Raaz San Dee

Poster Presentation on EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2013-03-28T05:45:00.002-07:00

THAT MOMENT..... When you look at a girl and she looks back at you

2013-02-02T08:14:00.003-08:00

Ric Elias: 3 things I learned while my plane crashed

2012-09-29T12:00:00.003-07:00

Ric Elias had a front-row seat on Flight 1549, the plane that crash-landed in the Hudson River in New York in January 2009. What went through his mind as the doomed plane went down? At TED, he tells his story publicly for the first time.

Ric Elias is the CEO of Red Ventures, a marketing services company that grew out of Elias' long experience in business.

Refference: TED Talk

Keith Barry: Brain Magic

2012-09-29T11:11:00.001-07:00

First, Keith Barry shows us how our brains can fool our bodies -- in a trick that works via podcast too. Then he involves the audience in some jaw-dropping (and even a bit dangerous) feats of brain magic.

Think of Keith Barry as a hacker of the human brain -- writing routines that exploit its bugs and loopholes, and offering a revealing look at the software between our ears.

Refference: TED Talk

Cockroaches controlled by remote control: A search-and-rescue

2012-09-27T11:58:00.000-07:00

Researchers say they've figured out a way to create cyborg, remote-controlled cockroaches, hoping one day the resilient creatures could be steered into disaster zones to gather information and look for survivors.

Video footage from the experiments at North Carolina State University shows the part-robot roaches being directed along a curving path via remote control. The researchers say they attached a lightweight chip with a wireless receiver and transmitter onto Madagascar hissing cockroaches and wired a microcontroller to the insects' antennae and cerci — the sensory organs on the bug's abdomen that cause it to run away from danger.

With electrical signals, the researchers stimulated the cerci to trick the roaches into thinking they needed to scamper away from a predator. Once moving, charges sent to the antennae controlled the insects' direction. A signal sent to one antenna could make a roach think its feeler was touching a wall, sending it in the opposite direction, a statement from NC State explained.

"Building small-scale robots that can perform in such uncertain, dynamic conditions is enormously difficult. We decided to use biobotic cockroaches in place of robots, as designing robots at that scale is very challenging, and cockroaches are experts at performing in such a hostile environment," NC State researcher Alper Bozkurt said in the statement.

"Ultimately, we think this will allow us to create a mobile web of smart sensors that uses cockroaches to collect and transmit information, such as finding survivors in a building that's been destroyed by an earthquake," Bozkurt added.

The researchers reported the results of their experiments late last month at the annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society in San Diego, Calif.

Other researchers have floated the possibility of technologically enhanced roaches. Scientists at Case Western Reserve University demonstrated how the insects could be outfitted with an implantable biofuel cell powered by a sugar the bugs make from their food. Electricity from such a cell then could be used to power sensors on the insect or to manipulate it by remote control.

VeRY IntEReStINg UNKnOWn FactS

2012-09-27T11:24:00.003-07:00

Here are some interesting, but true facts, that you may or may not have known.

1. The Statue of Liberty's index finger is eight feet long.

2. Rain has never been recorded in some parts of the Atacama Desert in Chile.

3. A 75 year old person will have slept about 23 years.

4. Boeing 747's wing span is longer than the Wright brother's first flight. The Wright brother's invented the airplane.

5. There are as many chickens on earth as there are humans.

6. One type of hummingbird weighs less than a penny.

7. The word "set" has the most number of definitions in the English language; 192 Slugs have four noses.

8. Sharks can live up to 100 years.

9. Mosquitos are more attracted to the color blue than any other color.

10. Kangaroos can't walk backwards.

11. About 75 acres of pizza are eaten in in the U.S. everyday.

12. The largest recorded snowflake was 15 Inch wide and 8 Inch thick. It fell in Montana in 1887.

13. The tip of a bullwhip moves so fast that the sound it makes is actually a tiny sonic boom.

14. Former president Bill Clinton only sent 2 emails in his entire 8 year presidency.

15. Koalas and humans are the only animals that have finger prints.

16. There are 200,000,000 insects for every one human.

17. It takes more calories to eat a piece of celery than the celery had in it to begin with.

18. The world's largest Montessori school is in India, with 26,312 students in 2002.

19. Octopus have three hearts.

20. If you ate too many carrots, you would turn orange.

21. The average person spends two weeks waiting for a traffic light to change.

22. 1 in 2,000,000,000 people will live to be 116 or old.

23. The body has 2-3 million sweat glands.

24. Sperm whales have the biggest brains; 20 lbs.

25. Tiger shark embroyos fight each other in their mother's womb. The survivor is born.

26. Most cats are left pawed.

27. 250 people have fallen off the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

28. A Blue whale's tongue weighs more than an elephant.

29. You use 14 muscles to smile and 43 to frown. Keep Smiling!

30. Bamboo can grow up to 3 ft in 24 hours.

31. An eyeball weighs about 1 ounce.

Embedded systems (Video tutorials)

2012-05-30T09:17:00.003-07:00

Lecture -1: Introduction

Lecture-2: Embedded Hardware

Lecture 3: Instruction Set

Lecture 4: Peripherals on Chip

Lecture 5: ARM processor

Lecture 6: ARM instuctions

Lecture 7:ARM-Interrupt processing

SIXTH SENSE TECHNOLOGY

2012-03-23T07:31:00.002-07:00

Sixth Sense Technology is a mini- projector coupled with a camera and a Cell phone—which acts as the computer and connected to the Cloud, all the information stored on the web. Sixth Sense can also obey hand gestures. The Camera recognizes objects around a person instantly, with t he micro projector Overlaying the information on any surface, including the object itself or hand.

Also can access or manipulate the information using fingers. Make a call by Extend hand on front of the projector and numbers will appear for to click. Know the time by Draw a circle on wrist and a watch will appear. take a photo by Just make a square with fingers, highlighting what want to frame, and the system will make the photo — which can later organize with the others using own hand over the air. and The device has a huge number of applications ,it is portable and easily to carry as can wear it in neck. The drawing application lets user draw On any surface by observe the movement of index finger.

Mapping can also be done any where with the features of zooming in or zooming out. The camera also helps user to take pictures of the scene is viewing and later can arrange them on any surface. Some of the more practical uses are reading a newspaper. Reading a newspaper rand viewing videos instead of the photos in the paper. Or live sports up dates while reading the newspaper. The device can also tell arrival, departure or delay time of air plane on tickets. For book lovers it is nothing less than a blessing. Open any book and find the amazon ratings of the book. To add to it, pick any page and the device gives additional information on the text, comments and lot more add on feature.

For more info, watch dis video...

Types of Soldering & Soldering Process

2012-03-21T08:07:00.000-07:00

What is Soldering?

Soldering - a must skill for all electrical and electronic works. “Soldering” is defined as the process of joining two pieces of metals using a filler metal, known as solder, having a low melting point below the melting point of the work piece. It is often confused with welding but the difference between them is, in soldering the work piece is not melted, they are joined using a filler metal, but in welding work piece is joined by melting.

History

Soldering was practiced as far back as 5000 years ago in Egypt. Soldering was widely performed around 4000 years ago when tin was discovered as soldering metal. The process of soldering was introduced in Mediterranean region, and was followed in the Roman Empire, Swiss and Hungaria. Soldering has improved a lot from culture to culture and generation to generation and in today’s scenario it is the best method for fabrication and assembly of microelectronics.

Types of Soldering

Soldering is classified as shown in the image below:

1. Soft soldering

It is a process for joining small intricate parts having low melting points which damages when soldering process is carried out at high temperature. It uses tin-lead alloy as filler material. The melting point of the filler material should be below 400oC (752oF). It uses gas torch as the heat source.

2. Hard soldering

In this process, hard solder connects two pieces of metals by expanding into the pores of the work piece opened by high temperature. The filler material possess high temperature above 450oC (840oF).

It comprises of two parts namely silver soldering and brazing.

2.1 Silver soldering

It is a clean process useful for fabricating small fittings, doing odd repairs and making tools. It uses an alloy containing silver as filler material. Silver provides free flowing characteristics but silver solder is not good at gap filling hence, different fluxes are recommended for precised silver solder.

2.2 Brazing

Brazing is a process of joining two pieces of base metals by creating melted metallic filler that flows by capillary attraction across the joints and cools to form a solid bond through atomic attraction and diffusion. It creates an extremely strong joint. It uses brass alloy as filler material.

SOLDER

It is any of various fusible alloys usually tin or lead used to join metallic parts. It is symbolized by two numbers which represents the percentage of each metal in a mixture. The first number refers to the percentage of tin and second to the percentage of lead. It usually melts at a temperature of about 200oC. Since solder has tin content, coating a surface with solder is called “tinning”.

Types of solder

· 60/40 solder- its composition is 60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at 374oF. It forms high, rounded, beaded seams. Because of its low relatively melting point this type of solder is easy to rework to maintain a smooth finish.

· 50/50 solder- its composition is 50% tin and 50% lead. Its melting point is 421oF. This type of solder produces a much flatter bead than 60/40. Because of its high melting point this type of solder is often used on the back of stained glasses, to protect it from melting when soldering the front.

· 63/37 solder- its composition is 63% tin and 37% lead. This type of solder is an excellent solder to bead up the outside rim of copper foiled pieces. It is often referred as decorated or quick set solder.

· Lead free solder- This type of solder performs similar to 50/50 solder. Lead free solder is a most expensive solder, but when constructing pieces that will contact food or that are handled frequently, this type of solder is different.

The best size of solder for electronic circuit board is 22swg (SWG=standard wire gauge). Solder for electronic use contains tiny cores of flux. Without flux most joints would fail because metals quickly oxidize and the solder itself will not flow properly.

Now the question arises, why solder method is preferred over other bonding methods?

Since low energy is required to solder, it is relatively inexpensive and easy to use. If the joints are properly soldered they are highly reliable and can last for years decade and centuries. In addition to this, solder joints are easy to repair.

Process of soldering

The basic soldering operation is performed in the following steps:

Cleaning - Heated metal are prone to oxidize rapidly. That is why oxides, scale and dirt must be removed by chemical or mechanical actions. Hence, initially, we check the tip of the soldering iron which should be clean and shiny, suitable for the project to be carried out. If not, then to fulfill the requirements of the project, small amount of the solder is added on the tip of the iron.

For effective cleaning of the tip of soldering iron, one should ensure that the sponge used for the same should be damped. As a dry sponge will not clean the tip effectively, and a wet sponge will lower the temperature of the tip making for an ineffective solder joint.

Heating- The temperature of the soldering station should be adjusted to a considerable level of 350oC, so as to achieve the required melting conditions of the alloy used for soldering.

Insertion- Further, the components which are to be soldered, are inserted in the holes of the circuit board by bending the lead using fine pliers, so that they can slide easily in the holes provided on the printed circuit pad. Then the leads protruding from the bottom of the circuit board, is bend at an angle of approx 45o.

Cut off the leads of the component which are close to the outer edge of the solder pad.

Soldering - the lead and the pad are heated simultaneously, holding the soldering iron at an angle of 45o and keeping the solder wire in contact to the space between the iron tip and lead. As the solder melts around the joints, the soldering wire should be kept still for good results. And remove the solder tip first and the solder wire next.

After soldering the joint, instead of blowing off the solder joint, allow it to cool naturally.

Removal of residue- Using isopropyl alcohol, and a bristle brush the printed circuit board should be cleaned thoroughly after the soldering of the components is completed. This process removes the flux residue and the unwanted contaminations present on the circuit board. If any of the flux remains, it’ll continue to react with the solder, causing oxidation. Therefore, this step is very important.

Finishing - finishing wax is used after cleaning process for enhancing the color of the patina making it either rich black or shinny copper and to keep it looking it’s best. Apply the patina to the solder lines using a cotton swab.

Types of Soldering Processes:

Wave Soldering

It is one of the primary techniques of soldering in which electronic components are soldered to a printed circuit boards. A solder wave is created by a pump located at the bottom of the solder pot. Components are inserted into the holes and the loaded PCB is placed onto a conveyer, which brings it into the contact with the wave surface. The solder wets the metallic area on the board, creating electrical and mechanical connections. The wave soldering technique encompasses a sequence of process, all of which are contained in same apparatus. First of all, the surface is coated with flux. After the flux is applied, the substrate is passed through a preheating stage which promotes the activation of flux, evaporates the volatiles of flux and reduces the thermal shock to the substrate and devices when it passes onto the solder wave. After this, surface board passes from the solder wave and leads to formation of joints. After passing the solder wave, the board cools through natural heat loss.

Reflow Soldering

Reflow soldering is a widely spread technology of soldering of surface mount semiconductor packages. The reflow process consist of applying a eutectic solder paste to a circuit board, placing devices onto the plate, and then conveying the board through a reflow oven or under an infrared lamp or by using hot air pencil, with successive heating elements of varying temperature. When the entire assembly is subjected to controlled heat, solder melts and the joint is permanently connected.

FLUX

Soldering flux is formulated to remove a film of oxides from the metal and make the solder and the metal more able to dissolve in each other. Flux must be able to deoxidize metal surfaces at high temperatures without decomposing. The flux material simultaneously reduce the surface tension of the flowing solder and in this way, brings about better wetting characteristics and a more favorable flowing property.

Rosin flux

It is the oldest, most popular and still the most effective soldering flux. Rosin, which is the base of this type of flux, is extracted from pine trees. The active agents in rosin flux are abeitic acid and plicatic acid; it is the reaction between these acids and the metallic oxides on the joint materials that provides the cleaning required for wetting the joint. After soldering, rosin based flux leaves behind the residue which is non-corrosive, non conducting, moisture and fungus resistant but it must be cleaned from the surface before carrying any further process to minimize fuss and irritation in eyes and skin caused by combustion.

Water soluble fluxes

These are the fluxes that wash away when the board is washed with the ordinary water mainly hot water. Occasionally, all the water soluble flux leaves behind residues. These are carboxylic acids and detergent which produces irritating fumes. Hence, in addition to hot water saponifier is added to help the cleaning process. Saponifiers are alkaline and may be corrosive; they react with acid residue on board to form soap and glycerin, which is relatively easy to wash with hot water. If adequate cleaning of the residues is not carried then they may cause sustained corrosion and induces electrical problems.

No clean fluxes

These fluxes leave minimal residues which need not be removed after soldering from finished electronic assemblies. They vanish under the influence of heat. Many no-clean fluxes are organically based, usually on an alcohol, and have a low solid content. Some water based no-clean fluxes have been developed but these must be handled with care to avoid severe skin irritation. No-clean fluxes have been found to be even more irritating than rosin fluxes. Fluxes must react with the pad material to be effective and enhance wetting; the acids in these fluxes do that, but chemical reactions with the metals in the pads and the plastic substrate produce very harsh gases.

Desoldering

The reverse process of soldering is desoldering. It is a process of removal of solder and components mounted on circuit boards for repair purpose.

What if a soldering is not done properly? How to resolve this problem? Simply, the soldered joint is removed by the process of desoldering. For this purpose a vacuum pump is activated to remove solder from the plated through holes. The lead over which the desoldering tip was placed is moved in a circular motion for rounded leads and back and forth for flat leads.

Applications

Soldering has the most common use in plumbing and in the field of electronics where it is used to mount electronic components on printed circuit boards. In addition to this, soldering has its application in jewellary making, cooking wares, tools, stained glass work and many more. It can also be used to repair a leakage in containers.

Understanding touchscreen technology

2012-03-20T05:02:00.000-07:00

Touchscreens (sometimes spelled as touch screen) are everywhere: they are embedded in phones, office equipment, speakers, digital photo frames, TV control buttons, remote controls, GPS systems, automotive keyless entry, and medical monitoring equipment. As a component, they have reached into every industry, every product type, every size, and every application at every price point. In fact, if a product has an LCD or buttons, a designer somewhere is probably evaluating how that product, too, can implement touchscreen technology. As with any technology, there are many different ways to implementation approaches, many promises of performance, and many different technical considerations when designing a touchscreen.

Anatomy of a touchscreen

Knowing what you need is an important first step in designing a touchscreen product. Vendors in the touchscreen supply chain frequently offer different pieces of the puzzle, often times combining several to create a value chain for the end customer. Figure 1 shows a blowup of the touchscreen ecosystem. This ecosystem is the same whether it is in the latest Notebook PC or the latest touch-enabled mobile phone.

Figure 1: Touchscreen contoller "autopsy"

There are six key elements:

1. Front panel or bezel: The front panel or bezel is the outermost skin of the end product. In some products, this bezel will encompass a protective clear overlay to keep weather and moisture out of the system, and to resist scratching and vandalism to the underlying sensor technology (see item 3 below). Other times, the outmost bezel simply covers the edges of the underlying touch sensor; in this case, it is purely decorative.

2. Touch controller: The touch-controller is generally a small microcontroller-based IC that sits between the touch sensor and the embedded system controller. This IC can either be located on a controller board inside the system or it can be located on a flexible printed circuit (FPC) affixed to the glass touch sensor. This touch controller takes information from the touch sensor and translates it into information that the PC or embedded system controller can understand.

3. Touch sensor: A touchscreen "sensor" is a clear glass panel with a touch-responsive surface. This sensor is placed over an LCD so that the touch area of the panel covers the viewable area of the video screen. There are many different touch-sensor technologies on the market today, each using a different method to detect touch input. Fundamentally, these technologies all use an electrical current running through the panel that, when touched, causes a voltage or signal change. This voltage change is sensed by the touch controller to determine the location of the touch on the screen.

4. Liquid crystal display: Most touchscreen systems work over traditional LCDs. LCDs for a touch-enabled product should be chosen for the same reasons they would in a traditional system: resolution, clarity, refresh speed, and cost. One major consideration for a touchscreen, however, is the level of electrical emission. Because the technology in the touch sensor is based on small electrical changes when the panel is touched, an LCD that emits a lot of electrical noise can be difficult to design around. Touch sensor vendors should be consulted before choosing an LCD for a touchscreen system.

5. System software : Touchscreen driver software can be either shipped from the factory (within the embedded OS of a cell phone) or offered as add-on software (like adding a touchscreen to a traditional PC). This software allows the touchscreen and system controller to work together and tells the product's operating system how to interpret the touch-event information that is sent from the controller. In a PC-style application, most touchscreen drivers work like a PC mouse. This makes touching the screen similar to clicking the mouse at the same location on the screen. In embedded systems, the embedded controller driver must compare the information presented on the screen to the location of the received touch.

The "big three" of touchscreen technology

Resistive touchscreens are the most common touchscreen technology. They are used in high-traffic applications and are immune to water or other debris on the screen. Resistive touchscreens are usually the lowest-cost touchscreen implementation. Because they react to pressure, they can be activated by a finger, gloved hand, stylus, or other object, such as a credit card.

Surface-capacitive touchscreens provide a much clearer display than the plastic cover typically used in a resistive touchscreen. In a surface-capacitive display, sensors in the four corners of the display detect capacitance changes due to touch. These touchscreens can only be activated by a finger or other conductive object.

Projected-capacitive touchscreens are the latest entry to the market. This technology also offers superior optical clarity, but it has significant advantages over surface-capacitive screens. Projected capacitive sensors require no positional calibration and provide much higher positional accuracy. Projected-capacitive touchscreens are also very exciting because they can detect multiple touches simultaneously.

How touchscreens work

Let's look inside the two most common touchscreen technologies.

The most widely used touchscreen technology is resistive. Most people have used one of these resistive touchscreens already, in the ATM at the bank, in the credit card checkout in most stores, or even for entering an order in a restaurant. Projective-capacitance touchscreens, on the other hand, are not as broadly available yet, but are gaining market momentum. Many cellphones and portable music players are beginning to come to market with projective-capacitance interfaces. Both resistive and capacitive technologies have a strong electrical component, both use ITO (Indium-Tin-Oxide, a clear conductor), and both will be around for a long time to come.

A resistive touchscreen (Figure 2, left side) consists of a flexible top layer, then a layer of ITO (Indium-Tin-Oxide), an air gap and then another layer of ITO. The panel has 4 wires attached to the ITO layers: one on the left and right sides of the 'X' layer, and one on the top and bottom sides of the 'Y' layer.

Figure 2. Stackup layers for "resistive" (left) and "capacitive" (right) screens

A touch is detected when the flexible top layer is pressed down to contact the lower layer. The location of a touch is measured in two steps: First, the 'X right' is driven to a known voltage, and the 'X left' is driven to ground and the voltage is read from a Y sensor. This provides the X coordinate. This process is repeated for the other axis to determine the exact finger position.

Resistive touchscreens also come in 5-wire, and 8-wire versions. The 5-wire version replaces the top ITO layer with a low-resistance "conductive layer" that provides better durability. The 8-wire panel was developed to enable higher resolution by enabling better calibration of the panel's characteristics.

There are several drawbacks to resistive technology. The flexible top layer has only 75%-80% clarity and the resistive touchscreen measurement process has several error sources. If the ITO layers are not uniform, the resistance will not vary linearly across the sensor. Measuring voltage to 10- or 12-bit precision is required, which is difficult in many environments. Many of the existing resistive touchscreens also require periodic calibration to realign the touch points with the underlying LCD image.

Conversely, projected-capacitive touchscreens have no moving parts. The only thing between the LCD and the user is ITO and glass, which have near 100% optical clarity. The projected-capacitance sensing hardware consists of a glass top layer (Figure 2, right side), followed by an array of X sensors, an insulating layer, then an array of Y sensors on a glass substrate. The panel will have a wire for each X and Y sensor, so a 5 x 6 panel will have 11 connections (Figure 3), while a 10 x 14 panel will have 24 sensor connections.

Figure 3. Signal intensity at rows and columns denote location of touch

As a finger or other conductive object approaches the screen, it creates a capacitor between the sensors and the finger. This capacitor is small relative to the others in the system (about 0.5 pF out of 20 pF), but it is readily measured. One common measuring technique known as Capacitive Sensing using a Sigma-Delta Modulator (CSD) involves rapidly charging the capacitor and measuring the discharge time through a bleed resistor.

A projected capacitive sensor array is designed so that a finger will interact with more than one X sensor and more than one Y sensor at a time (See Figure 3). This enables software to accurately determine finger position to a very fine degree through interpolation. For example, if sensors 1, 2 and 3 see signals of 3, 10, and 7, the center of the finger is at:

[(1 × 3) + (2 × 10) + (7 × 3)]/(3 + 10 + 7) = 2.2

Since projected-capacitive panels have multiple sensors, they can detect multiple fingers simultaneously, which is impossible with other technologies. In fact, projective capacitance has been shown to detect up to ten fingers at the same time. This enables exciting new applications based on multiple finger presses, including multiplayer gaming on handheld electronics or playing an touchscreen piano.

Without question, touchscreens are great looking. They have begun to define a new user interface and industrial design standard that is being adopted the world over. In everything from heart-rate monitors to the latest all-in-one printers, touchscreens are quickly becoming the standard of technology design.

Beyond just looks, however, touchscreens provide an unparalleled level of security from tampering, resistance from weather, durability from wear, and even enable entirely new markets with unique features such as multi-touch touchscreens. With touchscreens making their way into so many types of products, it's imperative that design engineers understand the technology ecosystem and technology availability.

How to make a PCB at home

2012-03-13T07:35:00.000-07:00

Often people face problem while making a circuit on a bread board. It is a common problem that the circuit may work some time and may not work other time. Most of the time it is the connections on the bread board which creates this problem. Either are connections are not proper or loose or may get damaged while working or carrying the circuit on a bread board. Hence it is always recommended to make the circuit on a PCB once it has been tested on a bread board. This article will explain the process of making a single layer PCB at home with the use of commonly available tools.

A printed circuit board has pre-designed copper tracks on a conducting sheet. The pre-defined tracks reduce the wiring thereby reducing the faults arising due to lose connections. One needs to simply place the components on the PCB and solder them.

Materials required:

• Over Head Projector sheet (known as OHP sheets) or a wax paper.

• Laser Printer.

• Electric Iron.

• Steel wool.

• Two plastic trays.

• Copper board/ PCB (eg: paper phenolic, glass epoxy, FR4, FR10, etc.)

• Black permanent marker.

• Etching solution (Ferric chloride).

• Drill machine.

Step 1: Prepare a layout of the circuit on any commonly used PCB designing software. A layout is a design which interconnects the components according to the schematic diagram (circuit diagram). Take a mirror image print of the layout on the OHP sheet using a laser printer. Make sure that the design is correct with proper placement of the components.

Step 2: Cut the copper board according to the size of layout. A copper board is the base of a PCB, it can be single layer, double layer or multi layer board.

Single layer copper board has copper on one side of the PCB, they are used to make single layer PCBs, it is widely used by hobbyist or in the small circuits. A double layer copper board consists of copper on both the sides of the PCB. These boards are generally used by the industries. A multilayer board has multiple layers of copper; they are quite costly and mainly used for complex circuitries like mother board of PC.

Step 3: Rub the copper side of PCB using steel wool. This removes the top oxide layer of copper as well as the photo resists layer if any.

Step 4: Place the OHP sheet (wax paper) which has the printed layout on the PCB sheet. Make sure that the printed/mirror side should be placed on the copper side of PCB.

Step 5: Put a white paper on the OHP sheet and start ironing. The heat applied by the electric iron causes the ink of the traces on the OHP sheet to stick on the copper plate exactly in the same way it is printed on the OHP sheet. This means that the copper sheet will now have the layout of the PCB printed on it. Allow the PCB plate to cool down and slowly remove the OHP sheet. Since it is manual process it may happen that the layout doesn’t comes properly on PCB or some of the tracks are broken in between. Use the permanent marker and complete the tracks properly.

Step 6: Now the layout is printed on PCB. The area covered by ink is known as the masked area and the unwanted copper, not covered by the ink is known as unmasked area. Now make a solution of ferric chloride. Take a plastic box and fill it up with some water. Dissolve 2-3 tea spoon of ferric chloride power in the water. Dip the PCB into the Etching solution (Ferric chloride solution, Fecl3) for approximately 30 mins. The Fecl3 reacts with the unmasked copper and removes the unwanted copper from the PCB. This process is called as Etching. Use pliers to take out the PCB and check if the entire unmasked area has been etched or not. In case it is not etched leave it for some more time in the solution.

Step 7: Take out the PCB wash it in cold water and remove the ink by rubbing it with steel wool. The remaining area which has not been etched is the conductive copper tracks which connect the components as per the circuit diagram.

Step 8: Now carefully drill the PCB using a drilling machine on the pads.

Step 9: Put the components in the correct holes and solder them.

This completes your PCB fabrication now put the components on mounting side and solder them. Make sure that you properly dispose of the FeCl3 solution, clean your tools and wash your hands after this exercise. You can also store the solution in a plastic box for future use but not for too long.

LIFI- a new technology

2012-03-13T06:31:00.000-07:00

Whether you’re using wireless internet in a coffee shop, stealing it from the guy next door, or competing for bandwidth at a conference, you’ve probably gotten frustrated at the slow speeds you face when more than one device is tapped into the network. As more and more people—and their many devices—access wireless internet, clogged airwaves are going to make it increasingly difficult to latch onto a reliable signal.

But radio waves are just one part of the spectrum that can carry our data. What if we could use other waves to surf the internet?

One German physicist, Harald Haas, has come up with a solution he calls “data through illumination”—taking the fiber out of fiber optics by sending data through an LED lightbulb that varies in intensity faster than the human eye can follow. It’s the same idea behind infrared remote controls, but far more powerful.

Haas says his invention, which he calls D-Light, can produce data rates faster than 10 megabits per second, which is speedier than your average broadband connection. He envisions a future where data for laptops, smartphones, and tablets is transmitted through the light in a room. And security would be a snap—if you can’t see the light, you can’t access the data.

You can imagine all kinds of uses for this technology, from public internet access through street lamps to auto-piloted cars that communicate through their headlights. And more data coming through the visible spectrum could help alleviate concerns that the electromagnetic waves that come with WiFi could adversely affect your health. Talk about the bright side.

WATCH THIS VIDEO

FLICKERING lights are annoying but they may have an upside. Visible light communication (VLC) uses rapid pulses of light to transmit information wirelessly. Now it may be ready to compete with conventional Wi-Fi.

"At the heart of this technology is a new generation of high-brightness light-emitting diodes," says Harald Haas from the University of Edinburgh, UK. "Very simply, if the LED is on, you transmit a digital 1, if it's off you transmit a 0," Haas says. "They can be switched on and off very quickly, which gives nice opportunities for transmitting data."

It is possible to encode data in the light by varying the rate at which the LEDs flicker on and off to give different strings of 1s and 0s. The LED intensity is modulated so rapidly that human eyes cannot notice, so the output appears constant.

More sophisticated techniques could dramatically increase VLC data rates. Teams at the University of Oxford and the University of Edinburgh are focusing on parallel data transmission using arrays of LEDs, where each LED transmits a different data stream. Other groups are using mixtures of red, green and blue LEDs to alter the light's frequency, with each frequency encoding a different data channel.

Li-Fi, as it has been dubbed, has already achieved blisteringly high speeds in the lab. Researchers at the Heinrich Hertz Institute in Berlin, Germany, have reached data rates of over 500 megabytes per second using a standard white-light LED. Haas has set up a spin-off firm to sell a consumer VLC transmitter that is due for launch next year. It is capable of transmitting data at 100 MB/s - faster than most UK broadband connections.

Once established, VLC could solve some major communication problems. In 2009, the US Federal Communications Commission warned of a looming spectrum crisis: because our mobile devices are so data-hungry we will soon run out of radio-frequency bandwidth. Li-Fi could free up bandwidth, especially as much of the infrastructure is already in place.

"There are around 14 billion light bulbs worldwide, they just need to be replaced with LED ones that transmit data," says Haas. "We reckon VLC is a factor of ten cheaper than Wi-Fi." Because it uses light rather than radio-frequency signals, VLC could be used safely in aircraft, integrated into medical devices and hospitals where Wi-Fi is banned, or even underwater, where Wi-Fi doesn't work at all.

"The time is right for VLC, I strongly believe that," says Haas, who presented his work at TED Global in Edinburgh last week.

But some sound a cautious note about VLC's prospects. It only works in direct line of sight, for example, although this also makes it harder to intercept than Wi-Fi. "There has been a lot of early hype, and there are some very good applications," says Mark Leeson from the University of Warwick, UK. "But I'm doubtful it's a panacea. This isn't technology without a point, but I don't think it sweeps all before it, either."

Home Networking

2012-03-11T10:26:00.000-07:00

Home Networking is the collection of elements that process, manage,

transport, and store information, enabling the connection and integration of

multiple computing, control, monitoring, and communication devices in the

home. The price of home computers keep falling, while the advantages for

consumers from being connected online investing and shopping, keeping in

touch with long distance friends and tapping the vast resource of the Internet

CE keep multiplying. No wonder an increasing number of households own

two or more PCs.Until recently, the home network has been largely ignored.

However, the rapid proliferation of personal computers (PCs) and the

Internet in homes, advancements in telecommunications technology, and

progress in the development of smart devices have increasingly emphasized

the need for an in home networking. Furthermore, as these growth and

advancement trends continue, the need for simple, flexible, and reliable

home networks will greatly increase.

1. Overview

The latest advances in the Internet access technologies, the dropping of PC rates, and the

proliferation of smart devices in the house, have dramatically increased the number of

intelligent devices in the consumer’s premises. The consumer electronics equipment

manufacturers are building more and more intelligence into their products enabling those

devices to be networked into clusters that can be controlled remotely. Advances in the

Wireless communication technologies have introduced a variety of wireless devices, like

PDAs, Web Pads, into the house. Advent of multiple PCs and smart devices into the

house, and the availability of high-speed broadband Internet access, have resulted in in-

house networking needs to meet the following

requirements of the consumers:

Simultaneous internet access to multiple home users

Sharing of peripherals and files

Home Control/Automation

Multi-player Gaming

Connect to/from the workplace

Remote Monitoring/Security

Distributed Video

The home networking requirement introduces into the market a new breed of

products called Residential Gateways. A Residential Gateway (RG) will provide the

necessary connectivity features to enable the consumer to exploit the advantages of a

networked home. The RG will also provide the framework for Residential Connectivity

Based Services to reach the home. Examples of such Residential Connectivity Based

Services include: Video on Demand, IP Telephony, Home Security & Surveillance,

Remote Home Appliance Repair & Trouble shooting, Utility/Meter Reading, Virtual

Private Network Connectivity and Innovative E-commerce solutions.

Using a reusable framework for home service gateway architecture, offers end-to-end

product design and realization services for the residential gateways. Coupled with our

standards based and ready-to-deploy home networking components & solutions (like the

Wipro BlueTooth Stack, IEEE 1394 core, Voice Over Broadband Infrastructure,

Embedded TCP/IP Stack etc.), our customers can enjoy the much need time to market

advantage and competitive edge.

2. What is Home Networking?

We have all become very comfortable with networks. Local area networks (LANs) and

Wide Area Networks (WANs) have become ubiquitous. The network hierarchy has been

rapidly moving lower in the chain towards smaller and more personal devices. These

days, Home Area Networks (HANs) and Personal Area Networks (PANs) are joining

their larger brother as ever-present communications channels.

Home Networking is the collection of elements that process, manage, transport, and store

information, enabling the connection and integration of multiple computing, control,

monitoring, and communication devices in the home.

The price of home computers keep falling, while the advantages for consumers from

being connected CE online investing and shopping, keeping in touch with long distance

friends and tapping the vast resource of the Internet CE keep multiplying. No wonder an

increasing number of households own two or more PCs. Until recently, the home network

has been largely ignored. However, the rapid proliferation of personal computers (PCs)

and the Internet in homes, advancements in telecommunications technology, and progress

in the development of smart devices have increasingly emphasized the need for an in

home networking. Furthermore, as these growth and advancement trends continue, the

need for simple, flexible, and reliable home networks will greatly increase.

3. Home Networking Technologies

Various Technology components are involved in making Home Networking a reality.

These are aptly summarized in Figure 3.

Figure 3:

Home Networking Technologies

Source:

Network Protocols for the Home CE John Canosa

The Technology Components in the Domain of Home Networking are:

Broadband Access Networks

(DSL, Cable, Broadband Wireless) that provides

the ubiquity of always ON high-speed digital pipe to the Home.

Residential Gateway Devic

e, capable of interconnecting the Broadband Access

Network and the Home Area Network. This device should be capable of

delivering valued services to Home.

In-Home Networking

Topologies (both wired and wireless), that interconnect

the various devices of the home.

Device Access Technologies

that facilitate the discovery and interplay of the

home devices and services.

Broadband Access Networks

The function of broadband Access Networks is to transfer digital traffic to and from

the home. The broadband access is much faster and reliable than the present day

dialup modem or ISDN modem. Broadband access is an always-ON connection

meaning that the user does not have to dialup for establishing the connection. The

prominent broadband access technologies are the Digital Subscriber Line (xDSL),

Hybrid Fiber Coaxial (HFC) network and Broadband Wireless (also called as Wireless

Local Loop). The Broadband Access Provider (e.g. Cable Operator or DSL Operator)

will provide Customer Premises Equipment (CPE), which will be located in the user

premises. The connection to the outside world from the Home is through this equipment.

The management of the CPE will be taken care of remotely by the Broadband

Access Provider. Figure 4, Summarizes the various broadband technologies

(Source: Cahners Instat group)

Figure4: Summarizes Various Broadband Technologies

In-Home Network topologies

Home network is a collection of elements that process, manage, transport, and

store information, enabling the connection and integration of multiple computing,

control monitoring, and communication devices with in the home. Moving the bits

around the home is the function of Network infrastructure and equipment that

comprise the Home Network. Home Network must support multiple data types with high

security, easy configuration, low cost, and negligible maintenance.

Based on the topology alternative available, the in-home networks can be classified as

shown in the Figure 5:

Wired home networks - Use of existing home wiring & New wiring alternatives

Wireless home networks CE No need of any wires new or old

Figure 5:

Home Network Topologies

y Type Speed Advantages Dis-advantages

Residential Gateway

When different networks are joined (in this case the Home Network and the

Broadband Access Network), a gateway must perform the functions of media

translation, address translation, authentication/filtering and system management.

One of the architectural options under consideration to perform these functions in

the home is called the Residential Gateway (RG).Over a period of time, how ever many

other intelligent Consumer Premises Equipment like the Advanced Digital Set-top Box,

the Home PC, Cable/DSL Modem, Proprietary Home Automation and Control

Equipment etc. could evolve to perform the role of a Residential Gateway (Figure-6).

Figure 6:

Forms of Residential Gateway

It is clear that making the broadband available does not achieve much unless the

bandwidth available is tapped to provide services to the customer. A Services

Gateway (SG) is a device through which multiple services can be delivered over

Wide Area Networks to the Local Area Networks and devices situated in the home. The

Services Gateway provides a focal point for service providers to deliver services to

devices on the home network client

A Home residential gateway, which provides the basic functionality of media

matching between the broadband access network and the in-home network can

function as a service gateway, by conforming to the OSGi framework.

Figure 8: OSGi Framework

OSGi (Open Services Gateway Initiative) is a consortium of over 30 companies

working on the development of open standards and specifications for the services

gateway. The services gateway can enable, consolidate, and manage voice, data,

Internet, and multimedia communications to and from the home, office and other

locations. The services gateway can also function as an application server for a

range of high value services such as energy management and control, safety and

security services, health care monitoring services, device control and maintenance,

electronic commerce services and more.

Device access protocols

As the number of smart devices increased they starting using the network to share

each other services. This was enabled by the Coordination protocol that they

followed. Various industry leaders evolved different Coordination protocols, which

enabled the devices to discover and use each other’s capabilities. JINI (Java based device

discovery and device coordination protocol pioneered by Sun Microsystems), UPnP

(Universal Plug and Play pioneered by Microsoft) and HAVi (Home Audio Video

Interoperability pioneered by the consumer electronic industry leaders) are some of the

popular protocol available now.

Device coordination essentially means providing a subset of the following

capabilities to a device:

Ability to announce its presence to the network.

Automatic discovery of devices in the neighborhood and even

those located remotely.

Ability to describe its capabilities as well as query/understand the

capabilities of other devices.

Self-configuration without administrative intervention.

Seamless inter-operability with other devices wherever meaningful.

4. Challenges for Home Networking

Infrastructure reuse

Technological Options for Home networking should re-use the existing wiring

infrastructure of the home (i.e. electric lines, phone extension sockets etc.) or use

wireless mode of communication. People may not like to dig their walls for the

sake of rewiring the home or people may not like dangling wires everywhere in the

home.

Low Cost

Home networking solutions should be of less cost. When the cost of the domestic

appliances like TV; Fridge etc. are not more a few hundred dollars, the residential

users may not be willing to pay more for the networking infrastructure and solutions.

Simplicity

Home networking, products, solutions should be very easy to use. Since the

residential user may not be computer/IT literate, the technologies should be as

consumer friendly as possible. This challenge is a positive point for the consumer

electronics companies (unlike the traditional Computer and Networking majors)

who know the real pulse of the residential consumer.

Reliability

Home networking products should be very reliable, since they need to operate

round the clock. In the view of the consumer, the home networking products are just

like a protocol should also be highly secure and tamper proof.

Ease of installation & Maintenance

The home networking solutions should be easy to install (just a plug and play) and

should facilitate the remote maintenance of the equipment from the vendor site.

Currently, an average of two and a half telephone service calls are required to

answer customer installation questions for new consumers of Internet services. If

a service call takes 10 minutes and the telephone support labor costs the service

provider $1.50 per minute, then the customer support calls cost about $37.50. This

is roughly the cost of a two-month subscription for Internet service. Technical

support of customers is a large factor in why residential-based Internet service has

not been a profitable business to date. Auto configuration will be key in making

RBB (Residential Broad Band) services profitable enough to be an attractive business

proposition.

Distance Requirement

The Home Network should cover all parts of the home and premises. Of course,

some homes are bigger than others, and greater distances pose problems of

power, attenuation, and installation cost.

Isochronous Traffic

The Home networking products, solutions & technologies should be capable of

carrying isochronous traffic, and should provide the required Quality of Service

Guarantees. This is primarily because the residential users would like to use the

multimedia equipment like, HDTV (High Definition Television), DVDs (Digital

Versatile Disks), Digital video, HiFi Virtual Reality Games, etc. in tandem with

traditional voice (telephone) & data (PC) services.

Interoperability

Since there are multitude of home networking products, technologies, and

solutions from different vendors the issue of interoperability is a big challenge.

This should be effectively dealt by forming industry associations, consortiums and

working groups that come together and make this a reality.

5. Conclusion

The latest advances in the Internet access technologies, the dropping of PC rates, and the

proliferation of smart devices in the house, have dramatically increased the number of

intelligent devices in the consumer premises. The home networking requirement

introduces into the market a new breed of products called Residential Gateways. A

Residential Gateway (RG) will provide the necessary connectivity features to enable the

consumer to exploit the advantages of a networked Home. The RG will also provide the

framework for Residential Connectivity Based Services to reach the home. The paper

further discusses Challenges for Home Networking and Home Networking Technologies.

5G Mobile Technology

2012-03-09T10:00:00.000-08:00

5G technologies will change the way most high-bandwidth users access their phones. With 5G pushed over a VOIP-enabled device, people will experience a level of call volume and data transmission never experienced before.5G technology is offering the services in Product Engineering, Documentation, supporting electronic transactions (e-Payments, e-transactions) etc. As the customer becomes more and more aware of the mobile phone technology, he or she will look for a decent package all together, including all the advanced features a cellular phone can have. Hence the search for new technology is always the main motive of the leading cell phone giants to out innovate their competitors. Recently apple has produced shivers all around the electronic world by launching its new handset, the I-phone. Features that are getting embedded in such a small piece of electronics are huge.
INTRODUCTION
The present cell phones have it all. Today phones have everything ranging from the smallest size, largest phone memory, speed dialing, video player, audio player, and camera and so on. Recently with the development of Pico nets and Blue tooth technology data sharing has become a child's play. Earlier with the infrared feature you can share data within a line of sight that means the two devices has to be aligned properly to transfer data, but in case of blue tooth you can transfer data even when you have the cell phone in your pocket up to a range of 50 meters. The creation and entry of 5G technology into the mobile marketplace will launch a new revolution in the way international cellular plans are offered.

The global mobile phone is upon the cell phone market. Just around the corner, the newest 5G technologies will hit the mobile market with phones used in China being able to access and call locally phones in Germany. Truly innovative technology changing the way mobile phones will be used. With the emergence of cell phones, which are similar to a PDA, you can now have your whole office within the phone. Cell phones will give tough competitions to laptop manufacturers and normal computer designers. Even today there are phones with gigabytes of memory storage and the latest operating systems. Thus one can say that with the current trends, the industry has a real bright future if it can handle the best technologies and can produce affordable handsets for its customers. Thus you will get all your desires unleashed in the near future when these smart phones take over the market. 5G Network's router and switch technology delivers Last Yard Connectivity between the internet acces provider and building occupants. 5G's technology intelligently distributes Internet access to individual nodes within the building.
2G-5G NETWORKS
The first generation of mobile phones was analog systems that emerged in the early 1980s. The second generation of digital mobile phones appeared in 1990s along with the first digital mobile networks. During the second generation, the mobile telecommunications industry experienced exponential growth in terms of both subscribers and value-added services. Second generation networks allow limited data support in the range of 9.6 kbps to 19.2 kbps. Traditional phone networks are used mainly for voice transmission, and are essentially circuit-switched networks.

2.5G networks, such as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), are an extension of 2G networks, in that they use circuit switching for voice and packet switching for data transmission resulting in its popularity since packet switching utilizes bandwidth much more efficiently. In this system, each user’s packets compete for available bandwidth, and users are billed only for the amount of data transmitted.

3G networks were proposed to eliminate many problems faced by 2G and 2.5G networks, especially the low speeds and incompatible technologies such as Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) in different countries. Expectations for 3G included increased bandwidth; 128 Kbps for mobile stations, and 2 Mbps for fixed applications. In theory, 3G should work over North American as well as European and Asian wireless air interfaces. In reality, the outlook for 3G is not very certain. Part of the problem is that network providers in Europe and North America currently maintain separate standards’ bodies (3GPP for Europe and Asia; 3GPP2 for North America). The standards’ bodies have not resolved the differences in air interface technologies.
There is also a concern that in many countries 3G will never be deployed due to its cost and poor performance. Although it is possible that some of the weaknesses at physical layer will still exist in 4G systems, an integration of services at the upper layer is expected.

The evolution of mobile networks is strongly influenced by business challenges and the direction mobile system industry takes. It also relates to the radio access spectrum and the control restrictions over it that varies from country to country. However, as major technical advances are being standardized it becomes more complex for industry alone to choose a suitable evolutionary path. Many mobile system standards for Wide Area Networks (WANs) already exists including the popular ones such as Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS), CDMA, and CDMA-2000 (1X/3X). In addition there are evolving standards for Personal Area Networks (PANs), such as Bluetooth wireless, and for WLANs, such as IEEE 802.11.

The current trend in mobile systems is to support the high bit rate data services at the downlink via High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). It provides a smooth evolutionary path for UMTS networks to higher data rates in the same way as Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) do in Global Systems for Mobile communication (GSM). HSPDA uses shared channels that allow different users to access the channel resources in packet domain. It provides an efficient means to share spectrum that provides support for high data rate packet transport on the downlink, which is well adapted to urban environment and indoor applications.

Initially, the peak data rates of 10 Mbps may be achieved using HSPDA. The next target is to reach 30 Mbps with the help of antenna array processing technologies followed by the enhancements in air interface design to allow even higher data rates.
Another recent development is a new framework for mobile networks that is expected to provide multimedia support for IP telecommunication services, called as IP Multimedia Subsystems (IMS). Real-time rich multimedia communication mixing telecommunication and data services could happen due to IMS in wireline broadband networks. However, mobile carriers cannot offer their customers the freedom to mix multimedia components (text, pictures, audio, voice, video) within one call. Today a two party voice call cannot be extended to a multi-party audio & video conference IMS overcomes such limitations and makes these scenarios possible.

The future of mobile systems is largely dependent upon the development and evolution of 4G systems, multimedia networking, and upto some extent, photonic networks. It is expected that initially the 4G mobile systems will be used independent from other technologies. With gradual growth of high speed data support to multimegabits per second, an integrations of services will happen. In addition, developments in photonic switching might allow mobile communication on a completely photonic network using Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) on photonic switches and routers. The evolutionary view of 4G systems to 5G include a support of wireless world wide web allowing a highly flexible and reconfigurable dynamic adhoc networks.

5 Pen PC Technology

2012-03-09T09:40:00.000-08:00

P-ISM (“Pen-style Personal Networking Gadget Package”), which is nothing but the new discovery, which is under developing, stage by NEC Corporation. P-ISM is a gadget package including five functions: a pen-style cellular phone with a handwriting data input function, virtual keyboard, a very small projector, camera scanner, and personal ID key with cashless pass function. P-ISMs are connected with one another through short-range wireless technology. The whole set is also connected to the Internet through the cellular phone functio

ISM:

P-ISM is a gadget package including five functions: a pen-style cellular phone with a handwriting data input function, virtual keyboard, a very small projector, camera scanner, and personal ID key with cashless pass function. P-ISMs are connected with one another through short-range wireless technology. The whole set is also connected to the Internet through the cellular phone function. This personal gadget in a minimalistic pen style enables the ultimate ubiquitous computing.

The P-ISM system was based on "low-cost electronic perception technology" produced by the San Jose, California, firm of Canesta, Inc., developers of technologies such as the "virtual keyboard"

In fact, no-one expects much activity on 802.11n installations until the middle of 2008. “Rolling out 802.11n would mean a big upgrade for customers who already have full Wi-Fi coverage, and would be a complex add-on to existing wired networks, for those who haven't. Bluetooth is widely used because we can able to transfer data or make connections without wires. This is very effective because we can able to connect whenever we need without having wires. They are used at the frequency band of 2.4 GHz ISM (although they use different access mechanisms). Blue tooth mechanism is used for exchanging signal status information between two devices. This techniques have been developed that do not require communication between the two devices (such as Blue tooth's Adaptive Frequency Hopping), the most efficient and comprehensive solution for the most serious problems can be accomplished by silicon vendors. They can implement information exchange capabilities within the designs of the Blue tooth. The circuit diagram for the 802.11B/G is given below. It is nothing but also type of Blue tooth. Using this connectivity we can also connect it with the internet and can access it anywhere in the world.

LED Projector:

The role of monitor is taken by LED Projector which projects on the screen. The size of the projector is of A4 size. It has the approximate resolution capacity of 1024 X 768. Thus it is gives more clarity and good picture.

Virtual Keyboard:

The Virtual Laser Keyboard (VKB) is the ULTIMATE new gadget for PC users. The VKB emits laser on to the desk where it looks like the keyboard having QWERTY arrangement of keys i.e., it uses a laser beam to generate a full-size perfectly operating laser keyboard that smoothly connects to of PC and Most of the handheld devices (PDA's, tablet PC's). The I-Tech laser keyboard acts exactly like any other "ordinary" keyboard:

Features of virtual keyboards are:

VKB settings can be changed by Sound:
Controllable Virtual Keyboard sound effects (key clicks)
Connection: Connection to the appropriate Laptop/PC port
Intensity: Intensity of the projected Virtual Keyboard
Timeouts: coordinated timeouts to conserve the Virtual Keyboard's battery life
Sensitivity: adjustable sensitivity of the Virtual Keyboard
Auto-repeat: Allows the VKB to automatically repeat a key based on prescribed parameters.

Digital Camera:

We had digital camera in the shape of pen .It is useful in video recording, video conferencing, simply it is called as web cam. It is also connected with other devices through Blue tooth. The major advantage it is small which is easily portable. It is a 360-Degree Visual Communication Device. We have seen video phones hundreds of times in movies. However, why can't we act naturally in front of videophone cameras? Conventional visual communications at a distance have been limited due to the display devices and terminals. This terminal enables showing of the surrounding atmosphere and group-to-group communication with a round display and a central super-wide-angle camera.

Battery:

The most important part in the portable type of computer is its battery. Usually batteries must be small in size and work for longer time. It comes with a battery life of 6+. For normal use it can be used for 2 weeks.

This 'pen sort of instrument' produces both the monitor as well as the keyboard on any flat surfaces from where you can carry out functions you would normally do on your desktop computer.

Conclusion:

The communication devices are becoming smaller and compact. This is only an example for the start of this new technology. We can expect more such developments in the future.

4G MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

2012-03-09T08:16:00.001-08:00

4G (also known as Beyond 3G), an abbreviation for Fourth-Generation, is a term

used to describe the next complete evolution in wirelesscommunications. A 4G

system will be able to provide a comprehensive IP solution where voice, data and

streamed multimedia can be given to users on an "Anytime, Anywhere" basis, and

at higher data rates than previous generations.

As the second generation was a total replacement of the first generation networks

and handsets; and the third generation was a total replacement of second

generation networks and handsets; so too the fourth generation cannot be an

incremental evolution of current 3G technologies, but rather the total replacement

of the current 3G networks and handsets. The international telecommunications

regulatory and standardization bodies are working for commercial deployment of

4G networks roughly in the 2012-2015 time scale. There is no formal definition for

what 4G is; however, there are certain objectives that are projected for 4G. These

objectives include, that 4G will be a fully IP-based integrated system. 4G will be

capable of providing between 100 Mbit/s and 1 Gbit/s speeds both indoors and

outdoors, with premium quality and high security.

1.INTRODUCTION

The approaching 4G (fourth generation) mobile communication systems are projected to

solve still-remaining problems of 3G (third generation) systems and to provide a wide variety

of new services, from high-quality voice to high-definition video to high-data-rate wireless

channels.

The term 4G is used broadly to include several types of broadband wireless

access communication systems, not only cellular telephone systems. One of the terms used to

describe 4G is MAGIC—Mobile multimedia, anytime anywhere, Global mobility support,

integrated wireless solution, and customized personal service. As a promise for the future, 4G

systems, that is, cellular broadband wireless access systems, have been attracting much

interest in the mobile communication arena. The 4G systems not only will support the next

generation of mobile service, but also will support the fixed wireless networks. This paper

presents an overall vision of the 4G features, framework, and integration of mobile

communication.

The features of 4G systems might be summarized with one word-

Integration.The 4G systems are about seamlessly integrating terminals, networks, and

applications to satisfy increasing user demands. The continuous expansion of mobile

communication and wireless networks shows evidence of exceptional growth in the areas of

mobile subscriber, wireless network access, mobile services, and applications. An estimate of

1 billion users by the end of 2003 justifies the study and research for 4G systems.

2.HISTORY

The history and evolution of mobile service from the 1G (first generation) to fourth

generation are discussed in this section. Table 1 presents a short history of mobile telephone

technologies. This process began with the designs in the 1970s that have become known as

1G. The earliest systems were implemented based on analog technology and the basic

cellular structure of mobile communication. Many fundamental problems were solved by

these early systems.

Numerous incompatible analog systems were placed in service around the

world during the 1980s.The 2G (second generation) systems designed in the 1980s were still

used mainly for voice applications but were based on digital technology, including digital

signal processing techniques. These 2G systems provided circuit-switched data

communication services at a low speed. The competitive rush to design and implement

digital systems led again to a variety of different and incompatible standards such as GSM

(global system mobile), mainly in Europe; TDMA (time division multiple access) (IS-54/IS-

136) in the U.S.; PDC (personal digital cellular) in Japan; and CDMA (code division multiple

access) (IS-95), another U.S. system. These systems operate nationwide or internationally

and are today's mainstream systems, although the data rate for users in these system is very

limited. During the 1990s, two organizations worked to define the next, or 3G, mobile

system, which would eliminate previous incompatibilities and become a truly global system.

The 3G system would have higher quality voice channels, as well as broadband data

capabilities, up to 2 Mbps. Unfortunately, the two groups could not reconcile their

differences, and this decade will see the introduction of two mobile standards for 3G. In

addition, China is on the verge of implementing a third 3G system. An interim step is being

taken between 2G and 3G, the 2.5G. It is basically an enhancement of the two major 2G

technologies to provide increased capacity on the 2G RF (radio frequency) channels and to

introduce higher throughput for data service, up to 384 kbps. A very important aspect of 2.5G

is that the data channels are optimized for packet data, which introduces access to

the Internet from mobile devices, whether telephone, PDA (personal digital assistant), or

laptop. However, the demand for higher access speed multimedia communication in today's

society, which greatly depends on computer communication in digital format, seems

unlimited. According to the historical indication of a generation revolution occurring once a

decade, the present appears to be the right time to begin the

research on a 4G mobile communication system.

Table 1. Short History of Mobile Telephone Technologies

Symbols:

1xRTT = 2.5G CDMA data service up to 384 kbps

AMPS = advanced mobile phone service

CDMA = code division multiple access

EDGE = enhanced data for global evolution

FDMA = frequency division multiple access

GPRS = general packet radio system

GSM = global system for mobile

NMT = Nordic mobile telephone

PDC = personal digital cellular

PSTN = pubic switched telephone network

TACS = total access communications system

TDMA = time division multiple access

WCDMA = wideband CDMA

3.VISION OF 4G

This new generation of wireless is intended to complement and replace the 3G systems,

perhaps in 5 to 10 years. Accessing information anywhere, anytime, with a seamless

connection to a wide range of information and services, and receiving a large volume of

information, data, pictures, video, and so on, are the keys of the 4G infrastructures.

The future 4G infrastructures will consist of a set of various networks using IP (Internet

protocol) as a common protocol so that users are in control because they will be able to

choose every application and environment. Based on the developing trends of mobile

communication, 4G will have broader bandwidth, higher data rate, and smoother and quicker

handoff and will focus on ensuring seamless service across a multitude of wireless systems

and networks. The key concept is integrating the 4G capabilities with all of the existing

mobile technologies through advanced technologies. Application adaptability and being

highly dynamic are the main features of 4G services of interest to users.

These features mean services can be delivered and be available to the personal preference of

different users and support the users' traffic, air interfaces, radio environment, and quality of

service. Connection with the network applications can be transferred into various forms and

levels correctly and efficiently. The dominant methods of access to this pool of information

will be the mobile telephone, PDA, and laptop to seamlessly access the voice

communication, high-speed information services ,and entertainment broadcast services.

Figure 1 illustrates elements and techniques to support the adaptability of the 4G domain.

The fourth generation will encompass all systems from various networks, public to private;

operator-driven broadband networks to personal areas; and ad hoc networks. The 4G systems

will interoperate with 2G and 3G systems, as well as with digital (broadband) broadcasting

systems. In addition, 4G systems will be fully IP-based wireless Internet. This all-

encompassing integrated perspective shows the broad range of systems that the fourth

generation intends to integrate, from satellite broadband to high altitude platform to cellular

3G and 3G systems to WLL (wireless local loop) and FWA (fixed wireless access) to WLAN

(wireless local area network) and PAN (personal area network),all with IP as the integrating

mechanism. With 4G, a range of new services and models will be

available. These services and models need to be further examined for their interface with the

design of 4G systems. Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate the key elements and the seamless

connectivity of the networks.

4.KEY 4G TECHNOLOGIES

Some of the key technologies required for 4G are briefly described below:

4.1 OFDMA

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) not only provides clear advantages

for physical layer performance, but also a framework

for improving layer 2 performance by proposing an additional degree of free- dom. Using

ODFM, it is possible to exploit the time domain, the space domain, the frequency domain

and even the code domain

to optimize radio channel usage. It ensures very robust transmission in multi-path

environments with reduced receiver complexity.

OFDM also provides a frequency diversity gain, improving the physical layer performance .It

is also compatible with other enhancement

Technologies, such as smart antennas and MIMO.OFDM modulation can also be employed

as a multiple access technology (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access; OFDMA).

In this case, each OFDM symbol can transmit information to/from several users using a

different set

of sub carriers (sub channels). This not only provides additional flexibility for resource

allocation (increasing the capacity), but also enables cross-layer optimization of radio link

usage.

4.2 SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIO

Software Defined Radio (SDR) benefits from today’s high processing power to develop

multi-band, multi-standard base stations and terminals. Although in future the terminals will

adapt the air interface to the

available radio access technology, at present this is done by the infrastructure.

Several infrastructure gains are expected from SDR. For example,

to increase network capacity at a specific time (e.g. during a sports event),an operator will

reconfigure its network adding several modems at a given Base Transceiver Station (BTS).

SDR makes this reconfiguration easy. In the context of 4G systems, SDR will become an

enabler for the aggregation of multi-standard pico/micro cells. For a manufacturer, this can

be a powerful aid to providing multi-standard, multi-band equipment with reduced

development effort and costs through simultaneous multi-channel processing.

4.3 MULTIPLE-INPUT MULTIPLE –OUTPUT

MIMO uses signal multiplexing between multiple transmitting antennas (space multiplex)

and time or frequency. It is well suited to OFDM, as it is possible to process independent

time symbols as soon as the OFDM waveform is correctly designed for the channel. This

aspect of OFDM greatly simplifies processing. The signal transmitted by m antennas is

received by n antennas. Processing of the received signals may deliver several performance

improvements:range, quality of received signal and

spectrum efficiency. In principle, MIMO is more efficient when many multiple path signals

are received. The performance in cellular

deployments is still subject to research and simulations . However,

it is generally admitted that the gain in spectrum efficiency is directly related to the minimum

number of antennas in the link.

4.4 HANDOVER AND MOBILITY

Handover technologies based on mobileIP technology have been considered for data and

voice. Mobile IP techniques are slow but can be accelerated with classical methods

(hierarchical, fast mobile IP).

These methods are applicable to data and probably also voice. In single-frequency networks,

it is necessary to reconsider the handover methods. Several techniques can be used when the

carrier to interference ratio is negative (e.g. VSFOFDM,bit repetition), but the drawback of

these techniques is capacity. In OFDM, the same alternative exists as in CDMA, which is to

use macro-diversity. In the case of OFDM, MIMO allows macro-diversity processing with

performance gains. However, the implementation of macro-diversity implies that MIMO

processing is centralized and transmissions are synchronous. This is not as complex as in

CDMA, but such a technique should only be used in situations

where spectrum is very scarce.

5.QUALITY OF SERVICE

Traffic generated by the different services will not only increase traffic loads on the

networks, but will also require different quality of service (QoS) requirements (e.g.,

cell loss rate, delay, and jitter) for different streams (e.g., video, voice, data).

Providing QoS guarantees in 4G networks is a non-trivial issue where both QoS

signaling across different networks and service differentiation between mobile flows

will have to be addressed.

One of the most difficult problems that are to be solved, when it comes to IP mobility,

is how to insure the constant QoS level during the handover.

Depending on whether the new access router is in the same or some other

subnetwork, we recognize the horizontal and vertical handover.

However, the mobile terminal can not receive IP packets while the process of

handover is finished. This time is called the handover latency.

Handover latency has a great influence on the flow of multimedia applications in real-

time.

Mobile IPv6 have been proposed to reduce the handover latency and the number of

lost packets.

The field “Traffic Class” and “Flow Label” in IPv6 eader enables the routers to

secure the special QoS for specific packet series with marked priority

6.SECURITY

The heterogeneity of wireless networks complicates the security issue.

Dynamic reconfigurable, adaptive, and lightweight security mechanisms should be

developed.

Security in wireless networks mainly involves authentication, confidentiality,

integrity, and

authorization for the access of network connectivity and QoS

resources for the mobile nodes flow.

AAA (Authentication Authorization Auditing) protocols provide a framework for

such suffered especially for control plane functions and installing security policies in

the mobile node such as encryption, decryption and filtering.

7.BENEFITS

7.1 CONVERGENCE OF CELLULAR MOBILE NETWORKS AND

WLANS

7.1.1 Benefits for Operators:

Higher bandwidths

Lower cost of networks and equipment.

The use of licence-exempt spectrum.

Higher capacity and QoS enhancement.

Higher revenue.

7.1.2 Benefits for Users:

Access to broadband multimedia services with lower

cost and where mostly needed.

Inter-network roaming.

7.2 CONVERGENCE OF MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS

AND BROADCASTING

7.2.1 From broadcaster point of view:

Introducing interactivity to their unidirectional point-to multipoint Broadcasting systems.

That is, a broadband downlink based on DAB/DVB-T and a narrowband uplink based on

3G cellular systems.

7.2.2 From the cellular mobile operator point of view:

Providing a complementary broadband downlink in vehicular environments to support IP-

based multi-media traffic which is inherently asymmetrical.

7.3 CONVERGENCE BENEFITS

Broadcasters will benefit from the use of cellular mobile systems to adapt the content of their

multi-media services more rapidly in response to the feedback from customers.

Cellular operators will benefit from offering their customers a range of new broadband multi-

media services in vehicular environments.

Users will benefit from faster access to a range ofbroadband multi-media services with

reasonable QoS and lower cost.

7.4 WIRELESS SYSTEM DISCOVERY

•

A multimode terminal attaches to the WLAN and scans the available systems.

•

It can download suitable software manually or automatically.

Figure 4

Wireless System Discovery

7.5 RE-CONFIGURABLE TECHNOLOGY

• In order to use the large variety of services and wireless networks, multimode user

terminals are essential as they can adapt to different wireless networks by reconfiguring

themselves.

• This eliminates the need to use multiple terminals (or multiple hardware components in a

terminal).

• The most promising way of implementing multimode

user terminals is to adopt the software radio approach.

An ideal software radio receiver

Figure 5

SDR(Software Defined Radio)

RE-CONFIGURABLE TECHNOLOGY

CHALLENGES:

• Regulatory and Standardisation issues

• Business models

• User preference profiles

• Inter-system handover mechanisms and criteria

• Software download mechanisms

• Flexible spectrum allocation and sharing between operators

RE-CONFIGURABLE TECHNOLOGY

BENEFITS FOR:

USERS:

•

Select network depending on service requirements and cost.

•

Connect to any network – Worldwide roaming.

•

Access to new services.

OPERATORS:

•

Respond to variations in traffic demand (load balancing).

•

Incorporate service enhancements and improvements.

•

Correction of software bugs and upgrade of terminals.

•

Rapid development of new personalised and customised services.

MANUFACTURERS:

•

Single platform for all markets.

•

Increased flexible and efficient production.

PERSONAL MOBILITY:

In addition to terminal mobility, personal mobility is a concern in mobility

management.

Personal mobility concentrates on the movement of users instead of users’ terminals,

and involves the provision of personal communications and personalized operating

environments.

Once the caller’s agent identifies user’s location, the caller’s agent can directly

communicate with his agent.

8.APPLICATIONS

8.1 VIRTUAL PRESENCE

: This means that 4G provides user services at all times,

even if the user is off-site.

8.2 VIRTUAL NAVIGATION

: 4G provides users with virtual navigation through

which a user can access a database of the streets, buildings etc.

8.3 TELE-GEOPROCESSING APPLICATIONS

: This is a combination of

GIS(Geographical Information System) and GPS (Global Positioning System) in which a

user can get the location by querying.

8.4 TELE-MEDICINE AND EDUCATION

4G will support remote health

monitoring of patients. For people who are interested in life long education, 4G provides a

good opportunity.

8.5 CRISIS MANAGEMENT

Natural disasters can cause break down in

communication systems. In today’s world it might take days or 7 weeks to restore the system.

But in 4G it is expected to restore such crisis issues in a few hours.

8.6 MULTIMEDIA – VIDEO SERVICES

4G wireless systems are expected to deliver efficient multimedia services at very high

data rates.

Basically there are two types of video services: bursting and streaming video services.

Streaming is performed when a user requires real-time video services, in which the

server delivers data continuously at a playback rate.

Bursting is basically file downloading using a buffer and this is done at the highest

data rate taking advantage of the whole available bandwidth.

9.CONCLUSION

As the history of mobile communications shows,attempts have been made to reduce a

number of technologies to a single global standard. Projected 4G systems offer this promise

of a standard that can be embraced worldwide through its key concept of integration. Future

wireless networks will need to support diverse IP multimedia applications to allow sharing of

resources among multiple users. There must be a low complexity of implementation and an

efficient means of negotiation between the end users and the wireless infrastructure. The

fourth generation promises to fulfill the goal of PCC (personal computing and

communication)—a vision that affordably provides high data rates everywhere over a

wireless network.

4G is expected to be launched by 2010 and the world is looking forward

for the most intelligent technology that would connect the entire globe.

for more info visit
http://blogs.fanbox.com/SinglePost.aspx?pbid=1183103&post=1328061&bts=50

10 tips to take a seminar

2012-03-09T07:48:00.000-08:00

10 tips to take a seminar

A speech needs time to grow. Prepare for weeks, sleep on it, dream about it and let your ideas sink into your subconscious. Ask yourself questions, write down your thoughts, and keep adding new ideas. As you prepare every speech ask yourself the following questions.

In one concise sentence, what is the purpose of this speech?
1) Who is the audience? What is their main interest in this topic?
2) What do I really know and believe about this topic as it relates to this audience?
3) What additional research can I do?
4) What are the main points of this presentation?
5) What supporting information and stories can I use to support each of my main points?
6) What visual aids, if any, do I need?
7) Do I have an effective opening grabber?
In my final summary, how will I plan to tell them "What's In It For Me?"
9) Have I polished and prepared the language and words I will use?
10) Have I taken care of the little details that will help me speak more confidently

How to face a seminar?

1). Memorizing - this is absolutely the worst way to keep track of material. People are preoccupied with trying to remember the words to say and not the ideas behind the words (or with theaudience ). As a result, normal voice inflection disappears. With memorizing, mental blocks become inevitable. With memorizing it is not a matter of "will" you forget; it's a matter of WHEN!

2).Reading from complete text - Listening to someone read a speech or presentation is hated by most people. People say, "If that's all they were going to do is read their speech, I could have read it myself." I'm sure many of us have experienced this at least once while attending a conference or two. Below are some reasons why I believe people read poorly:

3). Using Notes - This is the most common way for remembering material. Using notes is better than reading since the speaker can have normal voice inflection and make more effective eye contact. If your notes are on the lectern, you probably won't move very far from them. If notes are in your hand, you probably won't gesture very much.

4).Using Visual Aids As Notes - Simple visual aids can effectively serve as headings and subheadings. Speak to the heading. Say what you want to say and move on. If you forget something, that's okay; the audience will never know unless you tell them. Practise creating just a few meaningful headings to use and practice using only these headings as your "cues". This will take practice, but practicing using only these few words will force you to better internalize your speech

Mobile technology through the generations From 1G to 4G

2012-03-09T06:48:00.001-08:00

Technology has penetrated into our daily lives, and made itself indispensable for us. Broadband has gone mobile now, and the 4g technology boosts its powers. Fourth generation cellphones enable wireless mobile communications at a much faster speed than the earlier generations. Let’s trace back the history of wireless communications to know how far mobile technology has progressed.

The history of wirel generations

4G couldn’t have literally landed itself on us, if there had been no 3G, 2G or 1G. The historyreveals the path that wireless technology took, to arrive at the present situation.

1. First generation or simply G – Cell phones came into the forefront in the 1970s. The 1G cell phones only allowed voice communication. It picked up analog signals from the handset and transmitted them to the radio towers. The signals were then passed through the telephones. There weren’t any set standards forwireless communication at the time.

2. Second generation or 2G – In 1991, the analog signals were successfully replaced by digital signal processing system, which was first introduced in Finland . It enabled radio communications and secured voice applications. It also made data exchange possible in the form of text messages. The Short Message Service (SMS) was a boon of improved mobile technology, which gained popularity worldwide.

3. Third generation or 3G – The 3G mobile system allowed high quality voice channels, as well as limited data transmission through broadband. The third generation tried to eliminate the earlier deficiencies. It came into action in the 2000s and strived to craft a global communication system. Video calling was an added feature along with Internet access through smart phones and laptops.

4. Fourth generation or 4G – It is the most hip and the happening one amongst technology for cell phones. It promises high speed data transfers,in mobile as well as immobile positions, from anywhere and at anytime. The latest technology tries to ascertain seamless service with broader bandwidth at a higher data rate. Besides, the set guidelines also promise benefits like simultaneous user access through cell phones, smooth transmission, and facility to change networks without any interruption.

The specific standards for the 4G technology have been set forth in the later part of 2010. However, though the networks for cell phones are trying to comply with all the specifications, it is still a vision.

3G MOBILE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

2012-03-09T06:27:00.002-08:00

3G stands for third generation, and is a wireless industry term for a collection of international standards and technologies aimed at increasing efficiency and improving the performance of mobile wireless networks.

3G wireless services offer enhancements to current applications, including greater data speeds, increased capacity for voice and data and the advent of packet data networks versus todayâ„¢s switched networks.

3G (Third Generation) is a generic name for a set of mobile technologies which use a host of high-tech infrastructure networks, handsets,base station switches and other equipment to allow mobiles to offer high-speed Internet access, data, and video and CD- quality music services.

GENERATIONS OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATONS;

1G (or 1-G) is short for first-generation wireless telephone technology, cell phones. These are the analog cell phone standards that were introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G digital cell phones. 2G networks (GSM, CDMA One, DAMPS) are the first digital cellular systems launched early 1990s.2G services are frequently referred as Personal Communications Service2G technologies can be divided into TDMA-based and CDMA-based standards depending on the type of multiplexing used.

The main difference between two succeeding mobile telephone systems, 1G and 2G, is that the radio signals that 1G networks use are analog, while 2G networks are digital. Note that both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system. But the call itself is encoded to digital signals in 2G whereas 1G is only modulated to higher frequency (typically 150MHz and up).

2.5G networks (GPRS, cdma2000 1x) are the enhanced versions of 2G networks with data rates up to about 144kbit/s.While the terms "2G" and "3G" are officially defined, "2.5G" is not. It was invented for marketing purposes only.

2.5G is a stepping stone between 2G and 3G cellular wireless technologies. The term "second and a half generation" is used to describe 2G-systems that have implemented a packet switched domain in addition to the circuit switched domain. It does not necessarily provide faster services because bundling of timeslots is used for circuit switched data services (HSCSD) as well.e of wireless communic2M bit/sec.

3G networks (UMTS FDD and TDD, cdma2000 1x EVDO, cdma2000 3x, TD- SCDMA, Arib WCDMA, EDGE, IMT-2000 DECT) are the latest cellular networks that have data rates 384kbit/s and more.

BACKGROUND:

At the UMTS Congress in Monte Carlo, nine global leaders in wireless communications - AT&T Wireless Services, Inc., British Telecommunications Plc, Rogers Cantel Inc., Ericsson, Lucent Technologies, Nokia Corporation, Nortel Networks Inc., Telenor AS, and Telecom Italia Mobile - announced the formation of a new focus group to promote an Internet Protocol (IP) based wireless system for third generation (3G) mobile communications technology.

The newly initiated focus group will go by the name 3G.IP. The nine companies have committed to support the development of next-generation wireless services such as voice, high speed data and Internet access, imaging and video conferencing on an all IP based network architecture using a common core network based on evolved General Packet Radio System (GPRS).

The 3G.IP group plans to set the direction and requirements for the work towards the development of an IP based system for 3G mobile communications technology using W- CDMA and broadband interfaces, which are ideally IP enabled voice and high-speed data transmission for global 3G services. .

The combination of a common network, harmonized air interfaces and multi- mode terminals will give customers seamless access to 3G IP services around the world, while satisfying the varied needs of each carrier.

The 3G.IP member companies will cooperate closely and share information in the development of standards for advanced communications systems that will meet or exceed all of the requirements for 3G services established by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and regulatory bodies.

The focus group expects that standardization activities related to an all IP based architecture for third generation systems should continue rapidly in the appropriate standard and specification development bodies, and the Group will fully support these standards development processes.

STANDARDS OF 3G:

International Telecommunications Unit (ITU): IMT-2000 consists of five radio interfaces

W-CDMA

CDMA2000

CDMA2001

TD-CDMA / TD-SCDMA

UWC-136

3G is a generic term covering a range of future wireless network technologies, including WCDMA, CDMA2000, UMTS and EDGE. 3G combines high-speed mobile access with Internet Protocol (IP) based services. This doesn't just mean fast mobile connection to the World Wide Web - by liberating us from slow connections, cumbersome equipment and immovable access points, 3G will enable new ways to communicate, access information, conduct business and learn. This is summarized in the diagram on below produced by Allied Business. WCDMA - Wideband Code Division Multiple Access: A technology for wideband digital radio communications of Internet, multimedia, video and other capacity- demanding applications. WCDMA has been selected for the third generation of mobile telephone systems in Europe, Japan and the United States. Voice, images, data, and video are first converted to a narrowband digital radio signal. The signal is assigned a marker (spreading code) to distinguish it from the signal of other users. WCDMA uses variable rate techniques in digital processing and it can achieve multi-rate transmissions. WCDMA has been adopted as a standard by the ITU under the name IMT-2000 direct spread.

CDMA 2000 - Code Division Multiple Access 2000: Commercially introduced in 1995, CDMA quickly became one of the world's fastest-growing wireless technologies. In 1999, the International Telecommunications Union selected CDMA as the industry standard for new "third-generation" (3G) wireless systems. Many leading wireless carriers are now building or upgrading to 3G CDMA networks in order to provide more capacity for voice traffic, along with high-speed data capabilities. Today, over 100 million consumers worldwide rely on CDMA for clear, reliable voice communications and leading-edge data services.

CDMA 20001X for Voice and Data: CDMA2000 1X technology supports both voice and data services over a standard (1X) CDMA channel, and provides many performance advantages over other technologies. First, it provides up to twice the capacity of earlier CDMA systems (with even bigger gains over TDMA and GSM), helping to accommodate the continuing growth of voice services as well as new wireless Internet services. Second, it provides peak data rates of up to 153 kbps (and up to 307 kbps in the future), without sacrificing voice capacity for data capabilities.CDMA2000 1X phones also feature longer standby times. And because it's backwards-compatible with earlier CDMA technology, CDMA2000 1X provides an easy and affordable upgrade path for both carriers and consumers.

CDMA 20001xEV- DO for Faster Data: For those who want higher-speed or higher capacity data services, a data-optimized version of CDMA2000 called 1xEV-DO provides peak rates of over 2 Mbps, with an average throughput of over 700 kbps - comparable to wire line DSL services and fast enough to support even demanding applications such as streaming video and large file downloads. CDMA2000 1xEV-DO also delivers data for the lowest cost per megabyte, an increasingly important factor as wireless Internet use grows in popularity. 1xEV-DO devices will provide "always-on" packet data connections, helping to make wireless access simpler, faster and more useful than ever.

UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System:

The name for the third generation mobile telephone standard in Europe, standardized by ETSI. UMTS offers tele-services (like speech or SMS) and bearer services, which provide the capability for information transfer between access points. It is possible to negotiate and renegotiate the characteristics of a bearer service at session or connection establishment and during ongoing session or connection. Both connections oriented and connectionless services are offered for Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint communication.

EDGE - Enhanced Data for Global Evolution:

A technology that gives GSM the capacity to handle services for the third generation of mobile telephony. EDGE was developed to enable the transmission of large amounts of data at a high speed, 384 kilobits per second. EDGE uses the same TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) frame structure, logic channel and 200 kHz carrier bandwidth as today's GSM networks, which allows existing cell plans to remain intact

Features:

The most significant features offered by third generation (3G) mobile technologies are the momentous capacity and broadband capabilities to support greater numbers of voice and data customers - especially in urban centres - plus higher data rates at lower incremental cost than 2G.

3G uses 5 MHz channel carrier width to deliver significantly higher data rates and increased capacity compared with 2G networks.

The 5 MHz channel carrier provides optimum use of radio resources for operators who have been granted large, contiguous blocks of spectrum. On the other hand, it also helps to reduce the cost to 3G networks while being capable of providing extremely high- speed data transmission to users.

It also allows the transmission of 384kbps for mobile systems and 2Mbps for stationary systems. 3G users are expected to have greater capacity and improved spectrum efficiency, which will allow them to access global roaming between different 3G net workings.

The main characteristics of 3G are to provide mobile multimedia services at transmission rate of 144kbps at the highspeed 384kbps at the speed of walking 2Mbps indoors This theoretical maximum (2Mbps) is close to the speed of LAN connections that many households nowadays have. In addition, 3G networks can offer faster data transmission than the slowest.

What are the benefits of 3G?

Packet-based data provides several advantages over the existing circuit-switched techniques used for carrying mobile voice. It allows higher call volumes and support for multimedia data applications, such as video and photography. Users will be charged on how much data they transmit, not on how much time they are connected to the network, because with 3G you are constantly online and only pay for the information you receive.

ARCHITECTURE:

Internet

Subscription

Registers

Serving

Node - C

Access Network

Serving

Node - U

Inter -connection

Service

Gateway

O perator

service

network

UE = User Equipment BS = Base Station

SN-U = Serving Node (User plane)

SN-C = Serving Node (Controlplane)

SGW = Service Gateway

Terminal availability:

The availability of user-friendly, affordable terminals is paramount to the speed of adoption of new technologies. It is critical at this stage to gain a clear understanding of vendor plans with regards to multimode and multi-band handset supply for 3G services. Backwards compatibility with existing 2G and 2.5G networks is key to the success of 3G. The upgrade from GSM to UMTS and the availability of dual-mode handsets is confirmed as are the terminals for CDMA and CDMA 1X.

A LOOK AT 3G SERVICES â€œIS THERE ANYTHING NEW?

In general terms, 3G services comprise of Mobile Internet â€œBrowsing the Web from Mobile The term mobile Internet, or Internet in mobile, refers to gaining access to the Internet using a handheld, wireless device like a mobile phone or pda. Internet offers the advantage of always being near at hand, and of being a personal tool. On this basis possible successful services might be services developed for traveling like ticketing, checking schedules, traffic reports and related services.

Messaging services

Mobile messaging, referring to short message service (SMS) and multimedia message service (MMS), is expected to be the most utilized mobile service in the future. It is estimated that step-by-step consumers as well as business users will upgrade their messaging from sending simple text messages to multimedia messages including pictures and video clips However, in 3G networks the data transmission speed is depended upon the number of users accessing the network at the same point of time Location-specific information like informing users about the availability of stores, restaurants, gas stations, free parking lots and so on near them . Direct access to company networks business users will have a direct access to company networks while traveling or working outside office.

Third party organization:

The combination of 3g and ecommerce is leading to Ëœalwaysonâ„¢ technology enabling data to be transferred on a number of ways-not just by making a phone call. This could open up opportunities for the people to be charged by the amount data that they transfer.

City on air:

This world first development of a live 3g transmission provides a multimedia web based tourist guide with related Ëœfind me the nearestâ„¢ services, by knowing your location, your terminal can be used to find a certain street, make a hotel booking or calculate your hotel distance from the city center.

Expecting a friend to arrive by train to meet u? Using location aware technology, our Ëœbuddy finderâ„¢, can track them and notify u when they are within a certain distance.

A 3G PHONE:

Z1010 is music, video calling and full speed mobile video messaging. With this phone, you can access and enjoy the latest and most advanced operator services. UMTS makes everything go faster and smoother. With 3G video calling, you can see the person on the other end in full color and real-time movement. And they can see you. Z1010 also has an MP3 player for your favorite songs And Memory Stick Duo@ when you want to store more. Memory capacity may vary dependant on network provider and content stored/downloaded onto the phone.

Features:

Imaging Camera VGA Messaging Email Entertainment Content Online Communi Corder EMS (Enhanced Messaging) MMS(Multi Media Messaging) Games embedded Predictive text input MPEG4 Video Picture wallpaper Video call Video clip Video streaming Viewfinder display SMS long (Text messaging) Sound recorder MP3 Audio Melody composer MusicDJâ€žÂ¢ Start-up/Shutdown shows Media playerConnectivity Bluetoothâ€žÂ¢ technology GPRS Infrared

Internet

Modem

WAP 2.0 XHTML

WAP 1.2.1

RS232 cable support

UMTS

USB support

Conclusion:

3G is considered to be the evolution of existing mobile communications. In the light of the discussion in this paper, there is strong evidence to suggest that the main outcome of using 3G networks and services will be to get access to the same services with faster data connection speed. Furthermore, it seems that the success of 3G lies in its ability to serve not only mobile users but in providing access to the Internet with data cardsinserted in laptops. Thus, 3G networks will serve the same purpose as LAN and WLAN networks. In terms of business opportunities, telecommunication companiesâ„¢ main source of income is still coming from voice-centric services. For example, the mobile operator Hutchinson, offering services purely in 3G networks, announced this autumn 2006 that its main source of income comes from discount packets that offer free speech time in 3G networks. Moreover, as long as the price of the network time is high in 3G, operators cannot wait fast diffusion of data centric mobile services. According to mobile operators, 3G is needed in congested places where the demand on current mobile networks exceeds the capacity.

On this basis, future research that identifies additional factors or views the factors presented in different light would contribute to the understanding of 3G acceptance. Thus, a natural extension of this study is the collection of primary data about the use and acceptance of 3G services in both consumer and business markets

ROBOTICS

2012-03-08T02:45:00.000-08:00

ROBOT---Mechatronic device consists of Brain (computer) and sensors
and mechanical parts. There are four laws to be followed for Robo implimentation
Robots predict like Human by applying ARRTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE concept to them.
Then they can think like Humans that is they acquire SIXTH SENSE.
RISE OF MACHINES that is ROBOT has undergone four types of step by step Generation.
Robot is a combination of many systems such as Controller, Mobility, Sensor etc…
The robot Hands are moved using the MATRIX Transformation techniques.
Robots have advantage over many fields such as medical, space, agriculture etc…
There are some dangerous things may happen by robots when they do dangerous jobs.
Robot –The TERMINATOR which can terminate the given job without failure.

"Robotics is a tool for learning through experience and discovery."
- Jeneva Westendorf

Introduction to Robots

"We don't remember a world without robots.
For us, a robot is a robot. Gears and metal; electricity and
positrons. Mind and iron! Human-made! If necessary, humandestroyed!
But we haven't worked with them, so we don't know
them. They're a cleaner better breed than we are."

Who am I?
 The word "robot' was coined by Karel Capek who
wrote a play entitled "R.U.R." or "Rossum's
Universal Robots" back in 1921. The base for this
word comes from the Czech word 'robotnik' which
means 'worker'.

 But even before that the Greeks made movable
statues that were the beginnings of what we would call robots.

 For the most part, the word "Robot" today means any man-made
machine that can perform work or other actions normally
performed by Humans.
A robot is a machine that imitates the actions or
appearance of an intelligent creature- usually a
human & gathers information about its environment
(senses) and uses that information (thinks) to follow
instructions to do work (acts)

To qualify as a robot, a machine has to be able to do two things:
1) Get information from its surroundings
2) Do something physical–such as move or manipulate objects.
This is the working definition of robots that Robotics exhibit
developers used for this exhibit. Today technology is changing at incredible rates making
the identification of a robot somewhat difficult. Things that we use everyday incorporate
features beyond those of early robots.

Robots are ideal for jobs that require repetitive, precise movements. Human
workers need a safe working environment, salaries, breaks, food and sleep.
Robots don’t. Human workers get bored doing the same thing over and
over,which can lead to fatigue and costly mistakes. Robots don’t get bored.

What are Robots Made Of?

Robots have 3 main components:
 Brain - usually a computer
 Actuators and mechanical parts - motors, pistons, grippers, wheels, gears
 Sensors - vision, sound, temperature, motion, light, touch, etc.
With these three components, robots can interact and affect their environment to
become useful.

What Do Robots Do?
Most robots today are used in factories to build products such as
cars and electronics. Others are used to explore underwater and even on other planets.
Laws of Robotics
Laws of Robotics:
# A robot must not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm.
# A robot must always obey orders given to it by a human being, except where it
would conflict with the first law.

# A robot must protect it's own existence, except where it would conflict with the
first or second law.
Later, this "Zeroth Law" is added:
# A robot must not injure a humananity or, through inaction, allow a humananity to come
to harm.
Once the robots are used to fight wars, they turn on their human owners and take
over the world.

SIXTH SENSE:

ROBOT SENSING:
The use of external sensing mechanisms allows a robot to interact with its
environment in a flexible manner. This is in contrast to preprogrammed operations in
which a robot is “taught” to perform repretitive tasks via a set of preprogrammed
functions.
The use of sensing technology to endow machines with a greater degree of
intelligence in dealing with their environment is indeed an active topic of research and
development in the robotics field.

The function of robot sensors may be divided into two principal categories:
1. Internal state.
2. External State.

Internal state sensors deal with the detection of variables such as
arm joint position, which are used for robot control.

External state sensors, on the other hand, deal with the detection of
variables such as range, proximity and touch.

External sensing is used for robot guidance as well as for object
identification and handling. Although proximity,, touch, vision is recognized as the most
powerful of robot sensory capabilities, Robot vision may be defined as the process of
extraction, characterizing, and interpreting information from images of a threedimensional
world. The process, also commonly referred to as machine or computer
vision, may be subdivided into six principal areas:
1. Sensing.
2. Preprocessing.
3. Segmentation.
4. Description.
5. Recognition.
6. Interpretation.
It is convenient to group these various areas of vision according to the
sophistication involved in their implementation. We consider three levels of processing:
low, medium and high level vision.
Here, we shall treat sensing and preprocessing as low-level vision
functions. This will take us from the image formation process itself to compensations
such as noise reduction, and finally to the extraction of primitive image features such as
intensity discontinuities.

By 2050 robot "brains" based on computers that execute 100 trillion
instructions per second will start rivaling human intelligence
In terms of our six subdivisions, we will treat segmentation, description, and
recognition of individual objects as medium-level vision functions.
High-level visions refer to processes that attempt to emulate cognition.
Artificial Intelligence:
 Sensing
Learn about human and robotic vision systems, explore three modes
of robotic sensing, and apply a robotic sensory mode to a specific task.
 Thinking
Human thinking (heuristic) and robotic thinking (algorithmic) will be
explored as you gain an understanding of why a robot needs specific
instructions.
Rise of the Robots
Nervous Tissue and Computation
If we accept that computers will eventually be come powerful
enough to simulate the mind, the question that naturally arises is: What
processing rate will be necessary to yield performance on a parallel with the
human brain?
By comparing how fast the neural circuits in the retina
perform image-processing operations with how many instructions per second it
takes a computer to accomplish similar work, believe it is possible to at least
coarsely estimate the information-processing power of nervous tissue and by
extrapolation, that of the entire human nervous system.

Motion detection in retina, if performed by efficient software,
requires the execution of at least 100 computer instructions. Thus, to accomplish
the retina's 10 million detections per second would require at least 1,000 MIPS.
The entire human brain is about 75,000 times heavier than
the 0.02 gram of processing circuitry in the retina, which implies that it would
take, in round numbers, 100 million MIPS (100 trillion instructions per second) to
emulate the 1,500-gram human brain. Personal computers in 1999 beat certain
insects but lose to the human retina and even to the 0.1-gram brain of a goldfish.
A typical PC would have to be at least a million times more powerful to perform
like a human brain.
Certain dangerous jobs are best done by robots. Guided remotely using
video cameras, the Mini-Andros can investigate–and defuse–bombs.

A Sense of Space
Robots that chart their own routes emerged from laboratories
worldwide in the mid 1990s, as microprocessors reached 100 MIPS. Most build
two-dimensional maps from sonar or laser rangefinder scans to locate and route
themselves, and the best seem able to navigate office hallways for days before
becoming disoriented.
Too often different locations in the coarse maps resemble
one another. Conversely, the same location, scanned at different heights, looks
different, or small obstacles or awkward protrusions are overlooked. But sensors,
computers and techniques are improving, and success is in sight.

Fast Replay
Income and experience from spatially aware industrial robots
would set the stage for smarter yet cheaper ($1,000 rather than $10,000)
consumer products, starting probably with small robot vacuum cleaners that
automatically learn their way around a home, explore unoccupied rooms and
clean whenever needed.
Commercial success will provoke competition and accelerate
investment in manufacturing, engineering and research.
Vacuuming robots ought to beget smarter cleaning robots
with dusting, scrubbing and picking-up arms, followed by larger multifunction
utility robots with stronger, more dexterous arms and better sensors.
Programs will be written to make such machines pick up
clutter, store, retrieve and deliver things, take inventory, guard homes, open
doors, mow lawns, play games and so on.
New applications will expand the market and spur further
advances when robots fall short in acuity, precision, strength, reach, dexterity,
skill or processing power. Capability, numbers sold, engineering and
manufacturing quality, and cost-effectiveness will increase in a mutually
reinforcing spiral.
Perhaps by 2010 the process will have produced the first
broadly competent "universal robots," as big as people but with lizard like 5,000-
MIPS minds that can be programmed for almost any simple chore.

Robots also can go into dangerously polluted environments, like chemical spills or
radioactive "hot zones" in nuclear power plants.
A first-generation universal robots will handle only
contingencies explicitly covered in their application programs. Unable to adapt to
changing circumstances, they will often perform inefficiently or not at all. Still, so
much physical work awaits them in businesses, streets, fields and homes that
robotics could begin to overtake pure information technology commercially.
A second generation of universal robot with a
mouselike 100,000 MIPS will adapt as the first generation does not and will even
be trainable. Besides application programs, such robots would host a suite of
software "conditioning modules" that would generate positive and negative
reinforcement signals in predefined circumstances.
For example, doing jobs fast and keeping its batteries charged
will be positive; hitting or breaking something will be negative. There will be other
ways to accomplish each stage of an application program, from the minutely
specific (grasp the handle underhand or overhand) to the broadly general (work
indoors or outdoors). As jobs are repeated, alternatives that result in positive
reinforcement will be favored, those with negative outcomes shunned. Slowly but
surely, second-generation robots will work increasingly well.
A third generation of robots to learn very quickly from
mental rehearsals in simulations that model physical, cultural and psychological
factors. Physical properties include shape, weight, strength, texture and
appearance of things, and how to handle them. Cultural aspects include a thing's
name, value, proper location and purpose.

Psychological factors, applied to humans and robots alike
include goals, beliefs, feelings and preferences. Developing the simulators will be
a huge undertaking involving thousands of programmers and experiencegathering
robots.
The simulation would track external events and tune its models
to keep them faithful to reality. It would let a robot learn a skill by imitation and
afford a kind of consciousness. Asked why there are candles on the table, a
third-generation robot might consult its simulation of house, owner and self to
reply that it put them there because its owner likes candlelit dinners and it likes to
please its owner. Further queries would elicit more details about a simple inner
mental life concerned only with concrete situations and people in its work area.
Fourth-generation universal robots with a
humanlike 100 million MIPS will be able to abstract and generalize. They will
result from melding powerful reasoning programs to third-generation machines.
These reasoning programs will be the far more sophisticated descendants of
today's theorem provers and expert systems, which mimic human reasoning to
make medical diagnoses, schedule routes, make financial decisions, configure
computer systems, and analyze seismic data to locate oil deposits and so on.
Properly educated, the resulting robots will be come quite
formidable. In fact, I am sure they will outperform us in any conceivable area of
endeavor, intellectual or physical. Inevitably, such a development will lead to a
fundamental restructuring of our society. Entire corporations will exist without any
human employees or investors at all. Humans will play a pivotal role in
formulating the intricate complex of laws that will govern corporate behavior.
Ultimately, though, it is likely that our descendants will
cease to work in the sense that we do now. They will probably occupy their days
with a variety of social, recreational and artistic pursuits, not unlike today's
comfortable retirees or the wealthy leisure classes.

Robot Systems
Robots are comprised of several systems working together as a
whole.

The type of job the robot does dictates what system elements it needs. The
general categories of robot systems are:
 Controller
 Body
 Mobility
 Power
 Sensors
 Tools
Controller
The controller is the robot's brain and controls the robot's
movements. It's usually a computer of some type which is used to store information
about the robot and the work environment and to store and execute programs
which operate the robot.

The control system contains programs, data algorithms, logic
analysis and various other processing activities which enable the robot to perform.
The picture above is an AARM Motion control system. AARM
stands for Advanced Architecture Robot and Machine Motion and it's a commercial
product from American Robot for industrial machine motion control.
Industrial controllers are either non-servos, point-to-point servos or continuous
path servos.
A non-servo robot usually moves parts from one area to another and
is called a "pick and place" robot. The non-servo robot motion is started by the
controller and stopped by a mechanical stop switch. The stop switch sends a signal
back to the controller which starts the next motion.
A point-to-point servo moves to exact points so only the stops in the
path are programmed.
A continuous path servo is appropriate when a robot must proceed
on a specified path in a smooth, constant motion.
Mobile robots can operate by remote control or autonomously. A remote control
robot receives instructions from a human operator. In a direct remote control
situation, the robot relays information to the operator about the remote
environment and the operator then sends the robot instructions based on the
information received. This sequence can occur immediately (real-time) or with a
time delay.
Autonomous robots are programmed to understand their
environment and take independent action based on the knowledge they posses.
Some autonomous robots are able to "learn" from their past encounters. This means
they can identify a situation, process actions which have produced
successful/unsuccessful results and modify their behavior to optimize success. This
activity takes place in the robot controller.

Body
The body of a robot is related to the job it must perform.
Industrial robots often take the shape of a bodyless arm since its job requires it to
remain stationary relative to its task. Space robots have many different body
shapes such as a sphere, a platform with wheels or legs, or a ballon, depending on
it's job.

The free-flying rover, Sprint Aercam is a sphere to minimize
damage if it were to bump into the shuttle or an astronaut.
Some planetary rovers have solar platforms driven by wheels to traverse
terrestrial environments. Aerobot bodies are balloons that will float through the
atmosphere of other worlds collecting data. When evaluating what body type is
right for a robot, remember that form follows function.

Mobility
How do robots move? It all depends on the job they have to do
and the environment they operate in.
In the Water: Conventional unmanned, submersible robots are
used in science and industry throughout the oceans of the world. You probably saw
the Jason AUV at work when pictures of the Titanic discovery were broadcast. To
get around, automated underwater vehicles (AUV's) use propellers and rudders to
control their direction of travel.
One area of research suggests that an underwater robot like
RoboTuna could propel itself as a fish does using its natural undulatory motion. It's
thought that robot that move like fish would be quieter, more maneuverable and
more energy efficient.

On Land:
Land based rovers can move around on legs, tracks or
wheels. Dante II is a frame walking robot that is able to descend into volcano
craters by rapelling down the crater. Dante has eight legs; four legs on each of two
frames. The frames are separated by a track along which the frames slide relative
to each other. In most cases Dante II has at least one frame (four legs) touching
the ground.
An example of a track driven robot is Pioneer, a robot
developed to clear rubble, make maps and acquire samples at the Chornobyl Nuclear
Reactor site. Pioneer is track-driven like a small bulldozer which makes it suitable
for driving over and through rubble. The wide track footprint gives good stability
and platform capacity to deploy payloads.
Many robots use wheels for locomotion.

In the Air/Space:
Robots that operate in the air use engines and thrusters to
get around.
One example is the Cassini, an orbiter on its way to Saturn. Movement and
positioning is accomplished by either firing small thrusters or by applying a force to
speed up or slow down one or more of three "reaction wheels." The thrusters and
reaction wheels orient the spacecraft in three axes which are maintained with
great precision.

TRANSFORMATION ‘MATRIX’:
Robot arm kinematics deals with the analytical study of the geometry
of motion of a robot arm with respect to the fixed reference coordinate system without
regard to the forces/moments that cause the motion.
Thus, kinematics deals with the analytical description of the spatial
displacement of the robot as a function of time, in particular the relations between the
joint variable space and the position and orientation of the end-effector of a robot arm.
There are two fundamental problems in robot arm kinematics.
The first problem is usually referred to as the direct (or forward)
kinematics problem,
Second problem is the inverse kinematics (or arm solution) problem.
Since the independent variables in a robot arm are the joint variables, and a task is
usually stated in terms of the reference coordinate frame, the inverse kinematics problem
is used more frequently.
Denavit and Hartenberg [1955] proposed a systematic and generalized
approach of utilizing matrix algebra to describe and represent the spatial geometry of the
links of a robot arm with respect to a fixed reference frame. This method uses a 4*4
homogeneous transformation matrix to describe the spatial relationship between two
adjacent right mechanical links and reduces the direct kinematics problem to finding an
equivalent 4*4 homogeneous transformation matrix that relates the spatial displacement
of the hand coordinate frame to the reference coordinate frame.

Power
Power for industrial robots can be electric, pneumatic or
hydraulic. Electric motors are efficient, require little maintenance, and aren't very
noisy. Pneumatic robots use compressed air and come in a wide variety of sizes. A
pneumatic robot requires another source of energy such as electricity, propane or
gasoline to provide the compressed air.
Hydraulic robots use oil under pressure and generally
perform heavy duty jobs. This power type is noisy, large and heavier than the other
power sources. A hydraulic robot also needs another source of energy to move the
fluids through its components.
Pneumatic and hydraulic robots require
maintenance of the tubes, fittings and hoses that connect the
components and distribute the energy.
Two important sources of electric power for mobile
robots are solar cells and batteries.

Sensors
Sensors are the perceptual system of a robot and measure physical
quantities like contact, distance, light, sound, strain, rotation, magnetism, smell,
temperature, inclination, pressure, or altitude.
Sensors provide the raw information or signals that must be
processed through the robot's computer brain to provide meaningful information.
Robots are equipped with sensors so they can have an understanding of their
surrounding environment and make changes in their behavior based on the
information they have gathered.
Sensors can permit a robot to have an adequate field of view, a
range of detection and the ability to detect objects while operating in real or nearreal
time within its power and size limits.
Additionally, a robot might have an acoustic sensor to detect
sound, motion or location, infrared sensors to detect heat sources, contact sensors,
tactile sensors to give a sense of touch, or optical/vision sensors. For most any
environmental situation, a robot can be equipped with an appropriate sensor. A
robot can also monitor itself with sensors.

Tools
As working machines, robots have defined job duties and carry
all the tools they need to accomplish their tasks onboard their bodies. Many robots
carry their tools at the end of a manipulator.
The manipulator contains a series of segments, jointed or sliding
relative to one another for the purpose of moving objects.
The manipulator includes the arm, wrist and end-effector. An
end-effector is a tool or gripping mechanism attached to the end of a robot arm to
accomplish some task.
It often encompasses a motor or a driven mechanical device.
An end-effector can be a sensor, a gripping device, a paint gun, a drill, an arc
welding device, etc. There are many examples of robot tools that you will discover
as you examine the literature associated with this site. To get you going, two good
examples are listed below.
Tools are unique to the task the robot must perform.
Advantages of Robotics
The advantages are obvious - robots can do things we humans
just don't want to do, and usually do it cheaper.
Robots can do things more precise than humans and allow
progress in medical science and other useful advances.
Educational Goals
Robotics was designed to introduce the science behind the design and operation of
robots, and after interacting with the exhibit, you will be able to:
1. Define a robot as a machine that gathers information about its environment
(senses) and uses that information (thinks) to follow instructions to do work
(acts).
2. Recognize the advantages and limitations of robots by comparing how robots
and humans sense, think, and act and by exploring uses of robots in
manufacturing, research, and everyday settings.
3. Understand your connection with technology and create an excitement about
science and math that will prepare you for a workplace in which computer,
robotics, and automation are common and essential.
Each major thematic area of the exhibit has specific educational goals accomplished
using hands-on activities that compare how human and robotic systems sense, think,
and act.

APPLCIATONS:
Robots have many applications.
Industrial robots have long been used for welding and painting.
Laboratory robots are used for many repetitive tasks in chemistry,
biology and clinical chemistry labs.
Medical robots are being designed for Computer Assisted Surgery.
In space, robots are being used for unmanned missions to planets,
comets and asteroids.
The Impact of Robotics on Society
Robotics and Sensors in Crop Production
Goals:
 To develop robotic systems for selective harvesting of field crops.
 To develop sensors for locating fruit by robotic harvesters.
 To develop sensors for determining fruit ripeness and for predicting shelf-life
nondestructively, and
 To develop sensors for site-specifically application of chemicals onto individual
plants.
Statement of Problem:
Intelligent machines must be capable of sensing the environment
and properties of the bio-materials which it is handling.
Robotic harvesting requires sensors to detect and precisely locate
all the fruit. In many cases the robot must also determine ripeness in order to selectively
harvest only the fruit ready for market.
Research at Purdue University and the Agricultural Research
Organization (Volcani Center) in Israel has developed the robotic manipulators, machine
vision and image processing technologies necessary to harvest musk melons. The VIPROMPER
(Volcani Institute - Purdue University Robotic Melon Picker) traveling at 2
cm/sec with a manipulator speed of 75 cm/sec was able to detect over 93% of the fruit,
and successfully picked more than 85% of the melons.

Current Activities:
Visible features of plants enable humans to distinguish weeds
from crops, and to see individual parts of plants. A machine vision and image processing
system capable of extracting and classifying these same features could be used to initiate
a spot sprayer or other control technology.
The general objective of this research is to develop sensor
technologies which permit chemicals to be applied site-specifically on plants in a manner
which minimizes the quantity required to control crop pests.
The specific objectives are:
1. Develop machine vision hardware and image processing software to locate
small seedlings, distinguish weeds from the cultivated crop, and measure
parameters which affect the quantity and location of chemical to be applied;
2. Develop image processing and pattern recognition algorithms which can
interpret the sensed data in real-time, and;
3. Develop artificial intelligence algorithms (expert systems, neural networks,
etc.) capable of making real-time decisions concerning when and how much
chemical to apply, based on perceived conditions.
The first step to complete these objectives is to create a database of multispectral,
digital, images of plants which contain the desired features. This
database of plant images is currently being created, and will become accessible
to cooperators over the World Wide Web to test and evaluate the performance of
image processing and pattern recognition algorithms.

Today’s Robotics:
Today, robots are enjoying resurgence. Faster and cheaper
computer processors make robots smarter and less expensive. Meanwhile, researchers
are working on ways to make robots move and "think" more efficiently. Although most
robots in use today are designed for specific tasks, the goal is to make universal robots,
robots flexible enough to do just about anything a human can do.
Problems with Robotics
 As with any machine, robots can break and even cause
disaster.
 They are powerful machines that we allow to control certain
things.
 When something goes wrong, terrible things can happen.
Luckily, this is rare because robotic systems are designed
with many safety features that limit the harm they can do.
There's also the problem of evil people using robots for evil
purposes. This is true today with other forms of technology
such as weapons and biological material.
 Of course, robots could be used in future wars. This could be
good or bad. If humans perform their aggressive acts by
sending machines out to fight other machines, that would be
better than sending humans out to fight other humans.
 Steams of robots could be used to defend a country against
attacks while limiting Human casualties. Either way, human
nature is the flawed component that's here to stay.

CONCLUSION
ROBOT – ‘THE TERMINATOR’:
The ROBOT which terminates every job within a shortest period has no termination.
Human brain has boundaries up to which it thinks, but for Computers no
limitations .That is we have to use the brain up to the capacity of neurons in our brain.
But there is no limit to computer memory.

Flip Flop Conversion

2012-03-07T23:22:00.000-08:00

For the conversion of one flip flop to another, a combinational circuit has to be designed first. If a JK Flip Flop is required, the inputs are given to the combinational circuit and the output of the combinational circuit is connected to the inputs of the actual flip flop. Thus, the output of the actual flip flop is the output of the required flip flop. In this post, the following flip flop conversions will be explained.

SR Flip Flop to JK Flip Flop

SR Flip Flop to JK Flip Flop

As told earlier, J and K will be given as external inputs to S and R. As shown in the logic diagram below, S and R will be the outputs of the combinational circuit.

The truth tables for the flip flop conversion are given below. The present state is represented by Qp and Qp+1 is the next state to be obtained when the J and K inputs are applied.

For two inputs J and K, there will be eight possible combinations. For each combination of J, K and Qp, the corresponding Qp+1 states are found. Qp+1 simply suggests the future values to be obtained by the JK flip flop after the value of Qp. The table is then completed by writing the values of S and R required to get each Qp+1 from the corresponding Qp. That is, the values of S and R that are required to change the state of the flip flop from Qp to Qp+1 are written.

JK Flip Flop to SR Flip Flop

This will be the reverse process of the above explained conversion. S and R will be the external inputs to J and K. As shown in the logic diagram below, J and K will be the outputs of the combinational circuit. Thus, the values of J and K have to be obtained in terms of S, R and Qp. The logic diagram is shown below.

A conversion table is to be written using S, R, Qp, Qp+1, J and K. For two inputs, S and R, eight combinations are made. For each combination, the corresponding Qp+1 outputs are found ut. The outputs for the combinations of S=1 and R=1 are not permitted for an SR flip flop. Thus the outputs are considered invalid and the J and K values are taken as “don’t cares”.

SR Flip Flop to D Flip Flop

As shown in the figure, S and R are the actual inputs of the flip flop and D is the external input of the flip flop. The four combinations, the logic diagram, conversion table, and the K-map for S and R in terms of D and Qp are shown below.

D Flip Flop to SR Flip Flop

D is the actual input of the flip flop and S and R are the external inputs. Eight possible combinations are achieved from the external inputs S, R and Qp. But, since the combination of S=1 and R=1 are invalid, the values of Qp+1 and D are considered as “don’t cares”. The logic diagram showing the conversion from D to SR, and the K-map for D in terms of S, R and Qp are shown below.

JK Flip Flop to T Flip Flop

J and K are the actual inputs of the flip flop and T is taken as the external input for conversion. Four combinations are produced with T and Qp. J and K are expressed in terms of T and Qp. The conversion table, K-maps, and the logic diagram are given below.

JK Flip Flop to D Flip Flop

D is the external input and J and K are the actual inputs of the flip flop. D and Qp make four combinations. J and K are expressed in terms of D and Qp. The four combination conversion table, the K-maps for J and K in terms of D and Qp, and the logic diagram showing the conversion from JK to D are given below.

D Flip Flop to JK Flip Flop

In this conversion, D is the actual input to the flip flop and J and K are the external inputs. J, K and Qp make eight possible combinations, as shown in the conversion table below. D is expressed in terms of J, K and Qp.

The conversion table, the K-map for D in terms of J, K and Qp and the logic diagram showing the conversion from D to JK are given in the figure below.

MP & MC Programs

2012-03-07T21:50:00.000-08:00

PROGRAM 1: 8-BIT ADDITION

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START: MOV AL, 25H

MOV BL, 12H

ADD AL, BL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX =

PROGRAM 2: 8-BIT SUBTRACTION

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START: MOV AL, 25H

MOV BL, 12H

SUB AL, BL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX =

PROGRAM 3: 8-BIT MULTIPLICATION

(UNSIGNED)

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

MOV AL, 09

MOV BL, 08

MUL BL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT: AX =

PROGRAM 4: 8-BIT MULTIPLICATION (SIGNED)

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

MOV AL, F7 ; NEGATIVE NUMBER IN AL

MOV BL, 08

IMUL BL ; SIGNED MULTIPLICATION

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT: AX =

PROGRAM 5: 8-BIT DIVISION (SIGNED)

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

MOV AL, F7 ; NEGATIVE NUMBER IN AL

MOV BL, 08

IDIV BL ; SIGNED MULTIPLICATION

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT: AX = ; QUOTIENT IN AL

; REMAINDER IN AH

PROGRAM 6: 8-BIT DIVISION (UNSIGNED)

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

MOV AL, 09

MOV BL, 08

DIV BL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX = ; QUOTIENT IN AL

; REMAINDER IN AH

PROGRAM 7: 16-BIT ADDITION

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START: MOV AX, 2512H

MOV BX, 1223H

ADD AX, BX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX =

PROGRAM 8: 16-BIT SUBTRACTION

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START: MOV AX, 2512H

MOV BX, 1223H

SUB AX, BX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX =

PROGRAM 9: 16-BIT MULTIPLICATION

(UNSIGNED)

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

SUB DX,DX

MOV AX, 1234H

MOV BX, 5678H

MUL BX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX =

DX =

PROGRAM 10: 16-BIT MULTIPLICATION (SIGNED)

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

SUB DX, DX

MOV AX, EDCCH

MOV BX, 5678H

IMUL BX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX =

DX =

PROGRAM 11: 16-BIT DIVISION (SIGNED)

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

SUB DX, DX

MOV AX, 1234H

MOV BX, 5678H

IDIV BX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX = ; QUOTIENT IN AX

DX = ; REMAINDER IN DX

PROGRAM 12: 16-BIT DIVISION (UNSIGNED)

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

SUB DX, DX

MOV AX, 1234H

MOV BX, 5678H

DIV BX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX = ; QUOTIENT IN AX

DX = ; REMAINDER IN DX

PROGRAM 13: 32-BIT ADDITION

DATA SEGMENT

NUM1 DD ?

NUM2 DD ?

SUM DW 4 DUP (?)

CARRY DB ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV CL, 00H

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1

ADD WORD PTR NUM2

MOV SUM+2, AX

MOV SUM,DX

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1+2

ADC AX, WORD PTR NUM2+2

JNC NOCARRY

INC CL

NOCARRY: MOV SUM+6, AX

MOV SUM+4,DX

MOV CARRY, CL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

Result:

Input:

Output:

PROGRAM 14: 32-BIT SUBTRACTION

DATA SEGMENT

NUM1 DD ?

NUM2 DD ?

SUM DW 4 DUP (?)

CARRY DB ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV CL, 00H

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1

SUB AX,WORD PTR NUM2

MOV SUM+2, AX

MOV SUM,DX

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1+2

SBB AX, WORD PTR NUM2+2

JNC NOCARRY

INC CL

NOCARRY: MOV SUM+6, AX

MOV SUM+4,DX

MOV CARRY, CL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

Result:

Input:

Output:

PROGRAM 15: 32-BIT MULTIPLICATION

DATA SEGMENT

NUM1 DD ?

NUM2 DD ?

SUM DW 4 DUP (?)

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV CL, 00H

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1

Mul WORD PTR NUM2

MOV SUM, AX

MOV SUM+2,DX

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1+2

Mul WORD PTR NUM2+2

MOV SUM+4, AX

MOV SUM+6,DX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

Result:

Input:

Output

PROGRAM 16: 32-BIT DIVISION

DATA SEGMENT

NUM1 DD ?

NUM2 DW ?

SUM DW 2 DUP (?)

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1

DIV WORD PTR NUM2

MOV SUM, AX

MOV SUM+2,DX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 17: MULTIBYTE ADDITION

DATA SEGMENT

NUM1 DD?

NUM2 DD?

SUM DW 2 DUP (?)

CARRY DB ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV CL, 00H

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1

ADD AX, WORD PTR NUM2

MOV SUM, AX

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1+2

ADC AX, WORD PTR NUM2+2

JNC NOCARRY

INC CL

NOCARRY: MOV SUM+2, AX

MOV CARRY, CL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

PROGRAM 18: MULTIBYTE SUBTRACTION

DATA SEGMENT

NUM1 DD?

NUM2 DD?

RESULT DW 2 DUP (?)

CARRY DB ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV CL, 00H

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1

SUB AX, WORD PTR NUM2

MOV RESULT, AX

MOV AX, WORD PTR NUM1+2

SBB AX, WORD PTR NUM2+2

JNC NOCARRY

INC CL

NOCARRY: MOV RESULT+2, AX

MOV CARRY, CL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

PROGRAM19 : Evaluate the given signed arithmetic operation.

Q = ((V – (X * Y + Z – 540))/ X

.DATA

V DW 0640HH

X DW 0005H

Y DW 0002H

Z DW 0020H

Q DW?

R DW?

.CODE

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, @DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AX, 0005H

MOV BX,0002H

IMUL BX

MOV CX, AX

MOV BX, DX

MOV AX, 0020H

CWD

ADD CX, AX

ADC BX, DX

SUB CX, 540H

SBB BX, 0

MOV AX, 0640H

CWD

SUB AX, CX

SBB DX, BX

IDIV X

MOV Q, AX

MOV R, DX

END START

PROGRAM 20: ASCII 8-BIT ADDITION

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

MOV SI, 2050

MOV AL, [SI]

INC SI

MOV BL, [SI]

ADD AL, BL ; CHECK THE CARRY FLAG (IF THE RESULT IS EXCEED

; THE 8-BIT THEN CARRY FLAG =1)

AAA

INC SI

MOV [SI], AL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

DATA: RESULT:

PROGRAM 21 : ASCII 8-BIT SUBTRACTION

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

MOV SI, 2050

MOV AL, [SI]

INC SI

MOV BL, [SI]

SUB AL, BL ; CHECK THE CARRY FLAG (IF THE RESULT IS EXCEED

; THE 8-BIT THEN CARRY FLAG =1)

AAS

INC SI

MOV [SI], AL

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

DATA: RESULT:

PROGRAM 22: ASCII 8-BIT MULTIPLICATION

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

MOV SI, 2050

MOV AL, [SI]

INC SI

MOV BL, [SI]

MUL BL

AAM

INC SI

MOV [SI], AL

INC SI

MOV [SI], AH ; IF THE RESULT EXCEDD THE 8-BIT THEN

; EXTRA DATA IN AH REGISTER

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

DATA: RESULT:

PROGRAM 23: ASCII 8-BIT DIVISION

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START:

SUB AX, AX

SUB BX, BX

MOV SI, 2050

MOV AL, [SI]

INC SI

MOV BL, [SI]

AAD

DIV BL

INC SI

MOV [SI], AL ; (QUOTIENT IN AL REGISTER)

INC SI

MOV [SI], AH ; (REMAINDER IN AH REGISTER)

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

DATA: RESULT:

PROGRAM 24: PRINT NO.OF POSITIVE NO'S

AND NO.OF NEGATIVE NO'S

DATA SEGMENT

LIST DW 1234H, 3413H, 0FFFH,B2C3H, 3456H

COUNT EQU 05H

POS DB?

NEG1 DB?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV SI, OFFSET LIST

MOV CX, COUNT

MOV DX, 0000H

MOV BX, 0000H

AGAIN: MOV AX,[SI]

ROL AX, 1

JC NEGE

INC DX

JMP NEXT

NEGE:INC BX

NEXT:ADD SI, 02

DEC CX

JNZ AGAIN

MOV POS, BX

MOV NEG1, DX

INT 21

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 25: PROGRAM TO COMPUTE NCR USING RECURSIVE PROCEDURE

DATA SEGMENT

N DB ?

R DB ?

NF DW ?

RF DW ?

RESULT DW ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS:CODE,DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX,DATA ; INITIALIZE DATA SEGMENT

MOV DS,AX

MOV CH,00H

MOV CL,N

CALL FACT ; N FACTORIAL

MOV NF,AX ; SAVE N FACTORIAL

MOV CL,R

CALL FACT ; R FACTORIAL

MOV RF,AX ; SAVE R FACTORIAL

MOV CL,N

SUB CL,R ; N-R

CALL FACT ; N-R FACTORIAL

MOV BX,AX ; SAVE N-R FACTORIAL

MOV DX,00H

MOV AX,NF

DIV BX ; AX=N!/(N-R)!

DIV RF ; AX=N!/(N-R)!R!

MOV RESULT,AX

INT 21H

FACT PROC NEAR

MOV AX,01H

BACK: MUL CX

LOOP BACK

RET

FACT ENDP

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 26: PACKED BCD TO UNPACKED BCD

DATA SEGMENT

PBCD DB?

UPBCD DW?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AL, PBCD

MOV BL, AL

AND BL, 0FH

AND AL, 0F0H

MOV CL, 04

ROR AL, CL

MOV AH, AL

MOV AL, BL

MOV UPBCD, AX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 27: BCD TO ASCII CONVERSION

DATA SEGMENT

BCD DB 47H

ASC DW 1 DUP (?)

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START:

MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AL, BCD

MOV BL, AL

AND BL, 0FH

AND AL, 0F0H

MOV CL, O4H

ROR AL, CL

MOV AH, AL

MOV AL, BL

ADD AX, 3030H

MOV ASC, AX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 28: BINARY TO BCD CONVERSION

DATA SEGMENT

BIN DB 0FH

BCD DW DUP (?)

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START:

MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AL, BIN

MOV AH, 00H

MOV CX, 0000H

MOV BL, 64H

CMP AL, BL

JB NEXT

DIV BL

MOV CH, AL

MOV AL, AH

NEXT: MOV BL, 0AH

CMP AL, BL

DIV BL

JB NEXT 1

DIV BL

MOV CL, 04H

ROL AL, CL

MOV CL, AL

MOV AL, AH

NEXT 1: ADD CL, AL

MOV BCD, CX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 29: TO CONVERT 2 BCD NUMBERS TO HEXA DECIMAL NUMBER

DATA SEGMENT

BCD DB 52H

HEX DW DUP (?)

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START:

MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AL, BCD

MOV BL,AL

AND AL, #0F

MOV BH,AL

MOV CL,#04

ROR BL,CL

AND BL,#0F

MOV AL,#OA

MUL BL

ADD AL,BH

INT3

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 30: TO CONVERT HEXA DECIMAL NUMBER TO BCD

DATA SEGMENT

HEX DB 8FH

BCD DW DUP (?)

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START:

MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AL, HEX

MOV BL,#64

DIV BL

MOV CH,AL

MOV AL,AH

MOV AH,#00

MOV BL,#0A

DIV BL

XCHG AL,#0A

MOV CL,#04

ROL AH,CL

AND AH,#0F0

OR AL,AH

MOV AH,CH

INT03

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 31: TO CONVERT A NUMBER FROM BINARY TO GRAY CODE

DATA SEGMENT

BIN DB 8FH

GRAY DW DUP (?)

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV CX,#000F

MOV DI, BIN

STD

ET: MOV AL,CL

MOV DL, AL

AND DL,#80

MOV BL, AL

MOV AH, #00

ADD AX, AX

XOR BL,AL

SHR BL,01

OR BL,DL

STOSB

LOOP ET

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 32: TO CONVERT A NUMBER FROM GRAY CODE TO BINARY CODE

DATA SEGMENT

HEX DB 8FH

BCD DW DUP (?)

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START:

MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AL, HEX

MOV CX,#08

MOV BL,AL

AND BL,#80

L1: SHR BL,01

XOR BL,AL

LOOP L1

INT 03

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 33: PROGRAM TO SHIFT THE GIVEN NUMBER TO LEFT

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, #34

MOV DS, AX

MOV CX, 04

SHL AX, CX

INT 03

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 34: PROGRAM TO SHIFT THE GIVEN NUMBER TO ARITHEMETIC RIGHT

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, #34

MOV DS, AX

MOV CX, 04

SAR AX, CX

INT 03

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 35: PROGRAM TO SHIFT THE GIVEN NUMBER TO RIGHT

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, #34

MOV DS, AX

MOV CX, 04

SHR AX, CX

INT 03

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 36: PROGRAM TO ROTATE THE GIVEN NUMBER TO LEFT

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, #34

MOV DS, AX

MOV CX, 04

ROL AX, CX

INT 03

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 37: PROGRAM TO ROTATE THE GIVEN NUMBER TO RIGHT

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, #34

MOV DS, AX

MOV CX, 04

ROR AX, CX

INT 03

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 38: PROGRAM TO ROTATE THE GIVEN NUMBER TO LEFT

WITH CARRY

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, #34

MOV DS, AX

MOV CX, 04

RLC AX, CX

INT 03

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 39: PROGRAM TO ROTATE THE GIVEN NUMBER TO RIGHT

WITH CARRY

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, #34

MOV DS, AX

MOV CX, 04

RRC AX, CX

INT 03

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 40:

PROGRAM TO KNOW PALINDROME OF THE STRING

DATA SEGMENT

STR1 DB "CARRY","$"

STR2 DB 6 DUP(0)

STR3 DB "PALINDROME",'$'

STR4 DB " NOT A PALINDROME",'$'

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE,DS:DATA

START: MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV ES,AX

MOV SI,OFFSET STR1

MOV DI,OFFSET STR2

ADD DI,04H

MOV CX,05H

BACK: MOV AL,[SI]

MOV [DI],AL

INC SI

DEC DI

LOOP BACK

ADD DI,05H

MOV AL,'$'

MOV [DI],AL

MOV SI,OFFSET STR1

MOV DI, OFFSET STR2

MOV CX,05H

CLD

REPE CMPSB

JNZ LAL2

MOV AH, 09H

MOV DX, OFFSET STR3

INT 21H

JMP LLL3

LAL2: MOV AH, 09H

MOV DX, OFFSET STR4

INT 21H

LLL3: MOV AH, 4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 41: MOVE STRING OF DATA FROM ONE MEMORY LOCATION TO OTHER MEMORY LOCATION

DATA SEGMENT

SRCSTR EQU 2000H

DESTSTR EQU 3000H

COUNT EQU 0FH

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV ES, AX

MOV SI, SRCSTR

MOV DI, DESTSTR

MOV CX, COUNT

CLD

REP MOVSW

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

DATA SEGMENT

STR DB 01H, 05H, 06H, 07H

COUNT EQU 02H

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV CL,COUNT

MOV SI,OFFSET STR

MOV DI, 0003H

BACK:MOV AL,[SI]

XCHG [DI],AL

MOV [SI],AL

INC SI

DEC DI

DEC CL

JNZ BACK

MOV AH, 4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 42: STRING INSERTION

DATA SEGMENT

STRING1 DB 'EMPTY VESSELS MORE NOISE$'

STRLEN EQU ($-STRING1)

DATA ENDS

EXTRA SEGMENT

STRING2 DB STRLEN+5 DUP(0)

EXTRA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS:CODE,DS:DATA,ES:EXTRA

START: MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV SI,OFFSET STRING1

MOV DI,OFFSET STRING2

CLD

MOV CX,14

REP MOVSB

MOV DL,5

BACK: MOV AH,01

INT 21H

STOS STRING2

DEC DL

JNZ BACK

MOV CX,11

REP MOVSB

NOP

MOV AH,4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 43: : STRING DELETION

DATASEGMENT

STRING1 DB 'EMPTY VESSELS MAKE MORE NOISE$'

STRLEN EQU ($-STRING1)

DATA ENDS

EXTRA SEGMENT

STRING2 DB STRLEN-5 DUP(0)

EXTRA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT.

ASSUME CS:CODE,DS:DATA,ES:EXTRA

START: MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV AX,EXTRA

MOV ES,AX

MOV SI,OFFSET STRING1

MOV DI,OFFSET STRING2

CLD

MOV CX,13

REP MOVSB

CLD

MOV SI,18

MOV CX,12

REP MOVSB

MOV AH,4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 44: LENGTH OF THE STRING

DATA SEGMENT

STR DB 10H,11H,12H,07H,05H,09H,20H

LENGTH DB?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV AL, 00H

MOV CL, 00H

MOV SI, OFFSET STR

BACK: CMP AL,[SI]

JNC GO

INC CL

INC SI

JNZ BACK

GO: MOV LENGTH, CL

MOV AH, 4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 45: : STRING COMPARISION

DATA SEGMENT

STRING1 DB 'EMPTY'

STRLEN EQU ($-STRING1)

NOTSFUL DB 'STRINGS ARE UNEQUAL$'

SFUL DB 'STRINGS ARE EQUAL$'

DATA ENDS

EXTRA SEGMENT

STRING2 DB 'EMPTY'

EXTRA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS:CODE,DS:DATA,ES:EXTRA

START: MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV AX,EXTRA

MOV ES,AX

MOV SI,OFFSET STRING1

MOV DI,OFFSET STRING2

CLD

MOV CX,LENGTH STRING1

MOV CX,STRLEN

REP CMPSB

JZ FORW

MOV AH,09H

MOV DX,OFFSET NOTSFUL

INT 21H

JMP EXITP

FORW:MOV AH,09H

MOV DX,OFFSET SFUL

INT 21H

EXITP: NOP

MOV AH,4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS END START

END START

PROGRAM 46: ASCENDING ORDER

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV SI, 1000H

MOV DI, 1100H

MOV CX, 09

REP MOVSB

MOV DX, 07

P1: MOV DI, 1100H

MOV CX, 07

P2: MOV AL, [DI]

CMP AL, [DI+1]

JBE P3

XCHG AL, [DI+1]

XCHG [DI], AL

P3: INC DI

LOOP P2

DEC DX

JNZ P1

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 47: DESCENDING ORDER

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE

START: MOV SI, 1000H

MOV DI, 1100H

MOV CX, 09

REP MOVSB

MOV DX, 07

P1: MOV DI, 1100H

MOV CX, 07

P2: MOV AL, [DI]

CMP AL, [DI+1]

JAE P3

XCHG AL, [DI+1]

XCHG [DI], AL

P3: INC DI

LOOP P2

DEC DX

JNZ P1

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 48: FIND NO.OF EVEN NO’S AND NO.OF ODD NO’S

DATA SEGMENT

LIST DW 1234H, 5678H, 9ABCH, 0DEF1H, 23245H

COUNT EQU 05H

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV SI, OFFSET LIST

MOV CX, COUNT

BACK: MOV AX, [SI]

ROR AX, 1

JC ODD

INC DX

JMP NEXT

ODD: INC BX

NEXT: ADD SI, 02

DEC CX

JNZ BACK

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

PROGRAM 49: DISPLAY THE STRING

DATA SEGMENT

MESSAGE DB 10, 13,’KITE COLLEGES’, 10, 13,’$’

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START: MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

MOV DX, OFFSET MESSAGE

MOV AH, 09H

INT 21H

MOV AX, 4C00H

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

Why are there 24 hours in a day?

2012-03-07T20:40:00.001-08:00

There are only 24 hours in a day, you know!

Twenty-four seems like an arbitrary number to choose for hours in a day. Consider that somebody along the way had to decide how long an hour was, and how many could squeeze into one day. So just where did the number come from?

It appears the Egyptians are the architects of our daily scheduling. In ancient times, their numbering system was based on 12, just as ours is based on 10. It is believed they learned to count using the joints of their fingers (three on each finger) making 12 the natural sized group. Frankly, that’s no more strange than how we now base everything on 10 because we have ten fingers/thumbs.

Any way you count it, the Egyptians loved their twelves, so they opted to decree there were twelve parts to the day, and twelve parts to the night. For a long time, these twelve parts would stretch and grow throughout the year as sunlight varies with the seasons. It was the Greek mathematician, Hipparchus, who first set about trying to standardize the time periods, but this was not widely practiced until the 4th century.

The word hour began as hore or hora, but the H has fallen silent since early Roman times.

If you’re hoping for more LSNED’s, I suggest you poke back into the archives with this article on clocks that let you smell the time. And next time you co point your triple-jointed finger at. Yes indeed, we all… omplain about not having enough hours in the day, at least know you know who tclock like an Egyptian.

Steganography pdf

2012-03-07T06:42:00.000-08:00

Steganography is the technique of hiding confidential information within any
media. Steganography is often confused with cryptography because the two are
similar in the way that they both are used to protect confidential information. The
difference between the two is in the appearance in the processed output; the
output of steganography operation is not apparently visible but in cryptography
the output is scrambled so that it can draw attention. Steganlysis is process to
detect of presence of steganography. In this article we have tried to elucidate the
different approaches towards implementation of steganography using
‘multimedia’ file (text, static image, audio and video) and Network IP datagram
as cover. Also some methods of steganalysis will be discussed.

for more info

http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1111/1111.3758.pdf

http://www.krenn.nl/univ/cry/steg/presentation/2004-01-21-presentation-steganography.pdf