Psychoactive Speed

Weed Firecrackers

2009-07-25T19:33:00.000-07:00

I always wanted to be able to make a marijuana edible at home without making the butter first and doing other things that require lots of time. Now there's a simple way to make your own weed edibles in less than 30 minutes.

Things you need:

1 box large crackers

1 jar Nutella or high fat-content(organic) peanut butter

½ gram of marijuana

Tin foil

Oven

Instructions:

1) Pre-heat your oven to 320° F! Marijuana vaporizes at 340° F, so you want the temperature a little lower.

2) Break up your weed as finely as possible. The more dust-like it is, the better, as the more surface area of marijuana will allow the peanut butter to absorb as much of the THC as possible.

3) Spread the fatty peanut butter near the center over two crackers. Be sure not to spread it over the entire length of the cracker, since if peanut butter might ooze out, you may lose some of the spacey goodness near the end.

4) Sprinkle your finely-grinded weed over the center of one of the crackers, making sure all of it touches some part of the peanut butter but is not too close to any edges. Take the other cracker and gently squish the two together, with the weed-sprinkled one obviously on bottom.

5) Take the crackers and completely wrap them in tin foil.

6) Place the foiled crackers onto a cookie sheet for exactly 22 minutes at 320° F. The weed will begin to burn if left in for much longer after this.

7) After the 22 minutes, remove them from the oven, unwrap them and let them cool.

9) Eat the firecrackers.

These are not the best tasting crackers but definitely get the job and quickly. You can tweak the recipe depending on your over and how much weed you need but this is the basics.

Using Psychedelics Wisely

2009-07-25T17:58:00.000-07:00

Myron J. Stolaroff
A veteran researcher explains how psychedelics can be used to give
beneficial results. From GNOSIS, No. 26, Winter 1993

MY WIFE JEAN AND I had driven several miles up the mountain to an elevation of 6000 feet a few miles south of Mount Whitney in California. We were about to meet Franklin Merrell-Wolff, author of the book Pathways through to Space, an impressively articulate and detailed description of a person entering a state of enlightenment and savoring it over several months.

When we were ushered into his private office, we found ourselves before an outstanding personage who radiated a marvelous glow. When we had talked for a few minutes and I felt sufficiently at home, I spoke of our research work, telling him that we had spent three and a half years administering LSD, sometimes in conjunction with mescaline, to 350 research subjects and had published our findings in medical journals.
"My oh my!" he said, looking at us with consternation. "I hope you haven't used these drugs yourselves."
We admitted that we had. He continued, "According to X" (here he mentioned an Indian sage whose name I do not remember), "it will take you seven incarnations to recover from the damage of taking such substances!"
Naturally I was upset, but I didn't think of the appropriate reply until we were driving back down the hill: "Never underestimate the grace of God!"
There is no question that psychedelic substances are remarkable graces. The farther one can reach into the vastness to be explored, the more one realizes how powerful these materials are. There seems to be no end to the levels of awareness that can be realized by those who use them to explore their psyches with integrity and courage.
The great value in these chemicals is that, in some way still not scientifically explained, they dissolve the boundaries to the unconscious mind. They give us access to our repressed and forgotten material, to the Shadow that C.G. Jung so effectively dealt with, to the archetypes of humanity, to an enormous range of levels of thought, and to the wellspring of creativity and mystical experience that Jung called the collective unconscious.
At the heart of the unconscious is what many experience as the source of life itself, and which some call God. Those who have experienced this describe it as a wondrous, ineffable source of light and energy that infuses all of creation, embracing all wisdom and radiating a vast, unending, and ever-constant love. Immersion in this is the essence of the mystical experience and produces what the great mystics have described as the state of unity or oneness. Such union is the culmination of all seeking, all desire; it is the most cherished of all experiences of which man is capable.
Not all who ingest these substances can count on such revelations. In fact, psychedelics are powerful agents and can be misused. It must be remembered that they help reveal the unconscious, and most of us have made its contents unconscious for very specific reasons. We may not welcome the appearance of repressed, painful feelings, or of evidence that our values and lifestyles might be considerably improved. Nor is it always easy to accept the spaciousness of our being, our immense potential, and the responsibility that these entail. We may also refuse to believe that we are entitled to so much beauty and joy without paying any price other than being ourselves!
To assure a rewarding outcome, let's look at some factors that should be taken into consideration when using these materials. I must add here that in no way am I encouraging the use of illegal substances. I do hope, however, that greater understanding of these materials will help restore an intelligent policy that will make further research possible. Here are some things that will help ensure beneficial results:

SET AND SETTING
Set and setting have been widely recognized as the two most important factors in undertaking a psychedelic experience. Of these, set has the greatest influence.
As the drug opens the door to the unconscious, huge spectrums of possibilities of experience present themselves. Just how one steers through this vast maze depends mostly upon set. Set includes the contents of the personal unconscious, which is essentially the record of all one's life experience. It also includes one's walls of conditioning, which determine the freedom with which one can move through various vistas. Another important aspect of set consists of one's values, attitudes, and aspirations. These will influence the direction of attention and determine how one will deal with the psychic material encountered.
In fact, one can learn a great deal by accepting and reconciling oneself with uncomfortable material. Resisting this discomfort, on the other hand, can greatly intensify the level of pain, leading to disturbing, unsatisfactory experiences, or even psychotic attempts at escape. This latter dynamic is largely responsible for the medical profession's view of these materials as psychotomimetic. On the other hand, surrender, acceptance, gratitude, and appreciation can result in continual opening, expansion, and fulfillment.
Setting, or the environment in which the experience takes place, can also greatly influence the experience, since subjects are often very suggestible under psychedelics. Inspiring ritual, a beautiful natural setting, stimulating artwork, and interesting objects to examine can focus one's attention on rewarding areas. Most important of all is an experienced, compassionate guide who is very familiar with the process. His mere presence establishes a stable energy field that helps the subject remain centered. The guide can be very helpful should the subject get stuck in uncomfortable places, and can ask intelligent questions that will help resolve difficulties, as well as suggesting fruitful directions of exploration that the subject might have otherwise overlooked. The user will also find that simply sharing what is happening with an understanding listener will produce greater clarity and comfort. Finally, a good companion knows that the best guide is one's own inner being, which should not be interfered with unless help is genuinely needed and sought.

MOTIVATION
This is extremely important. Those who earnestly seek knowledge and deeply appreciate life in all its forms will do well. Yet certain characteristics of psychedelics make them very popular for recreational use. The most attractive of these is their great enhancement of sensual responses, which offer heightened perception, amplification of beauty and meaning, and intensified sensual gratification. Psychedelics can also generate a great sense of closeness among participants, especially in a group setting. While I am convinced that one of the great cosmic commands is "Enjoy," there are traps in using these substances purely for recreation. The first is that a person seeking the delights of the senses may find himself overwhelmed by the eruption of repressed unconscious material without knowing how to deal with it. Another danger is that constant pleasure-seeking without giving anything back to life can distort the personality and ultimately produce more discomfort. The safe, sure way to rewarding outcomes with psychedelics is through intelligent, well-informed use.

HONESTY
For the serious spiritual seeker, or for that matter anyone seeking knowledge, the single most important characteristic is honesty. This means the courage to look at whatever is presented by the deep mind, the ability to admit one's shortcomings when they become apparent, and the determination to change one's behavior in line with the truth one has experienced.

ONGOING DISCIPLINE
Experts in the field now generally agree that it is wise to conduct psychedelic explorations within the framework of a spiritual discipline or growth program that will continually call attention to fundamental values and goals. A good discipline will outline a body of ethics for personal behavior that will support the changes required. Good ethics will also help us stay clear about our objectives, and will keep the door open to increasing depths of experience. Moreover, there is evidence to suggest that the more we are prepared to pass on to others whatever spiritual largess we have accumulated, the more we will be given.
For myself, I found training in Tibetan Buddhist meditation a potent adjunct to psychedelic exploration. In learning to hold my mind empty, I became aware that other levels of reality would more readily manifest. It was only in absolute stillness, accompanied by a special, highly developed quality of listening, that many subtle but extremely valuable nuances of reality appeared. While I achieved this to some extent in ordinary practice, I found this effect to be greatly amplified while under the influence of a psychedelic substance. This in turn intensified my daily meditation practice.

PSYCHEDELICS AS WAY-SHOWERS
The role of psychedelics is often misunderstood. Many feel that having had wonderful experiences, they now have the answers and are somehow changed. And no doubt in many respects they are. But users often overlook the fact that there are usually heavy walls of conditioning and ignorance separating the surface mind from the core of our being. It is a blessing that psychedelics can set aside these barriers and give access to our real Self. But unless one is committed to the changes indicated, old habits of personality can rapidly reestablish themselves.
At this point many feel that repeating the experience will maintain the exalted state. It may, but most often real change requires hard work and dedicated effort. Unfortunately this is not always clear during the experience itself; it has merely pointed the way and shown what is possible. If we like what we see, it is now up to us to bring about the changes indicated.
There is a grace period following profound psychedelic experiences when changes can be rapidly made. At this time one is infused with the wonder and power of the new information. Moreover—and this is an area where some valuable research can be done—the drug experience releases a great deal of bodily and psychic armoring that is tied to our neuroses. This rejuvenation is quite noticeable after a good psychedelic experience, when, without the dragging weight of physical habit patterns, behavior can be more readily changed.
On the other hand, if you make no effort to change, old habits rapidly reassert themselves, and you find yourself sliding back into your previous state. In fact, it can be worse than before, because now you know that things can be better and are disappointed to find yourself mucking around in the same old garbage.
Another factor makes this process even more uncomfortable. A lot of the energy formerly tied up in repressed material is now released. This energy may be used quite fruitfully to expand the boundaries of your being to the new dimensions you have experienced. But if you return to old patterns of behavior, you now have more energy to reinforce them, making life more difficult. For this reason, these experiences must not be taken lightly, but with serious intent.

DEALlNG WITH THE SHADOW
As Jung indicated, the Shadow holds all the material that we have pushed aside so we can hide from ourselves. Unfortunately, it also contains much of our energy, and as long as it is unconscious, it exerts a powerful influence on our behavior without our knowing it. Furthermore, Shadow material is responsible for most of the difficulties humans create in the world. We project our Shadow onto others, believe those others to be the source of our difficulties, and seek refuge from them rather than taking responsibility in our own hands. Consequently we must resolve Shadow material if we are to develop. If this were accomplished on a widespread basis, it would be a major benefit for the world.
Jung describes human development as the process of "making the unconscious conscious." Psychedelics, particularly in low doses, can be an extremely effective tool in this process. The bulk of my experience is with the phenethylamine compounds, which remained legal longer than the standard psychedelics such as LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin. Whereas a full dose of a phenethylamine like 2C-T-2 or 2C-T-7 might be 20 milligrams, a low dose would be ten or twelve milligrams, or roughly equivalent to 25-50 micrograms of LSD.
The most infallible guide to Shadow material is our uncomfortable feelings. Many do not like to use low doses because these feelings come to the surface. Rather than experience them, they use larger doses to transcend them. But these uncomfortable feelings are precisely what we must resolve to free ourselves from the Shadow, gain strength and energy, and function more comfortably and competently in the world. By using smaller amounts and being willing to focus our full attention on whatever feelings arise and breathe through them, we find that these feelings eventually dissolve, often with fresh insight and understanding of our personal dynamics. The release of such material permits an expansion of awareness and energy. If we work persistently to clear away repressed areas, we can enter the same sublime states that are available with larger doses—with an important additional gain. Having resolved our uncomfortable feelings, we are in a much better position to maintain a high state of clarity and functioning in day-to-day life.
I would also like to add a word about frequency: Individuals vary greatly in their frequency of use of these materials. Some are satisfied with an overwhelming experience which they feel is good for a lifetime. Others wish to renew their acquaintance with these areas once or twice a year. Still others are interested in frequent explorations to continually push their knowledge forward. Regardless of the frequency, it is wise to make sure that the previous experience has been well integrated before embarking on the next one. Early in one's contact with these substances, where there is a wealth of new experience, this may take several months. As one becomes more experienced, the integration time grows shorter, and the interval between trials may be shortened.
Many stop the use of psychedelics when they feel they have learned what they wished. But often it is likely that they halt because they have hit a deeply repressed, painful area that is heavily defended. The issue goes beyond purely personal material, however. One is unlikely to reach full realization without awareness, not merely of one's own pain and suffering, but of that of all mankind. This may help explain the Dark Night of the Soul, which is the final barrier to mystical union described by Evelyn Underhill in her classic book Mysticism. Since we are one, we must not only confront the personal Shadow, but the Shadow of all humanity. We can do this more readily when we discover the ample love that is available to dissolve all Shadow material.

FREElNG CONSTRlCTED AREAS
There is another way in which psychedelics can serve the serious seeker. It often happens that those pursuing rigorous spiritual disciplines achieve elevated states by pushing aside or walling off certain aspects of behavior. With honest use, psychedelics will not permit such areas to remain hidden, but will insist upon their surfacing. One then experiences the great relief of being in touch with all aspects of one's being. The joy and thrill of being totally alive come from having complete access to all of one's feelings.

THE TRAINED USER
There appears to be a cosmic law that says that giving our complete attention to an object, image, or idea with constancy, patience, and acceptance will allow its different attributes to unfold. Psychedelics greatly accelerate this process. To operate most effectively, the observer must have developed the ability to hold his mind steady so he can watch the process develop. Large doses can push one so hard that it is most difficult to do this. Therefore the best results are achieved by a "trained user"—a person who has learned to manage high doses of psychedelics, or who has learned to hold his mind steady enough to observe his inner process competently. As a user clears up his "inner stuff," he gains more freedom in directing his experience. At this stage, higher doses can be profitably used to penetrate deeper into the nature of Reality.
Interestingly, this concept of the trained user does not appear in the literature. But it is precisely the trained user who can best take advantage of the unfathomed range of wisdom and understanding contained in the far reaches of the mind. There seems to be no limit to the dimensions of understanding that can be experienced by the explorer who has the courage, integrity, and skill to navigate them. With integrity, and with the support of appropriate disciplines and friends, one can bring back a great deal for the betterment of oneself and mankind.
Are psychedelics necessary? Can't these same explorations be conducted by those who have mastered the skills of meditation? No doubt they can—with an enormous investment of time and effort. But it is unlikely that many Westerners will be willing to make such a commitment. For Western seekers, whose spiritual practice must usually be integrated with making a living, the proper use of psychedelics can considerably accelerate the process. However, it is not a path for everyone. Choice should be based on full knowledge of the factors involved.
Psychedelics are not a shortcut, as it is of little value to sidetrack important experiences. If enlightenment requires resolution of unconscious material (and my personal experience indicates that it does), those who aspire to such achievement must carefully consider the pace and intensity with which they are willing to encounter this vast range of dynamics. The psychedelic path, while much more intense than many other disciplines, is in a sense easier because it often provides an earlier and more profound contact with the numinous. Such contact inspires commitment and opens the door to more grace in surmounting uncomfortable material.
If our commitment is truly to the well-being and happiness of all sentient beings, then it is reasonable to study all useful tools for accomplishing these ends. Psychedelics, used with good motivation, skill, and integrity, can contribute much toward easing the pain and suffering of the world while giving access to wisdom and compassion for spiritual development.

History of LSD Therapy

2009-07-25T11:21:00.000-07:00

History of LSD Therapy

Stanislav Grof, M.D.

Hunter House Publishers, Alameda, California, ISBN 0-89793-158-0

http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/lsd/grofhist.htm

THE DISCOVERY OF LSD AND ITS PSYCHEDELIC EFFECTS
LSD-25 (or diethylamide of d-lysergic acid) was first synthesized in 1938 by Albert Hofmann in the Sandoz chemical-pharmaceutical laboratories in Basle, Switzerland. As its name indicates, it was the twenty-fifth compound developed in a systematic study of amides of Iysergic acid. LSD is a semi-synthetic chemical product; its natural component is Iysergic acid, which is the basis of all major ergot alkaloids, and the diethylamide group is added in the laboratory. According to Stoll, Hofmann and Troxler(98), it has the following chemical formula: [molecular diagram omitted in this hypertext reproduction]
Various ergot alkaloids have important uses in medicine, primarily as drugs that can induce uterine contractions, stop gynecological bleeding, and relieve migraine headache. The objective in the Sandoz study of ergot derivatives was to obtain compounds with the best therapeutic properties and least side effects. After LSD had been synthesized, it was subjected to pharmacological testing by Professor Ernst Rothlin. (88) It showed a marked uterotonic action and caused excitation in some of the animals; at the time these effects were not considered of sufficient interest to be further explored.
The unique properties of the new substance were brought to the attention of the researchers by a series of events involving a fortuitous accident. In 1943 Albert Hofmann was reviewing the results of early pharmacological tests on LSD and decided to investigate the stimulating effects on the central nervous system indicated in animal experiments. Because of its structural similarity with the circulatory stimulant nikethamide, LSD seemed promising as an analeptic substance. Feeling that it would be worthwhile to carry out more profound studies with this compound, Albert Hofmann decided to synthesize a new sample. However, even the most sophisticated experiments in animals would not have detected the psychedelic effects of LSD, since such specifically human responses cannot be anticipated on the basis of animal data alone. A laboratory accident came to the help of the researchers; by a strange play of destiny Albert Hofmann became an involuntary subject in one of the most exciting and influential experiments in the history of science. Working on the synthesis of a new sample of LSD, he accidentally intoxicated himself during the purification of the condensation products. The following is Albert Hofmann's own description of the perceptual and emotional changes that he experienced as a result: (38)
"Last Friday, April 16, 1943, I was forced to stop my work in the laboratory in the middle of the afternoon and to go home, as I was seized by a peculiar restlessness associated with a sensation of mild dizziness. On arriving home, I lay down and sank into a kind of drunkenness, which was not unpleasant and which was characterized by extreme activity of the imagination. As I lay in a dazed condition with my eyes closed, (I experienced daylight as disagreeably bright) there surged upon me an uninterrupted stream of fantastic images of extraordinary plasticity and vividness, accompanied by an intense kaleidoscope-like play of colors. This condition gradually passed off after two hours."

After he had returned to his usual state of consciousness, Hofmann was able to make the hypothetical link between his extraordinary experiences and the possibility of accidental intoxication by the drug he was working with. However, he could not understand how the LSD had found its way into his body in a sufficient quantity to produce such phenomena. He was also puzzled by the nature of the effects, which were quite different from those associated with ergot poisoning. Three days later he intentionally ingested a known quantity of LSD, to put his suspicions to a solid scientific test. Being a very conservative and cautious person, he decided to take only 250 micrograms, which he considered to be a minute dose judging by the usual dosage level of other related ergot alkaloids. At that time he had no way of knowing that he was experimenting with the most powerful psychoactive drug known to man. The dose he chose and ingested without any special preparation, or any knowledge about psychedelic states, would at present be considered a high dose and has been referred to in the LSD literature as a "single overwhelming dose." If used in clinical practice it is preceded by many hours of preparatory psychotherapy and requires a trained and experienced guide to handle all the complications that might occur.
About forty minutes after the ingestion, Hofmann started experiencing dizziness and unrest; he had difficulties in concentration, disturbances of visual perception, and a strong unmotivated desire to laugh. He found it impossible to keep a written protocol about his experiment as originally planned. The following is an excerpt from his subsequent report written for Professor Stoll: (38)
"At this point, the laboratory notes are discontinued; the last words were written only with great difficulty. I asked my laboratory assistant to accompany me home, as I believed that I should have a repetition of the disturbance of the previous Friday. While we were cycling home, however, it became clear that the symptoms were much stronger than the first time. I had great difficulty in speaking coherently, my field of vision swayed before me, and objects appeared distorted like images in curved mirrors. I had the impression of being unable to move from the spot, although my assistant told me afterwards that we had cycled at a good pace. Once I was at home, the physician was called.
"By the time the doctor arrived, the peak of the crisis had already passed. As far as I remember, the following were the most outstanding symptoms: vertigo; visual disturbances; the faces of those around me appeared as grotesque, colored masks; marked motoric unrest, alternating with paralysis; an intermittent heavy feeling in the head, limbs, and the entire body, as if they were filled with lead; dry, constricted sensation in the throat; feeling of choking; clear recognition of my condition, in which state I sometimes observed, in the manner of an independent, neutral observer; that I shouted half-insanely or babbled incoherent words. Occasionally, I felt as if I were out of my body.
"The doctor found a rather weak pulse, but an otherwise normal circulation.... Six hours after ingestion of the LSD, my condition had already improved considerably. Only the visual disturbances were still pronounced. Everything seemed to sway and the proportions were distorted like reflections in the surface of moving water. Moreover, all the objects appeared in unpleasant, constantly changing colors, the predominant shades being sickly green and blue. When I closed my eyes, an unending series of colorful, very realistic and fantastic images surged in upon me. A remarkable feature was the manner in which all acoustic perceptions, (e.g. the noise of a passing car), were transformed into optical effects, every sound evoking a corresponding colored hallucination constantly changing in shape and color like pictures in a kaleidoscope. At about one o'clock, I fell asleep and awoke the next morning feeling perfectly well."

This was the first planned experiment with LSD, and it proved in a dramatic and convincing way Hofmann's hypothesis about the mind-altering effects of LSD. Subsequent experiments with volunteers from the Sandoz Research Laboratories confirmed the extraordinary influence of this drug on the human mind.
The next important figure in the history of LSD was Walter Stoll, son of Hofmann's superior and psychiatrist at the Psychiatric Clinic in Zurich. He found the new psychoactive substance of. great interest and conducted the first scientific study of LSD in normal volunteers and psychiatric patients. His observations of the LSD effects in these two categories of subjects were published in 1947. (97) This report became a sensation in the scientific world and stimulated an unusual amount of laboratory and clinical research in many countries.


EARLY LABORATORY AND CLINICAL LSD RESEARCH
Much of the early LSD research was inspired and strongly influenced by the so-called "model psychosis" approach. The incredible potency of LSD and the fact that infinitesimally small quantities could profoundly alter mental functioning of otherwise healthy volunteers gave a new impetus to speculations about the basically biochemical nature of endogenous psychoses, particularly schizophrenia. It was repeatedly observed that microscopic doses of LSD, in the range of 25 to 100 micrograms, were sufficient to produce changes in perception, emotions, ideation and behavior that resembled those seen in some schizophrenic patients. It was conceivable that the metabolism of the human body could, under certain circumstances, produce such small quantities of an abnormal substance identical with or similar to LSD. According to this tempting hypothesis, endogenous psychoses such as schizophrenia would not be primarily mental disorders, but manifestations of an autointoxication of the organism and the brain caused by a pathological shift in body chemistry. The possibility of simulating schizophrenic symptoms in normal volunteers and of conducting complex laboratory tests and investigations before, during, and after this transient "model psychosis" seemed to offer a promising key to the understanding of psychiatry's most enigmatic disease.
Much research during the years following the discovery of LSD was aimed at proving or disproving the "model psychosis" hypothesis. Its power was such that for many years LSD sessions conducted for any purpose were referred to as "experimental psychoses," and LSD and similar substances were called hallucinogens, psychotomimetics (psychosis-simulating compounds) or psychodysleptics (drugs disrupting the psyche). This situation was not rectified until 1957 when Humphrey Osmond, after mutually stimulating correspondence with Aldous Huxley, coined a much more accurate term, "psychedelics" (mind-manifesting or mind-opening drugs). (74) In these years much effort was directed toward accurate phenomenological description of the LSD experience and assessment of the similarities and differences between the psychedelic states and schizophrenia. These descriptive studies had their counterpart in the research exploring parallels between these two conditions, as reflected in clinical measurements, psychological tests, electro-physiological data, and biochemical findings. The significance attributed to this avenue of research found an expression in the number of studies contributing basic data about the effects of LSD on various physiological and biochemical functions as well as on the behavior of experimental animals, on isolated organs and tissue cultures, and on enzymatic systems. Of special interest from the point of view of the "model psychosis" hypothesis were experiments studying the antagonism between LSD and various other substances. The possibility of blocking the LSD state, by premedication with another drug or by its administration at the time of fully developed LSD effects, was seen as a promising approach to the discovery of new directions in the pharmaco-therapy of psychiatric disorders. Several biochemical hypotheses of schizophrenia were formulated at this time, implicating specific substances or whole metabolic cycles as the primary cause of this disease. The serotonin hypothesis coined by Woolley and Shaw (104) received by far the most attention. According to their model LSD causes abnormal mental functioning by interfering with the neurotransmitter substance serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). A similar mechanism was postulated as the biochemical cause of schizophrenia.
This reductionistic and oversimplified approach to schizophrenia was repeatedly criticized by psychoanalytically and phenomenologically oriented clinicians and biochemical investigators, and finally abandoned by most researchers. It became increasingly obvious that the LSD-induced state had many specific characteristics clearly distinguishing it from schizophrenia. In addition, none of the biochemical mechanisms postulated for schizophrenia was unequivocally supported by clinical and laboratory data. Although the "model psychosis" approach did not resolve the problem of the etiology of schizophrenia or provide a miraculous "test-tube" cure for this mysterious disease, it served as a powerful inspiration for many researchers and contributed in a decisive way to the neurophysiological and psychopharmacological revolution of the fifties and early sixties.
Another area in which the extraordinary effects of LSD proved extremely helpful was self-experimentation by mental health professionals. In the early years of LSD research didactic LSD experiences were recommended as an unrivaled tool for the training of psychiatrists, psychologists, medical students, and psychiatric nurses. The LSD sessions were advertised as a short, safe and reversible journey into the world of the schizophrenic. It was repeatedly reported in various books and articles on LSD that a single psychedelic experience could considerably increase the subject's ability to understand psychotic patients, approach them with sensitivity, and treat them effectively. Even though the concept of the LSD experience as "model schizophrenia" was later discarded by a majority of scientists, it remains an unquestionable fact that experiencing the profound psychological changes induced by LSD is a unique and valuable learning experience for all clinicians and theoreticians studying abnormal mental states.
The early experimentation with LSD also brought important new insights into the nature of the creative process and contributed to a deeper understanding of the psychology and psychopathology of art. For many experimental subjects, professional artists as well as laymen, the LSD session represented a profound aesthetic experience that gave them a new understanding of modern art movements and art in general. Painters, sculptors and musicians became favorite LSD subjects because they tended to produce most unusual, unconventional and interesting pieces of art under the influence of the drug. Some of them were able to express and convey in their creations the nature and flavor of the psychedelic experience, which defies any adequate verbal description. The day of the LSD experience often became a dramatic and easily discernible landmark in the development of individual artists.
Equally deep was the influence of LSD research on the psychology and psychopathology of religion. Even under the complex and often difficult circumstances of early LSD experimentation, some subjects had profound religious and mystical experiences that bore a striking similarity to those described in various sacred texts and in the writings of mystics, saints, religious teachers and prophets of all ages. The possibility of inducing such experiences by chemical means started an involved discussion about the authenticity and value of this "instant mysticism." Despite the fact that many leading scientists, theologians and spiritual teachers have discussed this theme extensively, the controversy about "chemical" versus "spontaneous" mysticism remains unresolved until this day.
Any discussion of the various areas of LSD research and experimentation would remain incomplete without mentioning certain systematic explorations of its negative potential. For obvious reasons, the results of this research, conducted by the secret police and armed forces of many countries of the world, have not been systematically reported and most of the information is considered classified. Some of the areas that have been explored in this context are eliciting of confessions, gaining of access to withheld secrets and information, brainwashing, disabling of foreign diplomats, and "nonviolent" warfare. In working with individuals, the destructive techniques try to exploit the chemically induced breakdown of resistances and defense mechanisms, increased suggestibility and sensitivity to terroristic approaches, and intensification of the transference process. In the mass approaches of chemical warfare, the important variables are the disorganizing effect of LSD on goal-oriented activity, and its uncanny potency. The techniques of dispensation suggested for this warfare have been various kinds of aerosols and contamination of water supplies. For everybody who is even remotely familiar with the effects of LSD, this kind of chemical warfare is much more diabolical than any of the conventional approaches. Calling it non-violent or humane is a gross misrepresentation.


THERAPEUTIC EXPERIMENTATION WITH LSD
From the point of view of our discussion, the most important area of LSD research has been experimental therapy with this substance. Observations of the dramatic and profound effects of minute quantities of LSD on the mental processes of experimental subjects led quite naturally to the conclusion that it might be fruitful to explore the therapeutic potential of this unusual compound.
The possibility of therapeutic use of LSD was first suggested by Condrau (21) in 1949, only two years after Stoll had published the first scientific study of LSD in Switzerland. In the early fifties several researchers independently recommended LSD as an adjunct to psychotherapy, one which could deepen and intensify the therapeutic process. The pioneers of this approach were Busch and Johnson (17) and Abramson (1,2) in the United States; Sandison, Spencer and Whitelaw (91) in England; and Frederking (28) in West Germany.
These reports attracted considerable attention among psychiatrists, and stimulated clinicians in various countries of the world to start therapeutic experimentation with LSD in their own practice and research. Many of the reports published in the following fifteen years confirmed the initial claims that LSD could expedite the psychotherapeutic process and shorten the time necessary for the treatment of various emotional disorders, which made it a potentially valuable tool in the psychiatric armamentarium. In addition, there appeared an increasing number of studies indicating that LSD-assisted psychotherapy could reach certain categories of psychiatric patients usually considered poor candidates for psychoanalysis or any other type of psychotherapy. Many individual researchers and therapeutic teams reported various degrees of clinical success with alcoholics, narcotic-drug addicts, sociopaths, criminal psychopaths, and subjects with various character disorders and sexual deviations. In the early sixties a new and exciting area was discovered for LSD psychotherapy: the care of patients dying of cancer and other incurable diseases. Studies with dying individuals indicated that LSD psychotherapy could bring not only an alleviation of emotional suffering and relief of the physical pain associated with chronic diseases, it could also dramatically change the concept of death and attitude toward dying.
Since the appearance of the early clinical reports on LSD much time and energy has been invested in research of its therapeutic potential, and hundreds of papers have been published on various types of LSD therapy. Many psychopharmacological, psychiatric, and psychotherapeutic meetings had special sections on LSD treatment. In Europe, the initially isolated efforts of individual LSD researchers resulted in an effort to create a homogeneous organizational structure. LSD therapists from a number of European countries formed the European Medical Society for Psycholytic Therapy, and members held regular meetings dealing with the use of psychedelic drugs in psychotherapy. This organization also formulated the specifications and criteria for selection and training of future LSD therapists. The counterpart of this organization in the United States and Canada was the Association for Psychedelic Therapy. During the decade of most intense interest in LSD research several international conferences were organized for the exchange of experiences, observations and theoretical concepts in this field (Princeton, 1959; Goettingen, 1960; London, 1961; Amityville, 1965; Amsterdam, 1967; and Bad Nauheim, 1968).
The efforts to use LSD in the therapy of mental disorders now span a period of almost three decades. It would be beyond the scope of this presentation to describe all the specific contributions to this unique chapter of the history of psychiatric treatment, as well as give due attention to all the individual scientists who participated in this avenue of research. The history of LSD therapy has been a series of trials and errors. Many different techniques of therapeutic use of LSD have been developed and explored during the past thirty years. Approaches that did not have the expected effect or were not supported by later research were abandoned; those that seemed promising were assimilated by other therapists, or developed further and modified. Instead of following this complicated process through all its stages, I will try to outline certain basic trends and the most important therapeutic ideas and concepts. Three decades of LSD therapy is a sufficiently long period for accumulating clinical observations and verifying research data. We can, therefore, attempt a critical review of the clinical experience in this area, summarize the current knowledge about the value of LSD as a therapeutic tool in psychiatry, and describe the safest and most effective techniques for its use.
Various suggestions concerning the therapeutic use of LSD were based on the specific aspects of its action. The frequent occurrence of euphoria in LSD sessions with normal volunteers seemed to suggest the possibility that this drug could be useful in the treatment of depressive disorders. The profound and often shattering effect of LSD on psychological as well as physiological functions, amounting to an emotional or vegetative shock, seemed to indicate that it could have a therapeutic potential similar to electroshocks, insulin treatment, or other forms of convulsive therapy. This concept was supported by observations of striking and dramatic changes in the clinical symptomatology and personality structure of some subjects after administration of a single dose of LSD. Another aspect of the LSD effect which seemed to be promising from the therapeutic point of view was the unusual ability of this drug to facilitate intensive emotional abreactions. The therapeutic success of abreactive techniques such as hypnoanalysis and narcoanalysis in the treatment of war neuroses and traumatic emotional neuroses encouraged explorations of this property of LSD. One additional interesting possibility of therapeutic use was based on the activating or "provocational" effect of LSD. The drug can mobilize and intensify fixated, chronic and stationary clinical conditions that are characterized by just a few torpid and refractory symptoms, and it was hypothesized that such chemically induced activation might make these so-called oligosymptomatic states more amenable to conventional methods of treatment. By far the most important use of LSD was found in its combination with individual and group psychotherapies of different orientations. Its effectiveness is based on a very advantageous combination of various aspects of its action. LSD psychotherapy seems to intensify all the mechanisms operating in drug-free psychotherapies and involves, in addition, some new and powerful mechanisms of psychological change as yet unacknowledged and unexplained by mainstream psychiatry.
In the following sections, I will describe the most important areas of therapeutic experimentation with LSD, give actual treatment techniques and concepts, and discuss their empirical or theoretical bases. Special attention will be paid to an evaluation of how successfully individual approaches have withstood the test of time.


STUDIES OF CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC PROPERTIES OF LSD
The approaches that will be discussed in this section are based on different clinical observations and different theoretical premises; the common denominator is an exclusive emphasis on LSD as a chemotherapeutic agent that has certain beneficial effects just by virtue of its pharmacological action. The authors of these techniques were either unaware of the significance of extrapharmacological factors or did not specifically utilize them. If psychotherapy was used with these approaches at all, it was only supportive and of the most superficial kind, without any organic link to the LSD experience.


EXPLORATION OF EUPHORIANT AND ANTIDEPRESSIVE EFFECTS OF LSD
When Condrau (21) proposed the use of LSD for depression on the basis of its euphoriant effect on some subjects, he followed the model of opium treatment. He administered small and progressively increasing daily doses of LSD to depressive patients and expected alleviation of depression and positive changes in mood. According to Condrau's statement, the results were not convincing and the observed changes did not exceed the limits of the usual spontaneous variations. He also noticed that LSD medication usually resulted in deepening of the pre-existing mood rather than consistent euphorization.
Similar results were reported by other authors who used either Condrau's model of daily medication with LSD in depressive patients or isolated administrations of medium dosages of LSD with the intention to dispel depression. Negative or inconclusive clinical experiences have been reported by Becker, (8) Anderson and Rawnsley, (3) Roubicek and Srnec, (89) and others.
By and large, the results of this approach to LSD therapy did not justify continuation of research in this direction. Clinical studies clearly indicated that LSD does not per se have any consistent pharmacological effects on depression that could be therapeutically exploited, and this approach has been abandoned.


SHOCK-INDUCING PROPERTIES OF LSD AND ITS EFFECT ON PERSONALITY STRUCTURE
In the early period of LSD research, several authors suggested that the profound and shattering experience induced by LSD could have a positive effect on some patients comparable to the effect of various methods of convulsive treatment such as electroshocks, insulin coma therapy, or cardiazole and acetylcholine shocks. Occasionally, unexpected and dramatic clinical improvements were reported in psychiatric patients after a single LSD session. Observations of this kind have been described in papers by Stoll, (97) Becker, (8) Benedetti, (10) Belsanti, (9) and Giberti, Gregoretti and Boeri. (30)
In addition, an increasing number of reports seemed to suggest that sometimes a single administration of LSD could have a deep influence on the personality structure of the subject, his or her hierarchy of values, basic attitudes, and entire life style. The changes were so dramatic that they were compared with psychological conversions. Many LSD researchers made similar observations and became aware of the potential therapeutic value of these transformative experiences. The major obstacle to their systematic utilization for therapeutic purposes was the fact that they tended to occur in an elemental fashion, without a recognizable pattern, and frequently to the surprise of both the patient and the therapist. Since the variables determining such reactions were not understood, therapeutic transformations of this kind were not readily replicable. However, it was this category of observations and systematic efforts to induce similar experiences in a more predictable and controlled way that finally resulted in the development of an important treatment modality, the so-called psychedelic therapy. The basic principles of this therapeutic approach will be discussed later.
In summary, LSD can undoubtedly produce a profound emotional and vegetative shock in a patient or an experimental subject. The shock-effect tends, however, to be more disorganizing and disruptive than therapeutic, unless it occurs within a special framework, in a situation of complex psychological support, and after careful preparation. The conversion mechanism is too unpredictable, elemental and capricious to be relied upon as a therapeutic mechanism per se.


THERAPEUTIC USE OF THE ABREACTIVE EFFECT OF LSD
Many observations from early LSD research clearly indicated that the drug can facilitate reliving of various emotionally relevant episodes from infancy, childhood, or later life. In the case of traumatic memories, this process was preceded and accompanied by powerful emotional abreaction and catharsis. It seemed, therefore, only logical to explore the value of LSD as an agent for abreactive therapy in a way similar to the earlier use of ether, short-acting barbiturates, or amphetamines, in the same indication.
From the historical and theoretical point of view, this mechanism can be traced back to the early concepts of Freud and Breuer. (29) According to them, insufficient emotional and motor reaction by a patient to an original traumatic event results in "jamming" of the effect: the strangulated emotions ("abgeklemmter Affekt") later provide energy for neurotic symptoms. Treatment then consists in reliving the traumatizing memory under circumstances that make possible a belated redirection of this emotional energy to the periphery and its discharge through perceptual, emotional, and motor channels. From the practical point of view, the abreactive method was found especially valuable in the treatment of traumatic emotional neuroses and became popular during the Second World War as a quick and effective remedy for hysterical conversions occurring in various battle situations.
There is hardly a single LSD therapist who would have doubts about the unique abreactive properties of LSD. It would be, however, a great oversimplification to approach and understand LSD treatment only as abreaction therapy. This was clearly demonstrated in a controlled study by Robinson. (86) Present opinion is that abreaction is an important component of LSD psychotherapy, but it represents just one of many therapeutic mechanisms resulting from the complex action of this drug.


USE OF THE ACTIVATING EFFECT OF LSD ON CHRONIC AND FIXATED SYMPTOMS
This approach was inspired by the clinical experience that LSD has an intensifying and mobilizing effect on manifest and latent psychopathological symptoms. The principle of activation or "provocation" therapy with LSD was theoretically developed and employed in practice by the Austrian researcher Jost. (41) This concept was based on clinical observations of an interesting relationship between the nature and course of the psychotic process and prognosis of the disease. It has been a well-known clinical fact that acute schizophrenic episodes with dramatic, rich and colorful symptoms have a very good prognosis. They frequently result in spontaneous remission, and therapy of these conditions is usually very successful. Conversely, schizophrenic states with an inapparent and insidious onset, a few stagnating and torpid symptoms, and a stationary course have the poorest prognosis and are very unresponsive to conventional treatments.
After analyzing a great number of trajectories of psychotic episodes, Jost came to the conclusion that it is possible to find a certain culmination point in the natural course of psychosis beyond which the disease shows a trend towards spontaneous remission. In schizophrenia, these culmination points are usually characterized by hallucinatory experiences of death or destruction, disintegration of the body, regression and transmutation. These negative sequences are then followed by fantasies or experiences of rebirth.
The assumption of such a culmination point in the spontaneous course of the illness could explain, according to Jost, some puzzling observations made during electroshock therapy. As ECT seems to accelerate the spontaneous development of the disease along the intrinsic trajectory, it makes a great deal of difference at which point it is applied. If the electroshock is administered before the psychosis reaches the culmination point, it produces dramatic manifestations and intensifies the clinical picture. If it is given after the culmination point has been reached; this results in a rapid sedation of the patient and remission of the symptoms.
In their practical approach, Jost and Vicari (42) intended to accelerate the spontaneous development of the disease by a combination of chemical and electrophysiological means to mobilize the autonomous healing forces and processes within the organism. They administered LSD and when the clinical condition was activated by its effect, they applied electroconvulsive therapy. The authors described substantial shortening of the schizophrenic episode, reduction in the number of electroshocks required to reach clinical improvement, and often a deeper remission.
Sandison and Whitelaw, (92) two British researchers and pioneers in LSD research, used a similar principle of applying a conventional treatment technique in patients whose clinical condition was activated by LSD. However, instead of administering ECT, they used the tranquilizing effect of chlorpromazine (Thorazine). In their study, psychotic patients from various diagnostic groups were given LSD and two hours later intramuscular injection of the tranquilliser. Although the results seemed promising, the authors themselves later discarded the idea that the administration of chlorpromazine played a positive role in this procedure.
In general, the idea of provocational therapy with LSD has not found a broader acceptance in clinical practice and has remained limited to the attempts described above. However, Jost's theoretical speculations contain several interesting ideas that can prove very fruitful if used in a more dynamic and creative way. The basic principle of activating fixated symptoms by LSD can be used in the context of intensive psychotherapy; a single LSD session can often help overcome stagnation in a long-term psychotherapeutic process. Also, Jost's concepts of an intrinsic trajectory of the psychotic process and the value of its acceleration are in basic agreement with certain modern approaches to schizophrenia discussed in the writings of R. D. Laing, (52) John Perry, (80) Julian Silverman, (94,95) and Maurice Rappaport. (84) Similarly, the observations regarding Jost's concept of the culmination moment of the schizophrenic process and the specific experiences associated with the breaking point make new sense if they are viewed in the context of dynamic matrices in the unconscious rather than from the point of view of Jost's mechanical model. We will discuss this issue in detail in connection with the perinatal matrices and the therapeutic significance of the ego death and rebirth experience.


LSD-ASSISTED PSYCHOTHERAPY
As indicated in the above survey of therapeutic experimentation with LSD, the efforts to exploit purely pharmacological properties of this drug have failed to bring positive results. The concept of LSD as simply a chemotherapeutic agent has been abandoned by all serious researchers in the field. The use of LSD as an activating substance, in Jost and Vicari's sense, has not found its way into clinical practice, at least not in its original mechanical form. The abreactive action of LSD is valued highly, but it is usually considered to be only one of many effective mechanisms operating in LSD therapy. The shock-effect of LSD cannot in itself be considered therapeutic; unless it occurs in a specifically structured situation, it can have detrimental rather than beneficial consequences. The influence of LSD on the personality structure in the sense of a conversion is a well-established clinical fact; however, the occurrence of this phenomenon during unstructured administrations of LSD is rare, unpredictable and capricious. Special preparation, a trusting therapeutic relationship, psychological support, and a specifically structured set and setting are necessary to make therapeutic use of this aspect of the LSD effect.
There seems to be general agreement at present among LSD therapists that the therapeutic outcome of LSD sessions depends critically on factors of a nonpharmacological nature (extrapharmacological variables). The drug itself is seen as a catalyst that activates the unconscious processes in a rather unspecific way. Whether the emergence of the unconscious material will be therapeutic or destructive is not determined simply by the biochemical and physiological action of LSD. It is a function of a number of non-drug variables, such as the personality structure of the subject, the relationship he or she has with the guide, sitter or persons present in the session, the nature and degree of specific psychological help, and the set and setting of the psychedelic experience. For this reason all the approaches that try to utilize LSD simply as another chemotherapeutic agent are, by and large, bound to fail. This does not mean that it is not possible to benefit from an LSD experience if the drug is taken in an unstructured situation. However, extrapharmacological factors have such a profound influence on the LSD session and its final outcome that one cannot expect a reasonable degree and consistency of therapeutic success unless the non-drug variables are sufficiently understood and controlled. Thus the optimal use of LSD for therapeutic purposes should always involve administration of the drug within the framework of a complex psychotherapeutic program; this approach offers the most therapeutic possibilities. In this respect, the potential of LSD seems to be quite extraordinary and unique. The ability of LSD to deepen, intensify and accelerate the psychotherapeutic process is incomparably greater than that of any other drug used as an adjunct to psychotherapy, with the exception perhaps of some other members of the psychedelic group, such as psilocybin, mescaline, ibogaine, MDA, (methylenedioxy-amphetamine), or DPT (dipropyltryptamine).
In the professional literature, the combination of LSD with various forms of psychotherapy has been referred to by many different names: psycholysis (Sandison), psychedelic therapy (Osmond), symbolysis (van Rhijn), hebesynthesis (Abramson), lyserganalysis (Giberti and Gregoretti), oneiroanalysis (Delay), LSD analysis (Martin and McCririck), transintegrative therapy (MacLean), hypnodelic treatment (Levine and Ludwig), and psychosynthesis (Roquet). Individual therapists using LSD psychotherapy have differed considerably in regard to the dosage used, frequency and total number of psychedelic sessions, the intensity and type of the psychotherapeutic work, and certain specificities of set and setting.
In view of all these differences and variations, any comprehensive discussion of the history of LSD psychotherapy would involve giving separate descriptions of all the individual therapists and therapeutic teams. Yet, it is possible with a degree of over-simplification, to distinguish certain basic ways of using LSD in psychotherapy. These modalities fall into two major categories, which differ in the degree of significance attributed to the role of the drug. The first category involves approaches in which the emphasis is on systematic psychotherapeutic work; LSD is used to enhance the therapeutic process or to overcome resistances, blocks and periods of stagnation. The approaches in the second category are characterized by a much greater emphasis on the specific aspects of the drug experience and the psychotherapy is used to prepare the subjects for the drug sessions, give them support during the experiences, and to help them integrate the material.


FACILITATION OF THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCESS BY LSD ADMINISTRATION
During the years of therapeutic experimentation, there have been several systematic attempts to use small doses of LSD to enhance the dynamics of individual or group psychotherapy. In general, the disadvantages of this approach seem to outweigh its potential benefits. The use of small dosages does not save much time, since it does not shorten the duration of the drug action so much as decrease its depth and intensity. Similarly, the risks involved in the use of low doses in psychiatric patients are not necessarily lower than those related to high-dose sessions. It is of greater advantage to interpolate occasional LSD sessions using medium or high dosages in the course of systematic long-term psychotherapy at times when there is little therapeutic progress. In the following text we will briefly describe each of the above approaches.
Use of Small Doses of LSD in Intensive Psychotherapy
In this treatment modality the patients participate in a systematic course of long-term psychotherapy, and in all the sessions they are under the influence of small doses of LSD in the range of 25 to 50 micrograms. The emphasis is clearly on psychotherapy and LSD is used to intensify and deepen the usual psychodynamic processes involved. Under these circumstances, the defense mechanisms are weakened, the psychological resistances tend to decrease, and the recall of repressed memories is greatly enhanced. LSD also typically intensifies the transference relationship in all its aspects and makes it easy for the therapist as well as the patient to understand clearly the nature of the processes involved. Under the influence of the drug, patients are usually more ready to face repressed material and accept the existence of deep instinctual tendencies and conflicts within themselves. All the situations in these LSD sessions are approached with appropriate modifications of techniques of dynamic psychotherapy. The content of the drug experience itself is interpreted and used in much the same way as the manifest content of dreams in regular non-drug psychotherapy. In the past this approach has been mostly used in combination with psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy, although it is theoretically and practically compatible with many other techniques, such as Jungian analysis, bioenergetics and other neo-Reichian therapies, and Gestalt practice.
Use of Small Doses of LSD in Group Psychotherapy
In this treatment modality all the participants in a session of group psychotherapy, with the exception of the leaders, are under the influence of small doses of LSD. The basic idea is that the activation of individual dynamic processes will result in a deeper and more effective group dynamic. The results of this approach have not been very encouraging. Coordinated and integrated group work is usually possible only with small dosages of LSD which do not have a very profound psychological impact on the group members. If the dosages are increased, the group dynamic tends to disintegrate and it becomes increasingly difficult to get the group to do organized and coordinated work. Each participant experiences the session in his or her unique way, and most of them find it difficult to sacrifice their individual process to the demands of group cohesion.
An alternative approach to the psychedelic group experiences which may be very productive is its ritual use, as practiced by certain aboriginal groups: the peyote sessions of the Native American Church or Huichol Indians, yagé ceremonies of the Amahuaca or Jivaro Indians in South America, ingestion of sacred mushrooms (Psilocybe mexicana) by the Mazatecs for healing and sacramental purposes, or the ibogaine rites of some tribes in Gabon and adjacent parts of the Congo. Here verbal interaction and the cognitive level are typically transcended and group cohesion is achieved by non-verbal means, such as collective rattling, drumming, chanting, or dancing.
After a few initial attempts to conduct traditional group psychotherapy with all the members intoxicated by LSD, this technique was abandoned. However, exposure to a group or contact with co-patients during the termination period of an individual LSD session can be a very useful and productive experience. The assistance of an organized group of drug-free peers can be particularly helpful in working through some residual problems from the drug session. A combination of the new experiential techniques developed for use in encounter groups can also be of great value in this context. Another useful technique is the combination of individually experienced LSD sessions with subsequent analysis and discussion of the material in drug-free group sessions involving all the subjects participating in the LSD program.
Occasional Use of LSD Sessions in Intensive Psychotherapy
This approach involves regular, systematic, long-term psychotherapy, with occasional interpolation of an LSD session. The dosages administered in this context are in the medium or high range, usually between 100 and 300 micrograms. The aim of these psychedelic sessions is to overcome dead points in psychotherapy, intensify and accelerate the therapeutic process, reduce the resistances, and obtain new material for later analysis. A single LSD session interpolated at a critical time can contribute considerably to a deeper understanding of the client's symptoms, the dynamics of his or her personality, and the nature of the transference problems. The revealing confrontation with one's unconscious mind, recall and reliving of repressed biographical events, manifestation of important symbolic material, and intensification of the therapeutic relationship that results from a single LSD session can frequently provide powerful incentives for further psychotherapy.


TECHNIQUES OF LSD THERAPY
Although psychotherapy is a very important component of the approaches in this category, the primary emphasis is on the specificities of the drug experience. The psychotherapeutic techniques involved are modified and adjusted to the nature of the LSD state to form an integral and organic unit with the psychedelic process.
Psycholytic Therapy With LSD
The term psycholytic was coined by the British researcher and pioneer in LSD therapy, Ronald A. Sandison. Its root, lytic (from the Greek lysis=dissolution) refers to the process of releasing tensions, dissolving conflicts in the mind. It should not be confused with the term psychoanalytic (analyzing the psyche). This treatment method represents in theory as well as in clinical practice an extension and modification of psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapy. It involves administration of LSD at one- to two-week intervals, usually in the dosage range of from 75 to 300 micrograms. The number of drug sessions in a psycholytic series varies depending on the nature of the clinical problem and the therapeutic goals; it oscillates between fifteen and one hundred, the average probably being somewhere around forty. Although there are regular drug-free interviews in the intervals between the sessions, there is a definite emphasis on the events in the LSD sessions.
The drug sessions take place in a darkened, quiet and tastefully furnished room that suggests a homelike atmosphere. The therapist is usually present for several hours at the time when the session culminates, giving support and specific interpretations when necessary. During the remaining hours the patients are alone, but they may ring for the therapist or nurse if they feel the need. Some LSD programs use one or more co-patients as sitters for the termination periods of the sessions, or allow the patient to socialize with the staff and other clients.
All the phenomena that occur in LSD sessions or in connection with LSD therapy are approached and interpreted using the basic principles and techniques of dynamic psychotherapy. Certain specific characteristics of the LSD reaction however, require some modifications of the usual techniques. These involve a greater activity on the part of the therapist, elements of assistance and attendance (for example, in case of vomiting, hypersalivation, hypersecretion of phlegm, coughing, or urination), a more direct approach, occasional physical contact and support, psychodramatic involvement in the patients experience, and higher tolerance for acting-out behavior. This makes psycholytic procedure similar to the modified psychoanalytic techniques used for psychotherapy with schizophrenic patients. It is necessary to abandon the orthodox analytic situation where the patient reclines on the couch and is expected to share his or her free associations while the detached analyst sits in an armchair and occasionally offers interpretations. In psycholytic therapy, patients are also asked to stay in the reclining position with their eyes closed. However, LSD subjects may on occasion remain silent for long periods of time or, conversely, scream and produce inarticulate sounds; they might toss and turn, sit up, kneel, put their head in one's lap, pace. around the room, or even roll on the floor. Much more personal and intimate involvement is necessary, and the treatment frequently requires genuine human support.
In psycholytic therapy, all the usual therapeutic mechanisms are intensified to a much greater degree than in single LSD sessions. A new and specific element is the successive, complex and systematic reliving of traumatic experiences from childhood, which is associated with emotional abreaction, rational integration, and valuable insights.[3] The therapeutic relationship is usually greatly intensified, and analysis of the transference phenomena becomes an essential part of the treatment process.
The toll that psycholytic therapy has had to pay for its theoretical rooting in Freudian psychoanalysis has been confusion and conflict about the spiritual and mystical dimensions of LSD therapy. Those psycholytic therapists who firmly adhere to the Freudian conceptual framework tend to discourage their patients from entering the realms of transcendental experiences, either by interpreting them as an escape from relevant psychodynamic material or by referring to them as schizophrenic. Others have identified the psychoanalytic framework as incomplete and restricting and become more open to an extended model of the human mind. The conflict concerning the interpretation of transpersonal experiences in LSD therapy and the attitude toward them is not only a matter of academic interest. Major therapeutic changes can occur in connection with transcendental states, and so facilitation or obstruction of these experiences can have very concrete practical consequences.
Typical representatives of the psycholytic approach have been Sandison, Spencer and Whitelaw, Buckman, Ling, and Blair in England; Arendsen-Hein and van Rhijn in Holland; Johnsen in Norway; and Hausner, Tauterman, Dytrych and Sobotkiewiczova in Czechoslovakia. This approach was developed in Europe and is more characteristic of European LSD therapists. The only therapist using psycholytic therapy in the United States at this time is Kenneth Godfrey of the Veterans Administration Hospital in Topeka, Kansas. In the past it was practiced by Eisner and Cohen, Chandler and Hartman, Dahlberg and others.
Psychedelic Therapy with LSD
This therapeutic approach differs from the preceding one in many important aspects. It was developed on the basis of dramatic clinical improvements and profound personality changes observed in LSD subjects whose sessions had a very definite religious or mystical emphasis. Historically, it is related to the development of a unique LSD treatment program for alcoholics, conducted in the early fifties by Hoffer and Osmond in Saskatchewan, Canada. These authors were inspired by the alleged similarity between the LSD state and delirium tremens, reported by Ditman and Whittlesey (23) in the United States. Hoffer and Osmond combined this observation with the clinical experience that many chronic alcoholics give up drinking after the shattering experience of delirium tremens. In their program, they initially gave LSD to alcoholic patients with the intention of deterring them from further drinking by the horrors of a simulated delirium tremens. Paradoxically, however, it seemed to be the profound positive experiences in LSD sessions that were correlated with good therapeutic results. On the basis of this unexpected observation Hoffer and Osmond, in cooperation with Hubbard, laid the foundations of the psychedelic treatment technique.
The main objective of psychedelic therapy is to create optimal conditions for the subject to experience the ego death and the subsequent transcendence into the so-called psychedelic peak experience. It is an ecstatic state, characterized by the loss of boundaries between the subject and the objective world, with ensuing feelings of unity with other people, nature, the entire Universe, and God.[4] In most instances this experience is contentless and is accompanied by visions of brilliant white or golden light, rainbow spectra or elaborate designs resembling peacock feathers. It can, however, be associated with archetypal figurative visions of deities or divine personages from various cultural frameworks. LSD subjects give various descriptions of this condition, based on their educational background and intellectual orientation. They speak about cosmic unity, unio mystica, mysterium tremendum, cosmic consciousness, union with God, Atman-Brahman union, Samadhi, satori, moksha, or the harmony of the spheres.
Various modifications of psychedelic therapy use different combinations of elements to increase the probability of psychedelic peak experiences occurring in LSD sessions. Before the actual session there is typically a period of drug-free preparation conducted with the aim of facilitating the peak experience. During this time, the therapist explores the patients' life history, helps them to understand their symptoms, and specifically focuses on personality factors that could represent serious obstacles to achieving the psychedelic peak experience. An important part of the preparation is the therapist's explicit and implicit emphasis of the growth potential of the patients, and an encouragement to reach the positive resources of their personalities. Unlike conventional psychotherapy, which usually goes into detailed exploration of psychopathology, psychedelic therapy tries to discourage the patient's preoccupation with pathological phenomena, be they clinical symptoms or maladjustive interpersonal patterns. In general, there is much more concern about transcending psychopathology than interest in its analysis.
Occasionally, patients even receive direct advice and guidance as to how they could function more effectively. This approach is very different from the undisciplined and random advising in life situations against which psychoanalytically oriented therapists so emphatically warn. It does not involve specific suggestions for solving important problems of everyday life, such as marriage or divorce, extramarital affairs, induced abortions, having or not having children, and taking or leaving a job. Psychedelic counseling operates on the very general level of a basic strategy of existence, life philosophy, and hierarchy of values. Some of the issues that might be discussed in this context are, for example, the relative significance of the past, present, and future; the wisdom of drawing one's satisfaction from ordinary things that are always available in life; or the absurdity of exaggerated ambitions and needs to prove something to oneself or to others. From the practical point of view, the general directions in psychedelic counseling are based on observations of specific changes in individuals who have been successfully treated with LSD psychotherapy. They involve an orientation and approach toward life that seem to be associated with the absence of clinical symptoms and with a general feeling of well-being, joy and affirmation of the life process. Although the psychedelic philosophy and life strategy were developed quite independently from the work of Abraham Maslow, (64) some of the principles of this approach are closely related to his description of a self-realizing person and his concept of metavalues and metamotivations. Another important aspect of the discussions in the preparatory period is exploration of the subject's philosophical orientation and religious beliefs. This is particularly relevant in view of the fact that psychedelic sessions frequently revolve around philosophical and spiritual issues.
The last interview before the drug experience usually focuses on technical questions specifically related to the psychedelic session. The therapist describes the nature of the drug effect and the spectrum of experience that it might trigger; special attention is paid to the importance of total yielding to the effect of the drug and psychological surrender to the experience.
In psychedelic therapy there is great emphasis on aesthetically rich settings and a beautiful environment. LSD sessions are conducted in tastefully furnished rooms, decorated with flowers, paintings, sculptures and selected art objects. Wherever possible, natural elements are emphasized. The treatment facility should ideally be located near the ocean, mountain ranges, lakes or wooded areas as exposure of LSD subjects to natural beauty during the termination period of the sessions is an important part of the psychedelic procedure. If this is not possible, examples of natures creativity are brought into the treatment room: beautiful potted plants and fresh-cut flowers, collections of colorful minerals of interesting shapes, a variety of exotic sea-shells, and photographs of enticing scenery. Fresh and dried fruit, assorted nuts, raw vegetables and other natural foods are characteristic items in the armamentarium of psychedelic therapists, as are fragrant spices and incense; these offer an opportunity to engage both smell and taste in the rediscovery of nature. Music plays a very important role in this treatment modality; a high fidelity stereophonic record player, a tape recorder, several sets of headphones and a good collection of records and tapes are standard equipment in psychedelic treatment suites. The selection of music is of critical importance, in general and in relation to different stages of the sessions or specific experiential sequences.
The dosages used in this approach are very high, ranging from 300 to 1500 micrograms of LSD. In contrast to the use of serial LSD sessions in the psycholytic treatment, psychedelic therapy typically involves only one high-dose session or, at the most, two or three. This procedure has been aptly referred to as a "single overwhelming dose." During the drug experience, patients are encouraged to stay in a reclining position, use eyeshades, and listen to stereophonic music through headphones for the entire period of maximum drug effect. Verbal contact is generally discouraged and various forms of non-verbal communication are preferred whenever it seems necessary to provide support.
The content of psychedelic sessions frequently has a definite archetypal emphasis and draws on the specific symbolism of certain ancient and pre-industrial cultures. Some psychedelic therapists therefore tend to include elements of Oriental and primitive art in the interior decoration of their treatment rooms. The art objects used in this context range from Hindu and Buddhist sculptures, paintings and mandalas, Pre-Columbian ceramics and Egyptian statuettes to African tribal art and Polynesian idols. In extreme instances of this approach, some LSD therapists burn fragrant incense, use ritual objects from specific spiritual traditions and read passages from ancient sacred texts such as the I Ching or the Tibetan Book of the Dead. (54) Systematic use of universal symbols has also been described as part of the setting for psychedelic sessions. (60)
In the psychedelic approach, not much attention is paid to psychodynamic issues unless they specifically emerge and present a problem in treatment. The development of transference phenomena is generally explicitly or implicitly discouraged; the limitation of visual contact by the use of eyeshades for most of the session helps to considerably decrease the occurrence of severe problems of this nature. The therapeutic mechanism considered of utmost importance is the psychedelic peak experience, which usually takes the form of a death-rebirth sequence with ensuing feelings of cosmic unity. None of the theoreticians of psychedelic therapy has as yet formulated a comprehensive theory of psychedelic treatment that accounts for all the phenomena involved and is supported by clinical and laboratory data. The existing explanations use the framework and terminology of religious and mystical systems or make general references to the mechanisms of religious conversion. Some authors who have tried to offer physiochemical or neurophysiological interpretations have not been able to move in their speculations beyond the most general abstract concepts. These include explanations suggesting that LSD facilitates the process of unlearning and relearning by activation of stress mechanisms in the organism, or that the therapeutic effect of LSD is based on chemical stimulation of the pleasure centers in certain archaic parts of the brain. This lack of a comprehensive theoretical system constitutes an important difference between the psychedelic approach and psycholytic therapy, which leans in theory and practice on the systems of various schools of dynamic psychotherapy.
Psychedelic therapy has never become popular in Europe and with a few exceptions has not even been recognized or accepted by European therapists. Its use has remained by and large limited to the North American continent where it originated. Its most noted representatives in Canada have been Hoffer, Osmond and Hubbard, Smith, Chwelos, Blewett, McLean, and McDonald. In the United States, the beginnings of psychedelic therapy were associated with the names of Sherwood, Harman and Stolaroff; Fadiman, Mogar and Allen; Leary, Alpert, and Metzner; and Ditman, Hayman and Whittlesey. During the last fourteen years, a group of psychiatrists and psychologists working in Catonsville, Maryland, has been systematically exploring the potential of psychedelic therapy in the treatment of various psychiatric problems, in the training of mental health professionals, and in the care of dying cancer patients. This research program, conducted initially at the Research Unit of the Spring Grove State Hospital and, since 1969, at the Maryland Psychiatric Research Center in Catonsville, Maryland, has been headed by Albert A. Kurland, M.D. The basic principles of the kind of psychedelic therapy employed by this group and the methodological approach to its clinical evaluation had been formulated by Sanford Unger. Other professionals who functioned as LSD therapists and researchers in this team were Cimonetti, Bonny, Leihy, DiLeo, Lobell, McCabe, Pahnke, Richards, Rush, Savage, Schiffman, Soskin, Wolf, Yensen, and Grof.
In general, psychedelic therapy seems to be most effective in the treatment of alcoholics, narcotic-drug addicts, depressed patients, and individuals dying of cancer In patients with psychoneuroses, psychosomatic disorders and character neuroses, major therapeutic changes usually cannot be achieved without systematically working through various levels of problems in serial LSD sessions.
Anaclitic Therapy With LSD (LSD Analysis)
The term anaclitic (from the Greek anaklinein—to lean upon) refers to various early infantile needs and tendencies directed toward a pregenital love object. This method was developed by two London psychoanalysts, Joyce Martin (62) and Pauline McCririck. (68) It is based on clinical observations of deep age regression occurring in LSD sessions of psychiatric patients. During these periods many of them relive episodes of early infantile frustration and emotional deprivation. This is typically associated with agonizing cravings for love, physical contact, and other instinctual needs experienced on a very primitive level.
The technique of LSD therapy practiced by Martin and McCririck was based on psychoanalytic understanding and interpretation of all the situations and experiences occurring in drug sessions and in this sense is very close to psycholytic approaches. The critical difference distinguishing this therapy from any other was the element of direct satisfaction of anaclitic needs of the patients. In contrast to the traditional detached attitude characteristic of psychoanalysis and psycholytic treatment, Martin and McCririck assumed an active mothering role and entered into close physical contact with their patients to help them to satisfy primitive infantile needs reactivated by the drug.
More superficial aspects of this approach involve holding the patients and feeding them warm milk from a bottle, caressing and offering reassuring touches, holding their heads in one's lap, or hugging and rocking. The extreme of psychodramatic involvement of the therapist is the so-called "fusion technique," which consists of full body contact with the client. The patient lies on the couch covered with a blanket and the therapist lies beside his or her body, in close embrace, usually simulating the gentle comforting movements of a mother caressing her baby.
The subjective reports of patients about these periods of "fusion" with the therapist are quite remarkable. They describe authentic feelings of symbiotic union with the nourishing mother image, experienced simultaneously on the level of the "good breast" and "good womb." In this state, patients can experience themselves as infants receiving love and nourishment at the breast of the nursing mother and at the same time feel totally identified with a fetus in the oceanic paradise of the womb. This state can simultaneously involve archetypal dimensions and elements of mystical rapture, and the above situations be experienced as contact with the Great Mother or Mother Nature. It is not uncommon that the deepest form of this experience involves feelings of oneness with the entire cosmos and the ultimate creative principle, or God.
The fusion technique seems to provide an important channel between the psychodynamic, biographical level of the LSD experience and the transcendental states of consciousness. Patients in anaclitic therapy relate that during their nourishing exchange with the mother image, the milk seemed to be "coming directly from the Milky Way." In the imaginary re-enactment of the placentary circulation the life-giving blood can be experienced as sacramental communion, not only with the material organism, but with the divine source. Repeatedly, the situations of "fusion" have been described in all their psychological and spiritual ramifications as fulfillment of the deepest needs of human nature, and as extremely healing experiences. Some patients described this technique as offering the possibility of a retroactive intervention in their deprived childhood. When the original traumatic situations from childhood become reenacted in all their relevance and complexity with the help of the "psychedelic time-machine," the therapist's affection and loving care can fill the vacuum caused by deprivation and frustration.
The dosages used in this treatment technique ranged between 100 and 200 micrograms of LSD, sometimes with the addition of Ritalin in later hours of the sessions. Martin and McCririck described good and relatively rapidly achieved results in patients with deep neuroses or borderline psychotic disorders who had experienced severe emotional deprivation in childhood. Their papers, presentations at scientific meetings, and a film documenting the anaclitic technique stirred up an enormous amount of interest among LSD therapists and generated a great deal of fierce controversy. The reactions of colleagues to this treatment modality ranged from admiration and enthusiasm to total condemnation. Since most of the criticism from the psychoanalytically oriented therapists revolved around the violation of the psychoanalytic taboo against touching and the possible detrimental consequences of the fusion technique for transference-countertransference problems, it is interesting to describe the authors' response to this serious objection.
Both Martin and McCririck seemed to concur that they had experienced much more difficulty with transference relationships before they started using the fusion technique. According to them, it is the lack of fulfillment in the conventional therapeutic relationship that foments and perpetuates transference. The original traumatic situations are continuously reenacted in the therapeutic relationship and the patient essentially experiences repetitions of the old painful rejections. When the anaclitic needs are satisfied in the state of deep regression induced by the drug, the patients are capable of detaching themselves emotionally from the therapist and look for more appropriate objects in their real life.
This situation has a parallel in the early developmental history of the individual. Those children whose infantile emotional needs were adequately met and satisfied by their parents find it relatively easy to give up the affective ties to their family and develop independent existence. By comparison, those individuals who experienced emotional deprivation and frustration in childhood tend to get trapped during their adult life in symbiotic patterns of interaction, destructive and self-destructive clinging behavior, and life-long problems with dependence-independence. According to Martin and McCririck, the critical issue in anaclitic therapy is to use the fusion technique only during periods of deep regression, and keep the experience strictly on the pregenital level. It should not be used in the termination periods of the sessions when the anaclitic elements could get easily confused with adult sexual patterns.
The anaclitic technique never achieved wide acceptance; its use seemed to be closely related to unique personality characteristics in its authors. Most other therapists, particularly males, found it emotionally difficult and uncomfortable to enter into the intimate situation of fusion with their clients. However, the importance of physical contact in LSD psychotherapy is unquestionable and many therapists have routinely used various less-intense forms of body contact.
Hypnodelic Therapy
The name of this treatment technique is a composite derived from the words "hypnosis" and "psychedelic." The concept of hypnodelic therapy was developed by Levine and Ludwig (58) in an effort to combine the uncovering effect of LSD into an organic whole with the power of hypnotic suggestion. In their approach the hypnotic technique was used to guide the subject through the drug experiences and modulate the content and course of the LSD session.
The relationship between hypnosis and the LSD reaction is very interesting and deserves a brief mention here. Fogel and Hoffer (27) reported that they were able to counteract the effects of LSD by hypnotic suggestion and, conversely, at a later date evoke typical LSD phenomena in a subject who had not ingested the drug that day. Tart (100) conducted a fascinating experiment of "mutual hypnosis," in which two persons trained both as hypnotists and hypnotic subjects continued to hypnotize each other into an increasingly deep trance. From a certain point on they became unresponsive to Tart's suggestions and shared a complicated inner journey that bore many similarities to psychedelic states.
In Levine and Ludwig's hypnodelic treatment, the first interview focused on the exploration of the patient's clinical symptoms, present life situation, and past history. Subsequently, the patient was trained as a hypnotic subject; high fixation of the eyes was used as the principle method of trance induction. Ten days later the psychiatrist conducted a psychedelic session using 125 to 200 micrograms of LSD. During the latency period, which usually lasts thirty to forty minutes when the drug is administered orally, the patient was exposed to hypnotic induction so that at the time of onset of the LSD effect, he or she was typically in a state of trance. Because of a basic similarity between LSD experiences and the phenomena of hypnosis the transition from hypnotic trance to the LSD state tends to be relatively smooth. During the culmination period of the LSD session, the psychiatrists tried to use the effect of the drug for therapeutic work while also utilizing their hypnotic rapport with the patients. They helped them to work through important areas of problems, encouraged them to overcome resistances and psychological defenses, guided them to relevant childhood memories, and facilitated catharsis and abreaction. Toward the end of the session, the patients were given posthypnotic suggestions to remember all the details of the session and to continue thinking about the problems that emerged during the session. A special isolated room was provided for them for the rest of the session day.
Levine and Ludwig explored the efficacy of the hypnodelic technique in narcotic-drug addicts and alcoholics. According to their original report, the combination of LSD administration and hypnosis proved to be more effective than either of the components used separately.
Aggregate LSD Psychotherapy
In this form of LSD therapy en masse, patients experience their LSD sessions usually with medium or high dosages, in the company of several co-patients participating in the same psychedelic treatment program. The basic difference between this therapeutic approach and the LSD-assisted group psychotherapy described earlier is the absence of any effort at coordinated work with the group as a whole during the time of the drug action. The most important reason for giving the drug simultaneously to a large number of individuals is to save time for the therapeutic team. Despite the fact that they share the same room, patients essentially experience their sessions individually with only occasional, unstructured encounters and interactions of an elemental nature. A standard program of stereophonic music is usually offered to the entire group, or several alternative channels might be made available on different headphone circuits. Sometimes the projection of slides of emotionally relevant and provocative material or aesthetically stimulating pictures and mandalas can form an integral part of the program for the session day. The therapist and his helpers provide collective supervision; individual attention is given only if absolutely necessary. On the day following the drug session or. later on, the individual experiences of the participants are usually shared with other group members.
This approach has its advantages and disadvantages. The possibility of treating a number of patients simultaneously is an important factor from the economic point of view, and could in the future represent the answer to the unfavorable ratio between mental health professionals and psychiatric patients. On the other hand, the lack of sensitive individualized support might make this treatment less effective and less conducive to working through some especially difficult and demanding areas of personal problems. There is also, in such a collective situation, a danger of psychological contagion; panic reactions, aggressive behavior and loud abreactions of individual patients can negatively influence the experiences of their peers. If the group approach is sensitively combined with individual work when necessary, however, its advantages can outweigh its drawbacks.
The best-known treatment program of this kind was a multidimensional approach to psychedelic psychotherapy developed by Salvador Roquet, (87) a Mexican psychiatrist and founder of the Albert Schweitzer Association in Mexico City. Although his therapeutic program utilized other psychedelic drugs and substances of plant origin in addition to LSD, it deserves more detailed discussion in this context. Roquet combined his training as a psychoanalyst with his knowledge of the indigenous healing practices and ceremonies of various Mexican Indian groups and created a new approach to therapy with psychedelic drugs that he called psychosynthesis. This should not be confused with the theory and practice of the original psychotherapeutic system also called psychosynthesis developed in Italy by Roberto Assagioli. The latter approach is strictly a non-drug procedure, although it shares with psychedelic therapy a strong transpersonal emphasis. In Roquet's approach, therapy was conducted with groups of ten to twenty-eight patients of differing ages and sexes. The members of each group were carefully selected to make the group as heterogeneous as possible with respect to age, sex, clinical problems, the psychedelic drug received, and length of time already spent in treatment. Each group included novices just beginning therapeutic work, individuals who were in the main course of treatment, and patients about to terminate therapy. An important goal of the selection process was to offer a broad spectrum of suitable figures for projections and imaginary roles. Various members of such a heterogeneous group could then represent authority figures, maternal and paternal images, sibling substitutes, or objects of sexual interest.
Following the example of Indian rituals, the drug sessions took place at night All the participants met in a large room for a leaderless group discussion that lasted about two hours. These meetings allowed the patients to meet new members and discuss their fears, hopes and expectations; they also gave the participants ample opportunity for projections and transferences that had an important catalyzing influence on their drug sessions and frequently provided valuable learning experiences. The treatment room was large and decorated with paintings and posters with evocative themes. A wide spectrum of psychedelic substances were administered in these meetings, including LSD, peyote, a variety of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, morning glory seeds, Datura ceratocaulum and ketamine.
The patients spent most of the time in a reclining position on mattresses arranged along the walls, though they were allowed to move around freely if they wanted. Two stereo systems were used and a wide variety of music and sounds was available to influence the depth and intensity of the group's reactions. An important part of the psychedelic sessions was a sensory overload show using slides, movies, stereo effects, and intermittent flashes of colored floodlights. Several themes considered to be of crucial relevance were interwoven in the otherwise erratic and confused barrage of unrelated images and sounds, these included birth, death, violence, sexuality, religion, and childhood. The sensory overload portion of the drug sessions lasted about six hours and was followed by a reflective phase that lasted until sunrise. Following this, the therapists and all participants rested for an hour.
The integrative session involved group discussions and sharing of experiences. The main objective of this phase was to facilitate integration of the material uncovered in the drug session and to apply the insights to the problems of everyday living. Depending on the nature of the interactions this process took from four to twelve hours. The course of therapy consisted of ten to twenty drug sessions depending on the nature and seriousness of the clinical problems involved. The patient population consisted mostly of neurotic out-patients, although Roquet also described various degrees of success with some antisocial personalities and selected schizophrenics.


THE NEED FOR A COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF LSD THERAPY
Therapeutic experimentation with LSD, and psychedelic research in general, has been very negatively influenced by the existence of the black market, unsupervised self-experimentation, sensational journalism, and irrational legislative measures. Despite the fact that LSD now has been known for almost three decades, the literature describing its effects and therapeutic potential is controversial and inconclusive. Further developments in this field would require that independent teams in different countries interact and cooperate in collecting experimental data and exchanging information. However, the number of places studying LSD has been cut down considerably and continues to decrease. Although the present prospects for extensive psychedelic research are rather grim, there are indications that systematic exploration will be resumed after the general confusion has been clarified and rationality reintroduced into the study of the problems involved.
Whatever becomes of LSD research in the future, there are good reasons to analyze the observations and results of past psychedelic experimentation and present the most important insights and findings in a simple and comprehensive form. Such an effort seems justified whether this study becomes an epitaph to the LSD era or a manifesto for future psychedelic researchers. If we are witnessing the "swan song' of psychedelic research, it would be interesting in retrospect to be able to throw more light on the controversies and lack of theoretical understanding concerning the nature of the LSD effect. If LSD research continues into the future, clarification of the present confusion and disagreements would be of great practical importance. Additional controlled studies on a large scale are needed to assess the efficacy of LSD as an adjunct to psychotherapy with a satisfactory degree of scientific accuracy. However, unless the critical reasons for past controversies can be clearly identified and taken into consideration in future research, the new studies will probably perpetuate old errors and yield correspondingly inconclusive results.
As indicated above, individual authors and research teams used LSD starting from very different premises. They followed different therapeutic objectives, adhered to different theoretical systems, employed differing technical approaches, and administered the drug in the most disparate frameworks and settings. It is my belief that the main reason for the controversies about LSD therapy is a lack of understanding regarding the nature of the LSD effect, and the absence of a plausible and generally acceptable conceptual framework that would reduce the vast amounts of observed data to certain common denominators. Such a theoretical system would have to provide understanding of the content and course of separate sessions as well as of repeated exposures to LSD in a therapeutic series. And it should be able to explain the paramount importance of extrapharmacological factors—the personalities of the subject and the guide, their mutual relationship, and the elements of the set and setting—in the development of LSD sessions.
Other important problems that should be accounted for within a comprehensive theoretical framework are the occasional prolonged reactions and even psychotic breakdowns that occur after some of the sessions, or the later recurrences of the LSD-like states ("flashbacks"). The general understanding of these phenomena is at present very incomplete and unsatisfactory, a situation that has serious practical consequences. One result of it is that the approach of mental health professionals to complications of the non-medical use of psychedelics is generally ineffective and often harmful.
A comprehensive theory of LSD psychotherapy should also be able to bridge the gap at present existing between psycholytic and psychedelic therapy, the two most relevant and vital approaches to LSD treatment, and some other therapeutic modifications such as anaclitic and hypnodelic therapy. It should be possible to find important common denominators and explanatory principles for these various approaches and understand their indications and contraindications, as well as successes and failures. A conceptual framework correctly reflecting the most important aspects of the LSD effect should be able to provide practical directives concerning the optimal conditions for the use of this substance in psychotherapy. This would involve general treatment strategy, as well as details concerning dosages, effective approaches to various special situations, use of auxiliary techniques, and the specific elements of set and setting. Finally, a useful, comprehensive theory should provide a number of partial working hypotheses of a practical and theoretical nature that could be tested with the use of scientific methodology.
In view of the complex and multileveled nature of the problems involved, it is extremely difficult to formulate at present a conceptual framework that would fully satisfy all the above criteria. For the time being, even a tentative and approximate theoretical structure, organizing most of the important data and providing guidelines for therapeutic practice, would represent distinct progress. In the following chapters an attempt will be made to present a tentative framework for the theory and practice of LSD psychotherapy. It is my belief that a conceptual system that could account for at least the major observations of LSD therapy requires not just a new understanding of the effects of LSD, but a new and expanded model of the human mind and the nature of human beings. The researches on which my speculations are based were a series of exploratory clinical studies, each of which represented an exciting venture into new territories of the mind as yet uncharted by Western science. It would be unrealistic to expect that they would be more than first sketchy maps for future explorers. I am well aware of the fact that, following the example of old geographers, many areas of my cartography would deserve to be designated by the famous inscription: Hic sunt leones.
The proposed theoretical and practical framework should be considered as an attempt to organize and categorize innumerable new and puzzling observations from several thousand LSD sessions and present them in a logical and comprehensive way. Even in its present rough form, this conceptual framework has proved useful in understanding the events in psychedelic sessions run in a clinical setting, as well as LSD states experienced in the context of non-medical experimentation; following its basic principles has made it possible to conduct LSD therapy with maximum benefit and minimum risk. I believe that it also offers important guidelines for more effective crisis intervention related to psychedelic drug use and more successful treatment of various complications following unsupervised self-experimentation.

Pyschoactive Drugs

2009-07-24T14:31:00.000-07:00

A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness and behavior. These drugs may be used recreationally to purposefully alter one's consciousness, as entheogens for ritual or spiritual purposes, as a tool for studying or augmenting the mind, or therapeutically as medication.

Because psychoactive substances bring about subjective changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find pleasant (e.g. euphoria) or advantageous (e.g. increased alertness), many psychoactive substances are abused, that is, used excessively, despite risks or negative consequences. With sustained use of some substances, physical dependence may develop, making the cycle of abuse even more difficult to interrupt. Drug rehabilitation can involve a combination of psychotherapy, support groups and even other psychoactive substances to break the cycle of dependency.

In part because of this potential for abuse and dependency, the ethics of drug use are the subject of a continuing philosophical debate. Many governments worldwide have placed restrictions on drug production and sales in an attempt to decrease drug abuse.

History

Drug use is a practice that dates to prehistoric times. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years. While medicinal use seems to have played a very large role, it has been suggested that the urge to alter one's consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire. Others suggest that marketing, availability or the pressures of modern life are some of the reasons humans use many psychoactives in their daily lives. However, the long history of drug use and even children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicates that the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.

This relationship is not limited to humans. A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use. Biology suggests an evolutionary connection between psychoactive plants and animals, as to why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.

During the 20th century, many governments across the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by banning them and making their use, supply or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this is the Prohibition era in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have the negative effects of their illicit drug use minimized. This can go hand-in-hand with supply reduction strategies by law-enforcement agencies.

Ritual and spiritual use

Timothy Leary was a leading proponent of spiritual hallucinogen use.

Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used mescaline-containing peyote cacti for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years. The muscimol-containing Amanita muscaria mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe. Various other hallucinogens, including jimsonweed, psilocybin mushrooms, and cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies for centuries.

The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new religious movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as sacraments. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected only for members of the Native American Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote. However, the genuine religious use of Peyote, regardless of one's personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon.

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Research Chemicals

2009-07-23T19:13:00.000-07:00

Q: What are research chemicals?

A: "Research chemicals" literally refers to chemicals that are still being researched. Another term for them is "Experimental Chemicals" which may better communicate the unknown risks associated with ingesting them. When used to describe psychoactive drugs, it refers to new substances which haven't been thoroughly studied. Many are very new, while others may have been around for years but haven't been formally studied, used by many people, or had much data accumulated about their use. Very little is known about them, and much of what is known is based only on first-hand reports. Little if any research has been done on the toxicology or pharmacology of these drugs. Few, if any, human or animal studies have been done. Unlike better known drugs such as ecstasy, which has been taken by millions of people over 20+ years, or marijuana which has been used by billions of people over millennia, research chemicals are new and may only have been used by a few dozen people for a few months. The risks involved with research chemicals are far far greater than with most other drugs, since they're unknowns. It should also be pointed out that while this FAQ refers only to chemicals, the same answers apply to new or unstudied plant-based drugs as well. In fact, the risks of ingesting research plants are even greater, because plants contain many chemicals and the levels of different chemicals can vary greatly between different samples of the plant.

Q: Are research chemicals safe to ingest?

A: No! No drug use is 'safe' and using these drugs involves far greater risk than using older and better studied drugs. This is not to say that the chemicals themselves are dangerous... the risk lies in the fact that very little is known about them. There haven't been enough people using them in high enough doses for long enough periods of time for us to have an idea what the chemicals are capable of. When you're taking a new and unstudied drug, you are making yourself a human guinea pig. The drug you are taking may be perfectly safe. It may even be beneficial. On the other hand, you could take it three times and then suddenly find yourself being 20 years old and having Parkinson's disease. If you think this is an exaggeration, do some research on the drug MPTP, the chemical which was responsible for the DEA being given emergency scheduling powers. When you take a research chemical, you are stepping out into the unknown, and you could be the unfortunate person to discover a new drug's lethal dose. You could find yourself addicted. If you overdose and end up at the hospital, the doctors will only be able to guess at how to treat you. Some drugs, like LSD and psilocybin, have a wide therapeutic range in which there is little to no possibility of pharmacologically-induced death, while other substances such as Mescaline become dangerous at only a few times their active dose. Accidental overdoses happen to everyone who works with psychoactives for long enough and overdoses of research chemicals have unknown consequences. If you aren't prepared to accept these risks, you should avoid research chemicals.

Q: This research chemical is very similar to a well-known drug which is very safe. Doesn't that mean it's safe too?

A: Not necessarily. In the case of a new drug that is very chemically similar to another well-known drug, pharmacologists can try to extrapolate from the known drug, but there's no guarantees here. Consider the drug PMA: closely related to MDMA (ecstasy), but it can kill in doses only slightly over those necessary to produce psychoactive effects. Again, consider the tragic case of MPTP. If a research chemical is similar to a known drug, there's a good chance it's safety profile is similar; but there's also a very real chance it's not.

Q: Several of my friends tried this drug and they didn't have any problems, so it's safe, right?

A: No. Idiosyncratic reactions are a large part of the risks of taking psychoactive drugs. Less tested psychoactives may cause extreme or negative reactions in a small portion of users and just because a few people use a chemical recklessly without getting hurt doesn't mean that will hold true for you.

Q: I read some trip reports about this chemical I want to try, but they're all so different! What are the effects of this drug?

A: People react differently to different drugs. With well-known drugs, enough people have done them that we have a pretty good idea what the range of common and uncommon effects are. With research chemicals, there are often many contradictory reports, and it's hard to say what the typical effects are simply because not enough people have taken them for us to know what the average results are. What are often the particularly dangerous effects are those that hit a minority of users and this information is not available for research chemicals. Does 5% of the population lack an enzyme without which this drug can cause serious damage? Are people with latent heart problems particularly at risk with this new chemical? You might read all the first-hand reports and then take the drug yourself and get effects exactly like you expected, or you could have an experience totally unlike anything anyone else has had. Expect the unexpected. Be prepared for both pleasant surprises and horrible shocks. Have your insurance card with you and get the number for the closest emergency room.

Q: What are the side effects of research chemicals?

A: Who knows? While some of the stronger, more common side effects may be discovered fairly quickly, you could always be the unlucky first person to discover a new, previously unknown side effect. Before you take any kind of new drug, you should always investigate it. Read all the available information on it, whether in books, journals, or reports people have written on their experiences. Talk to people who have done it. This kind of investigation is extremely important if you're taking some kind of research chemical! Always start with much lower doses than you think you'll need, because with any drug, there are always some people who are hypersensitive to some or all of the effects. A moderate dose for one person could be a fatal overdose for you. Be aware of what's going on with your body when first trying the drug. Mildly annoying side effects at lower doses could be indicators of potentially dangerous side effects at higher doses. It's a good idea to keep around a blood pressure and pulse monitoring device so you can check your vitals if you notice anything unusual happening. When taking research chemicals, be prepared for unexpected side effects which could vary in strength between "mildly annoying" and "drug induced fatality."

Q: What are the long-term risks of these drugs?

A: The long-term effects of research chemicals are unknown. They haven't been used by enough people for long enough to be able to tell what long-term use can do. Even a single exposure to a research chemical could have long term repercussions. MPTP, the drug mentioned above, was an impurity found in the so called "designer drug" MPPP, a synthetic drug created by an underground chemist looking for a legal heroin substitute in the early 1980s. Using MPTP just once can cause damage to the brain, leading to a permanent condition resembling Parkinson's disease. If you decide to take a research chemical, you may want to avoid taking it often, and you may even want to go as far as to put a limit on your lifetime exposure to any given chemical (for example, only take it three times, then not take it again until many years have passed and more research has been done -- if even then).

Q: What doses do I use?

A: With research chemicals, the dosage range may not be fully established. Some people are always going to be sensitive to any given drug, so it's wise to start much lower than you think you'll need. It's better to take too little and get no effects than to take too much and discover you're hypersensitive to the drug. If necessary work up to a full dose over several tries. Give yourself time in between tries to make sure tolerance doesn't build up and throw off your numbers. Also, keep in mind that the overdose level for research chemicals hasn't been discovered. Taking large doses should be avoided unless you're willing to take the risk of being the first person to discover the lethal dose of some chemical. You should also always try to use things by the safest route possible. Taking a drug orally is the best bet. Smoking, snorting, rectal administration and injections all magnify the risks of dosage accidents. Experience reports on Erowid, Lycaeum, or Usenet can be used only to get a sense of the order of magnitude (should the dosage be 1 gram, 1 milligram, or 10 micrograms) and from there responsible users start low and work up with new compounds. Being conservative in your dosage is healthier and more fun as a long-term strategy.

Q: How do I measure doses of research chemicals?

A: As carefully and accurately as possible! Having a scale is virtually essential, especially for chemicals active in dosages under 100mg. Never ever measure out doses under 100mg by eye (not even using the "graph paper method" or by repeatedly dividing). If you don't have a scale, you can dissolve many chemicals in water or alcohol (always test a small sample for solubility first). Take a known weight of drug and dissolve it in a known volume of liquid (for example, 500mg in 50ml), then you can measure doses out by volume (in the example, 1ml of liquid would contain 10mg of drug). Tragic accidents, including freak-outs, trips to the emergency room, and even deaths, can be the result of mismeasuring doses. Crystalline materials vary in how 'fluffy' they are; the volume of the same mass of material can vary dramatically and even with very careful eyeballing, mistakes of 10-30 milligrams are common. Measure your doses as if your life, health, and sanity depended upon your accuracy. There are few things more horrible than accidental overdoses of psychedelic drugs you don't trust. See The Importance of Measured Doses for more details.

Q: Can I mix chemical X with drug Y?

A: Even with well studied drugs, mixes can produce unexpected results. If you're talking about new, barely studied drugs: we don't fully understand what they do on their own, much less in combinations. Also, the more drugs you throw in the mix, the more unpredictable things get. If you choose to mix research chemicals with other drugs, always use MUCH lower doses of each drug than you would use if you were taking them separately, because there is always the risk of an unforeseen dangerous interaction. Look at how closely related drugs interact, this may give you a hint of what to expect. There are no guarantees though. Of course, the risks are even greater if you mix two or more research chemicals. Never mix a drug you haven't taken before until you've gotten familiar with what the effects of the drug are on its own.

Q: Are research chemicals legal?

A: That depends on which chemical and where you live. If you live in a country that has 'drug analogue' laws, such as the United States, then some uncontrolled chemicals may be illegal to consume or possess. An analog (or the idiosyncratic US federal spelling "analogue") is a drug that is chemically related to an illegal drug, has similar effects, or is "represented as having" or "intended to have" similar effects. Under US laws, the drug analog laws come into play if you consume a chemical, sell it for consumption, or possess it with the intent to consume it. If you intend to use the chemical to try and kill some poison ivy plants in your back yard or to clean your toilet, then the analog laws don't apply. Also illegal would be to sell a research chemical as a look-alike drug -- that is, to misrepresent it as an illegal drug. If you put some legal chemical in a pill and sell it as ecstasy, you can be charged with selling actual ecstasy -- even if it's a sugar pill. Unless either the analogue or look-alike laws are involved, though, most research chemicals are not strictly illegal. Some states have placed controls on chemicals that are for sale in other states, so it's important to look into the laws in your area. In countries like the United States or Germany, where the government has emergency banning powers, a research chemical can be declared illegal immediately, so a drug can become illegal overnight without you knowing it. If you plan to keep research chemicals around, it's up to you to keep up with changes in the law. A key concept to keep in mind is that you can be arrested, charged, and your property seized in the United States based on simply the presumption that you possess a scheduled substance. Any white powder that 'looks like a drug' seen by a cop is almost guaranteed to get you put in jail and you can have your lawyer sort out whether you were 'technically' violating any laws. Analog prosecutions are expensive and tend to be reserved to punish sales, but simple possession can lead to awful consequences, even if a felony conviction isn't the final result.

The DEA busted and arrested a handful of Research Chemical vendors in July 2004, using hospitalizations and information showing the chemicals were not sold for research as their justification for declaring the chemicals to be Federal Analogues:
These website operators attempted to give an appearance of legitimacy to their websites by presumably selling these chemicals to bona fide researchers; however, a review of customer lists revealed purchasers with e-mail addresses such as acidtripo420@; ecstasylight@; madtriper17@; moontripperdipt@; partys_with_glow_sticks@; professor@; psychedelic_stoner@; and ravergirlny@.
Over the past 4 years, the Research Chemical market has become so prevalent that any search on Google for erowid, or any of the dozens of names of psychoactive phenethylamines, piperazines, or tryptamines would yield several advertisements for their sale. Erowid had to take down our use of the Google search engine to avoid having erowid search results surrounded by advertisements for these psychoactives.

See DEA Press Release, July 22, 2004

Q: Where can I get research chemicals?

A: From wherever they come from. Perhaps you are a chemist and can make your own (if you have to ask how to make them, you aren't qualified). Perhaps you can order them from chemical supply companies (many of these require you provide credentials proving you are with a legitimate research institution). Perhaps your cousin Jimmy Bob's friend Gomer has some and will give you a sample. Occasionally, some of these things become commercially available to the public in some form or another (GBL was, for a while, available as an industrial solvent). Many people get research chemicals by discretely asking trusted friends. It's not a good idea to go posting around Internet drug sites asking where you can get things, for several reasons. One, this attracts attention, which could speed up making a new drug illegal. Two, discussions like this tend to get repetitive and noisy, attract spammers and scammers, and are generally considered rude. Three, most companies that sell these things are not allowed by law to sell them for human consumption as drugs: if the companies discover a product of theirs is used recreationally they may choose to stop selling it or be forced to stop selling it to avoid criminal or civil liability. And four, if you're caught with a chemical and charged for violating analogue laws, your posts could possibly end up being used as evidence against you that you intended to use the chemicals illegally. Many underground researchers find companies by searching the net, but most find chemicals through friends. Beware of those selling chemicals at parties or clubs, they are notoriously the worst quality and least likely to be accurately represented.

Q: Has anyone ever died from taking a 'research chemical'?

Yes. Unfortunately, it's virtually impossible to get reliable or consistent data about causes of deaths. People are fearful of reporting deaths because of potential criminal, civil, and political repercussions. There are also bogus reports of deaths by people who want to 'send a message' and there are also people who report a death but don't provide enough details to follow up on the information. If you know of any deaths or serious injuries directly related to research chemicals or any psychedelic, please collect as many substantiating details as possible and send a note to Erowid so we can research it and make sure users know about it.

LSD

2009-07-22T23:51:00.000-07:00

Lysergic acid diethylamide, LSD, LSD-25, or acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family. Its unusual psychological effects, which include visuals of colored and crawling geometric patterns, and a sense of time distortion have made it one of the most widely known psychedelic drugs. It has been used mainly as an entheogen, a tool to supplement various practices for transcendence, including in meditation, psychonautics, art projects, and (formerly legal) psychedelic therapy, and as a recreational drug. Formally, LSD is classified as a hallucinogen of the psychedelic type.

LSD was first synthesized by Albert Hofmann in 1938 from ergot, a grain fungus that typically grows on rye. The short form LSD comes from its early code name LSD-25, which is an abbreviation for the German "Lysergsäure-diethylamid" followed by a sequential number.

LSD is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and chlorine, especially in solution, though its potency may last for years if it is stored away from light and moisture at low temperature. In pure form it is colorless, odorless, and mildly bitter.

LSD is typically delivered orally, usually on a substrate such as absorbent blotter paper, a sugar cube, or gelatin. In its liquid form, it can be administered by intramuscular or intravenous injection. The threshold dosage level needed to cause a psychoactive effect on humans is between 20 and 30 µg (micrograms).

Introduced by Sandoz Laboratories as a drug with various psychiatric uses, LSD quickly became a therapeutic agent that appeared to show great promise. However, the emerging recreational use of the drug in Western society during the mid-twentieth century led to a political firestorm that resulted in the banning of the substance. A number of organizations—including the Beckley Foundation, MAPS, Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation—exist to fund, encourage and coordinate research into its medicinal uses.

Psychological

LSD's psychological effects (colloquially called a "trip") vary greatly from person to person, depending on factors such as previous experiences, state of mind and environment, as well as dose strength. They also vary from one trip to another, and even as time passes during a single trip. An LSD trip can have long-term psychoemotional effects; some users cite the LSD experience as causing significant changes in their personality and life perspective. Widely different effects emerge based on what has been called set and setting; the "set" being the general mindset of the user, and the "setting" being the physical and social environment in which the drug's effects are experienced.

Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert considered the chemical to be of potentially beneficial application in psychotherapy. If the user is in a hostile or otherwise unsettling environment, or is not mentally prepared for the powerful distortions in perception and thought that the drug causes, effects are more likely to be unpleasant than if he or she is in a comfortable environment and has a relaxed, balanced and open mindset.

Some psychological effects may include an experience of radiant colors, objects and surfaces appearing to ripple or "breathe," colored patterns behind the eyes, a sense of time distorting (time seems to be stretching, repeating itself, changing speed or stopping), crawling geometric patterns overlaying walls and other objects, morphing objects, a sense that one's thoughts are spiraling into themselves, loss of a sense of identity or the ego (known as "ego death"), and powerful, and sometimes brutal, psycho-physical reactions interpreted by some users as reliving their own birth. Many users experience a dissolution between themselves and the "outside world". This unitive quality may play a role in the spiritual and religious aspects of LSD. The drug sometimes leads to disintegration or restructuring of the user's historical personality and creates a mental state that some users report allows them to have more choice regarding the nature of their own personality.

Some experts hypothesize that drugs such as LSD may be useful in psychotherapy, especially when the patient is unable to "unblock" repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods, and also for treating alcoholism. One study concluded, "The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is its potential for producing self-acceptance and self-surrender," presumably by forcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual's psyche.

Some studies in the 1950s that used LSD to treat alcoholism professed a 50% success rate, five times higher than estimates near 10% for Alcoholics Anonymous. These studies were criticized for methodological flaws, and different groups had inconsistent results. Mangini's 1998 paper reviewed this history. She concluded that the efficacy of LSD in treating alcoholism remains an open question.

Many notable individuals have commented publicly on their experiences with LSD. Some of these comments date from the era when it was legally available in the US and Europe for non-medical uses, and others pertain to psychiatric treatment in the 1950s and 60s. Still others describe experiences with illegal LSD, obtained for philosophic, artistic, therapeutic, spiritual, or recreational purposes.

Sensory / perception

LSD causes expansion and an altered experience of senses, emotions, memories, time, and awareness for 6 to 14 hours, depending on dosage and tolerance. Generally beginning within thirty to ninety minutes after ingestion, the user may experience anything from subtle changes in perception to overwhelming cognitive shifts. Changes in auditory and visual perception are typical. Visual effects include the illusion of movement of static surfaces ("walls breathing"), after image-like trails of moving objects ("tracers"), the appearance of moving colored geometric patterns (especially with closed eyes), an intensification of colors and brightness ("sparkling"), new textures on objects, blurred vision, and shape suggestibility. Users commonly report that the inanimate world appears to animate in an unexplained way; for instance, objects that are static in three dimensions can seem to be moving relative to one or more additional spatial dimensions. Many of the basic visual effects resemble the phosphenes seen after applying pressure to the eye and have also been studied under the name "form constants". The auditory effects of LSD may include echo-like distortions of sounds, changes in ability to discern concurrent auditory stimuli, and a general intensification of the experience of music. Higher doses often cause intense and fundamental distortions of sensory perception such as synaesthesia, the experience of additional spatial or temporal dimensions, and temporary dissociation.

Psychoactive Speed - Helpful LSD Links:

Erowid LSD Vault

Bluelight

Passing Your Drug Test ( Marijuana)

2009-07-22T21:59:00.000-07:00

This question comes up all the time and finally here are some proven ways to pass that damn test.

The approach you take entirely depends on how much time you have before a test, and how long you have been smoking.

If your test is in a couple of days, instead of trying to get the chemicals out of your body as many try to do, what you want to do is keep as much as you can in. This means no exercise, eating as much fatty food as possible, and not taking in huge amounts of liquid. THC is stored in your fat cells and if you keep it there then it won't be in your test sample. If you are working hard to get THC out of your system right up until the day of the test, you will be pissing out THC into the test bottle as well because that's what you've been trying to do the whole time, get the THC out of your body. But if you think you are borderline between passing and failing, trying to keep the THC in your fat cells will be much more productive because it won't end up in the bottle.

Now, if you have a couple weeks you are going to try to do the complete opposite of what I said above, and stop a week before your test and do the lazy-couch potato method I described above. So you'll need plenty of exercise (cardio is best, something to make you sweat), no fatty food, lots of liquids and vitamins. Basically your trying to burn fat( where the THC is stored) and clean out your system. Remember, it is crucial you stop doing all exercise and start eating greasy fatty foods one week before your test so that you can keep whatever is left in your body safely tucked in your new fat cells.

Psychoactive Speed - Helpful Links:

Erowid

Bluelight

Heroin

2009-07-22T21:51:00.000-07:00

We have finally arrived to the big boys here at Psychoactive Speed... Heroin the king of all drugs some say...

Heroin, or diacetylmorphine (INN), also known as diamorphine (BAN), is a semi-synthetic opioid drug synthesized from morphine, a derivative of the opium poppy. It is the 3,6-diacetyl ester of morphine (hence diacetylmorphine). The white crystalline form is commonly the hydrochloride salt diacetylmorphine hydrochloride, however heroin freebase may also appear as a white powder.

As with other opioids, heroin is used as both a pain-killer and a recreational drug and has high potential for abuse. Frequent and regular administration is associated with tolerance, moderate physical dependence, and severe psychological dependence which often develops into addiction. Heroin has been proven to act as an extraordinary fever reducer.

Internationally, heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. It is illegal to manufacture, possess, or sell diacetylmorphine without a licence in Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Iran, India, the Netherlands, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, Pakistan, the United Kingdom and Swaziland. Under the name diamorphine, it is a legally prescribed controlled drug in the United Kingdom. In the Netherlands, under the name diacetylmorphine, it is available for prescription to long-term addicts.

Diacetylmorphine is used as a recreational drug for the profound relaxation and intense euphoria it produces, although the latter effect diminishes with increased tolerance. Its popularity with recreational drug users, compared to morphine, reportedly stems from its perceived different effects. In particular, users report an intense "rush" that occurs while the diacetylmorphine is being metabolized into 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) and morphine in the brain. Any intravenous opioid will induce rapid, profound effects, but diacetylmorphine produces more euphoria than other opioids upon injection. One possible explanation is the presence of 6-monoacetylmorphine, a metabolite unique to diacetylmorphine. While other opioids of abuse, such as codeine, produce only morphine, heroin also leaves 6-MAM, also a psycho-active metabolite. However, this perception is not supported by the results of clinical studies comparing the physiological and subjective effects of injected diacetylmorphine and morphine in individuals formerly addicted to opioids; these subjects showed no preference for one drug over the other. Equipotent, injected doses had comparable action courses, with no difference in subjects' self-rated feelings of euphoria, ambition, nervousness, relaxation, drowsiness, or sleepiness. Short-term addiction studies by the same researchers demonstrated that tolerance developed at a similar rate to both diacetylmorphine and morphine. When compared to the opioids hydromorphone, fentanyl, oxycodone, and pethidine/meperidine, former addicts showed a strong preference for diacetylmorphine and morphine, suggesting that diacetylmorphine and morphine are particularly susceptible to abuse and addiction. Morphine and diacetylmorphine were also much more likely to produce euphoria and other positive subjective effects when compared to these other opioids.

One of the most common methods of illicit heroin use is via intravenous injection (colloquially termed "shooting up"). Heroin base (commonly found in the UK and Europe), when prepared for injection will only dissolve in water when mixed with an acid (most commonly citric acid powder or lemon juice) and heated. Heroin in the US is most commonly its hydrochloride salt, requiring just water to dissolve. Users tend to initially inject in the easily accessible veins in the arm, but as these veins collapse over time through damage caused by the acid, the user will often resort to injecting in other veins.

Recreational users may also administer the drug through means of snorting, or smoking by inhaling its vapors when heated; either with tobacco in a rolled cigarette or by heating the drug on aluminium foil from underneath.[citation needed] When heated the heroin powder changes to a thick liquid, similar in consistency to molten wax, and it will run across the foil giving off smoke which the user inhales through a tube, usually made from foil also so that any heroin that collects on the inside of the tube can be smoked afterward. The user follows the "blob" of heroin with the intention of inhaling, through the tube, as much of the smoke as possible - i.e. "chasing the dragon."

The onset of diacetylmorphine's effects depends upon the route of administration. Orally, since diacetylmorphine is completely metabolized in vivo to morphine before crossing the blood-brain barrier the effects are the same as with oral morphine. Snorting results in an onset within 3 to 5 minutes; smoking results in an almost immediate effect that builds in intensity; intravenous injection induces a rush and euphoria usually taking effect within 30 seconds; intramuscular and subcutaneous injection take effect within 3 to 5 minutes.[citation needed]

The diacetylmorphine dose used for recreational purposes depends strongly on the frequency of use. A first-time user typically ingests between 5 and 20 mg of diacetylmorphine, but an individual who is heavily dependent on the drug may require several hundred mg per day.

Large doses of heroin can cause fatal respiratory depression, and the drug has been used for suicide or as a murder weapon. The serial killer Dr Harold Shipman used it on his victims as did Dr John Bodkin Adams (see his victim, Edith Alice Morrell). Because significant tolerance to respiratory depression develops quickly with continued use and is lost just as quickly during withdrawal, it is often difficult to determine whether a heroin death was an accident, suicide or murder. Examples include the overdose deaths of Sid Vicious, Janis Joplin, Tim Buckley, Layne Staley, Bradley Nowell, Ted Binion, and River Phoenix.

Psychoactive Speed - More Heroin information:

Erowid Heroin Vault

DXM(Dextromethorphan)

2009-07-22T21:34:00.000-07:00

Our next drug on Psychoactive Speed is DXM also known as Dextromethorphan.

Dextromethorphan (DXM or DM) is an antitussive drug. It is one of the active ingredients used to prevent coughs in many over-the-counter cold and cough medicines. Dextromethorphan has also found other uses in medicine, ranging from pain relief to psychological applications. It is sold in syrup, tablet, and lozenge forms manufactured under several different brand names and generic labels. In its pure form, dextromethorphan occurs as a white powder.

When exceeding label-specified maximum dosages, dextromethorphan acts as a dissociative psychedelic drug. Its mechanism of action is as an NMDA receptor antagonist, producing effects similar to those of the controlled substances ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP).

At high doses users have described DXM as very much like PCP, even giving it nicknames such as "baby pcp". PCP will be the next drug we review here at Psychoactive Speed so looking at its baby brother first will be very helpful in our future understanding of it, as well as other NMDA receptor antagonists like ketamine. While we are on the subject of ketamine, we will be looking very closely into it and other psychadelics as well. LSD, mescaline, mushrooms, various research chemicals, and the less known drugs like LSA. We have it all here at Psychoactive Speed.

Now back to DXM...

Dextromethorphan was first patented under U.S. Patent 2,676,177. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved dextromethorphan for over-the-counter sale as a cough suppressant in 1958. This filled the need for a cough suppressant lacking the sedative side-effects, stronger potential for abuse, and physically addictive properties of codeine phosphate, the most widely-used cough medication at the time. In the United States, codeine phosphate syrup is still available in small quantities without a prescription in some states, but requires a signature and ID to purchase, similar to rules for sale of pseudoephedrine. As with most cough suppressants, studies show that dextromethorphan's effectiveness is highly debatable, especially in children.

During the 1960s and 1970s, dextromethorphan became available in an over-the-counter tablet form by the brand name Romilar. In 1973, Romilar was taken off the shelves after a burst in sales due to frequent abuse, and was replaced by cough syrup in an attempt to cut down on abuse.

More recently (the early 1990s), gel capsule forms began reappearing in the form of Drixoral Cough Liquid Caps and later Robitussin CoughGels as well as several generic forms of that preparation.

There are some cough gels that are more safe than other to consume in a recreational sense. CCC's or Triple C's are a popular brand of cough gels that are used by many who don't know its negative affects. They are very bad for the heart and can cause a very unpleasant experience, FOR NO REASON. Why get Triple C's when there are much better alternatives on the market such as Robitussin CoughGels, or any other generic form of them. ITS NOT WORTH IT TO TAKE TRIPLE C'S, TRUST ME ON THIS.

Psychoactive Speed - For more information on DXM:

Erowid DXM Vault

The Dextroverse ( A DXM Community)

Speed

2009-07-22T21:15:00.000-07:00

Its only right that the first drug we look at on Psychoactive Speed is speed ( also known as Amphetamine)

Amphetamine is a psychostimulant drug that is known to produce increased wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite. Amphetamine is related to drugs such as methamphetamine and dextroamphetamine, which are a group of potent drugs that act by increasing levels of norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine in the brain, inducing euphoria.

Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by the Romanian Lazăr Edeleanu in Berlin, Germany. He named the compound phenylisopropylamine. It was one of a series of compounds related to the plant derivative ephedrine, which had been isolated from Ma-Huang that same year by Nagayoshi Nagai. No pharmacological use was found for amphetamine until 1927, when pioneer psychopharmacologist Gordon Alles resynthesized and tested it on himself, in search of an artificial replacement for ephedrine. From 1933 or 1934 Smith, Kline and French began selling the volatile base form of the drug as an inhaler under the trade name Benzedrine, useful as a decongestant but readily usable for non-medical purposes. One of the first attempts at using amphetamines as a scientific study was done by M. H. Nathanson, a Los Angeles physician, in 1935. He studied the subjective effects of amphetamine in 55 hospital workers who were each given 20 mg of Benzedrine. The two most commonly reported drug effects were "a sense of well being and a feeling of exhilaration" and "lessened fatigue in reaction to work". During World War II amphetamine was extensively used to combat fatigue and increase alertness in soldiers. After decades of reported abuse, the FDA banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamines to prescription use in 1965, but non-medical use remained common. Amphetamine became a schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act in 1971.

Primary sites of action

Amphetamine exerts its behavioral effects by modulating the behavior of several key neurotransmitters in the brain, including dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. However, the activity of amphetamine throughout the brain appears to be specific; certain receptors that respond to amphetamine in some regions of the brain tend not to do so in other regions. For instance, dopamine D2 receptors in the hippocampus, a region of the brain associated with forming new memories, appear to be unaffected by the presence of amphetamine.

The major neural systems affected by amphetamine are largely implicated in the brain’s reward circuitry. Moreover, neurotransmitters involved in various reward pathways of the brain appear to be the primary targets of amphetamine. One such neurotransmitter is dopamine, a chemical messenger heavily active in the mesolimbic and mesocortical reward pathways. Not surprisingly, the anatomical components of these pathways—including the striatum, the nucleus accumbens, and the ventral striatum—have been found to be primary sites of amphetamine action.

The fact that amphetamines influence neurotransmitter activity specifically in regions implicated in reward provides insight into the behavioral consequences of the drug, such as the stereotyped onset of euphoria. A better understanding of the specific mechanisms by which amphetamines operate may increase our ability to treat amphetamine addiction, as the brain’s reward circuitry has been widely implicated in addictions of many types.

Actually amphetamine is chemically related to another drug, DXM. DXM is called Dextromethorphan while two salts used in the makeup of a amphetamine like drug, Adderall, are called Dextroamphetamine saccharate and Dextroamphetamine sulfate.

Psychoactive Speed- Helpful Links:

Erowid Amphetamine Vault