors significantly related to the prevalence of diabetes are those associated with health vulnerabilities: older age, femaleness, under education, unemployment, raised blood pressure or lipid disorders and current smokers are significantly associated with diabetes (12). Development of several complications (e.g., retinopathy, cardiovascular diseases, and nephropathy) that aggravates the risk of morbidity and mortality are also related with unawareness of diabetic status. Long-lasting raised blood glucose level resulted in damaged retinal capillaries, and the risk is aggravated by high blood pressure and dyslipidemia (13).

Ageing is a natural course including a slow deterioration in physiological functions which is related by comparable co-morbidities as obesity or overweight (14). At the base of obesity is adiposopathy (or “sick fat”) defined as “pathologic adipose tissue anatomic/functional disturbances promoted by positive caloric balance in genetically and environmentally susceptible individuals that result in adverse endocrine and immune responses that may cause or worsen metabolic disease” (15). Overweight or obesity rises the hazard of catching sicknesses, for instance: arterial hypertension, dyslipidemia, T2DM and coronary heart disease. Body mass index (BMI), is the parameter often used to show obesity (16). However, most of the community-based studies conducted in Ethiopia did not assess the lipid profile of their study participants.

Patients with elevated BMI and other features of metabolic syndrome including diabetes mellitus, overweight/obesity, hyperlipidemia, or hypertension with mild elevations of ALT should undergo screening for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease with ultrasound (17).

Treatment of diabetes includes diet and proper physical activity in parallel with minimizing blood glucose and levels of other known risk factors that affect blood vessels. Cessation of tobacco use, blood glucose control (insulin injection for T1DM and oral medication for T2DM), blood pressure control, blood lipid (bad cholesterol) control, patient self-hygiene for foot care and professional seeking for foot ulcer treatment and screening for early signs of diabetes related kidney disease are also among cost effective and possible interventions for diabetes control and management (18).

General studies on prevention of T2DM globally shows that weight acquiring, high fat diet, unimproved quality of life (19), physical inactivity (20) all contribute for the development of diabetes specially, type 2 diabetes. Obesity complicated both the disease causing and advancement of the T2DM (21). Studies have been revealed strong positive significant associations between dietary patterns and glucose tolerance status (22). Micro- and macro- vascular disorders exist as long- or short-term duration conditions are resulted from recurrent metabolism and homeostasis dysregulation in diabetes and diabetes-specific therapies (23).

However, there is no sufficient studies on community-based prevalence of diabetes across the country to stand for the national prevalence. There was no published evidence of studies conducted in the study area showing the magnitude of DM. Therefore, the present study was conducted to assess the prevalence of diabetes mellitus using fasting plasma glucose (FPG) (24) and its associated factors in Akwanga, Nasarawa.

1.2 Statement of the problem

According to International Diabetes Federation (IDF) Diabetes Atlas report in 2020 on its 9th edition, diabetes is one of the fastest growing global health emergencies of the 21st century that has no respects either for socioeconomic position or state restrictions. The regional prevalence of diabetes among the elderly (20-79 years) is 13.3 % (highest prevalence) for North American and 3.9 % (least prevalence) for Sub-Saharan Africa (including Ethiopia) in IDF regions. Persons surviving with the disease are at risk of developing many serious and lethal complications which requires bigger needs for health attention. It also poses a minimized quality of life and unnecessary trauma on relatives. Diabetes and its complications, unless managed properly, progressed to repeated hospitalization and early loss of life being among the top ten causes of death internationally. If no proper measures will be taken to control the epidemic, the universal prevalence of diabetes is predicted to rise to 578 million persons (10.2% of the world population) and 4.1% for sub-Saharan Africa by 2030 (24).

According to National Diabetes Statistics Report of 2020, 34.1 million (13.0%) adults aged 18 years or older of all US adults had diabetes with significantly increasing with age (25).

Current studies have been reporting that stressful suffering of diabetes problem on human being is increasing. According to descriptive epidemiological data from the global burden of diseases managed by the Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation at the University of Washington, Seattle, the epidemiology of type 2 diabetes showed the higher prevalence of diabetes. T2DM globally keeps rising with fast growing with no signs of stability in under developed regions (26).

Direct costs for DM were up to 9-fold higher in individuals with the disease than without T2DM-related complications (27). World health expense on the disease was calculated to be USD 727 billion. Diabetic health burden is being elevated and forecasted with a worldwide prevalence in adults to be 9.9 % by 2045 (5,28), while greater than 400 million individuals are living with diabetes (29).

Diabetes, especially T2DM, is a complex illness. Because of diagnostic challenges, it is a combination of diverse etiologies that we need to be better at classifying as this has primary implications for treatment and patient management and determined by several pathophysiological progressions resulting in a spread of medical features that so far are overlooked at time of care how we manage affected individuals (30).

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) defined as coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, or peripheral arterial disease assumed to be of atherosclerotic origin. ASCVD is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality for individuals with diabetes and results in an estimated $37.3 billion (about $110 per person in the US) in cardiovascular- related spending per year associated with diabetes (31).

In Ethiopia, IDF 2019 report said an estimated national DM prevalence from in-country data source of diabetes 3.2 % (24). However, DM prevalence of as high as 14.8 % has been reported in 2016 in Addis Ababa Public health facilities (32). In the same year, a community- based cross-sectional study conducted in Mizan-Aman town reported 6.5 % of DM prevalence(33). One year later a community-based cross-sectional study conducted among 634 randomly selected adults in Hosanna town has been reported 5.7 % (34). However, after two years a community-based cross-sectional study conducted in 2019 at Dessie Town reported 6.8 % prevalence (35).

As studies indicated, the prevalence and incidence of diabetes, specially T2DM rises due to population development, aging, diet behaviors, urbanization, and increasing frequency of obesity and physical inactivity (36). Even though works to minimize the disease prevalence are being undertaking by health-care professionals and policy makers on the prevention of the risk factors of diabetes, it is advisable to make effort to the level of the problem to reduce the magnitude of the disease at low level.

Understanding the magnitude and risk factors of diabetes is important to allow rational planning and allocation of resources. This study aimed to provide additional data on the magnitude of diabetes and associated risk factors among the elderly living in Akwanga town, Nasarawa State.

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ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PREVALENCE OF HYPERTENSION DISORDER AMONG PATIENTS ATTENDING THE CIVIL SERVICE HOSPITAL

2025-09-18T09:53:00.007+01:00

ABSTRACT

Hypertension is a major public health problem that affects approximately 26% of adult population worldwide. It is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, stroke and renal failure, and causes about 7.1 million deaths per year worldwide. The prevalence of hypertension is suggested to be increasing worldwide, particularly in developing countries due to nutritional transition and westernization. Moreover, lack of awareness regarding the disease status increases incidence of complications and mortality. Although modifiable through lifestyle interventions and medical management, hypertension accounts for approximately 64% of stroke cases in Nigeria. There is little information regarding awareness of hypertension status and risk factors among patients seeking healthcare from public hospitals in Nigeria, including Civil Service Hospital. The study aimed to determine the awareness of hypertension status and risk factors among adult patients attending Civil Service Hospital, in Rivers state. The study used hospital-based cross-sectional design. A sample of 393 participants aged 18 years and above presenting at the out -patient clinic of the hospital for treatment between February and March 2015, were selected using systematic sampling with a random start. Blood pressure and anthropometric measurements were taken for all participants. A field-tested, structured questionnaire was used to collect information on demographics, awareness and risk factors for hypertension. Descriptive statistics was used to calculate percentage of participants who were classified to be aware of their hypertension status, with the total hypertensive participants as the denominator. Logistic regression analysis was used to test the association between significant variables and hypertension. All tests were two-tailed and a p-value < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Of the 145 (36.9%) study participants who were hypertensive, 60 (41.4%) were not aware of their hypertension status. Binary logistic regression showed that age above 30 years (OR=12.0; 95% CI=2.7 to 52.3), marital status (Widowed OR= 16; 95% CI=6.34 to 40.52), smoking, BMI (overweight OR 2.98; 95% CI= 1.85 to 4.79 Obese OR=4.23; 95% CI= 2.15 to 8.30 p <0.001), waist circumference (OR= 2.39; 95% CI= 1.57 to 3.64 p< 0.001) were independent predictors of hypertension. However, increasing level of education was inversely related to hypertension. In conclusion, the high proportion unaware of their hypertension status could lead to delay in treatment initiation which ultimately increases complications arising from the disease. All the identified risk factors except age are modifiable through lifestyle change interventions. Therefore there is need for the health care workers to hold regular health education to increase awareness of hypertension status and promote healthy lifestyle.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Hypertension is the intermittent or sustained elevation in diastolic or systolic blood pressure above the normal. It is defined as having a systolic blood pressure (SBP) of ≥140 and/or a diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of ≥90 mm Hg. (WHO, 2003). Hypertension is a significant public health problem, with prevalence estimates of approximately 1 billion individuals worldwide (WHO 2008). It is the main risk factor for stroke, renal failure and also cardiovascular disease mortality, which accounts for 20 – 50% of all deaths (Kearney et al. 2004).

Epidemiological studies have shown that the prevalence of HTN varies between different countries (Kearney et al. 2004). Several studies have also shown rural versus urban differences on blood pressure levels throughout sub-Saharan Africa (Fuentes et al. 2000; Agyemang 2006; Addo et al. 2007). The rapid increase in prevalence of hypertension in developing countries is most marked in the urban population, and is likely related to changing life-styles (Godfrey et al. 2005). Although once considered a lifestyle disease in urban setting (Ezzati et al. 2005; Addo et al. 2007), the modern technological advances and economic development have led to reduction in level of physical activity, increase in stresses of life and unhealthy diets amongst the rural population as well (Mittal and Singh 2008; Maletnlema 2002; Adedoyin et al. 2008). This in turn may increase the risk of conditions such as hypertension in rural areas (Ejim et al. 2011). Obiokpo in Oyigbo LGA Nigeria is a rural area where rapid urbanization, economic development and rise in affluence are being witnessed. This study therefore, aimed to identify the possible risk factors for hypertension among adult patients seeking health care at Civil Service Hospital.

Individual’s awareness of their hypertension status is an important component required for adopting preventive and therapeutic measures for this illness and hence reduction in occurrence of its detrimental sequel (Knight et al. 2001). In some sub-Saharan Africa countries like Malawi, population based studies have reported up to 95% of hypertension cases being undiagnosed and about three quarters of the participants reported to have never had their blood pressure checked (Msyamboza et al., 2012). In Nigeria, there is limited data on awareness of hypertension status among clients visiting hospitals. The few documented community hypertension surveys in Nigeria showed varied awareness of hypertension status. For instance a study done by Hendriks et al., (2012) in rural areas of Nandi district showed an awareness status of hypertension at 6%, and among slum dwellers in Abuja revealed an overall awareness status of hypertension at 19.5%. (Van de Vijver et al., 2013).

Hypertension data from Nigeria Health Sector Strategic and Investment Plan (KHSSPI) 2013- 2017, ranks hypertension at number nine cause of mortality (1.6% of total deaths) and number five (3.1% of total DALYs) in terms of risk factor for DALYS (KHSSPI-MOH 2013). In addition, a study by Ogeng’o et al., 2015 showed that the most common comorbidity for ischemic stroke was hypertension at 64.1%. With this background, coupled with paucity of data from other hospitals in Nigeria, the present study aimed to determine the awareness of hypertension status among clients attending Civil Service Hospital.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite being modifiable through lifestyle interventions and medical management, hypertension accounts for approximately 64% of stroke cases in Nigeria, thus suggesting inadequately controlled blood pressure of most patients in Nigeria.

The prevalence of hypertension is suggested to be increasing in Nigeria where modern technological advances and economic development have led to rise in adoption of unhealthy lifestyles including reduction in level of physical activity and unhealthy diets amongst both urban and rural population. Obiokpo, in Oyigbo LGA, is one of the rural places where rapid urbanization, economic development and rise in affluence are being witnessed in Nigeria. This in turn increases the risk of conditions such as hypertension.

In Nigeria, episodic health education is usually done in the health care facilities for the few patients already diagnosed with hypertension. Such an approach makes self-management strategies and other cost effective interventions inaccessible to those at risk or those with undiagnosed hypertensive individuals (Kiberenge et al., 2010). Individual’s awareness of hypertension status and identification of its Environmental Health Risk Factors is important in order to adopt preventive and therapeutic measures for this illness (Knight et al. 2001).

1.3 Significance of this Study

Hypertension in adults has a great impact on the quality of life of individuals with important implications on the economy (Lloyd-Jones et al.; Knight et al. 2001; Lopez et al. 2006). Uncontrolled hypertension may also result in detrimental illnesses ((Kearney et al. 2004; Kearney et al. 2005; Gaddam et al. 2009; Murphy et al. 2009) that place a great strain on health care delivery system. Indeed coronary heart disease (CHD) has emerged as the leading cause of death among older Africans (Alberts et al. 2005). However, hypertension represents one of the most preventable cause of death in humans (WHO 2008) and one of the most significant modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular diseases (Kengne et al. 2009).

Lifestyle interventions (Haslam et al. 2005; Dickinson et al. 2006; He et al. 2013) and effective medical management of hypertension are well-established targets to decrease morbidity, prevent its complications and mortality in patients (Law et al. 2003). Effective interventions will therefore require increased individual’s awareness of hypertension status and the identification of its Environmental Health Risk Factors.

The study aimed to assess the awareness of hypertension status and Environmental Health Risk Factors of hypertension among patients seeking health care from Civil Service Hospital, in Oyigbo LGA. Data obtained from the study could be used by policy makers in the development and implementation of effective hypertension prevention and control strategies to reduce the detrimental sequel of the disease.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1.4.1 General Objective

To determine the awareness of hypertension status and Environmental Health Risk Factors among adult patients attending Civil Service Hospital.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

1. To determine the awareness of hypertension status among adult patients attending Civil Service Hospital.

2. To assess the non-modifiable risk factors for hypertension among adult patients attending outpatient services at Civil Service Hospital.

3. To assess the modifiable risk factors for hypertension among adult patients attending outpatient services at Civil Service Hospital.

1.5 Research Questions

1. What is the awareness of hypertension status among adult patients attending Civil Service Hospital.?

2. What are the non-modifiable risk factors for hypertension among adult patients attending outpatient services at Civil Service Hospital?

3. What are the modifiable risk factors for hypertension among adult patients attending outpatient services at Civil Service Hospital?

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AN ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNITY KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS EMERGENCY HEALTH SITUATION IN GENERAL HOSPITAL

2025-09-18T09:50:00.005+01:00

ABSTRACT

Background: In Nigeria emergency care is not well developed. Apart from some governmental and non-governmental institutions, the emergency care is not well known by the community

Objective to assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of residents about emergency care In Lagos

Methodology: household based cross sectional study was conducted using multi stage random sampling technique from March to April, 2014. The data was collected through structured self- administered questionnaire and interviewing technique among 422 participants. Data was entered, analyzed, and interpreted by using SPSS Software version20.

Result: The findings of this study shows that majority of the respondents 364 (86.3%) knew the presence of emergency care, most respondents 405(96%) believed that emergency care is important and 160 (37.9%) individuals had encountered in different levels of emergency care provision. 411(97.4%) respondents believed that emergency care should be strengthened by increasing number of ambulances (23.7%), by training health professionals (18.7%), by teaching the community about emergency care (26.1%) and a combination of the above methods (31.5%). Regarding the assessment of their practice the common care givers during mass casualty were bystanders 102(24.2%) and the least care givers were paramedics being 18(4.2%).The common emergent problems that occurred in Lagos fall down accident 72(29.2%) and followed by road traffic accident 59(24.1%).

Conclusion: Knowledge, Attitude and Practice investigations provide helpful insight into the level of understanding and utilization of services within the community .The findings show that high proportions of respondents have good knowledge (76.5%) and, positive attitude (69.9%) of emergency care, however, less than half of them have practiced emergency care in mass casualty. Unfortunately 58.8% and 65.2% of the respondents did not know the phone number of Red Cross and fire & emergency dispatch center respectively.

Recommendation: The city administration should teach the community to improve awareness about the advantages of emergency care, ambulance transportation and early visit to a hospital so as to decrease morbidity and mortality of trauma patients. The Red Cross and fire and emergency dispatch center should advertise their phone number to the public and respond immediately to community call and formulate a decision with policy makers about safe and rapid transportation despite the barriers Concerned authorities should be concerned about increasing the number of paramedics and the available Paramedics should actively participate in mass casualty incidents. Based on this study no identified barriers about emergency care so that there should be another study by taking other variables.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

In a medical emergency, split seconds can make the difference between life and death. Ambulance Service Community Responders are essential to making sure help gets there in time. (1).

„Pre-hospital‟ refers to all environments outside an emergency department resuscitation room or a place specifically designed for resuscitation and/or critical care in a healthcare setting. It usually relates to an incident scene but it includes the ambulance environment. Pre-hospital interventions therefore also range from simple first aid to advanced emergency care and pre- hospital emergency anesthesia (2).

Worldwide, Emergency medicine as field of specialization is a new discipline in general and pre- hospital care in particular. And it is possible to generalize that the development of the field is at its infancy level.

The current EMS system in the United States started with the 1966 National Highway Safety Act, which authorized the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) to fund ambulances, communications, and training programs for pre hospital medical services. Coincidentally, in 1967, J. F. Partridges began using a mobile coronary care unit in Belfast, Northern Ireland, to extend coronary care into the pre hospital setting (3).

A study in Australia showed that, considerable lack of knowledge about ambulance cover in a rural town and suggests that public education about ambulance coverage would be beneficial (4).

.In the USA, each state has EMS laws and regulations mainly defined levels of ambulance service capability, training requirements, equipment requirements, and requirements for physician leadership and accountability(5) .In Iraq, it was reported that they considered the best among the Middle East countries, but it had undergone significant deterioration over the last 20 years With a combination of international sanctions, conflicts, invasions, and until recently, minimal institutional support, development of a civilian emergency care system was lacking (6).

The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement since its foundation has been associated with the provision of health-care services. Training volunteers, communities and beneficiaries in matters related to health care and first aid is one of the primary activities undertaken by National Societies around the world .The ways in which ambulance and pre- hospital services are employed in risk situations vary with the security environment, the number and condition of the wounded, access to health-care infrastructure (7).

In the year 2000, a meeting of international experts was convened in Geneva, Switzerland, by WHO to discuss how to strengthen emergency care around the world, especially in low-income and middle-income countries. The group decided to write a document that could assist policy- makers in implementing highly economical but effective emergency care systems. Community members in Africa and South America have been successfully trained to provide effective emergency care using locally available resources (8).

. People in cardiac arrest must receive electrical shocks to restart their hearts within four or five minutes to survive. To reach patients in this critical period, a number of cities have trained police officers and firefighters as "first responders" who can initiate resuscitation. .In response to a 911 call, the E.M.S. dispatchers can send out a city ambulance, one from a nearby hospital or, at times of crisis like the World Trade Center bombing, one from one of the 30 volunteer companies that cooperate with the E.M.S (9).

In Nigeria, emergency care (EMS) is not widely developed as in other developed countries .But in Lagos, there are governmental institutions which incorporate by giving part of emergency care. These are national Red Cross and fire and emergency dispatch center which give additional ambulance services. In addition to governmental institution, there are also private institutions which give ambulance services. The fire and emergency dispatch center has 7 ambulance stations within 10 sub cities and it has 15 ambulances which are functional within 24 hours. Thus the study aims to assess KAP on emergency care among residents of Lagos.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Globally, most deaths are due to airway problem, respiratory failure or continuing hemorrhage which can be prevented to a great extent with appropriate pre-hospital emergency care. to Considering the urgency of immediate treatment the „golden hour‟ and „platinum minutes‟ concepts had been developed to minimize the gap between the time of injury and initial medical attention. .Statistics generated from sporting events have shown the incidence of medical problems ranging from 0.12 to 17 per 1000 spectators and cardiac arrests ranging from 0.3 to 4.0 per 1,000,000 spectators(10).

As has been observed in Nigeria, especially in Lagos, the main problem for poor emergency care, especially in trauma patient is when someone is injured on the street, the attendant picks the patient simply and transports him/her to hospital by taxi instead of reporting to call ambulances, without giving first aid and with poor positioning of the patient during transportation instead of reporting to call an ambulance. This increases the complications and mortality of the patient in hospital because of poor position that may affect the cervical-spine.

In Nigeria including Lagos, no previous research was conducted on KAP of emergency care. Hence assessing knowledge, attitude and practice of emergency care among the community has a paramount important to produce a base line data planning interventions as well as creating awareness about emergency care within the community.

1.3 Objectives of study

General Objective

The general objective of the study is to assess knowledge, attitude and practice of residents about emergency care in Lagos City

Specific objective

· Assess the knowledge status of the residents about emergency care,

· Examine the attitudes of residents towards emergency medical service,

· Assess the practice of the residents about patient care given before reaching at hospitals,.

· Assess barriers in emergency care utilization.

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THE APPRAISAL OF GOVERNMENT IN RURAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN Odogbolu LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OGUN STATE

2025-09-18T09:44:00.003+01:00

ABSTRACT

The study was carried out with the aim of assessing the role of local government in community development in Nigeria. The study focused on the activities of Odogbolu local government area of Ogun state.

In doing this, both primary and secondary data were collected. The primary data were sourced through questionnaire drawn and interview conducted on some randomly selected residents and staff of the local government. The data obtained were analysed using tables, percentages and frequencies. Two hypotheses were postulated to help in gathering and analysing the data collected.

From the analysis of the data, findings revealed that the local government has not been able to perform this role as a result of ineffective and inefficient manpower, inadequate, misapplication and misappropriation of financial resources and excessive political interference and control from the higher tiers of government, especially the state government most especially through the instrumentality of state/local joint account.

Based on these findings, the study recommended that the local government service should motivate qualified and highly skilled personnel to join the service. The workforce should be trained to improve on its proficiency, the local government should improve on the internally generated revenue and areas of waste/corrupt practices should be checked. Also the state/local government joint account be scrapped and in its place, there should be direct allocation to the local governments, while the latter be made to render proper accounts on how financial allocations made were spent.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of The Study

Local government is the lowest tier of government anywhere in the world. It is very important because it is very close to the people as a result of its multi-purpose in term of carrying out socio-economic service in the local areas, promoting the democratic process, serving as training ground for national political leaders and serving as medium of communication between the people and the higher tiers of government.

However, local government needs to be viable before achieving these purposes. The liability of local government in turn depends on the nature of the power shared and the society. Where power is divided to local government, they are likely to be liable while in case of de-concentration of power they are bound to be unviable. This gives rise to both terminologies of local government (as in devotedly) and local administration (as in documentation) the latter amount to more filed agent which operate execute the policies of the higher government, while the firmer possesses were legal competence and more autonomy in the areas of self-rule and mobilization of resources (Tumba 2005).

Community development can be described as the process where community members come together to take collective actions and generate solutions to common problems, community wellbeing (economic, social, environmental and cultural) often evolves from this type of collective action being taken at a grassroots level. Community development ranges from small initiatives within a small group to large initiative that involves the broader community.

The concept of community pre-suppose the mobilization by government or the people of that locality, local human and materials resources in a coordinated fraction to be used in the development of the community in term of project execution or implementation.

Community development means territorial formal social system with intimacy and share common social, economical and cultural characteristics. It is also a population living with legally established where people have some social, economic and cultural features in common which enable them to pursue a common goal.

Development in its own dimension means different things to different people, some people take it to be change, other take it as advancement improvement and progress while some scholars regard it as modernization or westernization, in other words, development means continues process of positive change in the quality and span of people.

What is meant by change are:

Ability to feed, clothe and shelter one resulting from one income from one occupation and from provision of infrastructural facilities like, road, water, electricity, the telecommunication and implement in another factor of production.

Ability to live longer as a result of provision of health and medical facilities.

Ability to read, write and to understand forces surrounding through provision of formal and informal education.

The study of the roles of local government in community development gives us an insight towards the details knowledge and understanding has local government operate as the third tiers of government anywhere in the world.

Also the study made us to understand that the impact and contribution of government whether of federal or state level toward the development and effective administration of local government and its roles in community development. More also it made us to understand the multipurpose feature of local government in terms of carrying socio-economic services in the local areas, thereby stimulating and encouraging local initiative in community work, promoting the democratic process, saving as training ground for nation political leaders, serving as medium of communication between the people and higher tiers of government.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Some of the problem affecting the role of local government and community development are:

Planning without implementation and implementation without planning of programme.

People are not very clear about the nation and the community development programmes. This usually leads to lack of community to the part of the people. It is more of governmental programme than that of the people.

Lack of proper plan monitoring and evaluation, hence there is no systematic way of determining programme accomplishment facilitating effectiveness and efficiency.

Insufficient resources, many community development projects suffer from shortage of resources and in i.e human and for material resources.

Top down planning in which few top administrative offices make division on community development programme planning and pass it down for implementation.

Problem of coordination: This usually results in role conflict for example a change agent is expected to fulfill the desire of the sponsoring agency rather than what he consider appropriate to the community. i.e the use of contraceptive for birth control.

Poor statistical base for effective planning.

Inadequate understanding of the community such as it structure of influence, communication and decision making pattern.

1.3 Purpose Of The Study

This study seeks to look at the contribution of local government development of rural areas in Nigeria using Odogbolu local government area of Ogun state.

1. This research also aimed at identifying different factors militating the effectiveness of local government and solutions to those problems identified and it will be offered at the completion of the research work.

2. The study makes a modest attempt to fulfill this purpose in the social and community development of the effective delivery of service to the respective local populations scattered all over the country.

3. It also make a recommendations on making local government an effective third level of government, the development and management of the human resources of local governments and the development of the financial resources of local government.

4. How to ensure faithful implementation of local government.

1.4 Statement of Hypotheses

H1: The level of performance of Odogbolu Local Government Council in terms of community development is determined by the human, financial and material resources available.

H2: Political interference by other tiers of governments is a constraint to community development efforts of Odogbolu Local Government Area.

1.5 Scope of The Study

This research area and dimension of coverage is based on only the roles of local government administration in community development of rural area in Nigeria and to the staffs, teaches, businessmen, farmers in Odogbolu local government of Ogun state.

1.6 Significance Of The Study

The need and importance of the research is obvious. At a time when local government has come to assume an overwhelming influence on the process of political and community development.

It becomes more relevant to examine much more closely, the characters and dynamics of this three tier of government and to clarify the major contradictions that have landed to impede its capacity to promote development at local level.

However, a scientific study of this kind becomes necessary especially at this time when the past and present civilian administrations are particularly concern about rural development.

Finally, this study will generally add to the growing numbers of literature on local government affairs, more particularly on the roles of local government administration in economic and social development of rural area in Nigeria and pragmatic solutions offered towards making them more efficient and responsive to the needs of rural Nigerians, it also to policy makers and researchers alike.

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POLITICAL THUGGERY AND YOUTH RESTIVENESS IN MINNA METROPOLIS IMPLICATING ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT

2025-09-18T09:30:00.010+01:00

ABSTRACT

Thuggery has become a pervasive phenomenon affecting innocent individuals and government activities in Nigeria. It is against this background, therefore, this research was carried out to study the incidence of political thuggery among youths in Minna L.G.A. of Niger state. The method of data collection and analysis is quantitative through the use of a questionnaire. The data analysis involved simple percentages and tabulation for the research objectives and t-test for the hypotheses test. Finally, the findings of the study showed that thuggery in the state is as a result of selfish interest of the politicians, unemployment, poor governance, financial hardships, among others. From the hypotheses testing, the results showed that there is a significant difference in the moral development between youths from stable and unstable parental background; that parents’ socioeconomic status influences youths participation in political thuggery and that youths from stable parental background do not engage in political thuggery in Minna L.G.A., Niger state. Thus, the government of Niger state needs an effective response, in order to overcome the menace of political thuggery as recommended by the researcher.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In contemporary democracies, elections are acceptable means of electing leaders, an important process that strengthens democratic institutions and facilitate peaceful transition of power (Ugiagbe, 2010). However, in Nigeria all elections conducted since her independence in 1960 have been characterized by widespread violence, intimidation, bribery and corruption. Muhammed (2010) reported that the prevalence of one political violence or the other has been the mainstay of elections in Nigeria with youths as the major actors in the theatre of electoral violence and that such violence has assumed a serious dimension.

Electoral violence according to the International Foundation for Electoral System (IFES) is any act or threat of physical or psychological harm to a person or damage to property, directed at anyone directly involved in an electoral process (voters, candidates, party officers, election workers, election monitors, journalists, etc.) which may disrupt or attempt to disrupt any aspect of the electoral process (Fischer, 2002). Electoral violence could therefore be described as a pre- meditated act that intends to influence the electoral process using foul language, verbal intimidation, blackmail, dangerous weapons, arson and assassination. (Bamfo 2008). At the receiving end of political violence are human beings. Ugiagbe (2010) submits that acts associated with electoral violence include physical harm, (homicide, torture, assault), threats (physical, verbal, intimidation; destruction of property), arson, damage from dangerous objects, forced displacement and ballot box snatching.

Usman (2009) identified five major common grounds of electoral violence; these are during registration, during political campaigns on Election Day, when results are announced, winner takes all syndrome. In their own study, Onwudiwe and Bernard (2010) describe the pattern of electoral violence in Nigeria as intra party crisis, inter-party crisis, electoral crisis, violence and community unrest while Ugbaigbe (2010) opines that electoral violence do manifest in the three electoral stages namely, pre-election, during election and postelection stages. The objective of electoral violence is to influence the electoral process with the sole aim to win political competition or power through violence or subverting the ends of the electoral and democratic process through intimidation and disempowerment of political opponents. The increased involvement of Nigerian youths in electoral violence should be of concern to all. Defining youths has been a little bit controversial, different authors define it in the context in which the word-youth is used. United Nations Children Education Fund UNICEF (1972) sees youth as those within age bracket 15-25years Johnson cited in Abhuere (2000) asserts that while leadership programmes have no upper age limit, their membership covers people of over 35-45years old, for the purpose of this study youth refers to anyone between the ages of 18 and 45 years.

Most of the world’s development strategies largely depend on the youth. This societal segment is believed to assist in producing sustained economy, social justice and stable democracy of a nation. It is therefore very important if the society could produce a qualitative youth to make these a reality. The primary aim of the research is to understand the relationship between drug abuse among the youth and political thuggery in Nigeria. The problem is made complex by a series of problem which is climaxed in the failure of the Nigerian state to solve its internal differences.

Drug abusers are employed, although economic factors such as profit maximization encourage drug abuse habit among them which in the long run result in their involvement in political violence act which slows the chance of self-actualization and the chance of the country’s present and long term development.

Lack of higher educational qualifications is another factor that pushes the youth into drug abuse and subsequently to politically related crimes. Similarly, political thuggery is also a factor responsible for drug abuse among the youth in every part of the Nigerian state.

Youths are believed to be the most valuable asset for engendering any societal development. They are the engines and pillars upon which every human society depends. Human history indicated how the youth served to depend and develop their various societies, which always promote and give to the society economic balance, political stability and social justice. Gessel (1956) in Radda (2005) refers to youth as the young people whose years fall between 10 and 16.

The report of the Political Bureau (1997) in Abdullahi (2003) classified youth as those between 6-30 years. This latter classification conforms to the formal education years, tampering with which mayen danger the youth’s life and subsequently the society at large. The vision 2010 report defined youth as persons aged between 12-30 years. On the other hand, Abdullahi (1982) in Abdullahi (2003) defined the youth as any person in the period between early childhood and old age. These few classifications show the importance of youth to the survival and progress of their respective societies. This is because; youth contribute much towards social, economic, and political developments and defence of their societies.

Based on the forgoing position, this study is set to espouse the implication of youth involvement in political violence which not only undermines the personal fulfilment of the youth but also the development of all phases of the Nigerian state.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The development and progress of any human society is dependent on the availability of peace, social and economic equilibrium which gives all the leverage to pursue their heart desires without any form of fear or panic. Given the forgoing, it is important to assert the fact that all sphere of human endeavour in the present Nigerian state has been transformed into an arena for the manifestation of violence which is a product of government inability to deliver the greatest good for the greatest number of people which has caused youth idleness and by implication their resolve to violence and thuggery. This problem has therefore led to uncontrolled conflict amongst all class in the country. Based on the forgoing position, this research is posed to espouse the implication and effect of youth involvement in violent act as a negation of the country’s drive for viable economic development which is only obtainable in an atmosphere of peace and tranquillity.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Did youths participate in political thuggery in Minna between 1999 and 2019?

2. What are the causes of political thuggery in Minna L.G.A.?

3. What is the influence of parental background on political thuggery among youths in Minna, between 1999 to 2019

4. To what extent is the moral development of youths in stable homes different from those in unstable homes in Minna?

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1. To investigate the level of political thuggery in Minna, between 1999 and 2019.

2. To compare the moral development of youths from stable homes and those from unstable homes in Minna L.G.A.

3. To ascertain the cause of political thuggery in Minna L.G.A.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study is hoped to be significance to parents, politicians, youth and the government. The result of the study will serve as a base for taking paper actions towards reducing violence and thuggery in Nigeria. The study will also serve as a stepping stone educational guideline on the youth involvement in political violence and thuggey. It is important to argue that the enormity of the problems of political violence in Nigeria is very great, since achievement and the failure is significantly perceived by Nigerian society youth and government as a core determinant of success in life, solution to this problem should be found out.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This project is based on youth involvement in Political Thuggery and Youth Restiveness in Nigeria. The study also examined some special factors, causes and effects of Political Thuggery and Youth Restiveness in Nigeria. It is limited to Minna, Niger State.

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Political violence: refers to all collective attacks with a political community against the political regime.

2. Politics: The art of science of government or governing especially the governing ofa political entity such as a nation and the administration and control of its internal and external affairs.

3. Thuggery: The act of physical violence as could be performed by thugs. the oxford dictionary of curt English (1998), defined thuggery as violence act or behavior by ruffians. Its is observed that thuggery has relationship with violence activities.

4. Youth: The condition of being young, the appearance, freshness, vigor puberty, spirit etc. the early period of life from puberty to attainment of full growth adolescence.

5. Hooliganism: is the disruptive or unlawful behaviour such as rioting, bullying and vandalism.

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IMPACT OF CONFLICT RESOLUTIONS ON ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE A CASE STUDY OF ADO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

2025-09-18T09:27:00.010+01:00

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of conflict resolution and management in organizational efficiency in the public sector with a view to solving the current phenomenon of conflicts being experienced our work environments. Three research objectives and two hypothesis giuide this research and Ado Local Government Council. The research design used in this study was descriptive survey. Data was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. The target population was 110 employees in Ado Local Government Council made up the study population.

The findings in the research showed that public or private, is established to achieve certain define objectives. Thus, the success or otherwise of an organization to an extent is usually determine by the effective management of conflicts in the organization.

It was recommended that government should ensure that Ado Local Government Council are funded adequately and also that, management should ensure effective communication channel in order for resources to be put in their best use.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Organization is an identifiable social entity whose members pursue multiple goals collectively. The pursuance of these goals is done side by side with their personal goals and aspirations through their coordinated activities and relationships. Hence, organization has people, materials and goals that are achieved through coordination

An organization exists to provide goods and services that people desire. These goods and services are the products of the behaviours of workers who occupy different level of the organizational structure. These people have different cultures, skills and educational background as well as different perceptions, roles, expectations and values. Conflict in an organization will depend on the degree with which the manpower is met with opposition in protecting their interest, values and goals.

However, the establishment and continuous existence of organization through the realization of set goals and objectives requires the continuous and effective functioning of its material input with the human element being indispensable. The human elements required to facilitate goals attainment often engage in disagreement and variance over factors such as; interest, views, style of management among others. The reactionary effect due to the perceived incompatibilities resulting typically from some form of interference or opposition is known as conflict. Azamoza (2004) observed that conflict involves the total range of behaviours and attitudes that is in opposition between owners/managers on the one hand and working people on the other. It is a state of disagreement over issues of substance or emotional antagonism and may arise due to anger, mistrust or personality clashes.

The Ado Local Government Council is an organization that is not excluded from conflict situation as long as the human element is part of its resources. They may disagree over issues in the workplace which can trigger conflict that need to be managed for improve performance of the organization.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Organizations have a shorter life cycle today because of various changes in the operation of organizations. These organizational changes may cause turbulence and uncertainties that in turn, create conflict. The Ado Local Government Council Ado Ekiti, over the years, have being facing conflict in various dimensions that have reduce its performance.

Conflict in any organization may not enable the organization to achieve its set objectives if not properly managed. Hart (2000) asserted that, successful organization in the future must create the capability to absorb conflict during the organization’s life cycle. The capability here refers to conflict resolution and management mechanism in order to minimize the rate of conflict and improve performance. The Centre for Effective Dispute Resolution (2005) supports the perception of an increase in organizational conflicts with some hard facts. Their research reported a 17% increase in organizational conflict measured by the more than 115,000 employment tribunal applications in 2004 in the United Kingdom.

According to Rivers (2005), the hidden costs of unresolved conflict in organizations are enormous and finding effective ways to manage and resolve organizational conflicts can have a significant impact on productivity and therefore, may enhance performance. Healthy differences of opinion are however vital in an organization in order for it not to stagnate, but when individuals are not able to work through their differences constructively and agree on a way forward, the conflict becomes destructive and damaging to individual, teams and ultimately to the organization (Rivers, 2005)

Ado Local Government Council, as a research institute has being suffering one form or the other of conflict, mostly interpersonal conflict among her staff and industrial conflict with the government which has affected the smooth operation of the institute overtime (Ado Local Government Council Newsletter, 2010). The effective management of these conflicts will go a long way to enhance the performance of the organization in meeting to its mandate.

1.3 Research Questions

1.What are the possible causes of conflict in Ado Local Government Council, Ado Ekiti?

2.What are the possible ways of managing conflict in the organization to improve performance?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is, conflict resolution and management and organizational performance as relates to Ado Local Government Council, Ado Ekiti.

Other specific objectives include:

1.To identify the causes of conflict in Ado Local Government Council;

2.To determine ways of managing conflict in the organization to improve performance;

1.4 Statement of Hypothesis

H0 that effective conflict resolution and management does not lead to improve organizational performance H1 that effective conflict resolution and management does lead to improve organizational performance

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of the study is conflict resolution and management and organizational performance in Ado Local Government Council, Ado Ekiti. This organization is chosen because of ease in accessibility and also being an organization with diverse goals, conflicts situation will always be manifesting in the life of the organization. The limitation of the study is insufficient financial resources, time and materials.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study will be of value to organizations both public and private in order for them to identify some silent causes of conflicts and to be able to manage the situation judiciously using some of the conflict resolution and management strategies. The study will also arouse government interest to see the need in providing adequate resources to public organizations in order to minimize the rate of conflict in these organizations specifically Ado Local Government Council. The study will also provide a plat form for management of organizations to direct resources appropriately in order to minimize conflicts situations in the workplace. The study is also expected to be of great value to academicians and practitioners in the field of conflict resolution and management, public relations and public administration. The study can also be useful to researchers for further studies.

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