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Bharat or India: Unraveling the Name of a Nation

2023-09-06T11:36:00.001+05:30

Introduction The Indian subcontinent, with its rich tapestry of cultures, languages, and traditions, has been a cradle of civilization for millennia. At the heart of this diverse land lies a question that has intrigued scholars, historians, and even the common citizens for ages - what is the actual name of this nation? Is it Bharat, as enshrined in the Constitution of India, or India, as commonly used worldwide? In this article, we will delve deep into the historical origins, the post-independence decision, and the significance of these names to understand the complex tapestry of identity that India, or Bharat, embodies.

Ancient Origins of Bharat

The name 'Bharat' has ancient roots that stretch back to the earliest Indian texts. In Hindu mythology, Bharat is believed to be named after the legendary king Bharata, an ancestor of Lord Rama, who is revered in the epic Ramayana. King Bharata's virtuous reign and the love he had for his subjects contributed to the adoption of his name for the land.

The concept of Bharatavarsha, an ancient term for the Indian subcontinent, can be traced back to the sacred texts of the Vedic period, particularly the Mahabharata and the Puranas. These texts mention Bharatavarsha as the land located between the Himalayas in the north and the Indian Ocean in the south. This region was considered sacred and spiritually significant in ancient Hinduism.

Furthermore, the ancient text 'Bhagavad Gita,' a part of the Mahabharata, refers to the land as Bharat, emphasizing its religious and cultural importance. This usage of Bharat in ancient texts not only highlights its historical significance but also its cultural and spiritual resonance with the Indian subcontinent.

Historical Context: India Through the Ages

India's history is a complex tapestry woven together by the interactions of various dynasties, empires, and civilizations. Throughout its history, the region has been known by various names, reflecting the diverse languages and cultures that have thrived here.

During the Maurya and Gupta empires, which flourished from the 4th century BCE to the 6th century CE, the term 'Bharatvarsha' was widely used to refer to the Indian subcontinent. This period is often celebrated as the golden age of India, marked by significant cultural and intellectual achievements.

Subsequently, the Indian subcontinent witnessed the rise of various dynasties and kingdoms, each with its own regional identity and nomenclature. The Mughal Empire, which ruled India from the 16th to the 19th century, referred to the land as 'Hindustan,' reflecting the Persian influence on the region.

It was during British colonial rule, which lasted from the 18th century until 1947, that the term 'India' gained prominence in the international context. The British colonial administration used the term 'India' to refer to the entire subcontinent under its control, encompassing present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and parts of Nepal and Myanmar.

Post-Independence Decision

The question of what to officially call the newly independent nation was a significant issue that needed resolution at the time of India's independence in 1947. The framers of the Indian Constitution deliberated extensively on this matter and ultimately settled on the name 'India' as the official name of the nation.

The choice of 'India' over 'Bharat' was influenced by several factors. Firstly, 'India' had gained international recognition during the colonial era, making it more accessible and familiar to the global community. This continuity in nomenclature also facilitated the transition from British colonial rule to independence.

Secondly, the framers of the Indian Constitution recognized the immense diversity within the nation. India is home to numerous languages, cultures, and ethnic groups, and the name 'India' was seen as a unifying and inclusive choice. It was considered neutral and did not favor any particular linguistic or regional group.

Thirdly, 'India' was seen as a secular choice that emphasized the country's commitment to religious and cultural pluralism. It was meant to convey that the nation would not be defined by any one religion or culture but would embrace its diverse heritage.

Significance of Names

The choice of a name for a nation holds great significance, both internally and on the global stage. Let's delve deeper into the significance of both 'Bharat' and 'India.'

Bharat:

1. Cultural and Historical Significance: 'Bharat' carries deep cultural and historical significance. It is rooted in ancient Indian mythology and texts, connecting the nation to its spiritual and philosophical heritage.

2. Regional and Linguistic Identity: The name 'Bharat' is seen by some as a reflection of the country's linguistic and regional diversity. It aligns more closely with the identity of Hindi-speaking regions, which has been a source of debate in a linguistically diverse nation.

3. Traditional and Indigenous: Advocates for 'Bharat' argue that it represents an indigenous and traditional name that reflects the pre-colonial identity of the land.

India:

1. International Recognition: 'India' enjoys international recognition, making it easier for the nation to engage in global diplomacy and trade. It provides a sense of continuity with the colonial period and ensures that India is understood and accepted worldwide.

2. Inclusivity: 'India' is often seen as a more inclusive and neutral choice that does not favor any particular linguistic or regional group. It reinforces the idea of unity in diversity.

3. Secularism: The name 'India' conveys the nation's commitment to secularism and cultural pluralism, emphasizing that the country is not defined by any one religion or culture.

Conclusion

The choice of whether to call the nation 'Bharat' or 'India' is not a mere matter of semantics but a reflection of the complexities and nuances of India's history and identity. Both names have their own merits and significance. 'Bharat' connects the nation to its ancient roots, its cultural diversity, and its traditional heritage. 'India,' on the other hand, symbolizes continuity with the colonial past, inclusivity, and secularism.

Ultimately, the decision to use 'India' as the official name of the nation post-independence was a pragmatic one, considering the global context and the need for a unifying, neutral name for a diverse and pluralistic nation. It does not diminish the cultural and historical significance of 'Bharat,' which continues to be used alongside 'India' in the country's official name, 'Bharat/India.'

As India continues to evolve and assert its role on the global stage, the dual nomenclature serves as a reminder of the nation's rich history, cultural diversity, and its ongoing journey towards progress and unity. The names 'Bharat' and 'India' coexist, reflecting the multifaceted identity of a nation that embraces both its ancient heritage and its contemporary aspirations.

In this era of globalization, where boundaries are increasingly blurred, the name 'India' carries the aspirations of a nation that seeks to engage meaningfully with the world while preserving its rich heritage. 'Bharat,' on the other hand, remains a cherished symbol of

India's deep-rooted cultural and spiritual traditions. Both names, in their own ways, contribute to the mosaic that is modern India, a nation that is proud of its past and optimistic about its future.

In the grand narrative of India's history, the question of its name becomes an important thread, connecting the ancient past to the modern present. The name 'Bharat' reminds us of our origins, our philosophies, and our enduring traditions. It is a name that resonates with the very soul of the nation, echoing the wisdom of sages and the valor of kings. 'India,' on the other hand, tells a tale of resilience, adaptation, and integration on the global stage, a name that has become synonymous with the world's largest democracy.

The choice between 'Bharat' and 'India' is not just a linguistic one; it is a reflection of how a nation sees itself and how it wishes to be perceived on the world stage. It is a reminder that India, or Bharat, is not just a geographical entity but a living, breathing civilization with a rich tapestry of cultures, languages, and traditions. Both names, like twin rivers, flow together to nourish the land that is India. They coexist, not in conflict, but in harmony, telling the story of a nation that draws strength from its past as it forges ahead into the future.

How the football trend is Shifting towards Middle East?

2023-09-05T20:52:00.001+05:30

Did you know that football has been traditionally known as Europe’s sport, with powerhouses like England, Spain, and Italy dominating the game for decades? But recently, a new chapter has begun to unfold, and all eyes are turning towards the Middle East. This region, rich in culture and history, is making its mark in the world of football. This is due to number of factors like –

Photo by Sven Kucinic on Unsplash

1. Economic Powerhouse
The Middle East’s increasing wealth has paved the way for substantial investments in football clubs and infrastructure. They are attracting top European players, managers, and even acquiring ownership of prestigious football clubs. Nations in the region are channeling their resources into the sport, setting the stage for remarkable transformations. This financial influence has undoubtedly given rise to a new era, leading to a monumental transformation in the game.

2. Surging Popularity
Moreover, the Middle East has not only been focusing on acquiring established clubs but also nurturing local talent. Earlier, the region’s large youth population had easy accessibility European football through television and digital media. But now, Youth academies and grassroots programs are being developed, ensuring the growth and development of future football stars. A passionate football culture is taking root.

3. Geopolitical Influence
Middle Eastern countries are recognizing football as a potent tool for enhancing their soft power and international standing. The sport’s global reach provides a platform for projecting influence and shaping perceptions. Middle East has successfully hosted major international football events, including the FIFA World Cup and continental championships. These events have not only boosted the region’s tourism and revenue but have also provided a platform for showcasing its passion and dedication towards football.

Major Developments:
These trends have already led to significant milestones in Middle Eastern football:

1. Newcastle United’s Saudi Takeover (2017):
Saudi Arabia’s Public Investment Fund acquired a controlling stake in Newcastle United, marking a foray into English football and signaling Middle Eastern financial clout.

2. Qatar’s Historic World Cup (2022):
In 2022, Qatar made history by hosting the FIFA World Cup, marking the first time the prestigious tournament had ventured into the Middle East.

3. Cristiano Ronaldo’s Move to Al Nassr (2022):
In a high-profile transfer, Saudi Arabia’s Al Nassr secured the services of global football icon Cristiano Ronaldo, underlining the region’s growing influence in the football world.

Cristiano Ronaldo playing for Al Nassr

Current Trends:
The momentum continues with these latest trends and news:

1. Saudi Arabia’s Ambitious $20 Billion Investment (2023):
Saudi Arabia’s government unveiled plans to invest a staggering $20 billion in football over the next decade. This ambitious endeavor includes stadium construction, enhanced training facilities, and the development of youth academies.

2. UAE’s Billion-Dollar Stadium (2022):
The UAE is also making significant strides, with plans to build a cutting-edge, billion-dollar stadium in Dubai, further solidifying the Middle East’s status as a football hub.

3. Qatar Stars League’s Broadcasting Deal (2022):
The Qatar Stars League, Qatar’s top-tier football competition, signed a record-breaking $1 billion broadcasting deal with beIN Sports, attracting top talent and global viewership.

4. FIFA Club World Cup in Saudi Arabia (2023):
The prestigious FIFA Club World Cup has found its Middle Eastern home in Saudi Arabia for the next 12 years, highlighting the region’s growing importance in world football.

FIFA Club World Cup Trophy

Implications and Challenges:
The shift of football towards the Middle East carries profound implications:

1. Globalized Game:
Middle Eastern clubs’ growing wealth and investments promise a more competitive and globalized football landscape. This could lead to exhilarating matches and unpredictability in competitions.

2. Regional Development:
Increased football investments may cultivate a skilled and competitive Middle Eastern national team, capable of challenging on the international stage, even for a coveted World Cup victory.

Challenges:
However, there are potential challenges:
1. Loss of Identity:
The influx of Middle Eastern investors and foreign players could potentially dilute the traditional identities and values of European football clubs.

2. Corruption Concerns:
As wealth accumulates in Middle Eastern football, the risk of corruption and financial doping may rise, potentially tarnishing the sport’s integrity.

In conclusion, the shift of football towards the Middle East is a multifaceted phenomenon with both promises and pitfalls. It stands as a testament to the transformative power of sports in shaping geopolitics, identities, and international relations. As we witness this football revolution unfold, we are reminded that the beautiful game’s influence transcends borders and cultures, uniting us all on the global pitch of dreams and ambitions.

Biography of Atal Bihari Vajpayee : A Visionary Statesman and Inspirational leader

2023-07-07T11:01:00.004+05:30

Atal Bihari Vajpayee was born on December 25, 1924, in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, and showed a strong interest in politics from a young age. His entry into public life began when he joined the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a significant Hindu nationalist group, during the fight for India's independence. Vajpayee quickly rose to prominence within the RSS and its political wing, the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), because to his oratory talents and leadership abilities.

Vajpayee's political career grew steadily as he became well-known inside the BJS, which he presided from 1968 to 1972. Vajpayee was instrumental in strengthening the right-wing political space in India with his engrossing speeches and keen political savvy. He was a key player in the establishment of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in 1980, which would later grow to be one of the main political parties in the nation.

Significant achievements made by Atal Bihari Vajpayee during his time as prime minister, from 1998 to 2004, helped to influence India's political, economic, and strategic environment. People all around the country and his foreign colleagues respected him for his visionary leadership and practical approach.

Reforming the economy and building infrastructure

In order to stimulate India's economic growth and draw in foreign investment, Vajpayee's administration carried out significant economic changes throughout his administration. To improve the business climate in the nation, the government undertook deregulation, liberalisation, and privatisation programmes. These changes aided in the opening up of the Indian economy and helped the country become a major force in the world economy.

The Golden Quadrilateral, a huge network of roadways linking important Indian towns, was one of Vajpayee's signature initiatives. The goal of this large-scale infrastructure development project, which covered more than 5,800 km, was to increase connectivity, ease commerce, and spur economic growth. The Golden Quadrilateral project continues to stand as a testament to Vajpayee's dedication to modernising India's infrastructure and promoting local development.

Nuclear tests that are peaceful and strategic diplomacy

Under Vajpayee's direction, India carried out a number of nuclear tests in Pokhran, Rajasthan, in 1998.

These tests were a major turning point, demonstrating India's technical capability and reaffirming its status as a nuclear power. While the tests drew attention from throughout the world, Vajpayee expertly handled the diplomatic difficulties and reaffirmed India's dedication to responsible nuclear behaviour. He emphasised that India's nuclear capabilities were to be used as a deterrent rather than an aggressive weapon and that India adhered to a philosophy of credible minimum deterrence.

Additionally, Vajpayee's strategic diplomacy was extremely important in enhancing India's ties with major nations and its neighbours. A new era of collaboration, including the founding of the Next Steps in Strategic Partnership (NSSP) and the beginning of conversation on several fronts, resulted from his efforts to strengthen ties with the United States. The historic U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement, which was signed in 2008 and fundamentally altered bilateral ties, was made possible because to Vajpayee's efforts.

Regional Initiatives for Peace

In India as well as the larger South Asian area, Vajpayee was a steadfast supporter of peace and reconciliation. With the historic Lahore Declaration in 1999 standing as a witness to his dedication to peaceful coexistence, he made tremendous efforts to strengthen ties with Pakistan. The proclamation promoted collaboration in a number of areas, including economic, cultural exchanges, and people-to-people interactions, in an effort to settle long-standing tensions between India and Pakistan.

His efforts to promote peace, however, ran into obstacles, notably during the Kargil crisis in 1999, when Pakistani infiltrators took control of key vantage points in the Kargil area. The infiltrators were successfully driven out thanks to Vajpayee's forceful response to the assault, which also underlined India's commitment to preserving its territorial integrity.

Visionary, Statesman, and Poet

In addition to his political accomplishments, Atal Bihari Vajpayee was renowned for his talent in poetry and literature. His remarks were poetry because of his eloquence and capacity for clear, in-depth communication. The common people connected with Vajpayee's remarks, which also demonstrated his great appreciation of India's cultural richness and pluralistic culture.

Vajpayee was revered as a statesman by people from all political backgrounds. He valued reaching agreements and worked to close gaps between opposing beliefs, encouraging inclusivity and conversation. He proved himself to be a skilled statesman by successfully managing a coalition government made up of many political parties.

Permanent Legacy

The political, economic, and strategic contributions made by Atal Bihari Vajpayee continue to influence India's development. His endeavours for infrastructural development and economic reform created the groundwork for India's modernisation and sustained economic prosperity. India's position on the international scene was strengthened by Vajpayee's focus on strategic diplomacy and nuclear capabilities, allowing it to declare its goals and objectives with assurance.

Additionally, Vajpayee left a lasting impact with his efforts to promote peace and reconciliation. Future leaders will be inspired by his attempts to strengthen ties with Pakistan and promote regional cooperation to put a priority on conversation and diplomatic solutions to enduring disputes.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee received the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour, in 2015 as a reward for his enormous accomplishments. His lasting contributions as a poet, politician, and visionary leader serve as a constant reminder of his unrelenting dedication to the welfare and advancement of the country.

Conclusion

During his time as India's prime minister, Vajpayee made revolutionary contributions in the areas of infrastructural improvement, strategic diplomacy, and the pursuit of peace. His vision and leadership were crucial in determining India's course, boosting its economy, improving its status internationally, and encouraging regional collaboration. Future generations will be inspired by Vajpayee's long legacy as a poet, statesman, and visionary leader, which serves as a constant reminder of his unflinching dedication to the ideas of good government, inclusivity, and national advancement. The extraordinary rise of Atal Bihari Vajpayee from a youthful political activist to India's Prime Minister left an imprint on the country and its people. He is regarded as a hero in Indian politics because of his capacity for bridging ideological gaps, fluency in communicating difficult concepts, and statesmanlike behavior.

Beyond his political accomplishments, Vajpayee won the hearts of millions of people with his charming personality and lyrical talent. Many people found inspiration and comfort in his poetry since it was full of intense emotions and life observations. Vajpayee's speech resonated with people from all walks of life and touched the nation's spirit, transcending party lines.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee continued to be a revered elder statesman and a leader for his party, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), even after he stepped down from active politics. His sage advice and strong dedication to democratic principles persisted in influencing Indian politics.

The demise of Atal Bihari Vajpayee on August 16, 2018, signalled the conclusion of a period in Indian politics. But his legacy endures, serving as a constant reminder of the strength of leadership built in virtue, modesty, and a strong sense of loyalty to the country. Future generations will be inspired by his contributions to India's growth and development, his pursuit of peace and harmony, and his unflinching dedication to the well-being of the populace.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee's vision of a strong, wealthy, and unified India continues to serve as a compass for the country's development. His political integrity and selfless commitment to the country will be regarded as brilliant examples of his leadership and statesmanship. As a visionary leader who made a lasting impression on the country and its people, Atal Bihari Vajpayee will long be remembered in the annals of Indian history.

The BJP in Indian politics: A journey of History, Ideology and Influence

2023-07-01T10:51:00.000+05:30

Introduction

In the intricate and diversified political landscape of India, the Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP) has grown to become a powerful political force. The party, which was founded in 1980, has made a remarkable journey from being a very minor role to holding the national government in its hands.

Foundation and Early years

The Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), a political party established in 1951 by Syama Prasad Mukherjee, is where the BJP's origins may be located. The BJS, a right-wing nationalist organization at first, sought to advance Hindu nationalism and cultural identity. But it struggled to garner general acceptance and failed to leave a lasting impression on the national scene.

Transformation and Rise to Power

The 1980s saw the BJS adopt a more open-minded stance and expand its support outside its core constituency, which marked the beginning of the party's metamorphosis into the BJP. Leaders like Atal Bihari Vajpayee and L.K.Advani, who attempted to forge a wider coalition by focusing on economic growth, good governance, and national security, were primarily responsible for this move.

For the BJP, the early 1990s proved to be a turning point. The party was a key player in the Ram Janmabhoomi campaign, pushing for the building of a temple at the contentious Ayodhya location. The BJP gained major political ground as a result of this movement, which energized Hindu feeling and catapulted it into the national arena.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee served as the Prime Minister of the BJP's first-ever national coalition government, which was created in 1998. This represented a historic turning point for the party and cemented its status as a significant political force in India. The BJP's following electoral victories and efforts to form coalitions increased the power of its influence in Indian politics.

Ideology and Political Agenda

The Hindutva movement, which promotes the preservation and advancement of Hindu culture, heritage, and value, is the foundation of the BJP. However, the party also supports a more comprehensive platform that covers improvements to government, national security, and the economy. Under the guise of "Integral Humanism," the BJP aims to fuse timeless principles with cutting-edge development techniques.

The party has prioritized supporting social welfare programmes, infrastructural development, economic growth, and job creation in its policy objectives. The BJP-led governments have made initiatives like "Make in India," "Digital India," and "Swachh Bharat Abhiyan" (Clean India Mission) into its centerpiece initiatives.

Impact and Challenge

The BJP's ascent has significantly altered Indian politics. The party has changed the political scene via its capacity to forge broad-based alliances, mobilize grassroots support, and take use of technology innovations. The BJP has been able to implement it policy agenda and influence public disclosure because to its election successes at the state and federal levels

The BJP has still encountered difficulties and opposition. The party's emphasis on Hindu nationalism and majoritarian politics, according to critics, has caused problems with religious and social peace. The BJP has also been under fire for how it has handled a number of sociopolitical problems, such as religious conflicts, freedom of speech, and minority rights.

Conclusion

The BJP's political career in India has been an interesting one, characterized by change, electoral wins, and policy efforts. The BJP rose to popularity by fusing a nationalist philosophy with a more expansive development goal from its modest origins as the Bharatiya Jana Sangh to its metamorphosis into the Bhartiya Janta Party.

The BJP has had a significant political effort on India. Because of its election successes, the party has moved into the forefront of administration and brought about important policy reforms. The party's focus on infrastructure improvement and economic reforms has helped India's growth narrative by luring both local and foreign investment. Furthermore, the BJP has changed India's posture on the world arena by emphasizing national security and a strong foreign policy.

The BJP, though, continues to encounter difficulties. It has come under fire as a party affiliated with Hindu nationalism for allegedly marginalizing religious and racial minorities. Concerns have been expressed over the party's dedication to secularism and its capacity to uphold social peace in a multicultural country like India. Additionally, the BJP's policy choices have run into criticism from a variety of social groups, underscoring the intricate and fluid character of Indian politics.

Looking ahead, the BJP's capacity to adjust to shifting political circumstances, addresses social issues, and strike a balance between nationalism and inclusion will have an impact on the party's future. The BJP will continue to play a crucial role in determining the course of India's development.

Finally, the growth of the Bharatiya Janta Party in Indian politics marks a pivotal period in the history of the country. From its modest origins, the party has grown into a powerful force that has shaped policy, won elections, and permanently altered the political landscape of the nation. The intricacies of Indian culture, the ambitions of its citizens, and the difficulties of governing in a pluralistic democracy are all reflected in the BJP's path. The BJP will continue to play a significant role in moulding India's future and participating in the continuing discussion about democratic governance.

Rangda in Bali: Unveiling the Mystical Power and Cultural Significance

2023-06-30T20:03:00.009+05:30

Introduction

Rangda is a terrifying and enigmatic character with enormous character with enormous cultural importance who is found deep inside the complex fabric of Balinese mythology and folklore. Known for her dark and imposing presence in Balinese traditional dance, ceremonies, and religious beliefs, Rangda is a mythological figure.

Origin and Mythology

Rangda's earliest references may be found in Balinese mythology, where it is said that she represents goddess Durga of Hindu mythology. The goddess Durga is known for her strong protection and is linked to both destruction and transformation. Rangda appears as a strong character connected to witchcraft, black magic, and evil powers in Balinese folklore. She is frequently portrayed as a monstrous and menacing monster with protruding eyes, fangs, and messy hair.

According to legends, Rangda pursued power and exacted vengeance on those who had harmed her. She supposedly controls a horde of evil spirits and demons and boasts remarkable magical skills. The origin narrative of Rangda differs depending on the tale, but her position as powerful foe does not.

Symbolism and Iconography

Deeply symbolic in Balinese culture, Rangda stands for a wide range of ideas and beliefs. She serves as a reminder of the ongoing conflict between good and evil in the universe since she is the personification of evil and chaos. Rangda is frequently linked to the idea of Rwa Bhineda, which denotes the duality of life and coexistence of good and bad elements.

Rangda's visual expression in Balinese dance and art is stunning and meaningful. Her hideous look serves as a metaphor for human nature's dark sides and anxieties. The fangs symbolize her fury might, while the protruding eyes indicate her capacity to look beyond the mundane world. Her wild and untamed personality is highlighted by her dishevelled hair and exaggerated features.

Rangda in Balinese ritual and performances

The Barong and Rangda dance is one of the most prominent Balinese ceremonies and performances where Rangda is a major component. This ancient dance has Rangda had Barong, a mythological lion-like beast, as its central actors.

The audience is captivated by Rangda's commanding presence and deft dancing movements throughout the performance. Her body is twisted as she displays her control over the evil spirit while embodying the dark and otherworldly energies. The dancers who play Rangda frequently enter trance-like states while channelling the supernatural spirit of the role.

In addition to the dance, Rangda is referred to in a number of religious rites and rituals. She is regarded as having the ability to fend against evil and safeguard the neighborhood. Balinese worshippers perform rituals to placate her wrathful disposition and ask for her favors.

Cultural Significance and Contemporary Interpretation

The effect of Rangda goes beyond mythology and tradition. She occupies an important position in Balinese society, standing for the island's spirituality and cultural identity. Rangda is shown in Balinese rituals, dance, and art as a means of cultural preservation, preserving long-standing practises.

Rangda has recently drawn notice in modern situations as well. Various artistic mediums, including theatre, literature, and the visual arts, have adopted and reimagined her figure. The symbolism of Rangda is explored by artists and performers to convey larger themes of power, oppression, and society problems.

Additionally, Rangda's ongoing influence on Balinese culture promotes a sense of belonging and cohesion. Rangda's ceremonies and performances unite people by highlighting their common values and beliefs. It serves as a reminder of the tenacity and shamanic ties to their ancestors of the Balinese people.

The mysticism and appeal of Rangda have drawn tourists and travelers to Bali in addition to her cultural significance. The Barong and Rangda dance performances, which provide a window into the enthralling realm of Balinese mythology, have grown to be an essential component of the island's tourism business.

Conclusion

The ferocious and enduring symbol of Balinese culture, Rangda, is a perfect synthesis of mythology, spirituality, and creative expression. She opposes the forces of good as the personification of evil, acting as a potent representation of the ongoing conflict between light and darkness. The use of Rangda in rituals, performances, and creative interpretations highlights Bali's deeply ingrained cultural identity and urges us to delve into the many layers of Balinese mythology. Rangda continues to enthral and inspire by her ageless representation, maintaining the rich history and spiritual customs of this alluring island.

What is Rani Ahilyabai Holkar known for?

2023-05-21T09:43:00.004+05:30

Mankoji Shinde and Sushila Shinde welcomed Ahilya Bai into their Marathi Hindu family when she was born in the Maharashtrian hamlet of Chaundi (the modern-day Ahmednagar district), where her father, Mankoji Shinde, served as the Patil and was a descended from a reputable Dhangar family. Ahilya's father taught her to read and write even though women weren't allowed to attend school back then.

She rose to fame, so the story goes, when Malhar Rao Holkar, a general in Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I's army and the ruler of Malwa, stopped at Chaundi on his route to Pune and happened to see the eight-year-old Ahilya attending a temple worship there. On the Peshwas' recommendation, Malhar married Ahilya to his son Khande Rao Holkar after being moved by her moral qualities and piety. In 1733, she wed Khande Rao. Khande Rao had Ahilya with him on several expeditions. Her mother-in-law Gautama Bai, who is often credited with instilling Ahilya's morals, raised her during her marriage. She gave her administrative, financial, and political training before finally handing over control of Khasgi Jagir in 1759.

In 1754, Khande Rao and his father Malhar Rao Holkar besieged the Kumher fort of Jat Raja Suraj Mal of Bharatpur after requesting assistance from Imad-ul-Mulk and the commander Mir Bakhshi of the Mughal emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur. Suraj Mal had allied with Safdar Jang, the Mughal emperor's dissident wazir. During the fight, a cannonball shot by the Jat army struck Khande Rao as he was reviewing his men in an open palanquin, causing his death. Her father-in-law prevented Ahilya Bai from committing sati after the death of her husband. Malhar Rao Holkar taught her in military matters after her husband's passing.

Ahilya Bai resolved to practise Sati to attend her spouse at his funeral pyre after she had abandoned all life's pleasures following the death of her husband Khande Rao. People urged her not to participate in Sati, but she refused, claiming that her husband had promised to be at her side throughout, but has since abandoned her. It was eventually her father-in-law Malhar Rao who made ardent emotional pleadings to stop her once she had made up her decision to conduct Sati and was not changing her mind. He stated:

"Daughter, my son left me whom I raised with a hope that he would support me in my old age. Now, will you also leave me, an old man, alone to be drowned in the fathomless ocean? ... Will you also leave me without any support? Still, if you don't want to change your mind, let me die first."

Malhar Rao Holkar passed away in 1766, 12 years after Khande Rao, his son. Male Rao Holkar, the only son of Khande Rao and the grandson of Malhar Rao, took over as the king of Indore in 1766 while Ahilya Bai served as regent. However, he passed away just a few months later in April 1767. Following the demise of her son with Khande Rao, Ahilya Bai ascended to the throne of Indore.

Ahilya Bai, who had been groomed to lead, asked Peshwa Madhav Rao I to give her control over the Holkar dynasty when Malhar Rao and her son passed away. The Holkar faction of the Maratha army supported her despite opposition from others in Malwa. On December 11th, 1767, the Peshwa gave her permission, and Malhar Rao's adoptive son Tukoji Rao Holkar served as her military commander. She then went on to rule Malwa in the most progressive way possible, including installing a Brahmin who had previously been against her. Ahilya Bai frequently visited her subjects and was available to anybody who needed her assistance.

After Male Rao Holkar passed away, Gangadhar Rao, Malhar Rao Holkar's dewan, attempted to seize Ahilyabai's position as queen by asking her to adopt him as her son and give him full administrative powers. However, Ahilyabai politely declined and rebuffed his proposal. Then Gangadhar Rao organized an uprising against her and encouraged Raghunathrao, Peshwa Madhavrao's uncle, to assault the Holkar kingdom of Indore. Ahilyabai immediately sent letters to the relatives of her late father-in-law, Mahadji Scindia & Damaji Rao Gaekwad, pleading for help after learning about Raghunathrao's army's camp at the banks of the river Shipra through her spies. Tukoji then helped assemble the Holkar army.

The Nagpur Bhonsales despatched their soldiers to help her, and Peshwa Madhavrao gave Ahilyabai the go-ahead to attack Raghunathrao. To fight Raghunathrao, Ahilyabai headed to the battleground accompanied by her female bodyguards. Raghunathrao was startled by Ahilyabai's bravery and withdrew, saying he had only come to express his condolences to Ahilyabai for the passing of her son Male Rao. After being placed under house imprisonment, Gangadhara Rao was rehired in his same position. Dewan Gangadhar Rao and Ahilyabai Holkar's disagreement had important political and interpersonal ramifications. Despite the fact that Ahilyabai's triumph gave her more power over the kingdom, the fight soured her relationship with Gangadhar Rao, her confidant and closest advisor.

One of Ahilya Bai's achievements was transforming the little village of Indore into a thriving and lovely metropolis. Her personal capital, though, was the adjacent town of Maheshwar on the banks of the Narmada River. She also oversaw the construction of a number of infrastructure projects in Malwa, sponsored celebrations, and donated money for regular prayer at several Hindu temples. She constructed numerous Hindu temples, Ghats, wells, tanks, and rest houses outside of Malwa, all over the Indian subcontinent, from the Himalayas to southern India's major pilgrimage sites like Kashi, Gaya, Somnath, Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Kanchi, Avanti, Dwarka, Badrinath Temple, Rameshwaram, and Jagannath Puri.

Ahilya Bai did not believe that she had any legal claim to their money, whether via taxes or a feudal right. She also fostered the ascent of merchants, farmers, and cultivators to levels of opulence.

Numerous accounts exist of her concern for her subjects. She is said to have sponsored a youngster herself and provided him with clothing and jewellery as part of the adoption ritual in one occasion when her minister refused to permit the adoption of a child without receiving the appropriate payment.

Ahilya Bai gave the Bhils and Gonds tribes hilly regions and the right to a minor charge on goods travelling through their territory, but she was unable to resolve the problem amicably in the case of the Bhils and Gonds, who unethically loot her boundaries. Malcolm said that she did pay "considerate attention to their habits" in this particular instance.

Maheshwar, the capital of Ahilya Bai, was the centre of literary, musical, artistic, and commercial activity. She supported Khushali Ram, a scholar of Sanskrit, as well as the well-known Marathi poet Moropant and the Maharashtrian Shahir Anantaphandi. At her capital, artisans, sculptors, and artists were paid well and given honours; at Maheshwar, she even started a textile business.

At the age of 70, Ahilyabai passed away on August 13th, 1795. Ahilyabai is a modern-day lady whose reign is recognised as the Maratha Empire's golden era. Ahilyabai was replaced by Tukoji Rao Holkar, her commander-in-chief and nephew, who promptly abdicated the throne in 1797 in favour of his son Kashi Rao Holkar.

Sumitra Mahajan, a former speaker of the Lok Sabha, wrote a novel titled "Matoshree" that is based on the life of Ahilyadevi Holkar.

In her honour, the airport in Indore is known as Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar Airport.

Statue Image - Source - Bernard Gagnon, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Did Udham Singh killed wrong Dyer?

2023-05-17T19:13:00.006+05:30

Udham Singh was born "Sher Singh" on December 26, 1899, to Tehal Singh, a Kamboj manual laborer with poor skill and low pay, and his wife Narain Kaur in the Pilbad locality of Sunam, some 130 miles south of Lahore in British India. He was their youngest child, and he and his older brother, Sadhu, were separated in age by two years. Their mother passed away when they were about three and five years old, respectively. While transporting the boys to Amritsar on foot in October 1907, their father fell and passed away at Ram Bagh Hospital. After being given to an uncle, who was unable to care for them, the two boys were later placed in the Central Khalsa Orphanage, where, per the orphanage registration, they were first admitted on October 28. After being rebaptized, Sadhu was given the name "Mukta," which means "one who has avoided reincarnation," and Sher Singh was given the name "Udham Singh," which means "the upheaval." Mukta passed away in 1917 from an unexplained unexpected illness.

Udham Singh convinced officials to let him join the British Indian Army during World War I even though he was under the legal age of enlistment. He was then sent to the 32nd Sikh Pioneers' lowest-ranking labor unit to work on the field railway's repair from the Iraqi coast all the way up to Basra. He returned to Punjab in less than six months due to his youth and issues with authorities. He reenlisted in the army in 1918 and was sent to Basra and later Baghdad, where he performed carpenter work and general maintenance on machines and vehicles. In early 1919, he returned to the orphanage in Amritsar.

Several local leaders who supported the Indian National Congress, including Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew, were detained on April 10, 1919, in accordance with the Rowlatt Act. More than 20,000 unarmed people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, on April 13 to celebrate Baisakhi, a significant Sikh holiday, and to peacefully denounce the arrests. Water was being distributed to the throng by Singh and his buddies from the orphanage. The inhabitants were confined within the bagh when Brigadier-General R.E.H. Dyer stationed his forces at the little entrance, which also served as the sole primary escape. He then abruptly gave his soldiers the command to open fire. A total of 1,700 bullets were fired at the defenceless crowd. Although the official death toll was less than 400, some estimates indicate that this act of mass murder resulted in the deaths of more than a thousand individuals. This event is also known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre or the Amritsar Massacre. It is stated that Udham Singh swore an oath to get retribution following the Jallianwala Bagh slaughter.

Singh joined the Ghadar Party in 1924, which was organising Indians abroad to fight colonial rule. He soon joined their campaign team and distributed their revolutionary literature across the villages of Punjab. In Amritsar, where he owned a store, he concentrated his revolutionary activities. He also connected with the violent Babbar Akali movement at this time, joining them in organising. He became heavily active in the Ghadar movement, too, and rose to prominence as one of its leading leaders while he was living in the United States. Through Mexico, Singh entered the country illegally in 1924 and finally settled in San Francisco, the heart of the Ghadar movement in North America. He was invited by the Ghadar Party to travel to a number of American cities in order to inform people first hand about the Jallianwala Bagh atrocity, to encourage the development of local party chapters, and to raise money. In 1937's The Elephant Boy and in 'The Four Feathers' two years later, he appeared as an extra while he was still in the US.

Singh founded his own party, the Azad Party, as a branch of the Ghadar movement in addition to his engagement with the Ghadar Party. The party set out to promote Indian independence while also raising money for Indian revolutionary organisations. Singh was deeply ingrained in the global Ghadar revolutionaries' network.

Armed with Ghadarite propaganda and with the purpose of speeding and encouraging the anti-colonial fight, he travelled to India. The Arms Act led to his arrest in Amritsar on August 30, 1927, however additional "seditious" material was also discovered in his hands, along with two revolvers, a handgun, ammunition, and copies of several banned publications. Udham Singh received a five-year jail term. He was moved from one prison to another because he was a challenging inmate for the guards to control. He first encountered Bhagat Singh in one of those prisons. Bhagat Singh rapidly became a friend of Udham Singh's, who became so enamoured with him due to his charisma that he referred to him as his "guru" and "best friend" and kept a picture of him in his wallet. Udham Singh participated in a forty-day hunger strike and attempted to utilize his trial, like the HSRA (Hindustan Socialist Republican Association) revolutionaries, as a platform to further his political and revolutionary beliefs. Udham Singh departed for England in 1931, two years after his release from jail.

Udham Singh was not just a rebel for a large portion of his life; he was also a migratory labourer. In the months after his arrival in London in the fall of 1934, Singh continued to hold a variety of low-paying occupations. He was a carpenter, an electrician, and a street vendor. Additionally, he joined the Communist Party of Great Britain's trade union affiliate and communist Surat Ali's group, the Indian Workers Association (IWA), in London. The IWA worked for both the liberation of India and bettering the living conditions of the immigrant working classes in Britain.

Speaking at a gathering of the East India Association and the Central Asian Society (now the Royal Society for Asian Affairs) in Caxton Hall in London on March 13, 1940, was Michael O'Dwyer. Singh had used his wife's ticket to get into the event. Singh hid a pistol in a book with pages that were shaped like a revolver. He bought this pistol from a soldier in a bar. He then entered the hallway and sat down. Singh fired twice at O'Dwyer as he approached the podium after the meeting. Singh was detained right away following the incident.

In secret, he prepared to kill Michael O'Dwyer when he arrived in London in 1934. Michael O'Dwyer was the actual perpetrator of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, according to Udham Singh. When the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place in Amritsar on April 13, 1919, Michael was the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab. O'Dwyer expressed his support for Reginald Dyer's actions in Jallianwala Bagh and made it clear that he thought Dyer's directive to fire at the people was appropriate.

Singh was formally charged with killing Michael O'Dwyer on April 1 of that year and lodged at Brixton Prison. He was initially questioned about his intentions. He used the name, 'Ram Mohammed Singh Azad' while he was being held. The first three letters of his name reflect the three main religious groups in India (Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh); the last word, azad—which means "free"—reflects his anti-colonial feeling. Singh engaged in a 42-day hunger strike while awaiting his trial, during which he was force-fed. His trial began at the Central Criminal Court, Old Bailey, on June 4, 1940, before Mr Justice Atkinson. V.K. Krishna Menon and St. John Hutchinson were his solicitors. The attorney for the prosecution was G. B. McClure.

Singh clarified his motivations when asked:

"I did it because I had a grudge against him. He deserved it. He was the real culprit. He wanted to crush the spirit of my people, so I have crushed him. For full 21 years, I have been trying to seek vengeance. I am happy that I have done the job. I am not scared of death. I am dying for my country. I have seen my people starving in India under the British rule. I have protested against this, it was my duty."

Singh was found guilty of murder and given the death penalty. Albert Pierrepoint executed Singh by hanging him at Pentonville Prison on July 31, 1940. His remains are kept in Amritsar, Punjab, near the Jallianwala Bagh. Every year on July 31, numerous organisations hold marches in Singh's hometown of Sunam, and flower garlands are placed on each monument of him there.

MLA Sadhu Singh Thind requested that Singh's bones be excavated and sent to India in 1974. Thind accompanied the remains back to India. Indira Gandhi, Shankar Dayal Sharma, and Zail Singh accepted the coffin. On August 2, 1974, his ashes were split into seven urns and sent to various locations, including the libraries of the Shaheed Udham Singh Arts College in Sunam and Haridwar, Kiratpur Sahib, Rauza Sharif, and Sunam.

Singh received the "Nishan-e-Khalsa" posthumously from the Anandpur Sahib Foundation in 1999, the tercentenary of the founding of the Khalsa and the centenary of his birth.

Near Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar is a museum honouring Singh.

In Sunam, the ancestral home of Singh has been transformed into a museum. The museum has 30 letters and other items on exhibit.

His ancestral town's name, Sunam, was officially renamed to "Sunam Udham Singh Wala."

A number of films have been made on Singh, including Jallian Wala Bagh (1977), Shaheed Uddham Singh (1977), Shaheed Uddham Singh (2000), and Sardar Udham (2021).

Singh is honoured with the district name Udham Singh Nagar in Uttarakhand.

Frank Brazil, an animated video, was published by the Indian band The Ska Vengers on the occasion of his 75th birthday. As a master of disguise, Udham Singh used several aliases during his revolutionary career, Frank Brazil being one of them.

Image

Udham Singh - Source Punjab martyrs museum, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Ghadar Party Flag - Source Rueben lys at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Operation Brasstacks

2023-05-15T10:07:00.003+05:30

The Indian Armed Forces conducted Brasstacks, a sizable military exercise, in Rajasthan state from November 1986 to January 1987. Two Army Commands merged their forces for it, mobilizing almost 5,00,000 soldiers - roughly half of the Indian Army. Two goals of the exercise were the deployment of ground forces and a series of amphibious assault drills by the Indian Navy close to the Pakistani naval station. The drill featured 500,000 soldiers massed within 100 miles of Pakistan, including infantry, mechanized, and air assault division. Planning and deployment of an amphibious assault group made up of Indian navy personnel took place close to Korangi Creek in Pakistan's Karachi Division. The Indian Army's tactical nuclear strategy was to be determined during the exercise.

The Pakistani military saw this war simulation as the most important turning point in India-Pakistan relations since it was a menacing demonstration of overwhelming conventional might, maybe even a nuclear war practice. Even today, Pakistani military experts and strategists view it as a planned coordinated deep offensive strategy to infiltrate into populated regions of Central Pakistan that is akin to a "blitzkrieg". India, meanwhile, said that "the main goal of Operation Brasstacks was to test new mechanization, mobility and air support concepts developed by Indian army."

The Indian Army had long pushed for the use of new tactics for land-based combat and professionalism since the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971. General Krishnaswamy Sundarji, the Chief of Staff of the Indian Army and a former commander of the Infantry division in the Bangladesh Liberation war, committed himself into the modernization of the Indian army. He was given permission and instructed to conduct a sizable military drill in order to try out new mechanization, mobility, and air support theories. With over 10,000 armored vehicles deployed over the western desert in December 1986, India began the last phase of a massive military exercise that sparked fresh tensions with Pakistan.

"Operation Brasstacks was a mobilization of the whole Army of India," according to Lieutenant General Prem Nath Hoon, head of the Indian Army's Western Command. Because of the size and scope of the exercise, Pakistanis were afraid that India was showing off its overwhelming conventional supremacy and had plans to invade and obliterate Pakistan with surgical strikes, much as it had done to East Pakistan in the Indo-Pak winter war of 1971. General Hoon's memoirs state that Western Command wrote to Sundarji stating that "when such a large exercise is conceived," the movement of Indian soldiers will draw Pakistan's notice. General Hoon said that such information was withheld from Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and that General Sundarji failed to notify him of the scope of the operation. Paul Kapur, an Indian researcher, adds that the Indian army repeatedly urged the government to strike Pakistan during Operation Brasstacks, but to no avail. The Brasstacks Crisis, according to author Robert Art and others, was not unintentional and accidental crisis brought on by Pakistan's perception of a massive Indian Army drill, which was restricted mostly to the huge Rajasthan desert area, as provocative.

According to memoirs of theoretical physicist and nuclear strategist Munir Ahmad Khan, there were frequent meetings between the Ministries of Defense and Foreign Affairs due to worries that India may invade Pakistan, which was developing nuclear weapons. Pakistan was on the verge of becoming a nuclear power. In order to deflect such attacks, Pakistani military leaders have been given standing instructions to immediately mobilize their soldiers in all directions as quickly as possible since 1981. When Brasstacks was carried out, Pakistan reacted immediately with its own manoeuvres, first assembling the whole V corps and later the Southern Air Command, close to the Indian state of Punjab. Additionally, the V Corps and the whole Armoured Corps were given instructions to go to the front lines.
The Pakistani Armed forces and Indian Army forces were in close proximity to one another throughout the border's enlarged region by mid-January 1987. At midnight, the Pakistani Foreign Office invited S.K.Singh, the Indian Ambassador to Pakistan, to meet with Zain Noorani, the minister of state for foreign affairs, who had just returned from an urgent meeting with Zia-ul-Haq (Then military dictator of Pakistan). Noorani informed the Indian embassy that President Zia had given him a crucial message. Noorani formally warned Singh that Pakistan was "capable of inflicting unacceptable damage" on India should it violate Pakistan's sovereignty and territorial integrity.

Pakistan has placed its nuclear facilities on high alert in January 1987, heightening the crisis environment. A declaration that "Pakistan would use its atomic weapons if its existence was threatened" was made during the period by Abdul Qadeer Khan in an interview with Indian ambassador Kuldip Nayar, however he later denied making the claim. Indian diplomats in Islamabad (capital of Pakistan) allegedly received a warning that Pakistan would not think twice about using nuclear weapons in response to an assault. Pakistan disputed the accuracy of these claims.

The two countries agreed to remove 150,000 soldiers from the Kashmir region in March 1987, and later that month they also agreed to withdraw further troops from the desert region. These two agreements helped to reduce tensions. India threatened to move through with Brasstacks while negotiating the pullout agreement, claiming that Pakistan had no need to be alarmed. India did wait till the next week to start the last part of the operation while the most recent pullout deal was being finalized. India took the unprecedented step of allowing diplomats and media to view the operation separately in order to demonstrate its objectives were benign. Senior diplomats, politicians, and members of the Pakistani Foreign Service were invited. In February 1987, Pakistan's president Zia travelled to India on an invitation to see a cricket match between the two nations. Zia believed that although he and Rajiv Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India, could meet amicably, they could not come to a consensus on important matters.

The Indian Army said that Brasstacks was solely intended to be a training exercise and not a controversial one. General Sunderji repeatedly insisted that "This was, is, and always has been a training exercise." Pakistan continued to vehemently deny India's accusations that it was conducting atomic weapon research despite repeated accusations to the contrary from India. A.Q. Khan also denied any assertions made about the creation of an atomic weapon and later claimed that "his comments were taken out of context."

Lieutenant-General P.N. Hoon, a former senior Indian Army commander, said in 1999 that the operation had mobilized the entire Indian Army to Pakistan's eastern border. He adds that Brasstacks was a strategy to prepare for a fourth conflict with Pakistan.

According to theories put up by Western academics, Pakistan's misunderstanding of an unintentionally provocative Indian Army drill led to the crisis known as Brasstacks. According to Robert Art, "General Sunderji's strategy was to provoke Pakistan's response in order to give India an excuse to implement existing contigency plans to go on the offensive against Pakistan and destroy its nuclear weapons programmes in preemptive strikes." The New York Times reported that Pakistan's decision to stockpile atomic bombs as a nuclear deterrent was prompted by India's rapid pursuit of military technologies.

Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan

2023-05-14T11:13:00.012+05:30

Arab nationalism and pan-Arabism developed as significant movements in the Middle East following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Pan-Arabists promoted Arab Union that would unite all Arabs in one state, although Arab nationalism was popular among academics and the military. However, it was uncertain who would rule such a state, and significant rifts developed between contenders for the position. Other Arab nationalists viewed the Hashemite monarchy of Jordan as being unduly subservient to Western interests, despite the fact that they believed themselves to be the actual leaders of the Arab world. The Western Bloc maintained close relations with Jordan and Iraq, but Kurds and Shia Muslims viewed pan-arabism with distrust. The president of Egypt, Gamal Abdel Nasser, emerged as the Hashemites most significant competitor for power in the 1950s. He was supported by the Free Officers Movement and advocated for a republican, secular government with elements of Arab socialism. In addition to being at odds with the Hashemites, the House of Saud controlled Saudi Arabia with a zealous Wahhabi religion. All of this was intertwined with the Cold war of the time, during which governments sought assistance from the Western or Eastern Blocs, or both. The conflict that followed is sometimes referred to as the Arab Cold War.

Prior attempts to bring Jordan and Iraq together in the name of Arab unity failed owing to a number of factors. There were several reasons for this, including Jordan's lack of strategic and economic importance, King Abdullah's conciliation with Israel on the Arab-Israeli conflict, the sizable Palestinian population in Jordan, and the tumultuous relationship between Abdullah and his nephew, the Iraqi regent 'Abd al-Ilah. After Abdullah's murder, attempts for unification were undertaken in 1946 and 1947, as well as in 1951 and 1952, but they finally failed. Instead, Hussein took over in 1952 after Abdullah's son Talal.

In order to guarantee access to Middle Eastern petroleum resources and stop Soviet expansion southward, Iraq signed up to the Baghdad Pact in 1955. Through the agreement, Iraq joined forces with nations that supported the West, including Pahlavi Iran, Pakistan and Turkey. While Egyption President Nasser criticized the deal as a concession to imperialist treachery, Prime Minister Nuri al-Said viewed it as a security guarantee for both Iraq and the Hashemite kingdom.

As an opposition to Nasser's pan-Arabism, which had joined Syria and Egypt as the United Arab Republic (UAR), Iraq and Jordan established the Arab Union in 1958. The Arab Union sought to harmonize its foreign and defense policies while retaining domestic programmes under national control in order to placate Arab nationalists in Jordan and Iraq. Iraq and Jordan were the initial members of the union, which made the Arab Revolt banner its official flag in the hopes that Kuwait would follow. In order to become the Premier of the Arab Union, Nuri al-Said resigned as Prime Minister of Iraq, but he was unable to foresee the rising hostility to the rule within the Sunni officer corps.

The UAR and the Arab Federation mobilized troops in response to the UAR's army moves, which caused tensions between the two countries to rise in the summer of 1958. Inspired by Nasser's successful toppling of the Egyptian monarchy in 1952, a group known as the Free Officers prepared to destroy the monarchy in Iraq. Abd al-Karim Qasim's army entered Baghdad in July 1958 while en route to the Jordanian-Syrian border. Qasim then used this chance to lead they 14 July Revolution, which brought down the Hashemite government and the transient Arab Federation. The execution of King Hussein's ruling cousins in Iraq and the murder of the Jordanian prime minister Ibrahim Hashem during the revolution had direct effects on the Hashemites in Jordan. The US promised to "support the throne of Hashemites in Jordan" and provide and annual subsidy of $40-$50 million to replace the British subsidy after King Hussein of Jordan requested assistance from both the Britishers and Americans. The British sent 4000 soldiers who remained in Jordan until November 2, 1958.

The Hashemite dynasty's overthrow in Iraq and the ensuing revolution would not spell the end of relations between Jordan and Iraq. The Hashemites death had been ordered by Iraqi coup plotters, but they were subsequently toppled and slain in the 1960s, which may have facilitated peace. Jordan abandoned its long-standing trade ties with Syria in 1975 and began to focus on Iraq. Jordan was given access to Iraq's robust economy, oil revenue, sizable market, and strategic depth. Jordan saw some financial success thanks to Iraq. Iraq was the biggest market for Jordan in 1990, and it also held out the prospect of significant rebuilding projects following the Iran-Iraqi war.

Arab Federation Flag Image - Source <Orange Tuesday, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons>

Why did the United Arab Republic failed?

2023-05-13T12:23:00.008+05:30

On February 1st, 1958, the United Arab Republic was founded as a first step towards the creation of a bigger pan-Arab state. Gamal Abdel Nasser, the president of Egypt, received the concept from a group of Syrian political and military figures who supported the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. In Syria, there has long been a strong sense of Arab unity, and following the 1956 Suez-Crisis, Nasser was well-linked in the Arab world. In Syria, there was a lot of public support for joining Egypt.

The Syrian Crisis of 1957 was brought on by Western powers' concerns that a Communist takeover of Syria was imminent in the middle of 1957, Syrians strengthened their efforts to merge with Egypt, and Nasser informed a Syrian delegation that they needed to cleanse their administration of Communists. The delegation retaliated, telling him that the "Communist threat" could only be eliminated by complete union with Egypt. Nasser initially favored a federal union over a complete union with Syria. However, he finally agreed on a thorough merger owing to his fear of a Communist takeover.

Nasser chose a speedy merger when, on January 11, 1958, a delegation from Syria led by military commander Afif al-Bizri personally urged Syrian-Egyptian union. Only those Syrians who support unification were aware of this delegation beforehand. "A plebiscite, the dissolution of parties, and the withdrawal of the army from politics" were the key and inflexible conditions Nasser set for the unification. The latter two factors were quite concerning, even if the majority of Syrian elites thought the vote made sense. They had the opinion that it would ruin Syria's political system.

The Syrian authorities were aware that it was too late to turn back despite their worries. On February 21, 1958, a ballot was held, with Egyptians and Syrians voting in favor of the union. On February 22, the outcome was made public, and Nasser was named the new leader of the United Arab Republic. Prime Minister Khaled al-Azem grudgingly signed the protocols, but so did the leader of Egypt and Syria. After being elected president of the country, Nasser immediately launched a campaign of repression against the Syrian Communists and union opponents, which included removing Bizri and Azem from position.

The socialist Ba'ath Party sought to coexist in power with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. Nasser, who did not intend for power to be distributed equitably, enacted a new interim constitution that dissolved all political organizations, including the Ba'ath Party. Former Ba'ath Party members were permitted to occupy political office, although they were never given the same level of authority as Egyptian government officials. With Syrian army commanders grumbling about being subservient to Egyptian officers and Syrian Bedouin tribes getting funding from Saudi Arabia to keep them from siding with Nasser, opposition to the union with Egypt increased in Syria. Additionally, Syrian agriculture was hurt by Egyptian-style land reform, and the Communists started to take power. The one-party system was despised by the Ba'ath Party intellectuals who favored the merger. The situation was better in Egypt, where the GNP increased by 4.5% and the industrial sector expanded quickly. Nasser turned the Egyptian press into his personal megaphone in 1960 when he nationalized it.

In reaction to the creation of the UAR, the combined state between Jordan and Iraq was establish as the Arab Federation on February 14, 1958. Jordan and Iraq agreed to create a single military command with a single military budget, with Jordan contributing 20% and Iraq providing the remaining 80%. Other countries of the globe saw the merger as a serious danger to Jordan. Jordanian plotters against King Hussein were said to be receiving support and provocation from Syria. The pressure was increased by Egypt's own position as a state antagonistic to Western intervention in the area (and therefore to the tight ties between the British, in particular, and the Jordanian and Iraqi monarchy).

President Camille Chamoun of adjacent Lebanon worriedly observed the formation of the UAR. A civil war broke out in the nation by May 1958 when pro-Nasser forces, primarily made up of Muslims and Druze, clashed with the Maronites, who tended to favor Chamoun. The former supported joining the UAR, whilst the latter dreaded the new nation as a communist satellite. Despite the fact that Nasser did not desire Lebanon because he saw it as a peculiar situation, he felt compelled to help his loyalists and assigned Abdel Hamid Sarraj the duty of providing them with money, light weapons, and officer training.

The Hashemite monarchy of Iraq, which had been formed by King Faisal I in 1921 with the help of the British, was overthrown as a consequence of the 14 July Revolution, also known as the 1958 Iraqi coup d'état which occurred in Iraq on that date. The soldiers put King Faisal II, Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said to death. The next day US Marines and British special forces landed in Lebanon and in Jordan, respectively, to safeguard the two nations from falling to Pro-Nasser troops. According to Nasser, Arab nationalism was made possible by the Iraqi revolution. The majority of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council's (RCC) members were in support of joining the UAR, but the new Prime Minister, Abdel Karim Qasim was against it.

Faud Chebab was elected as the next President of Lebanon in July after Lebanese President Chamoun was persuaded not to run for re-election by the US government. Nasser emphasized to during their meeting at the Syrian-Lebanese border that he never desired Lebanon's unification and simply desired to prevent it from being used as a base against the UAR. The US set a timeframe for its withdrawal from the region, and Nasser stopped supporting its supporters as a result of their meeting, which put an end to the problem in Lebanon. Meanwhile, Iraq became the UAR's most benevolent Arab state in the interim when its monarchy was overthrown in 1958, but negotiations on union were shelved in 1959. The idea of trilateral union between Egypt, Iraq, and Syria also fell through.

The official flag of Syria was formerly the UAR flag, which included two stars to symbolize the country's two section. Iraq's flag was similar but had three stars to represent the country's aspiration to join the UAR. The flags of Yemen, Egypt, and Sudan are likewise modelled on the Arab Liberation Flag.

The Egyptian president Nasser made an effort to improve the Syrian economy in 1960, but instead he nationalized both Syria and Egypt. Without seeking advice of Syrian economic professionals, the government assumed control of the cotton industry and all import-export businesses. Heavy industries, insurance, and banks were all nationalized. Nasser increased the scope of social justice principles by lowering the land cap and interest rates for farmers, enacting a 90% tax on income above £E10,000 and enabling worker and employee representation on corporate boards. Additionally, they received a 25% share of the company's profits and had their typical workweek cut from eight to seven without receiving a wage cut. But instead boosting either economy, these adjustments moved growth to the private sector.

Fall of UAR
The United Arab Republic (UAR), which was meant to be a union of two Arab peoples, instead turned into an Egypt-centric state. The socialist political and economic system of Nasser was imposed on Syria while the political parties in Syria were dissolved. This sparked retaliation from Syrian military and corporate sectors, which resulted in a coup in Syria in 1961 and the demise of the UAR. Even though the Ba'ath Party should have been his natural ally, Nasser was reluctant to share power with them and manipulated elections in favor of more conventionally conservative parties. After being named leader of the National Union in Syria, Colonel Abdul Hamid Sarraj (a member of the Syrian army and Nasser supporter) governed with a brutal security apparatus meant to crush resistance.

The Syrian Prime Minister and his cabinet were moved to Cairo in 1961 as a result of President Gamal Abdel Nasser of the UAR abolishing provincial administrations in an effort to centralize authority. Nasser was shocked when a group of Syrian officers launched a coup and declared Syria's independence from the UAR. Nasser was unaware of the rising instability in Syria. Nasser pondered deploying soldiers to remove the new government but finally decided not to. Nasser's pan-Arab aspirations suffered a serious setback when Syria seceded, underscoring the difficulties in forging a single Arab state.

Egypt kept the name "United Arab Republic" when Syria left the Union in 1961 until 1971. Israel occupied the Gaza strip, the West Bank, the Gola Heights, and the Sinai Peninsula from June 5 to June 10, 1967, as part of the six-day war. The Sinai Peninsula was ultimately given over to Egypt in 1978. Egypt did not take over control of the Gaza strip when Israel withdrew in 2005. The Islamist terrorist organization Hamas has been in charge of Gaza strip since 2007.

Image 1 : Source Stevan Kragujević, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Operation Poomalai

2023-05-11T16:13:00.005+05:30

The Indian Air Force's mission to airdrop supplies over the besieged city of Jaffna in Sri Lanka on June 4, 1987, in support of the Tamil Tigers during the Sri Lankan Civil War was known as Operation Poomalai (Poomalai means 'Flower Garland'), also known as Eagle Mission 4.

Then, as a part of Colombo's attack against the Tamil separatist movement, Sri Lankan forces blockaded Jaffna, India sought to negotiate a political solution with Colombo after becoming concerned about alleged infringement of the Tamils' rights, who had strong backing among the Tamil community of South India as well as government. Calls for intervention in what the India (and Tamil) media increasingly saw as a growing humanitarian catastrophe developed as the number of civilian fatalities increased, particularly in light of allegations of aircraft bombing of rebel positions in residential areas.

Under Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister, the Indian government made the decision to make an attempt to send aid to Sri Lanka's north as a show of support for the rebels. The Sri Lanka Navy intercepted the first of such attempts, a naval flotilla, and ordered it to turn around. India carried out the airdrop over Jaffna two days later.

Origins
Since the island's 1948 separation from Britain, there has been ethnic violence in Sri Lanka. A majority-Sinhala administration was in place at the time and issued laws that the sizeable Tamil minority community found to be discriminatory. In order to push for a separate state of Tamil Eelam within the framework of a federal structure in northern and eastern Sri Lanka that would allow the Tamils greater autonomy, two significant Tamil parties came together to create the TULF (Tamil United Liberation Front) in the 1970s. However, groups outside the TULF quickly began to develop that favored more extreme and militant strategies, and the conflicts began to erupt into a bloody civil war.

The Four Four Bravo event, which ignited anti-Tamil riots which approximately 3000 Tamil civilians were massacred by state-sponsored mobs, set off the first round of violence in 1983. The riots simply served to exacerbate the ethnic conflict, which was already becoming worse. At this period, the LTTE and other militant groups acquired a lot of new members, continued to capitalise on widespread Tamil unrest, and intensified their guerrilla operations. The world's oldest live human-planted tree, which was planted there in 288 BC, is located at Sri Maha Bodhi Shrine, became the target of a guerrilla attack in May 1985. The shrine is a holy place for Buddhists. A slaughter then erupted throughout the town. The assault claimed at least 150 lives among civilians and monks. The Anuradhapura Massacre is the name given to this incident. This was also interpreted as payback for the two days earlier 1985 Valvettiurai massacre. In this occurrence, the Sri Lankan Army compelled 70 Tamil youngsters to assemble inside the town's library before it was destroyed by heavy explosives.

The Sri Lankan army besieged Jaffna, an LTTE stronghold, in 1987 as part of its operation against the Tamil strongholds known as the Vadamarachchi Operation, as the government intensified its fight against the insurgency. The Sri Lankan government was urged to stop the attack since it was thought to be against the sovereign rights of a country by India, which had been supporting the Tamil groups, especially the LTTE, in the southern portion of the country. The Indian attempts, however, proved fruitless. India said on 2 June 1987 that it will deploy a convoy of ships to northern Sri Lanka to give humanitarian aid after failing to negotiate an end to the dispute with Sri Lanka. An Indian Coast Guard vessel escorted a convoy of 19 fishing boats carrying 38 tonnes of food, fuel, and medical supplies. The convoy was intercepted and turned back by the Sri Lankan Navy on June 4, 1987. As the convoy neared Sri Lankan waters in the Palk Strait, several Sri Lankan patrol boats met it. Following a four-hour standoff, the Indian convoy made a U-turn.

Following the failure of the naval mission, the Indian government decided to conduct Operation Poomalai, also known as Eagle Mission 4, which involved dropping humanitarian aid to the LTTE by plane in an effort to show support for the Tamil rebels symbolically and to maintain Rajiv Gandhi's standing among the country's Tamil population.

Operation
The mission, mounted on the evening of June 4, 1987, featured five An-32 aircraft from the Paratroop Training School in Agra and five Mirage 2000 aircraft from the No.7 Squadron. On June 2 around 2200, 7 Squadron received orders to dispatch a six-aircraft detachment to Bangalore Airport. However, they were then told to go to Yelahanka Airbase, which is located north of the city. At the same time, five An-32 aircraft were loaded with relief supplies and set out for Bangalore at 8:00 under the direction of Air Marshal S.Raghavendran, the vice chief of air staff at the time. They were to take off after daybreak, under the command of Wg. Cdr. Ajit Bhavnani, CO of No. 7 Squadron, and drop the supplies while the Mirages were concealed by Gp. Capt. B.K. Sunder, CO of Paratroop Training School. 35 Journalists from throughout the nation and the world also boarded the trip. To counter potential opposition from the Si Lanka Air Force, the Mirages were equipped with two Matra Magic II AAMs and two 30mm DEFA 554 revolver cannons with 125 rounds each. They also carried three drop tanks.

Bernard Tilakaratna, the Sri Lankan High Commissioner to New Delhi, was called to the Ministry of External Affairs at 15:00, when Minister of External Affairs Natwar Singh delivered the information that the Indian Air Force would be conducting a mission at 16:00 to drop supplies over Jaffna. He was informed that the mission was carried out without incident and that an resistance from the Sri Lankan Air Force "would be met with force" by the escorting Mirage 2000s.

At 15:55, the first flight took off from Bangalore (now Bengaluru) and headed towards the Coromandel coast, where it was met by four Mirage escorts. Along with two more An-32 aircraft lying over Tamil Nadu, one Mirage remained behind to serve as a radio relay for Banglore. The An-32 aircraft transported over 25 tonnes of food aid, including rice, milk powder, vegetables, and fuel.

At 16:47, the flight leader attempted to make radio contact with Colombo ATC on the civil air traffic radio channel, but was unsuccessful. At around 16:50, the expedition arrived at the Jaffna peninsula, and around 17:00, it saw Jaffna Town. The drop was performed in the drop zone, which was about 7km from the town of Jaffna, after the aircraft plummeted from a height of 12000 feet to around 1500 feet. The plane then made a U-turn and flew above the Palay airfield before reversing course and going north towards the Indian coast. At 18:13, the mission returned to skies over Banglore.

Repercussion
After Operation Poomalai, Sri Lanka charged India with infringing on its territorial integrity. India refused to exclude out more operations at the time, but instead justified its actions as a mercy mission to save the civilian population, which it claimed was in worsening conditions. The activities were supported by the political diaspora in India. When Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by the LTTE in 1991, it was perceived in India at the time as an act of solidarity against the oppressed and besieged Tamil community in the north. However, this perception was destined to drastically change after that. Colombo saw it as an obvious demonstration of support for the Tamil Tigers at the time. Little more than 25 tonnes of supplies were airdropped by India during the operation, which was obviously insufficient to support a besieged city.

Homi Jehangir Bhabha

2023-05-10T20:21:00.005+05:30

Indian nuclear physicist Homi Jehangir Bhabha is widely regarded as the "father of the Indian nuclear programme". He established the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET), which was later renamed the BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Center) in his memory. He was also the founding director and a professor of physics at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR). The foundation of the Indian nuclear energy and weapons project was TIFR and AEET. He served as the Department of Atomic Energy's secretary and the first head of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission. He was instrumental in the development of Indian space programme by aiding space research initiatives that were first funded by the AEC.

Homi Bhabha was born on October 30, 1909, into a well-known, rich Parsi family that included Meherbai Framji Panday, granddaughter of Sir Dinshaw Maneckji Petit and Jehangir Hormusji Bhabha, a well known lawyer. His paternal grandfather, Hormusji Bhabha, the Inspector-General of Education in Mysore, inspired the name Hormusji. He completed his early education at the Cathedral and John Connon School in Mumbai.
As a result of his upbringing, Bhabha developed an appreciation for art, music and gardening. His maternal aunt Meherbai Tata, was the owner of library of Western classical music that included compositions by Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, and Schubert. Along with his brother and his cousin, he used to play recordings from this collection on the phonograph. On the other hand, Artist Jehangir Lalkala served as his mentor when it came to drawing and painting.

Despite having earned high honors in his Senior Cambridge Examination at the age of fifteen, he was too young to enroll in a college overseas. He thus applied to Elphinstone College. Then, in 1927, he went to the Royal Institute of Science, where he saw a public lecture given by Arthur Compton, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the Compton effect in 1923. Later, Bhabha said it was at this presentation when he first learned about cosmic rays, the topic of his subsequent study

He enrolled in Cambridge University's Gonville and Caius College the following year. This occurred as a result of his father's and uncle Dorabji's urging. They had intended for Bhabha to graduate with a degree in mechanical engineering from Cambridge before returning to India to work as a metallurgist at the Tata Steel plants in Jamshedpur.
Bhabha's father, who understood his son's plight, agreed to pay for his mathematical studies as long as he received a first-class grade on his Mechanical Tripos. In June 1930, Bhabha took the Mechanical Tripos, and two years later, the Mathematics Tripos. He passed both with first-class honors.
Bhabha created the cover of the Caian, the college magazine, and coxed boats for his school. For the Cambridge Musical Society, he also created the sets for a student production of the plays Life is a Dream by Pedro Calderon de la Barca and Idomeneo by Mozart. Bhabha was inspired by the English artist and critic Roger Fry, who commended his sketches, and contemplated pursuing painting in earnest. But Bhabha was inspired to concentrate on theoretical physics after learning about the work being done at the Cavendish Laboratory at the time. He made the decision to alter his name to Homi Jehangir Bhabha when he applied to be a research student in mathematics. He would use this name for rest of the life.

With his thesis, "On cosmic radiation and the creation and annihilation of positrons and electrons," Bhabha earned his PhD in nuclear physics in 1935. Bhabha initially determined the cross section of electron-positron scattering in 1935 work that was published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society. After him, electron-positron scattering was eventually given the name Bhabha scattering.

He and Walter Heitler, published a paper in 1937 titled "The passage of fast electrons and the theory of cosmic showers" in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A. In this paper, they applied their theory to explain how primary cosmic rays from space interact with the upper atmosphere to produce particles that can be seen on Earth.

Before the Second World War broke out in September 1939, Bhabha had made his yearly trip back to India. He chose to stay in India due to the war and accepted a position as a reader in physics at the Nobel laureate, C.V.Raman led Indian Institute of Science in Bengaluru. The Sir Dorabji Tata Trust provided funding for his experimental study of cosmic ray physics in 1940.
After being elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1941, Bhabha won the Adams Prize, becoming the first Indian to do so. Bhabha was appointed President of the Physics section of the Indian sciences Congress and a Fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences not long after obtaining the Adams Prize. Bhabha was introduced by C.V.Raman as "the modern equivalent of Leonardo da Vinci" durin g the 1941 Annual Meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences. Bhabha publicly accepted his position as professor and unit head on January 20, 1942.

Bhabha suggested the founding of an institute for fundamental research in a 1943 letter to J.R.D. Tata. In April 1944, the trustees of the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust made the decision to adopt Bhabha's suggestion and assume financial responsibility for founding the Institute. With funding from the Trust, he founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in June 1945. By October of the same year, TIFR had relocated to Bombay (now Mumbai) after initially operating out of the Cosmic Ray Unit of the Indian Institute of Science in Bengaluru. Bhabha used the room where he was born as his office when TIFR first stated up, using 6000 square feet of the home where he was born.

"The development of atomic energy should be entrusted to a very small and high-powered body composed of say three people with executive power, and answerable directly to the Prime Minister without any intermediary link," wrote Homi Bhabha to India's first and then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, whom he used to call as Bhai (Brother), in 1948. The Atomic Energy Commission may be used to refer to this entity for convenience. On August 10, 1948, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was founded in accordance with the Atomic Energy Act. Bhabha was chosen by Nehru to lead the Commission as its first chairman. S.S.Bhatnagar and K.S.Krishnan were two of the three members of the Commission.
Bhabha suggested the government that a new laboratory be built specifically to create technologies for the atomic energy initiative after seeing that it could no longer be done at TIFR. At Trombay, 1200 acres (490 hectares) of land were purchased for this purpose from the Bombay government. So, in 1954, the Atomic Energy Establishment Trombay (AEET) began operations.

Bhabha is acknowledged for developing a plan that focuses on harnessing the nation's massive thorium deposits for energy production rather than its few uranium reserves. In November 1954, he delivered this proposal to the Conference on the Development of Atomic Energy for Peaceful Purposes in New Delhi. In 1958, the Indian government publicly adopted it as three-stage system. Bhabha served as the director of Indian Rare Earths Limited, a government-owned firm that was founded in 1952 to harvest rare earths and thorium from Kerala's monazite sands for the nuclear power programme.

APSARA, the one-megawatt "swimming pool" research reactor was commissioned in August 1956, making India the first Asian nation with a nuclear reactor except Soviet Union. As opposed to past national research in atomic energy, which had been primarily theoretical, it permitted Indian nuclear experts to conduct tests. Because of his acquaintance with Sir John Cockroft, who had been his coworker at the Cavendish laboratory in Cambridge, Bhabha was able to achieve advantageous conditions for India.

An agreement for the development of a heavy water-moderated, natural uranium-fueled National Research Experimental (NRX) reactor in Trombay was reached by India and Canada in that year. The sale was made possible because to Bhabha's personal acquaintance with WB Lewis, the then-director of the Canadia Atomic Energy Agency. On July 10, 1960, the reactor, known as the Canada India Reactor Utility Service (CIRUS), reached critically. It was India's first source of plutonium at the time had Asia's largest output reactor at 40 megawatts. The successful Canada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor design was likewise modelled after CIRUS. A heavy water facility in Nangal with an annual production of 14 metric tonnes was opened to provide CIRUS with heavy water. It started running on August 2nd, 1962.

Bhabha made the decision to construct a plutonium reprocessing facility in Trombay in July 1958. The Phoenix facility was built using the Purex (Plutonium-uranium extraction) method of removing plutonium from spent fuel. Construction started in 1961 and was finished in the middle of 1964. Phoenix generated India's first weapons-grade plutonium in 1964 when combined with CIRUS.
India hadn't truly generated nuclear energy despite the creation of APSARA, CIRUS, Phoenix, and the homegrown zero-energy critical reactor ZERLINA. General Electric was hired in 1962 to construct two light water-moderated nuclear reactor in Tarapur as a cure. The Tarapur Atomic Power Stations (TAPS) didn't fit into Bhabha's three-stage strategy since they were powered by enriched uranium. India benefited greatly from the Tarapur deal's conditions, which included a $80 million loan from the US at 0.75% interest. Additionally, Bhabha was able to negotiate the restriction of TAPS plant safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency.

Bhabha said before the Parliamentary Consultative Committee on Atomic Energy in December 1959 that India's nuclear energy research has advanced to the stage where it could produce nuclear weapons without outside assistance in response to worries about a potential Chinese nuclear weapons project. In 1960, Bhabha predicted that India would need "about a year" to create a nuclear bomb during a meeting with Nehru and Kenneth Nichols, who was in India on business for Westinghouse.

Following the Chinese nuclear test on October 16, 1964, Bhabha started actively advocating for the creation of nuclear weapons. While stating at the Cairo Conference of Non-Aligned nations that India's nuclear establishment was "under firm orders not to make a single experiment, not to perfect a single device which is not needed for peaceful uses of atomic energy," Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, Nehru's successor, sought security guarantees from the existing nuclear powers. Bhabha stated that India could perform a nuclear test within a year and a half after making the choice to do so, but he did not "think such a decision will be taken" while he was in London on October 4. 1964, in anticipation of Chinese test.

On January 24, 1966 Bhabha perished in the crash of Air India Flight 101 near Mont Blanc. The official cause of the accident is a miscommunication between Geneva Airport and the pilot on the aircraft's position near the mountain. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) has been implicated in the alleged paralysis of India's nuclear programme, according to one the many hypothesis put up in relation to the plant disaster. In 2012, a diplomatic bag from India that contained calenders and a private note was found close to the accident site.

A 2013 book titled Conversations with the Crow was written by Gregory Douglas, a writer and conspiracy theorist who claimed to have spoken over the phone with former CIA agent Robert Crowley in 1933. Douglas cites Crowley's assertion that the CIA was behind the murders of Homi Bhabha and Prime Minister Shastri, who occurred thirteen days apart 1966, in order to obstruct India's nuclear effort. According to Crowley, a bomb in the cargo hold of the aircraft detonated midair, bringing the commercial Boeing 707 jetliner down in the Alps with little to no damage. He added : "We had the option of blowing it up above Vienna, but we thought the high mountains would be a much better place for the debris to land".

After determining a precise formula for the likelihood of positrons being scattered by electrons - a phenomenon now known as Bhabha scattering - he attained international fame. His work on Compton scattering, the R-process, and the development of nuclear physics were among his most significant achievements. He was a candidate for the Physics Nobel Prize in 1951 and from 1953 to 1956. In 1954, he received the Padma Bhushan, the third-highest civilian decoration in India. He was chosen as an honorary fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and Gonville and Caius College in 1957. In 1958, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences selected him as a Foreign Honorary Fellow. From 1960 to 1963, he served as President of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics. Patna (1944), Lucknow (1949), Banaras (1950), Agra (1952), Perth (1954), Prayagraj (1958), Cambridge (1959), London (1960), and Padova (1961) were among the cities where Bhabha was awarded honorary doctorates in Science.

A web series called Rocket Boys (2022) was inspired by the lives of A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Vikram Sarabhai and Homi J. Bhabha. The second season was made available in 2023.

Hosur Narayan Murthy

2022-11-24T23:43:00.004+05:30

Hosur Narayan Murthy, also known as H. N. Murthy, was an Indian clinical psychologist, author, philosopher, Sanskrit scholar, and teacher who served as the head of the clinical psychology division at Bangalore's National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS). He died in 2011 at the age of 92. His parents, Hosur Ramaswamaiah Subba Rao and Smt. Rajamma, were Brahmins, and he was born in Bangalore in 1924. At the "Iron and Steel Plant" in Bhadravathi, Karnataka, Murthy's father worked as a manager.

Before moving to Mysore to attend college, Murthy completed his elementary studies at Bhadravathi. Murthy enrolled in the Maharaja's College in Mysore while he was in the city to pursue his bachelor's degree (B.A.) in psychology under the direction of Dr. M.V. Gopalaswamy. His bachelor's thesis at Maharaja's College in Mysore was titled "National Stereotypes" and was a comparison of how Indians and foreigners view each other (the stereotyped impressions of each other). Murthy received the "Bhabha Memorial Gold Medal" for being the finest scholar in psychology and philosophy upon completion in 1952.

Murthy's mentor and professor, Dr. M.V. Gopalaswamy, was one of the department of psychology at the University of Mysore's founding fathers (1924). M.V. Gopalaswamy was a student of Dr. Charles Spearman, under whose tutelage he earned his PhD in London, and upon his return to India, he established the first amateur radio station using a stand-alone transponder. For All India Radio, he is credited for creating the word "Akashvani." Gopalaswamy was a voracious reader and thinker who spent hours with another eminent historian at the University of Mysore named S. Srikanta Sastri discussing topics like "Tantra Philosophy" and "Modern Psychology". Murthy is, incidentally, S. Srikanta Sastri's nephew.

Murthy would secure his master's degree (M.A.) in psychology under Dr M.V.Gopalaswamy in 1954 at University of Mysore whereafter he occupied positions at "Ranchi European Lunatic Asylum" and "Mysore State Mental Hospital" before pursuing a doctoral study abroad.

Murthy earned a master's degree in psychology from the University of Mysore before being accepted to "Katholieke Universiteit Leuven," or the "Catholic University of Leuven," in Belgium, where he is started pursuing a PhD in psychology. "Causality in Experimental Psychology" was his selected topic. In addition to receiving a PhD, Murthy also received the title "Professor Excelsior." While living in Europe, Murthy honed the subtleties of "Behavioural therapy" and afterwards worked to translate it to Indian conditions back in India. While attending Leuven, he most likely developed a particular interest in schizophrenia and manic depressive psychosis.

After returning to India from Belgium, Murthy joined the National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore, where he worked tirelessly for the following two decades to popularise behavioural therapy in India. He created a variety of diagnostic scales for categorising mental diseases and was in charge of bringing clinical neuropsychology and behavioural medicine to India. Behavioural therapy, a revolutionary technique, was first used in India in the early 1970s. Under Murthy's direction, it came to represent a holistic approach to treating mental patients, taking into consideration both the patient and his family members in their attempts to provide successful counselling.The effectiveness of this strategy resulted in the first drop in admissions to the mental health centre in years. In order to more accurately gauge and measure the patient's psychological state, Murthy also developed a number of questionnaires (Multiphasic Questionnaires), several of which are still in use today. Here are a few of the diagnostic measures Murthy included in his "Multiphasic Personality Questionnaire":

Depressive Scale
Paranoid Scale
Schizophrenia Scale
Manic Scale
Depressive Anxiety Scale
Hysteria Scale
K Scale

His work on "The relation of cyclothymia-schizothymia to extroversion-introversion" is significant and finds place in the Kyoto University Psychology Department syllabus. His contribution towards "Organic Brain Dysfunction" is acknowledged in an article concerning "battery of tests to detect organic brain dysfunction" which appeared in the January issue of Journal of Clinical Psychology. Another, somewhat controversial yet intriguing aspect which Murthy took time to examine were the claims of reincarnation while in a psychotic state. A brief report of the same appeared in the September 1978 issue of Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology.His comparative study of "suicides" with "attempted suicides" in women was published in 1983 in Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine and assumed significance in the Asian setting against the backdrop of newer economic realities. Dr H.N.Murthy aided a treatise examining the etiology (Nidana) of Mental diseases in Ayurveda and was successful in bridging allopathic medicine and its integral concepts to the age old system of Indian Medicine ("Apasmara"-Epilepsy). A comparison of "Yogis" and "Control subjects" with regard to their voluntary control of personality traits and psychological adjustment patterns appeared in the Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology in 1987 and was a turning point in the scientific analysis of yogic claims of self-control of personality and self actuation.

Murthy remained a bachelor. His legacy today stems from the scores of students who got trained under him. Murthy is best remembered for guiding a doctoral work on "Psychology in Music" by Dr Padma Murthy. His other student Dr M.S.Thimmappa would later occupy the chair of Vice Chancellor of Bangalore University. His personal library with a collection of books exceeding thousands was his treasured possession. Deeply spiritual and philosophical, he was an ardent devotee and follower of the "Ramakrishna Mutt". Murthy died on 22 August 2011 aged 87 years at Bangalore. In his memory, "Dr H.N.Murthy Oration" is arranged every year by the "Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology" where budding psychologists from the fraternity deliver papers in his honor in subjects concerning behavioral medicine and bio-feedback.

Image 1 - Source Bugs2beatles, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Image 2 - Source Bugs2beatles, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Operation Raahat - Indian Military Operation in Yemen

2022-11-23T11:27:00.002+05:30

During the 2015 military intervention by Saudi Arabia and its allies in Yemen during the Yemeni Crisis, the Indian Armed Forces conducted Operation Raahat to evacuate Indian citizens and international nationals from Yemen. On 1 April 2015, the port of Aden saw the start of the maritime evacuation. The Indian Air Force and Air India began the air evacuation from Sana'a on April 3, 2015. Along with 960 foreign people from 41 different countries, more than 4,640 Indian residents living in Yemen were evacuated. On April 9, 2015, the evacuation by air came to an end. On April 11, 2015, the evacuation by water came to an end.

The Royal Saudi Air Force led a coalition of Arab nations in targeting the Shiite Houthi rebels on March 27, 2015, marking the start of the 2015 military intervention in Yemen. This was preceded by weeks of unrest in which the Houthi insurgents overthrew President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi's administration and seized control of major portions of the nation.

India's Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) has warned Indian expats in Yemen to evacuate the country on January 21, 2015, in anticipation of further hostilities. On February 20, 2015, a second travel warning was released advising Indians to stay away from Yemen and to leave the nation. Finally, the MEA issued an immediate advise on March 25, two days before the Arab coalition attack, encouraging all Indian people to leave as soon as possible. However, more than 5000 Indian people were stranded in Yemen because they had disregarded the warnings.

Yemen was inaccessible by air due to a no-fly zone, therefore India decided to base the initial marine evacuation at Djibouti. It was urged for Indians in Yemen to travel to Sana'a and Aden. The patrol boat INS Sumitra (P59) of the Indian Navy was transferred from anti-piracy operations off the coast of Lakshadweep to the Yemeni port of Aden. Additionally, it sent the frigate INS Tarkash (F50) and destroyer INS Mumbai (D62) from Mumbai to the war zone to help and defend Indian aircraft and ships. To reach Yemen, both sailors travelled 1,350 nautical miles (2,500 km; 1,550 mi) in four days. Two C-17 Globemaster cargo planes with a 600 passenger capacity were sent by the Indian Air Force to Djibouti.

The Lakshadweep government sent two ferries with a combined passenger capacity of 1,500 to Aden: MV Kavaratti and MV Corals. Additionally, two Air India Airbus A320 planes were sent to Muscat in the adjacent Sultanate of Oman.

The INS Sumitra arrived at Aden on April 1 to transport 349 Indians. On April 3, 2015, Air India was given permission to fly to Yemen, and it immediately started transporting passengers from Sana'a to Djibouti and Djibouti to Mumbai or Kochi. From Djibouti, two C-17 Globemasters made nine flights to Mumbai and two to Kochi. The INS Mumbai arrived at Aden on April 4, 2015, but was not able to dock due to bombardment, therefore the passengers were transported in small boats to the ship.

Over the course of the days, 960 foreign people from more than 41 nations and more than 4,640 overseas Indians were evacuated. Some of them turned to India for assistance since they lacked the operational capacity to conduct a rescue operation. These countries included: Bahrain, Bangladesh, Canada, Cuba, Czech Republic, Djibouti, Egypt, France, Hungary, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Maldives, Morocco, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Slovenia, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, Thailand, Uganda, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Out of a total of 5,600 persons, 1,670 Indians and 2,900 Indians were evacuated by Indian Navy ships from four ports and 18 special aircraft from Sana'a, respectively. On April 8, 2015, the Pakistan Navy frigate PNS Aslat rescued 11 Indians from Mukalla and transported them by air to India through Karachi. The evacuation by air and water came to a conclusion on April 9, 2015, and April 11, 2015, respectively. For different reasons, 200 Indians refused to leave Yemen.

On 16 and 18 April 2015, respectively, INS Mumbai and INS Tarkash arrived back in Mumbai Harbor following the successful conclusion of Operation Raahat. On April 18, MV Kavaratti and MV Corals landed in Kochi. The ships had assisted in the evacuation of 475 individuals, including 65 Yemeni nationals of Indian descent, 337 Bangladeshis, and 73 Indian nationals. A TV documentary titled Operation Raahat: Yemen Rescue Operation by India (Battle Ops) (2018) released on Veer by the Battle Ops - Discovery Channel series.

All images for illustration purposes only.

The Birth of the United Nations

2022-11-19T23:57:00.013+05:30

The rapid advancement of scientific and technological weaponry during World War 2 resulted in the deaths of 40 million people and the eviction of 21 million. After this terrible incident, the world needed peace, just as the League of Nations attempted to achieve after World War 1. In the 19th century, there was a military rivalry between European nations that eventually led to World War I in 1914. Germany and the Allies (France, Russia, Britain) signed the armistice agreement in 1918, which officially ended the First World War.

In 1918, Woodrow Wilson, the US president at the time, outlined a 14-point plan for a powerful international order to uphold peace and avert future conflicts. After the Paris Peace Conference, which put an end to the First World War, the League of Nations was created on January 10 of the following year. Its headquarters were founded in Geneva, Switzerland, with a concentration on public health, refugee welfare, and labour welfare in order to put an end to violent agitation. The League was Woodrow Wilson's concept, and he received the Nobel Peace Prize for it in 1919.

42 countries were the founding members of League of Nations, but 16 of them withdrew in upcoming years. League of Nations had 4 permanent members - United Kingdom, Italy, France and Japan. Four other countries used to be temporary members for every three years. Interestingly, USA, who proposed the idea of the League did not joined it, as Wilson, who was from the Democratic party could not pass the resolution in the American Congress as it had the majority of the Republicans. Later, League of Nations was not able to stop the military aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Countries like Spain, Japan, Italy withdrew their membership. In 1933, Germany also withdrew and Hitler publicly denounce the League of Nation and Treaty of Versailles. Soviet Union joined it very late on 18 April 1934, but was expelled after it invaded Finland. League of Nations failed its objectives when the Second World War took place.

After seeing how the Second World War ended with the use of nuclear weapons, no one wanted a Third World War. The idea of UN was established before the second World war ended. US President, Franklin Roosevelt and British PM, Winston Churchill drafted the Atlantic Charter which defined goals for the post-war world, on 12 June 1941 at Inter-Allied Conference. Later, 8 exiled governments along with Soviet Union and Free French Forces, unanimously agreed to the common principles set forth by Britain and the USA. On the New Year's Day of 1942, representatives of USA, UK, Soviet Union and China signed the 'Declaration by United States'. Next At that time, the term United Nations became synonym with the Allied Powers and those countries who wanted to join the UN, had to declare war on the Axis Powers. October 1943, was the first time when it was announced that a new international organization is going to be found succeeding the League of Nations. Followed this was the Tehran Conference where Roosevelt, Churchill and Joseph Stalin discussed the idea of post-war international organizations. At the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, proposal was sent to 26 grand alliance nations to form the United Nations. Process of writing of U.N. Charter starts after this conference. Some remaining issues were resolved at Yalta Conference in February 1945, after which development reached the last phase.

Fifty countries (forty-six nations, including the four sponsors) were invited to San Francisco in the same year. Delegates of these countries met between 25 April and 26 June 1945 at the United Nations Conference on International Organization to discuss upon Dumbarton Oaks proposals and the Yalta Agreements. Out of fifty, 49 countries sent their representatives to sign the U.N. Charter, except Poland. There was no recognizable government in Poland at that time, hence space for its signatures were left. On 15 October 1945, Poland signed the charter. But, UN was not finally established after the charter was signed. Many countries had to pass the resolution of being the member of the UN in their respective parliament. On 24 October 1945 - United Nations finally came into existence, aimed to promote peace, justice and better living for all mankind.

How Sikkim became a part of India

2022-11-05T13:19:00.000+05:30

Sikkim is a state in Northeastern India. It is the least populous and second smallest state of India. Notable for its biodiversity, it is situated in the Eastern Himalayas. India got it's independence in 1947 but Sikkim joined the Republic of India in 1975. Before that, Sikkim was a independent Buddhist monarchy, ruled by the Chogyal (monarch).

It is said that Phuntsog Namgyal, founded the Sikkim's monarchy in 1642. He became the first Chogyal of the state. His son, Tensung Namgyal succeeded the throne in 1670. Sikkim faced many invasions after its establishment. In 1700, Bhutan invaded Sikkim but Tibetan people helped Sikkim save its sovereignty. There were multiple raids by Nepalese from the west and Bhutanese from the east. In 1791, China helped Sikkim against invasion of Gorkha Kingdom of Nepal.

Cultural ties of Sikkim were with Tibet but eventually its ties with the British started getting strong, as they had Nepal as their common enemy. After the Gurkha war in 1814, Treaty of Titalia was signed between the Chogyal and British East India Company. According to it, Sikkim's area captured by the Gorkha Kingdom will be returned back and in return the Chogyal will let British to mediate with its neighbors. As parts of Sikkim was under the Gorkha Kingdom, there was a rise in Nepali Hindu population in the state. The relation between then deteriorated when British EIC started taxation of Morang region (present day Nepal). Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and Dr. Archibald Campbell were arrested by Sikkimese government in 1849 when they went to mountains of Sikkim unauthorized. It led to attack on Sikkim by the Britishers. At the end, Darjeeling (present day India) and Morang region exceeded into the British territory. Sikkim now became a vassal state of the Britishers and later in the 19th century, a protectorate.

When India got independent in 1947, a standstill agreement was signed by Sikkim and Bhutan with the Indian government stating that they were not Indian states and their future will be negotiated separately. A pro-India and pro-accession political party, Sikkim State Congress (SSC) was formed which was working closely with Indian National Congress (INC). The monarch in response included three secretaries from SSC into his cabinet and started sponsoring Sikkim National Party (SNP) which against the idea of accession. In 1950, SSC launched massive protests and started civil disobedience movement. Chogyal (monarch) then asked for India's help. Finally, a treaty was signed between India and Sikkim which made Sikkim a protectorate of India. Sikkim's defense, external affairs and communication requirements were now under Indian government. Chogyal still remained a constitutional figure enjoying some autonomy in internal affairs.

In 1967, Chinese army infiltrated into Sikkim's territory in 1967. Sikkim being Indian protectorate, Chinese had clashes with the Indian army in the Nathu La and Cho La on 11 September. Indian government did not wanted to take any chances. There was a rise in Chinese aggression towards Tibet and rising communism in Indian state of West Bengal. Also, Sikkim was performing well in terms of Literacy rate and per capita income in comparison to India and other neighboring countries. But, there were protests going on in Sikkim by Sikkim National Congress (SNC), asking for fresh elections and proper Nepali representation in the government. In 1973, things got worse and there were anti-royalist riots taking place in front of Chogyal's palace.

When law and order got out of Chogyal's hand, he called the Indian government for help and on 8 May 1973, historical tripartite agreement was signed between The Chogyal, The Indian government and representatives of political parties of Sikkim (SSC, SNP, SNC). According to the resolution, a more democratic constitutions and greater legislative and executive powers of the elected representative of the people will be given. The responsibility for law and order was now in the hands of India. Following the May 8 Agreement, India sent a constitutional advisor to draft a constitution for Sikkim, to which the Chogyal objected. In April 1974 elections, pro-India Sikkim National Congress came into power. There was a deep controversy in September 1974, when there were talks of drafting of a bill for merger of Sikkim with India. India on the other hand, made 35th Amendment in its constitution, terminating the protectorate status of Sikkim, and making it a Associate State.

In 1975, Sikkim's Prime Minister, requested the Parliament of India to make Sikkim a state of India. A military operation was launched by Indian army in the Chogyal's palace and within an hour they took over the whole city of Gangtok (capital of Sikkim). On 10 April, the Sikkim assembly adopted the resolution abolishing the institution of Chogyal and declared Sikkim a constituent unit of India. On 14 April 1975, a referendum was held in presence of Indian army on abolishing the monarchy. 59,637 (97.55%) votes were in favor of the resolution of total 61,133 votes. Indian parliament then gave final approval to make Sikkim a full fledged state on 26 April 1975 making 36th Amendment in the constitution. On 15 May 1975, Indian President, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, ratified the the constitutional amendment making Sikkim the 22nd state of India.

Operation Vijay - How Goa became a part of India?

2022-10-01T11:51:00.026+05:30

India got its independence in the year 1947 on 15 August, but the Indian State of Goa celebrates its Liberation Day on 19 December. Though, India was a British colony but Portuguese were the first foreign power who came to colonize India (in 1505) and were also the last one to depart (1961).

Portuguese got control over Goa in 1510, after Albuquerque defeated the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. They wanted to make Goa their colony and not just their naval base. Goa became the first territorial possession of Portuguese in the Asian continent. The conquest for other bases like Malacca (1511) and Hormuz (1515) was initiated from here. Soon, Goa was made the capital of Vice-Kingdom in Asia, which included other regions of India occupied by Portuguese, Malacca, East Timor, Persian Gulf, Macau in China and their bases in Japan.

Voice for Goan independence were getting loud from 1920s, when Goan National Congress was formed. Just like the independence movement against the Britishers, there were widespread protests and movements demanding the Portuguese government to leave Goa. Not just the protests were similar to those against the Britishers but the actions taken by the Portuguese government was also brutal like Britishers.

After the Britishers left the country of India, the Indian union asked the Portuguese to hand over the control of Goa and other Portuguese ruled territories to India including Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Government there in Lisbon always said that Goa is not a colony but a part of metropolitan Portugal. They also showed their concern for Goan Catholics, saying that they would not be safe if they transfer Goa under the control of Indian government, even though 60% of Goan population consisted of Hindus. As a part of protest, India broke all their diplomatic relations with Portugal in 1953. In 1954, Dadra and Nagar Haveli was liberated by the Azad Gomantak Dal and United Front of Goans.

In 1955, the Portuguese killed 30 peaceful protestors who were taking part in a movement for independence. As a retaliatory move, Indian government started economic blockade of Goa, Daman and Diu. This led to shortage of essential items for the local population and it became difficult for the Portuguese government also to airlift food items and other necessary items. 'India had not abjured the use of force in Goa', were the words of India's defense minister, V.K. Krishna Menon.

Actions by the Portuguese on 24 November 1961, came as a trigger point for Indian government to send their troops to liberate Goa. A passenger boat named Sabarmati passing between the Indian port of Kochi and Portuguese controlled Anjadiv Island was attacked by Portuguese. The chief engineer was wounded and a passenger also lost his life. As a result, Indian army along with Indian Air force and Indian Navy, attacked Goa from all four sides on 17 December 1961, under the name - Operation Vijay. Portuguese soldiers were easily outnumbered by the Indian army. On 19 December 1961, the 472 years of Portuguese rule over Goa came to an end and Goa finally returned back to its motherland.

Portugal raised the issue in the United Nations Security Council. Seven countries (USA, UK, France, Nationalist China, Chile, Turkiye, Ecuador) supported Goa's resolution while two (USSR and Sri Lanka, then Ceylon) supported India by going against the resolution and two abstained (United Arab Republic and Liberia). USA criticized India's action and said that military use is against UN's charter. While, USSR's delegate drew attention to Portugal's disregard for UN Resolutions calling for the granting of independence to colonial countries and peoples. At the end, resolution was not passed due to USSR's veto.

After the Portuguese surrender, African countries like Ghana, Angola, Mozambique and Soviet Union along with Sri Lanka and Arab states issued statements in the favor of India, stating it as a action to end colonial rule. USA, UK, Netherlands, Brazil and Pakistan were against the action taken by India. In 1963, the Parliament of India formally integrated the territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli by passing the 12th Amendment Act to the Constitution of India. All 3 regions became a Union Territory. Goa was given its statehood in 1987. Portugal finished all diplomatic relations with India, but after the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon in 1974, finally Portugal accepted the accession of Goa into the Union of India.

Famous actor Amitabh Bachchan's deut film, Saat Hindustani (1969) shows the heroic attempts of seven Indians to liberate Goa from Portuguese colonial rule. 1985 film Trikal by Shyam Benegal and 1983 movie Puskar, starring Amitabh Bachchan also have storylines based on backdrop of 1960s Goa.

Nikola Tesla

2022-09-22T10:33:00.012+05:30

Nikola Tesla was born on 10 July 1856 in Smiljan, Austrian Empire (present day - Croatia). His father Milutin Tesla was the priest of the Eastern Orthodox Church. His mother, Duka Mandic used to make different tools and mechanical appliances at home. Tesla credited his photographic memory to his mother's genetics. Tesla had four other siblings, two elder sister and two brothers - one older and one younger. He lost his elder brother in an accident when he was just five years old.

Tesla attended his primary school in Smiljan in 1861 where he was taught German, arithmetic and religion. In 1870, after completing his primary school and middle school in Gospic city, he moved to Karlovac city to attend high school. He got admitted to Higher Real Gymnasium. There he was impressed by experiments related to electricity by his physics professor. He termed electricity as 'mysterious phenomenon' and wanted to know more about this 'wonderful force'. He finished his four year term in three years only. He was able to solve integral calculus in mind itself which made his teachers believe that he was cheating.

Tesla's father wanted him to enter priesthood but Tesla wanted to pursue engineering. Later, he got affected by cholera and was near death many times. His father promised him that he will send him to the best engineering college as soon as he recovers. Tesla then escaped from the conscription of the Austro-Hungarian army and moved to the small village of Tomingaj.

He then joined the Imperial-Royal Technical College in Graz in 1875 on a Military Frontier Scholarship. He passed nine exams there and earned the highest possible grades. There, he got amazed with the lectures on electricity by his professor Jakob Poschl. Tesla gave suggestions on improving the design of an electric motor the professor was demonstrating. He left Graz in 1878 when he was in third year as he started failing in school. He did not informed anyone about this. There was a rumor that he had drowned in the Mur River but soon his father found him in Maribor Town where he was working as a draftsman on 60 florins per month.

Tesla's father had convinced him to continue his studies in Prague. Tesla returned to Gospic but his father died the next month on 17 April 1879. Tesla's two uncles financed his trip to Prague. He was too late to get admission in Charles-Ferdinand University. Also, Tesla had never studied Czech and Greek language which were compulsory there.

In 1881, Tesla started to work under Tivadar Puskas at a telegraph company in Budapest, Hungary. He was given the post of chief electrician in Budapest Telephone exchange. He claimed to have perfected a telephone repeater or amplifier but never patented that or described publicly. In 1882, Tesla got a job in Paris in Continental Edison Company with help of Tivadar Puskas. There he gained a practical experience in electrical engineering as he was working in subdivision Societe Electrique Edison which was given the charge of installing the lighting system. He was also sent to other Edison utilities near France and Germany to troubleshoot engineering problems.

Tesla then came to United States with Charles Batchelor. Tesla began working at the Edison Machine Works in an overcrowded shop with the responsibility of building the large electric utility in that city. According to his biography, Thomas Edison once gave him a challenge and offered him $50,000, if he was successful. When Tesla completed the task, Edison told him "Tesla, you don't understand our American humor." After working for 6 years, Tesla left the Edison Machine Works.

With the financial support given by two businessmen - Robert Lane and Benjamin Vail, Tesla was able to establish arc lighting manufacturing, the Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing. Tesla got his first patent for improved DC generator in the US. Tesla then came up with the idea of Alternating Current but it did not appealed to the investors. They abandoned Tesla's company and he became forced to work as at various electrical repair shop. In 1886, he started with the research on Alternating Current and was financed by Alfred S. Brown and Charles Fletcher Peck. They formed the Tesla Electric Company in 1887 and they opened a laboratory for him at Manhattan.

In 1887, Tesla developed induction motor that ran on Alternating Current and was patented in May 1888. This technology started expanding in Europe and United States due to less maintenance and reduce the chances of sparkling. On 16 May 1888, Tesla demonstrated his AC motor at American Institute of Electrical Engineers. There he was observed by engineers from Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company owned by George Westinghouse, who was involved in the 'war of currents' with Thomas Edison. Where Edison was promoting his DC system and on the other end, Westinghouse was promoting AC system. Westinghouse hired Tesla for one year where he was working to create and alternating system to power city' streetcars. It was found that Tesla's concept cannot work for street cars so, they used DC traction motor instead.

Tesla now opened his own laboratory in Manhattan with his own money which he earned through licensing his patents. On 30 July 1891, Tesla became a naturalized citizen of the USA. The same year, he patented his famous Tesla coil. In 1895, with the help of Edward Dean Adams, 'The Nikola Tesla Company' was set up. The same year on 13 March, Tesla's laboratory caught fire and all his models, research materials, notes got destroyed. He did not stop there. He shifted his laboratory and started working on wireless technology. He created a remote control boat - 'Telautomaton' which he offered to the military as well.

There were rumors that Tesla was to get Nobel Prize in 1915 but this wasn't true. There had been claims that Tesla and Edison both were nominated for the prestigious award. Tesla got his last patent in 1928, for a biplane capable of vertical take-off and landing. In 1932, he claimed that he had made a motor which runs on cosmic rays. He also claimed to create a superweapon that could end all war, naming it 'teleforce'.

On January 7, 1943 Tesla was found dead in Hotel New York in room number 3327. He had placed a do not disturb sign on his door but ignoring that, Alice Monaghan entered his room and saw his dead body. FBI immediately asked to seize Tesla's belonging and after investigation it was concluded that there was nothing hazardous in his laboratory. Tesla's estate was transferred to Belgrade after pressure from his nephew. His ashes are in display in the Nikola Tesla Museum.

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Operation Cactus

2022-08-31T10:07:00.029+05:30

Maldives, a country located in the Indian Ocean and also the Asia's smallest country got its independence from British in 1965. On 11 November 1978, the republic got its 3rd President - Maumoon Abdul Gayoom. During his tenure till 2008, he faced three coup d'état attempts in 1980, 1983 and 1988. The first two attempts in 1980 and 1983 were not taken seriously but the third time Indian forces had to come for the government's rescue.

On 3 November 1988, Maumoon Abdul Gayoom faced third attempted coup. The coup was carried out by Sri Lankan Tamil Militants - the Peoples Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) - on behalf of the Maldivian businessman Abdulla Luthufi. PLOTE was a rival faction of LTTE in Sri Lanka. PLOTE members hijacked a Sri Lankan freighter and reached the capital city - Male.

Armed men of PLOTE took control of ports, major government buildings, radio stations. President Gayoom who was residing in the Presidential Palace was escorted by Maldivian forces and National Security Advisor before mercenaries could arrive. President was taken to the Defense Minister's house and then to a safe house. Mercenaries then captured the Presidential Palace and Education Minister was made hostage.

President Gayoom asked for help in form of Military intervention from Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Singapore, USA, UK. Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Singapore denied any help citing lack of military capabilities. USA told them that it would take around 2-3 days for the US forces to reach Maldives. United Kingdom then asked the President to contact India and seek their assistance. Indian government was contacted by the President and India readily agreed. After 16 hours of SOS, Indian forces were ready to start the military operation.

The Indian troops landed at the Male International Airport on Hulhule Island within 9 hours of the SOS being sent. The operation was named because of coral cactus found in Maldives. The Male airfield was secured by the Indian paratroops and crossed over to Male by commandeered boats and rescued President Gayoom. Within hours, control over the Maldivian government and official buildings were restored. Some of the mercenaries fled towards Sri Lanka in hijacked freighter. INS Godavari and Betwa were dispatched to track them down and capture the mercenaries.

The mission was a complete success and Indian forces helped Maldives to escape a coup. This mission got a lot of praise from global community. US President, Ronald Regan called this action as "a valuable contribution to regional stability". India then handed over the captured mercenaries to Maldives, whose death sentence were commuted to life imprisonment by President Gayoom under Indian pressure. Maldives' ex-president Ibrahim Nasir was also accused but he refused any kind of involvement in the coup. In 1990, President Gayoom officially pardoned him. This mission also made ties between India and Maldives stronger.

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Operation Shakti

2022-08-22T18:52:00.011+05:30

The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the USA was the first time when the world saw the true weapons of mass destruction. Under the Project Manhattan, USA developed its nuclear bombs. Later, USSR, United Kingdom, France and then China in 1964 also conducted the nuclear tests.

Homi Jehangir Bhabha is known as the Father of Indian nuclear program. He was the founder of TIFR (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research) and BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Center). Both BARC and TIFR were cornerstone of India's nuclear program. Just after independence, he tried to convince the Indian leaders to develop nuclear program. If not for weapons, then for electricity generation. Homi Bhabha's controversial death did not stop India's nuclear program and scientists like Homi Sethna, Raja Ramanna continued the work.

On 18 May 1974, under the codename Operation Smiling Buddha, India conducted its first nuclear tests in Pokhran, Rajasthan (city situated in Thar desert). The then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi quoted this as 'Peaceful explosives'. This test was a technology demonstrator, the nuclear technology was not weaponized. This was the first confirmed nuclear test by a nation outside the Permanent 5 members of UN Security Council (USA, USSR, France, UK, China).

India already had nuclear plants for electricity generation by USA, Canada, USSR and fuel from these plants were used to conduct this test. India faced a lot of criticism internationally. Nuclear Suppliers Group was set up by US, UK, Russia, France, Germany, Canada which seek to prevent export of any material, equipment or technology that could later be used to weaponize the nuclear technology. There was a ban on nuclear technology and fuel sale to India. Due to this, India's nuclear technology could not advance further.

In the 1990s, there felt a need to develop nuclear weapons for security purposes. In 1995, Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao agreed to go ahead for nuclear tests. But USA's spy satellites detected the test preparation and India was pressurized by the White House to stop the tests. In 1996, Prime Minister, Atal Bihari Vajpayee gave nod to conduct the tests secretly. Unfortunately, his tenure ended in just 13 days.

Preparing for nuclear tests were not easy. CIA had been detecting the Indian test preparation sites since 1995. The tests required complete secrecy. The bushes or sand dunes of Pokhran didn't provide much cover from probing satellites. 58th Engineer Regiment of Indian Army's Corps of Engineer was commissioned to prepare the test sites.

A very small group of nuclear scientists were involved in the process. They were required to wear army uniforms to preserve secrecy of tests. Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting. The three shafts were nicknamed as - 'White House', 'Taj Mahal', and 'Kumbhkaran'. Wires were covered with sand. Work was mostly done in the night shift. Everything was returned to the original place to give impression that nothing was moved. Cricket stadiums were built and local tournaments were organized as a distraction. Scientists used to travel under false names. Scientist, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam's nickname was Major General Prithviraj.

Bombs were brought to Jaisalmer, Rajasthan by the Indian Air force from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport and then the bombs were transported to the testing sites in 4 Indian army trucks. Timing of the test depended on local factors like wind direction. At 3:45 pm on 11 May 1998 a series of 3 tests - Shakti I, Shakti II and Shakti III were conducted. Two days later, on 13 May - Shakti IV and Shakti V were detonated.

On 11 May 1998, Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee announced that India conducted three underground nuclear tests. India joined the nuclear club and became the first country other than Permanent 5 countries to possess nuclear weapons. India adopted the doctrine of no first use and these weapons were only for self defense.

Countries like Japan and USA applied sanctions on India. They froze all new loans and grants except humanitarian aid. US banned the export of certain defense technologies and ending American credit. Russia, France, UK refrained from condemning the act. Soon all sanction were lift up and in 2005 India and USA signed the Nuclear deal. Today, India has come up as a responsible nuclear state.

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How Junagadh became a part of India

2022-08-17T11:18:00.009+05:30

The end of World War 2 also marked the downfall of the British Empire. Many countries got independence from Great Britain at that time. The list includes India which got independent in 1947 and a new nation Pakistan was born. Every princely state in the subcontinent were given a choice to either join India or Pakistan or choose to become a free nation.

Britishers later realized the complications of Cold War and wanted the states to either join India or Pakistan and should not remain independent. Some states like Hyderabad, Kashmir, Travancore and Junagadh still wanted to remain independent.

The State of Junagadh was founded in 1730 when Mohammed Khan Bahadur Khanji I declared independence from the collapsing Mughal Empire. This started the reign of Babi Dynasty over Junagadh and nearby princely states. East India Company took control over the state in 1870, when Junagadh became the protectorate of the East India Company.

Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III was the last ruler of Babi Dynasty. He was famous for his collection of dogs and used to celebrate their birthdays with lavish parties. Demographically, Junagadh had 80% Hindu population and 20% Muslim population but ruler was a Muslim. Nabi Baksh, the constitutional advisor to the Nawab of Junagadh hinted that Junagadh may accede to India.

Nawab Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III was not there in Junagadh due to health reasons and had given the responsibility of the state to Shahnawaz Bhutto. Muslim League (party which demanded the creation of Pakistan) had a great influence in Junagadh's council of ministers. Due to this, Nawab decided to join the dominion of Pakistan. Mountbatten, the then viceroy of India, wanted only those states should join Pakistan who share land boundary with it. Junagadh stated that they are connected to Pakistan through sea route.

Pakistan officially accepted the accession of Junagadh on 15 September 1947. Government of India outraged against this decision stating that how could Md. Ali Jinnah could accept this accession of Hindu populated Junagadh despite his arguments that Hindus and Muslims can't live together. The states of Mangrol and Babariyawad had political bonds with Junagadh but were encouraged to join India.

India made their stance clear that they don't recognize the accession of Junagadh to Pakistan and wanted the people decide with which country they want to merge. A provisional government or Aarzi Hukumat was formed in Bombay (now Mumbai) by Mahatma Gandhi's nephew, Samaldas Gandhi. India denied any support to the provisional government later at the UN Security Council.

The Aarzee Hukumat and other forces introduced a blockade around Junagadh as Nawab still did not change his decision. This forced the Nawab to leave for Karachi, Pakistan. The state affairs were now in the hand of Diwan Shahnawaz Bhutto. Diwan waited till November but there was no assistance from the Pakistani side. He had raised a small of army of 670 Muslim men to stop any kind of movement to join India. Indian government then took over the state's administration to establish peace in the region. Diwan then left for Pakistan and all men were disarmed. Liaqat Ali Khan, Prime Minister of Pakistan told Prime Minster Jawaharlal Nehru that sending Indian troops was a clear violation of International Laws.

To avoid international criticism, Indian government decided to conduct plebiscite because they believed the result will be in their favor. Referendum was held on 20 February 1948 and as expected, result was in favor of India. 99.95% people wanted to join India. Only 91 votes were there in favor of Pakistan out of 190,870 who voted (from an electorate of 201,457). Pakistan took this issue to the United Nation but it is still unresolved.

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The life of Joseph Stalin

2022-08-02T12:42:00.010+05:30

Joseph Stalin was born as Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili in a poor family in Gori city of then Russian empire (present day - Georgia) on 18 December 1878.
His father, Besarion Jughashvili was a shoemaker but was alcoholic too. He used to beat his wife and his son, Stalin after getting drunk. Stalin's mother, Ekaterine Geladze loved her son a lot. Frustrated by the actions of his husband, she left the home with his son.

Ekaterine, wanted to admit her son in a school. She worked as launderer and house cleaner at different places and finally admitted Stalin in Gori Church School. In school, he indulged in many fights but was very good in academics. When he was just 12, he was hit by a phaeton, which caused lifelong disability in his left arm.

Later, Stalin got admitted into Tbilisi Theological Seminary. There he got attracted towards communism. He learned about Marx and other left leaning revolutionaries. In 1899, he dropped out from his school and began his political career. In 1900, he actively participated in USSR revolutionary political activism. He joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (a Marxist party founded in 1898) in 1901. The party aimed to end the Czar regime. As a member of the party, he participated in many protests, labor demonstrations. For this reason, he went to the jail several times and also managed to escape few times.

In 1903, RSDLP (Russian Social Democratic Labour Party) divided into two fragments - Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin and Mensheviks, led by Julius Martov. Stalin aligned himself towards the Bolsheviks and even met Lenin in 1905 in London.

Georgia was heavily affected the revolution of 1905. In February 1905, ethnic violence broke out in Baku (present day capital of Azerbaijan) between Armenians and Azeris. Stalin was there in Baku at that time and around 2000 people died in this violence. Stalin established a Bolshevik Battle Squad, which tried to keep the ethnic groups apart. Later he formed Battle Squads which disarmed local police and troops. Along with Menshevik militia, they used to organize coordinated attacks on government troops and pro-Tsarist groups. They also indulged in robberies to raise funds for Bolsheviks.

In 1905, he got a chance to meet Lenin for whom he had a deep respect. But there was a clash of thoughts between the two but Stalin was very vocal with his disagreements. Stalin believed that parliamentary processes were a waste of time. In April 1906, 4th Congress of RSDLP was held in Stockholm. Led by Menshevik majority at that time, at the conference they decided that they will not raise funds through armed robberies, to which Lenin and Stalin disagreed. Stalin was behind the famous 1907, Tiflis Bank Robbery. His gang was able to escape but 40 people lost their lives.

In November 1907, his wife died of typhus, which came as a big shock for him. 'She softened my heart of stone. With her died my last warm feelings for humanity' were the words quoted by Stalin at her funeral. He left his son with her family in Tiflis.

1912, was a breakthrough year for Stalin's political career. Lenin and Grigory Zinoviev decided to co-opt Stalin in the first Bolshevik Central Committee. He was also secretly given the charge as editor of Bolshevik's daily Pravda (Truth).

Stalin was arrested and was sent to exile in remote part of Siberia 1913 for four years. While he was in exile, Russia entered the World War 1. In 1916, Stalin and other exiled Bolsheviks were conscripted into the army. Stalin was ruled out by the medical officer due to his crippled arm. Later, February Revolution took place in Petrograd (now, St. Petersburg) and a provisional government was formed.

The provisional government initiated the crackdown on Bolsheviks by raiding Pravda, as Stalin used to help in organizing July Days uprising (armed display of Bolshevik supporters). Stalin helped Lenin to escape from the office during the raid. In his absence Stalin continued writing for Pravda and served as the acting leader of Bolsheviks. Lenin then started calling for a coup against the Provisional government by the Bolsheviks. Stalin and senior leaders like Leon Trotsky supported the idea but some people disagreed with Lenin.

After Russian Revolution (1917-1923), Lenin was able to consolidate power over the Russian empire and he became the founding father of the first Communist State - Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR). Lenin took his last breath in 1914 and Stalin took the charge of the funeral and was one of its pallbearers. During the last days of Lenin, his relations with Stalin were not good. Lenin believed in the expansionist policy and wanted to spread the idea of communism further in Europe and Asia but Stalin was against it. He argued that it will encourage the feeling of independence among non-Russians. Lenin accused Stalin of "Great Russian Chauvinism" and Stalin accused Lenin of "National Liberalism". Their difference became personal when Lenin was angry upon Stalin because he was rude to his wife once over a call.

After the death of Lenin, there was a succession war as Lenin did not chose his successor. As per some historians, Lenin did not wanted Stalin to take over the leadership due to his differences with him. Lenin saw Leon Trotsky, hero of October revolution as his successor. Both Stalin and Trotsky were close associates of Lenin. Stalin and Trotsky both had different ideologies. Stalin's idea more or less deviated from Marxism and Trotsky's idea . Stalin was then the General Secretary of Central Committee of Bolshevik Party and had a huge influence inside the party. He was successful in uniting the party members against Trotsky and gradually succeeded in ousting him from the party. Trotsky was forced to leave Russia in 1929. By 1930, Stalin gained the full control of power. Trotsky was murdered in 1940 in Mexico by NKVD on orders of Stalin.

In 1928, Stalin introduced the first five year for excessive and accelerated industrialization. Due to shortage of food, Stalin initiated collectivization of agricultural sector. His government collected small land farms of farmers and converted them in extensively state controlled farms. These laws proved to be catastrophic for the farmers. When they revolted against it, Stalin bought his army to suppress the protests. Millions of farmers lost their lives in this operation. During 1930-33, around 6 million people died because of famine.

To end his enemies, Stalin started the Great Purge. During the great purge, Stalin became more aggressive. Before, he used to target his opponents, Trotskyites (follower of Trotsky) and wealthy peasants but now he started targeting friends, families and relatives of people who used to follow Lenin's ideology and people who were getting more popular than Stalin through NKVD.

NKVD was a secret police service of Soviet. They used to supervise labor camps and execute the masses. Sergey Kirov, popular party head of Leningrad was assassinated on 1 December 1934 as Stalin feared his increasing popularity. As per reports, over million of people were imprisoned and 700,000 were executed. He started putting his opposition and their relatives in Gulag camps. These were forced labor camps where millions of prisoners died due to extreme climate, unsanitary conditions, hard labor etc.

22 June 1941, Nazis launched Operation Barbarossa and invaded USSR. Nazi soldiers could not withstand the extreme climate of Moscow. Later, Soviets captured Berlin and Hitler was forced to do a suicide. Stalin became a hero for Russian after winning World War 2. People thought their fate will change, but they were wrong. Stalin continued his atrocities even after the war.

Stalin's health started deteriorating after the 2nd world war. He had a heart attack in October 1945. He spent his last days in Dacha in Kuntsevo, a suburb within Moscow. He used to meet Georgy Malenkov, Lavrentiy Beria, Nikita Khrushchev, Nikolai Bulganin here for meal and used to discuss about country's situation. On 28 February 1953, after everyone dispersed, he went back to his room and asked his servants not to disturb him. Next morning, he was found lying on the floor. For next 3-4 days he received various medical treatments but he took hi last breath on 5 March 1953 at 9:50 p.m.

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Operation Blue Star

2022-07-25T14:34:00.010+05:30

Operation Blue Star was a military operation conducted by the Indian armed forces to remove Jarnail Singh Bhindrawale and his supporters from Akal Takht (Holy site for Sikh Religion) who were leading the Khalistan Movement.
Khalistan Movement is a Sikh Nationalist Movement which seeks to create a separate country in the Punjab region of India and Pakistan. The word Khalistan means 'The land of pure'.

Sikhism and Sikh community holds a important place in India's history. The city of Amritsar, Punjab, India was founded by the 4th Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das. Guru Arjan Dev (5th Guru) constructed the Harmandar Sahib (popularly known as Golden Temple) in the year 1605. Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh used to rule the Punjab region with Lahore (present day - Pakistan) as their capital.

In 1920, Akali Dal is formed. It was the political arm of Sikh religious body. It is the second oldest political party in India after Indian National Congress. In 1947, Punjab state is divided between India and Pakistan. A large area of Punjab including Lahore goes to Pakistan. At that time, Sikh groups demanded a Sikh majority state, but the proposal was rejected by the State Reorganization Committee in 1956. In 1966, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh separate from Punjab through Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966.

Jagjit Singh Chauhan, in 1969 moved to the United Kingdom where he started the Khalistan Movement demanding a separate country. He was previously elected as member of Punjab assembly in 1967 and later served as the Deputy Speaker and Finance Minister. He was invited by the Sikh diaspora across the globe and gathered a huge support.

In 1973, Anandpur Sahib Resolution was taken up by Akali Dal which had objectives like transfer of Chandigarh city to Punjab, enactment of All India Gurudwara act, Transfer of Punjabi speaking areas of neighboring state to Punjab etc. Akali Dal never demanded a separate country but some autonomy in Punjab state. This resolution was not taken up much seriously and was later raised by people like Bhindrawale in 1987. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India called this resolution as 'Secessionist Document'.

After the emergency was over in 1977, Indira Gandhi led government lost the next election in Centre as well as in Punjab. Janta Dal formed the government in Centre and Akali Dal in Punjab. The Congress government wanted a leader with charismatic personality who could once again bring Sikh votes towards Congress. Here rises the religious scholar, Jarnail Singh Bhindrawale.

Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale was a Sikh religious scholar who was head of Damdami Taksal (Sikh cultural and educational organization) in 1977. He came to limelight when he first opposed Nirankari Sikhs and was a part of deadly clashes with Nirankaris in 1978. The difference between Nirankari Sikhs and Orthodox Sikhs is that Orthodox Sikhs believe that Guru Grant Sahib (Religious book of Sikhs) is the last Guru of Sikhism but Nirankari Sikhs believe that Guru can be present there in any human form as well.
Giani Zail Singh (later became the President of India) advised Sanjay Gandhi (son of then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, who used to hold a very important place in Indian mainstream) to fund and support Bhindranwale to counter Akali Dal's hold over Sikh shrines. Later, Bhindranwale came to popularly known as Saint Soldier.

In 1980, Indian National Congress wins the Punjab election and Darbara Singh was made the Chief Minister. He did not used to endorse the ideology of Bhindranwale. In the same year, Baba Gurubachan Singh, third guru of Sant Nirankari sect was killed in Delhi and Bhindranwale and his supporters were accused of this act. In 1981, census of India started. Lala Jagat Narain, editor of Punjab Kesari newspaper was murdered as paper had espoused the cause of Hindi language in Punjab state. Bhindrawale was arrested but was soon released as violence erupted in Punjab in his support.

In 1982, Akali Dal under leadership of Sant Harchand Singh Longowal in partnership with Bhindranwale started Dharam Yudh Morcha which aimed at fulfilling the objectives of Anandpur Sahib Resolution. In response, there was a heavy crackdown by Congress government. Same year, Asian Games was set to take place in Delhi. There was a threat of protest during the Asian games which could ruin the image of India. This lead to frisking of Sikhs at Punjab border.

On 25 April 1983, DIG of Police, Jalandhar Range, A.S.Atwal was shot dead at the stairs of Golden Temple. His corpse remained on temple steps for hours as Police force feared further firing from the militants. In October 1983, 6 Hindu bus passengers were killed. President's rule was imposed in Punjab and state emergency was called. Till then militants had gathered arms and weapons inside Harmandar Sahib.

On 15 December 1983, Bhindranwale and his supporters took control over Akal Takht. Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi sent P.V. Narasimha Rao to negotiate with Akali Dal who in turn will talk to Bhindranwale but he rejected all the proposals. During 1983-84, tenisons among Hindus and Sikhs arose which lead to killing of people from both the communities in nearby states like Haryana.

Curfew was announced in Punjab state on 1 June 1984. Communication was blocked and army and paramilitary took over. News reporters were asked to leave Amritsar. Operation Blue Star was started on 3 June to 6 June 1984 which aimed to finish out militants led by Bhidranwale hiding inside Akal Takht. 3 June was the anniversary of martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev and there was army blockade on Golden Temple the same day. Pilgrims inside were stopped from leaving by Bhindranwale's men.

Major General Kuldeep Singh Brar was leading the army operations. Militants inside Akal Takht were led by Major General Shahbeg Singh who was a retired army officer and participated in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War.
In the evening of 5 June, heavy firing took place between both the sides. Army took heavy casualties as they underestimated the firepower of the militants. They had rocket launchers, machine guns, positioned snipers and anti tank guns.

Image for illustration purpose only

A very controversial decision was taken on 6th June. Army tanks were called inside the premises of Harmandar Sahib. Bhindranwale and Shahbeg Singh died during the operation but there was heavy damage to the Akal Takht and its library. A large number of weaponry were also capture from the complex.

Objective of military was achieved but it was a big political blunder for Indira Gandhi led government and this operation faced a huge criticism. Religious feelings of Sikhs all over the globe were hurt. 83 Army soldiers died and 248 were injured and 500 militants were killed during the operation. Right after Operation Blue Star there was heavy crackdown in rural Punjab to crush remaining militants.

The outcome of this operation was not good. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated on 31 October 1984 by her Sikh bodyguards. In 1985, Air India flight named 'Kanishka' from Montreal to Delhi was bombed and 329 passengers were killed. The same year, on 20 August Harchand Singh Longwal of Akali Dal was murdered for negotiating with Rajiv Gandhi over major issues and signing the Punjab Accord. General A.S. Vaidya, former Army Chief was assassinated in Pune in 1986.

Image for illustration purpose only

Indira Gandhi's assassination led to Anti Sikh riots in 1984. Delhi was very adversely affected due to this. Around 3000 Sikhs were killed. Congress politicians Sajjan Kumar and Jagdish Tytler were also charged for their roles in the riots.

Militancy was still not over in Punjab. Operation Black Thunder was carried out twice - in 1986 and 1988. It aimed to flush out extremists who had taken shelter inside Harmandar Sahib once again. IPS officer K.P.S. Gill was given the charge and NSG (National Security Guard) was called. Media was not restricted this time and there was no harm to the religious buildings.

Note : There is no intention to hurt any religious or political sentiments. Article is for educational purposes only

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Major Dhyan Chand - The Wizard of Hockey

2021-11-03T01:15:00.014+05:30

Dhyan Singh (later Dhyan Chand) was born on 29 August 1905 in Prayagaraj (then Allahabad) to Sharadha Singh and Sameshwar Singh. He had two brothers, Mool Singh and Roop Singh. Later, Roop Singh played hockey for British Indian Team along with Dhyan Chand. His father had played hockey as he was a part of the British Indian army. Initially Dhyan Chand never had interest in playing hockey but he actually loved wrestling.

In 1922, 17-year old Dhyan Singh was enlisted in the first Brahmans Regiment in Delhi. The regiment was known for its Hockey team and soon Dhyan also started playing hockey. Dhyan was soon noted by Major Bale Tiwari. He was impressed by the way how Dhyan takes the ball along. Tiwari started mentoring Dhyan and his natural talent of playing Hockey started flourishing. Soon, he was named was in the list of those selected for Annual Military Hockey Tournament. It was a event where different regiments participated and everyone was looking forward to it.

After matches, everyone used to get tired and took a good sleep at night. But Dhyan often used to practice even at night. Due to this habit of him playing at night under the moon, his fellow sepoys started calling him Dhyan Chand instead of Dhyan Singh (Chand means Moon in Hindi).

His game had impressed everyone. He was selected to represent Indian Army in the tour to New Zealand. The team sailed from Colombo (present day - Sri Lanka) in April 1926. There the Indian team played 21 matches, winning 18, drawing 2 and lost only 1. Whole Indian team together scored 192 goals in that tour in which 100+ goals were of Dhyan Chand alone. On the other hand, New Zealand team scored just 24. After returning to India, Dhyan was promoted to the post of Lance Naik.

In 1925, Indian Hockey Federation (IHF) had set up. Soon they got international recognition when the federation became a part of International Hockey Federation. To make a team for the 1925 Amsterdam Olympics, an Inter-Provincial Tournament was held. The tournament was held between the teams of 5 provinces - Bengal, United Province, Central Province, Rajputana and Punjab. Dhyan Chand played for the U.P. (United Province) team. The team performed brilliantly well.

Dhyan Chand was selected for the national team, which everyone expected to. The team was to reach Amsterdam via England. Before departing, the selected team played a match against Bombay XI where they got stunned. The Indian team lost by 3-2. In England, they played a 11 matches, winning them all, It is said that British Team withdrew their team from Amsterdam Olympics because they could not see their team losing from a colonized side.

India was the only non-European side and was put in pool A along with Austria, Belgium, Denmark and Switzerland. India thrashed all the team, winning 6-0 against Austria, 9-0 against Belgium, 5-0 against Denmark, 6-0 against Switzerland. The Final was played on 26 May 1928 against the Netherlands. Star players of India, Feroze Khan and Shaukat Ali got ill. Even Dhyan Chand was having fever but he still played for the country. India defeated the hosts by 3-0. Indian team won it's country's first gold medal. Chand was the top-scorer of the tournament. A newspaper reported Dhyan Chand as magician of the game. The Netherland authorities also broke Dhyan Chand's stick to check whether it had a magnet inside.

In the year 1929, the U.S. Stock Market crashed. IHF took loan from the Punjab National Bank. For the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics, trials were held in Calcutta. Army refused to send Dhyan Chand, they stated that he does not need to prove his game. Roop Singh, Dhyan's brother was the find of the trials. In 1932 Olympics, India faced Japan in its first match and won 11-1. This was just a trailer. India won 24-1 against USA in their second match of the tournament. This remain a record for a very long time and was only broken in 2003. India defended their title and again won the Gold Medal.

In 1936 Berlin Olympics, Dhyan Chand was appointed as captain of the Indian National Team. This was the first Olympics which were televised. Indian team won all their league matches against Hungary, U.S. and Japan. India faced France in Semi-Final and won it too. Now the finals was against the host Germany. Before the game, Pankaj Gupta hoisted the Congress tricolor. The team saluted and respected the flag. Germany was playing brilliantly and was able to stop India to score a goal till the first interval. But India fought back and won the game 8-1, retaining their Gold Medal.

This was the last Olympic Game for the legend as 1940 and 1944 games were cancelled due to World War II. Dhyan Chand was promoted to the post of Lieutenant in 1943, but British officers refrained from sending him to frontline due to his safety issues. After India got independent, he was soon promoted to the rank of Captain in the Army.

Craze of the legend

In late 1947, he came out of retirement to lead an Indian side to East Africa. This was just because the African demanded his presence in the Indian team. The then 42 year old Dhyan Chand didn't disappoint them and he displayed his magic to the large audience who were just there to see him.
During the army tour of New Zealand in the year 1926, Dhyan Chand's stick broke and he threw it away. It is said that after 50 years when Dhyan Chand's son, Ashok Kumar was playing in New Zealand, and aged person came to him and showed him a piece of wood which he collected when Dhyan Chand threw that particular stick.
A very famous narration that goes on is that Hitler offered a high post to Dhyan Chand in the German army after seeing his game in the finals of 1936 Berlin Olympic. Dhyan Chand politely refused Hitler's offer. However, he never mentioned this story in his autobiography 'GOAL' but he used to tell this story to his family members.
On 6 August 2021, highest sporting honor of India was named after Major Dhyan Chand. It is awarded annually by Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports.

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The story of Beijing's Bus 375 - The midnight bus

2021-09-19T14:18:00.002+05:30

On the freezing night of 14 November 1995, last bus from Yuan-ming-huan on route 375 starts on time. An old woman (some myth says, a man) and a young college going boy boarded the bus. The old woman sat near the front of the bus while the boy sat some rows behind her. There was no one other than the bus driver and the ticket collector before these two boarded the bus.

Soon, two people tried to stop the bus midway by waving their hands. The driver allowed them to board the bus. Then, three people boarded the train. It seemed like the third guy was injured and the other two were supporting him, holding him up by his shoulders. That person in middle was short and his face was not properly visible.

Unusual thing about these newly boarded passengers was that they were wearing the old and tradition clothes (robes) of Qing dynasty (1644-1912). Everyone ignored this fact thinking that they were from a drama company or somewhat related to acting. All three sat on the last seat of the bus. The old lady was not able to pull her eyes away from them and was continuously looking behind.

Later, the old lady started shouting and fought with that young gentlemen who boarded the bus along with her. She accused him of stealing her wallet. Slowly, it resulted in an heated argument. Both were asked to get off from the bus and lady insisted to go to the nearest police station.

As soon as they got off from the bus, the lady told the man that she intentionally argued with him to save his life. The man was not able to understand how his life was in danger? She told him that she observed those three passengers very carefully and got scared when she saw that they were not having legs! They were floating and were not living person! The boy didn't trust him but went to the police station to report this thing after the old lady insisted.

The next morning, it is reported that the last bus of route 375 has gone missing along with the driver and ticket collector! The police immediately contacted the old lady and the young man. Both of them were interviewed by media.

Three days later, the bus was found in the near reservoir. Body of the driver and ticket collector was recovered but the bodies of other three passengers were badly decomposed. It was not possible for a body to get decomposed so badly in just 3 days. It sill remains a mystery, how this happened.
Another strange thing was that the bus was not having enough petrol to reach that reservoir from the bus stop. Then how was it able to travel this much distance. Most horrifying was that the fuel tank was completely filled with pure fresh blood!
Even the CCTV cameras were not able to capture the truth.

Note: Above story is just a popular saying and there are a lot of variations of this story.

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