Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean

My book available at SBL

Phil Harland — Tue, 17 Nov 2009 14:08:00 +0000

I’ve just been told that my book, Dynamics of Identity in the World of the Early Christians, has been printed and will now be available for the Society of Biblical Literature conference in New Orleans. So check it out at the Continuum / T & T Clark booth if you get a chance. If you haven’t already noticed, I have also developed a companion website which touches on some of the issues addressed in the book. Amazon.com is now offering the book for $19.77, which seems like a bargain to me.

SBL this year

Phil Harland — Tue, 17 Nov 2009 14:01:57 +0000

I’ll be going to New Orleans for SBL this year. On Sunday afternoon (4pm), I’ll be presiding in one of the “Meals in the Greco-Roman World Seminar” sessions (papers available online on the seminar’s site here). I’ll also be presenting in the Greco-Roman Religions section (Monday 9am). This year the theme is “Hybridization and Creolization in the Greek and Roman Worlds” and I’ll be presenting a portion of my new book on Dynamics of Identity in the World of the Early Christians: “Other Diasporas: Syrian Immigrants, Ethnic Identities, and Acculturation”.

Perhaps most importantly, I’ll be looking for some Jazz and beer. Hope to see some of you there.

Podcast 4.6: Honouring the Emperors as Gods

Phil Harland — Tue, 17 Nov 2009 13:29:06 +0000

Here I explain emperor worship and the various types of honours for the emperors as gods, including imperial cults at the provincial, civic, and local levels in Asia Minor. This is the final episode in series 4 (Honouring the Gods in the Roman Empire) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 4.6: Honouring the Emperors as Gods (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Podcast 4.5: Justice from the Gods in Lydia

Phil Harland — Mon, 02 Nov 2009 02:05:24 +0000

Here I discuss the active role of the gods in punishing transgressors by focusing on indigenous practices in the region of Lydia, particularly the propitiation or confession inscriptions. This is part of series 4 (Honouring the Gods in the Roman Empire) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 4.5: Justice from the Gods in Lydia (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Greco-Roman deities: Artemis of Ephesus 3

Phil Harland — Tue, 20 Oct 2009 14:29:57 +0000

Two of the statues I recently viewed in Italy really convinced me (as they have others such as Fleischer and LiDonnici) that the protuberances were usually understood not as breasts but as part of the costume which decorated the statue of Artemis Ephesia.

This is a statue you can now see in the Capitoline museum in Rome. This statue has many of the same characteristics that we found in the other statues in my series here (arrangement of arms and legs, decoration of Artemis’ outfit with animals) with one very important exception: the use of two different colours of stone in the carving of the statue. The artist that carved this statue, those who commissioned it, and likely many who viewed it considered the protrusions on Artemis’ front not as breasts (which would need to be black here to match the skin of her feet and arms) but as part of the clothing decoration. Clearly these are not breasts. As Fleischer and others note, it is likely that the artist was representing an earlier statue of Artemis Ephesia (perhaps a statue of dark wood) which was literally dressed in special garments on particular occasions (dressing and feeding statues was somewhat common in certain cultural circles in antiquity). The artist chose to distinguish the earlier statue itself from the clothing and paraphernalia that decorated that statue by using two different colours of stone, and the bumps on her front are part of the costume here.

That this understanding of the protrusions was not just an anomaly is confirmed by another artist’s rendition found in Neapolis, which is now preserved in the national museum in Naples (inventory no. 6278):

So although church fathers such as Jerome and Minucius Felix later tended to generalize about the “multi-breasted” Artemis (Minucius Felix, Octavius 22.5; Jerome, Commentary on the Epistle to Ephesus proem), this characterization in late antiquity arose less from common perceptions among worshippers of this goddess and more from Christian propaganda aimed at presenting “paganism” as ridiculous or bizarre. What exactly these objects are is at this point generally unanswerable, but what is clear is that they are part of Artemis Ephesia’s outfit, not her body.

Podcast 4.4: Messages from the Gods - Apollo at Claros and Didyma

Phil Harland — Wed, 14 Oct 2009 15:06:11 +0000

Here I discuss messages from the gods, or divination. One way in which the gods were thought to communicate with individuals, groups, and communities was through oracles such as those of Apollo at Claros and Didyma. This is part of series 4 (Honouring the Gods in the Roman Empire) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 4.4: Messages from the Gods - Apollo at Claros and Didyma (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Greco-Roman deities: Artemis of Ephesus 2

Phil Harland — Thu, 08 Oct 2009 16:44:25 +0000

As you’ll see by comparing the photo here with my previous post on this Artemis, there are certain elements that repeat themselves in the images of Artemis Ephesia from about the mid-second century BCE on into the Roman era. She is pictured standing upright with legs together, with upper arms tight against the body, and with her lower arms outstretched. The statues have elaborate costumes decorated with animals, and there are those mysterious protuberances that have led to characterizations of this deity as the many-breasted goddess. As in the previous statue I posted, these elements are also evident in the statue above that is now housed in the Vatican museum in Rome. Here you find a crowned Artemis with garments decorated with lions on the upper arms and deer-like creatures lining the front. Mythological and other figures appear on her sides and on her upper chest.

Although far from conclusive, there are hints here that the artist of this piece (and those who viewed this Artemis) may not have thought of the protuberances as breasts, since they are considerably low (and another statue of Artemis Ephesia which is now in the Antikenmuseum in Basel, Switzerland has even more clearly low-hanging protuberances that miss the chest area altogether). The next statue photos will provide more conclusive suggestions regarding this issue. Stay tuned.

My discussions of the statues are informed by the important work of Robert Fleischer, Artemis von Ephesos und verwandte Kultstatuen aus Anatolien und Syrien (EPRO 35; Leiden: Brill, 1973) and by Lynn R. LiDonnici, “The Images of Artemis Ephesia and Greco-Roman Worship: A Reconsideration,” Harvard Theological Review 85 (1992), 389-415.

Podcast 4.3: Salvation from the Gods - Asklepios at Pergamon (Pergamum)

Phil Harland — Thu, 01 Oct 2009 17:50:15 +0000

Here I discuss the way in which people in Roman times believed that gods saved them in their daily lives, focusing on the case of the healing sanctuary of Asklepios at Pergamon (Pergamum). This is part of series 4 (Honouring the Gods in the Roman Empire) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 4.3: Salvation from the Gods - Asklepios at Pergamon (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Greco-Roman deities: Artemis of Ephesus 1

Phil Harland — Wed, 30 Sep 2009 14:41:56 +0000

Here is perhaps the best known statue of Artemis Ephesia (or Artemis of Ephesus) as preserved in the Selçuk Archeological Museum (room C, inv. 718) near the ancient site of Ephesus:

After my recent trip to the Naples archeological museum, I now have a number of depictions of Artemis Ephesia and other gods and goddesses in photo form. So I will be making a series of posts on Greco-Roman deities. As I discuss in the current series in the podcast (Honouring the Gods in the Roman Empire), there were many different local understandings and depictions of a particular god: in other words, there were many Dionysoses, Zeuses, and Artemises. Often one Zeus would be distinguished from another Zeus by an epithet: for example, there was a Zeus Soter (”Saviour Zeus”), a Zeus Brontos (”Thunderer Zeus”), and a Zeus Polieus (City-protecting Zeus). One local understanding of Zeus could be distinguished from another through art, in the depiction of the specific form of the god in statues.

Artemis of Ephesus is just one local way in which this goddess was understood. You can hear more about her in episode 4.2 of the podcast. This Artemis Ephesia is consistently depicted as associated with nature and the wild, as the animals integrated within her garb and the deer at her side indicate. And she is also always depicted with the strange protuberances which you will see in each of the photos I post.

There is some debate as to what these are. Are they multiple breasts? This may indicate notions of fertility and Artemis’ oversight over birth and life. Are they part of Artemis’ outfit here (perhaps a garment made using bull-testicles, as some scholars suggest)? Was this similar to an outfit worn by Artemis Ephesia’s main priestess and representative? Did interpretations of these objects vary even among ancient observers and sculptors? Actually, some of the photos I will show subsequently help to answer this mystery about the multiple breast-like objects.

More statues of this mysterious goddess to come!

My new book / website: Dynamics of Identity in the World of the Early Christians

Phil Harland — Tue, 29 Sep 2009 18:41:54 +0000

In case you hadn’t noticed, my forthcoming book on Dynamics of Identity in the World of the Early Christians: Associations, Judeans, and Cultural Minorities is now available on Amazon.com for preorder (due November) at under $20. I have also created a companion website (which may be expanded further in time) for the book. As usual, that subsite can be found in the pull-down menu for “My Other Websites”.

The book considers early Christian identities in relation to other associations, Judean groups, and immigrants in the Roman empire. Read more about it on the companion site. Here’s a look at the book cover:

Historical Jesus and miracles - of course historians have to address miracles

Phil Harland — Mon, 28 Sep 2009 03:47:31 +0000

Over on the new Duke Newt, Maxim Cardew has an interesting post discussing how and whether the issue of “miracles” can be addressed in historical Jesus studies. I won’t take the time to fully engage the many issues Maxim raises in connection with Hume, Strauss, and others. What I want to state simply and clearly is: of course an historian has to deal with “miracles.” Who cares if this has to do with Jesus or with some other person or persons in another time period.

What I mean by that is that the historian of any period is focussed on understanding that particular period and the worldviews and practices of those living in that period (I would hope). So, for instance, an historian studying relics in medieval England or Europe would have a hard time if she wasn’t permitted to discuss the notion of “miracles” or “healings” as though this was historically off-bounds. In some respects, a person would be at a loss to explain things without the acknowledgment that the historical subjects in the medieval period did indeed believe that “miracles” took place and that there were people and objects with access to miraculous powers. Similarly, if one is studying Lucian of Samosata’s critique of Alexander of Abonuteichos (in the second century), the historian has to face the fact that Alexander was viewed by some as performing “miracles” even though some contemporaries like Lucian (in a Hume like fashion) called it all bunk. It even seems that Lucian is in the minority in rejecting Alexander’s supposed “miracles” (methinks he dost protest too much). So there’s another “miracle-worker” from the perspective of the historian.

It is one thing to say people in a period believed that such and such could perform miracles (that he or she was a “miracle-worker” or “healer” or “god” by reputation among contemporaries) and quite another to say that the miracles did happen and can be confirmed historically (not at all what the historian can do, in my opinion). To turn to the modern period, would an historian of modern Christianity not be allowed to designate Benny Hinn (spelling?) a “miracle-worker” or “healer” or whatever insofar as his followers believe he can perform “miracles” and he is perceived to be a “miracle-worker” (or have access to miraculous powers from God, or whatever) by some of his contemporaries. However, this is not to say that the “miracles” are real and that they really took place (I don’t always compare Jesus to Benny Hinn, so don’t worry).

The historian needs to deal with the fact that some contemporaries of Jesus believed that Jesus was a “miracle-worker” or “healer” (and we need to clearly define what we mean by those terms). To avoid the subject because we (the modern historians) know or think we know that “miracles” don’t exist will lead us towards historical misunderstanding. This is not to say that “miracles” exist for the historian (so Hume and Strauss can give a sigh of relief). Nonetheless “miracle-workers” exist for the historian if historical subjects have the category (or one like it) and apply it to another historical subject we are studying (e.g. Jesus).

To clarify, I do not believe that the statement “Jesus was perceived as a miracle-worker” or “Jesus performed miracles from the viewpoint of some of his contemporaries” is in the least bit theological or problematic for the historian. Historical Jesus researchers, just like historians of the Venerable Bede or Alexander of Abonuteichos, must deal with what they find in their sources and place that in cultural context, developing categories that work best for the period in question.

(We’ll see if this makes any sense in the morning — listening to Van Morrison’s Saint Dominic’s Preview with beer in hand here).

UPDATE: Maxim Cardew now has a second post further delving into the issue and clarifying Maxim’s points. By the way, my post was never meant as a “refutation”; moreso these were my midnight ramblings in connection with the issue of miracles and Jesus;) You may have noticed how much I avoided talking about Hume — he reminds me too much of my logic and argumentation course in second year undergrad (not that I have anything against logic).

Pompeii 2: Rivalries among associations and a riot at Pompeii

Phil Harland — Wed, 16 Sep 2009 14:59:35 +0000

As I discuss at some length in my new book on Dynamics of Identity in the World of the Early Christians, members of associations could feel a real sense of belonging in the group, and at times this sense of identity could express itself in rivalries with other groups. Christians and Judeans were not the only ones involved in rivalries or tensions with other groups within society. In fact, alongside areas of cooperation, competition was an inherent aspect of life within cities in the Roman empire, and associations sometimes took part in this.

Among the more interesting examples of rivalries between different associations (or collegia) is a riot that took place in Pompeii in the first century (59 CE). This is one of those rare cases when we have more than one source regarding a violent incident involving associations, one of them being a painting from Pompeii.

One of the sources is the historian Tacitus, who relates an incident in which the tensions between different associations from two different cities (Nuceria and Pompeii) escalated into a mini-battle in the amphitheater at Pompeii. Here is Tacitus’ description:

About this time there was a serious fight between the inhabitants of two Roman settlements, Nuceria and Pompeii. It arose out of a trifling incident at a gladiatorial show . . . During an exchange of taunts — characteristic of these disorderly country towns — abuse led to stone-throwing, and then swords were drawn. The people of Pompeii, where the show was held, came off best. Many wounded and mutilated Nucerians were taken to the capital. Many bereavements, too, were suffered by parents and children. The emperor instructed the senate to investigate the affair. The senate passed it to the consuls. When they reported back, the senate debarred Pompeii from holding any similar gathering for ten years. Illegal associations in the town were dissolved; and the sponsor of the show and his fellow-instigators of the disorders were exiled (Annals 14.17; trans. by Michael Grant, The Annals of Imperial Rome [London: Penguin Books, 1973], 321-22).

Tacitus’ account shows us that rival associations from the two different cities played an instrumental role in the conflict. So both civic and group identity played an important role here. Such rivalries would not always lead to violent conflict, however.

The second piece of evidence is a painting that can now be seen in the National Museum of Naples. In the painting is pictured people fighting in and around the amphitheater. Why exactly someone would have this painting commissioned is not completely clear. Were they proud of the incident since their fellow Pompeiians had gained the upper hand in the rivalry? Did they know some members of the associations involved? Or is the painting reaffirming the action of the authorities in quelling and preventing such civic disturbances? Was it made to celebrate the re-opening of the amphitheater after the imperial prohibition was lifted?

From the Casa della Rissa nell’Anfiteatro, or house of Actius Anicetus (inventory no. 112222). Inscriptions depicted on the walls of the palaestra (to the right of the amphitheatre) proclaim: “Good fortune to D. Lucretius” (in Latin) and “Good fortune to Satrius Valens, Augustus Nero” (in Greek). Photo by Phil. Full Italian description in Bragantini and Sampaolo, La Pittura Pompeiana, p.512-13.

Podcast 4.2: A City and Its Patron Deity - Artemis of Ephesus

Phil Harland — Mon, 14 Sep 2009 14:34:24 +0000

Here I discuss civic cults in Asia Minor and Ephesus with a focus on the relationship between a city and its patron deity (in this case Artemis Ephesia). This is part of series 4 (Honouring the Gods in the Roman Empire) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 4.2: A City and Its Patron Deity - Artemis of Ephesus (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Podcast 4.1: Introduction to Honouring the Gods

Phil Harland — Tue, 01 Sep 2009 22:41:08 +0000

This is the introductory episode for a series that explores the various ways in which people in the Roman empire, especially in Asia Minor, honoured and communicated with their gods. This is part of series 4 (Honouring the Gods in the Roman Empire) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 4.1: Introduction to Honouring the Gods (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Podcast series 5: The Historical Jesus in context

Phil Harland — Mon, 31 Aug 2009 13:46:32 +0000

All episodes and series in the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast are available on my podcast collection page on archive.org (in various file formats and sizes) and those already released are available under the podcast category on my own website here. This is one of several posts where I gather together each of the individual series in the podcast so that you can access or link to a specific topic.

This series has not yet been released in the official podcast feed and is not yet complete (one more episode to come). Here are the half-hour episodes (in mp3, about 40 MB each) in “The Historical Jesus in context” series in playable and downloadable formats:

Podcast 5.1: Studying the Historical Jesus - Sources and Problems, part 1
Download (right click and choose “Save Link As…”)

Podcast 5.2: Studying the Historical Jesus - Sources and Problems, part 2
Download

Podcast 5.3: Studying the Historical Jesus - Sources and Problems, part 3
Download

Podcast 5.4: Scholarly Portraits of the Historical Jesus, part 1 - Crossan
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Podcast 5.5: Scholarly Portraits of the Historical Jesus, part 2 - Sanders
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Podcast 5.6: Jesus, Galilee, and Israelite History, part 1 - To the Second Temple
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Podcast 5.7: Jesus, Galilee, and Israelite History, part 2 - To the Time of Jesus
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Podcast 5.8: Jesus, the Galilean and Judean
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Podcast 5.9: Jesus in the Context of Educated Groups and Leaders
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Podcast 5.10: Jesus and his Mentor, John the Baptizer
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Podcast 5.11: Jesus as Teacher, part 1 - Method and Content
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Podcast 5.12: Jesus as Teacher, part 2 - Present or Future Kingdom?
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Podcast 5.13: Jesus as Healer and Exorcist
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Podcast 5.14: Jesus as Prophet
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One more episode (Jesus as Messiah?) to come.

For reading suggestions on this topic, please see the course outline.

Podcast series 4: Honouring the gods in the Roman Empire - Asia Minor

Phil Harland — Mon, 31 Aug 2009 13:36:59 +0000

All episodes and series in my podcast (including some that are yet to be released) are available on my podcast collection page on archive.org (in various file formats and sizes) and those already released are available under the podcast category on my own website here. This is one of several posts where I gather together each of the individual series in the podcast so that you can access or link to a specific topic.

This series has not yet been released in the official podcast feed and is not yet complete (more episodes to come). Here are the available episodes (in mp3, about 40 MB each) in the “Honouring the gods in the Roman Empire: Asia Minor” series in playable and downloadable formats:

Podcast 4.1: Introduction to Honouring the Gods

Download (right click and choose “Save Link As…”)

Podcast 4.2: A City and Its Patron Deity - Artemis of Ephesus
Download

Podcast 4.3: Salvation from the Gods - Asklepios at Pergamum
Download

Podcast 4.4: Messages from the Gods - Apollo at Claros and Didyma
Download

Podcast 4.5: Justice from the Gods in Lydia
Download

Podcast 4.6: Honouring the Emperors as Gods
Download

Series not yet released in the official podcast feed.

More episodes to come!

For reading suggestions on this topic, please see the course outline.

Podcast series 3: Diversity in early Christianity: “Heresies” and struggles

Phil Harland — Mon, 31 Aug 2009 13:12:12 +0000

Here are all half-hour episodes (in mp3, about 40 MB each) in the “Diversity in early Christianity: “Heresies” and struggles” series (covering the early Christian apocrypha, Nag Hammadi documents, and other non-canonical materials) in playable and downloadable formats:

Podcast 3.1: Introduction to Diversity - A Schism in John’s Community, part 1
Download (right click and choose “Save Link As…”)

Podcast 3.2: A Schism in John’s Community, part 2
Download

Podcast 3.3: Docetic and Judaizing Opponents of Ignatius
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Podcast 3.4: Docetic and Judaizing Opponents of Ignatius, part 2
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Podcast 3.5: Diversity in Asia Minor - A Regional Case Study
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Podcast 3.6: Sources for the Study of Diversity - Gnostic, Apocryphal, Patristic
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Podcast 3.7: Jewish Followers of Jesus, part 1 - Ebionites
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Podcast 3.8: Jewish Followers of Jesus, part 2 - Pseudo-Clement
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Podcast 3.9: Marcionites and the Unknown God
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Podcast 3.10 Introducing Gnostic Worldviews
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Podcast 3.11: Secret Book of John, part 1 - The Spiritual Realm
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Podcast 3.12: Secret Book of John, part 2 - Salvation from the Material Realm
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Podcast 3.13: The Wisdom of Jesus Christ and Middle Platonism
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Podcast 3.14: The Gospel of Philip, part 1 - Ideas of Salvation
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Podcast 3.15: The Gospel of Philip, part 2 - Ritual Enactments of Salvation
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Podcast 3.16: The Gospel of Mary - Secret Knowledge from the Ultimate Disciple
Download

For reading suggestions on this topic, please see the course outline.

Podcast series 2: Early Christian portraits of Jesus

Phil Harland — Mon, 31 Aug 2009 12:38:06 +0000

Here are all half-hour episodes (in mp3, about 40 MB each) in the “Early Christian portraits of Jesus” series in playable and downloadable formats:

Podcast 2.1: Introduction to the Gospels as Portraits of Jesus
Download (right click and choose “Save Link As…”)

Podcast 2.2: Mark’s portrait of Jesus - Suffering Son (part 1)
Download

Podcast 2.3: Mark’s portrait of Jesus - Suffering Son (part 2)
Download

Podcast 2.4: Matthew’s portrait of Jesus - New Moses (part 1)
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Podcast 2.5: Matthew’s portrait of Jesus - New Moses (part 2)
Download

Podcast 2.6: Luke’s Portrait of Jesus - Prophet Elijah (part 1)
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Podcast 2.7: Luke’s Portrait of Jesus - Prophet Elijah (part 2)
Download

Podcast 2.8: John’s Portrait of Jesus - Son and Word (part 1)
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Podcast 2.9: John’s Portrait of Jesus - Son and Word (part 2)
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Podcast 2.10: Hebrews’ Portrait of Jesus - Highpriest Melchizedek, part 1
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Podcast 2.11: Hebrews’ Portrait of Jesus - Highpriest Melchizedek, part 2
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For reading suggestions on this topic, please see the course outline.

Podcast series 1: Paul and his communities

Phil Harland — Sun, 30 Aug 2009 12:48:58 +0000

All of the episodes and series in my podcast (including some that are yet to be released) are available on my podcast collection page on archive.org (in various file formats and sizes) and those already released are available under the podcast category on my own website here.

As usual, Mark Goodacre has good ideas. Mark has pointed out that it would be good to have a way of linking to all of the episodes of a particular series in my podcast (rather than the podcast as a whole). This way someone that is wanting to link to historical Jesus material only, but not to Paul or some other topic, would be able to link to a page with just my historical Jesus series. (This would also help those who are attempting to integrate a particular series in the podcast into a course — I’m talking to you, AKMA). So what I’ll do is create a single blog post for each of the series which contains all of the episodes in that series in playable and downloadable formats.

To begin with here are all of the half-hour episodes (in MP3, about 40MB each) from series 1, “Paul and his communities”:

Podcast 1.1: Paul in his own words
Download (right click and choose “Save Link As…”)

Podcast 1.2: The Situation at Thessalonica
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Podcast 1.3: Paul’s response to Jesus-followers at Thessalonica
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Podcast 1.4: Paul and the followers of Jesus at Corinth, part 1
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Podcast 1.5: Paul and the followers of Jesus at Corinth, part 2
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Podcast 1.6: Paul and the followers of Jesus at Corinth, part 3
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Podcast 1.7: Paul and the situation in Galatia
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Podcast 1.8: Paul’s response to the Galatians
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Podcast 1.9: Paul and the situation at Rome
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Podcast 1.10: Paul’s response to the Romans
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Podcast 1.11: Legacies of Paul - Women’s leadership, part 1
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Podcast 1.12: Legacies of Paul - Women’s leadership, part 2
Download

For reading suggestions on this topic, please see the course outline.

Paintings of Pompeii 1: Villa of the Mysteries of Dionysos (Villa Item)

Phil Harland — Thu, 06 Aug 2009 14:04:48 +0000

I was lucky enough to have the opportunity to visit Pompeii and Herculaneum a few weeks back in connection with the Society of Biblical Literature conference in Rome (where I presented a paper from my upcoming book). The populations of both of these ancient towns were wiped out by the volcanic eruption of mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, and no subsequent building was done over the ruins. So these are among the best preserved ancient cities to see. One major result of the trip is that I now have about 1000 new photos relating to artifacts from the Roman era. Among these are many photos of mosaics and paintings or frescoes from Pompeii (and some from Herculaneum). So I’ll have a series of posts on some of these paintings (also drawing on some information found in Irene Bragantini and Valeria Sampaolo, La pittura pompeiana Naples: Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, 2009).

The majority of paintings from Pompeii are now removed from Pompeii and preserved in the National Archeological Museum of Naples (Museo archeologico nazionale di Napoli). However, some are still in their original find-spots (in situ). One of the most incredible wall-paintings from antiquity can still be found within a rather large home on the outskirts of the original town of Pompeii.

Mysteries of Dionysos

This home is known as Villa Item or Villa of the Mysteries, due to the paintings that decorated one of its banqueting halls. This banqueting hall may also have been used in connection with initiations in the mysteries of Dionysos (Bacchus). I have discussed the mysteries and Dionysos’ mysteries specifically on one of my websites, so I would suggest you read that first. Right now I’d like to supplement my earlier discussion of the mysteries by supplying photos of the paintings which seem to depict stages in the initiation process and related mythological scenes.

The paintings seem to depict both the devotees of Dionysos in various stages of participation in initiation rites and mythological scenes which intersect with the progress of initiation itself. The exact interpretation of these paintings is, of course, debated, but I will give a basic description with some consultation of M.P. Nilsson (The Dionysiac Mysteries of the Hellenistics and Roman Age [Lund: Gleerup, 1957], 66-78) and Walter Burkert (Ancient Mystery Cults [Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1987], 95-96).

*****

Scene 1 - Preparations (north wall, on your left as you enter):

A naked boy reads from a papyrus scroll as two women of the house listen and a third woman carries a dish towards the next scene.

*****

Scene 2 - Preparations and segue to mythical or revelation scenes (north wall, on your left as you enter):

A seated woman (with back facing us) uncovers a tray with her left hand while receiving liquid into a dish with her right hand, perhaps cleaning her hands (Burkert) or making an offering to the god (Nilsson). To her right is a mythical scene depicting a silenos playing the lyre, a boy playing a flute, and a girl suckling a goat. Further to the right, a partially clothed woman runs in fear (perhaps running from the flogging scene on the opposite side).

*****

Scene 3 - Mythical scene with Silenos, Dionysos, and threatening winged female figure (east wall, straight ahead as you enter):

This may be a depiction of the revelation of the god Dionysos to the initiate. A drunken and scantily clad god Dionysos, accompanied by Ariadne, is seated in the centre as a Silenos shows something (or offers a drink) to a boy (satyr?) while another boy holds up a theatrical mask. To the right, a partially clothed woman lifts a veil to reveal the contents of a basket, likely the phallic symbol associated with initiation into the mysteries of DIonysos. A threatening mythical figure appears on the far right (see next photo).

*****

Scene 4 - Flagellation and dancing woman (east and south walls):

A winged, mythical figure winds up to flog a woman (initiate-to-be?) with a rod or wand (thyrsos). The woman lays her head in the lap of another woman for protection from the threatening figure. To the right, a woman (same initiate who was previously flogged?) dances naked while playing finger-cymbals over her head and another woman holds a reed or wand (thyrsos), a symbol of the god Dionysos.

*****

Scene 5 - Seated woman being adorned by cupids

Tony B. on the legend of Judas Iscariot’s 30 pieces of silver

Phil Harland — Mon, 08 Jun 2009 18:04:02 +0000

Tony Burke has provided an online translation of the legend of Judas’ 30 pieces of silver. Tony and another scholar in Slovakia have been working on the manuscripts and on creating a critical edition.

Podcast 3.16: The Gospel of Mary - Secret Knowledge from the Ultimate Disciple

Phil Harland — Tue, 02 Jun 2009 02:44:29 +0000

Here I discuss this dialogue gospel in which Mary Magdalene is presented as Jesus’ favourite disciple and the instructor of true knowledge. I explore notions of salvation in terms of the ascent of the soul, as well as the way in which this writing reflects struggles among different groups of Jesus-followers. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.16: The Gospel of Mary - Secret Knowledge from the Ultimate Disciple (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Podcast 3.15: The Gospel of Philip, part 2 - Ritual Enactments of Salvation

Phil Harland — Wed, 13 May 2009 13:47:22 +0000

Here I finish the discussion of the Gospel of Philip by focusing on the way in which notions of salvation were enacted in the practices of the followers of Jesus who used this writing. In particular, rituals such as the “bridal chamber” illustrate the connections between sex (as a metaphor) and salvation in the mindset of this author. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.15: The Gospel of Philip, part 2 - Ritual Enactments of Salvation (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Podcast 3.14: The Gospel of Philip, part 1 - Ideas of Salvation

Phil Harland — Mon, 04 May 2009 01:42:25 +0000

Here I discuss the Gospel of Philip (perhaps best known in connection with the Da Vinci Code). This episode deals with the author’s worldview and ideas about the condition of humanity, preparing the way for a second episode on the practices and rituals that enacted salvation. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.14: The Gospel of Philip, part 1 - Ideas of Salvation (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Honouring the Gods in the Roman Empire - new podcast series

Phil Harland — Tue, 21 Apr 2009 20:19:01 +0000

I have been busy creating a new podcast series, titled Honouring the Gods in the Roman Empire. This series is somewhat different in style. Usually I am adapting and editing my recorded lectures (that are performed from point form notes). Instead, this series involves me sitting down at the computer and microphone for a half-hour or so after I meet with my graduate class on Honouring the Gods in the Ancient Mediterranean (course outline, discussion notes). I then spontaneously discuss some important issues and sources regarding the topic of the week. This series is already partially available on my podcast archive.org page (but will be officially released in the podcast feed next Fall, before I release the historical Jesus series, which is also available on archive.org now).

Here are the episodes I have created so far, which you will find on my podcast archive.org page, where you can click on browse episodes starting with recent additions:

Podcast 4.1: Introduction to Honouring the Gods
Podcast 4.2: A City and Its Patron Deity - Artemis of Ephesus
Podcast 4.3: Salvation from the Gods - Asklepios at Pergamum
Podcast 4.4: Messages from the Gods - Apollo at Claros and Didyma
Podcast 4.5: Justice from the Gods in Lydia
Podcast 4.6: Honouring the Emperors as Gods

Please let me know what you think of this experiment (I notice about 25 people had already found and listened to several episodes before I mentioned its existence).

Podcast 3.13: The Wisdom of Jesus Christ and Middle Platonism

Phil Harland — Tue, 14 Apr 2009 13:38:12 +0000

Here I use two related Nag Hammadi writings — Eugnostos the Blessed and The Sophia of Jesus Christ — as a window into forms of Christianity that were heavily influenced by Middle Platonic philosophy, particularly in regard to cosmology and the divine Triad. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.13: The Wisdom of Jesus Christ and Middle Platonism (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Podcast 3.12: Secret Book of John, part 2 - Salvation from the Material Realm

Phil Harland — Wed, 01 Apr 2009 13:58:55 +0000

Here I continue to explain the worldview of the Apocryphon of John, particularly its notions regarding the material realm, the inferior creator god (demiurge), and salvation from this realm. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.12: Secret Book of John, part 2 - Salvation from the Material Realm (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Podcast 3.11: Secret Book of John, part 1 - The Spiritual Realm

Phil Harland — Thu, 12 Mar 2009 23:22:26 +0000

Here I begin to explain the worldview of the Apocryphon of John, one of the Nag Hammadi writings (part 1 of 2). Like other writings in that collection, this author makes a clear distinction between the perfect spiritual realm, also known as the “fullness”, and an inferior material realm created by a jealous god or “ruler” (archon). In this episode I describe the perfect spiritual realm and the process of emanations from the perfect “Invisible Spirit” or “Father”. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.11: Secret Book of John, part 1 - The Spiritual Realm (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Podcast 3.10: Introducing Gnostic Worldviews

Phil Harland — Sun, 01 Mar 2009 18:04:58 +0000

Here I set the stage for the study of specific Nag Hammadi and related writings by outlining in broad terms some common denominators in the worldviews traditionally labeled “gnostic”. This includes discussion of the Middle Platonic assumptions of many authors. I also deal with the importance of knowledge (gnosis) in the understanding of how salvation from the material realm, which was created by an inferior god, takes place. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.10: Introducing Gnostic Worldviews (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

International SBL in Rome

Phil Harland — Mon, 16 Feb 2009 13:07:48 +0000

I was glad to receive word last night that my paper proposal for the International Society of Biblical Literature meeting in Rome was accepted for the Greco-Roman World section. The paper, which is titled “Dynamics of Identity: Judeans and Christians in the Context of Associations and Cultural Minorities”, relates to my forthcoming book.

Podcast 3.9: Marcionites and the Unknown God

Phil Harland — Sun, 15 Feb 2009 14:40:23 +0000

Here I explore Marcionite forms of Christianity, which contrast significantly to the Judean forms discussed in the previous episode. Followers of Marcion believed that the legalistic God of the Hebrew Bible was to be distinguished from the loving, unknown Father-God who sent Jesus, and that Law was opposed to Gospel. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.9: Marcionites and the Unknown God (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Podcast 3.8: Jewish Followers of Jesus, part 2 - Pseudo-Clement

Phil Harland — Mon, 02 Feb 2009 19:58:03 +0000

Here I continue to explore Jewish followers of Jesus by examining key passages in an apocryphal novel attributed to Clement of Rome, also known as the Pseudo-Clementine writings. In particular, an opening letter claiming to be written by Peter to James and the story of Peter’s debates with Simon Magus (a cipher for Paul) provide glimpses into struggles between Jewish followers of Jesus and others, including Pauline forms of Christianity. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.8: Jewish Followers of Jesus, part 2 - Pseudo-Clementine Writings (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

“The Historical Jesus in Context” podcast episodes and the strike

Phil Harland — Wed, 28 Jan 2009 16:16:39 +0000

A very long strike has come to an end and my students have a test to be written soon after they return (the second week back, Thursday February 12 at 8:30am, to be precise). A proposed revised syllabus for HUMA 2830 is now posted for discussion.

In an effort to help them in preparing for that and in refreshing their memories, I have been working hard on preparing as many podcast episodes as possible based on the lectures earlier this Fall, and have made only minor progress (it takes some time in editing and introducing each episode). I am not completely happy with the shape of these episodes, but they are at least something. One thing I do really like for sure is the opening music I am using, which is “Paradise Lost” by Namgyal Lhamo of Tibet (used under a creative commons-type license from “Podsafe audio”).

The podcast series will be “The Historical Jesus in Context” and below is a preview of the first 13 six, ten or so episodes, each of them about 30 minutes long (to be officially released in 2010 — I’ll see if I can prepare more and add them to this post soon):

Podcast 5.1: Studying the Historical Jesus - Sources and Problems, part 1

Podcast 5.2: Studying the Historical Jesus - Sources and Problems, part 2

Podcast 5.3: Studying the Historical Jesus - Sources and Problems, part 3

Podcast 5.4: Scholarly Portraits of the Historical Jesus, part 1 - Crossan

Podcast 5.5: Scholarly Portraits of the Historical Jesus, part 2 - Sanders

Podcast 5.6: Jesus, Galilee, and Israelite History, part 1 - To the Second Temple

Podcast 5.7: Jesus, Galilee, and Israelite History, part 2 - To the Time of Jesus

Podcast 5.8: Jesus, the Galilean and Judean

Podcast 5.9: Jesus in the Context of Educated Groups and Leaders

Podcast 5.10: Jesus and his Mentor, John the Baptizer

Podcast 5.11: Jesus as Teacher, part 1 - Method and Content

Podcast 5.12: Jesus as Teacher, part 2 - Present or Future Kingdom?

Podcast 5.13: Jesus as Healer and Exorcist

Podcast 5.14: Jesus as Prophet

UPDATE: There is just one more episode to edit in this series (on the role of Messiah). I have changed this to series five (rather than four), since series four will be “Honouring the Gods in the Ancient Mediterranean” (on Greco-Roman religions generally).

New Podcast: From Israelite to Jew, by Michael Satlow (Brown U.)

Phil Harland — Tue, 27 Jan 2009 14:02:05 +0000

Michael Satlow (an associate professor at Brown University) now has a very well-done podcast on cultural and religious developments in Israel and Judah from the Israelite period on, entitled “From Israelite to Jew”. Besides being very informative, the recordings themselves are very clear and well-edited (sounds like he’s working from a well-prepared script). So far there are four episodes, which you can access on his blog here or on archive.org here (it is also available through iTunes).

An ancient Sugar Ray Leonard, a deceased Cynic philosopher, and a colleague of Marcion at Sinope

Phil Harland — Fri, 23 Jan 2009 19:41:25 +0000

I’ve been making my way through The Inscriptions of Sinope, the latest in the series on Greek inscriptions of Asia Minor (bibliography below). Sinope was a Greek city on the northern coast of Turkey. Its location on the Black Sea made it important for sea trade, and the sailor and “heretic” Marcion was from this city. A few of the inscriptions stood out to me and I thought I’d share them with you.

The first is a very successful boxer of the first or second century who may well match or beat Sugar Ray:

M(arcus) Iutius Marcianus Rufus, outstanding boxer of Sinope, who won victories in the sacred triumphal competitions: at Rome in the Capitoline, 3 times in succession — at Neapolis, twice — at the Actian (games), twice, the first and only Sinopean (to do so) - at the Nemean (games), twice - at the Isthmian (games), twice - at the Pythian (games) - at the Olympic (games) - at the Panathenaic (games), the first and only Sinopean (to do so) - at Antiocheia (in Syria), 3 times, the first and only ever of the youth and men’s classes in one day, in the men’s class - in the Pythian games at Antiocheia - at Nicomedia, 3 times, the first and only ever in the under-age, youth and men’s classes - at the (Provincial) Community of Asia games at Smyrna, Pergamum, and Ephesus - at the Aspis at Argos, twice - at the (Provincial) Community of Asia games at Sardis, twice, at Philadelphia, twice, at Traelles, twice, at Hierapolis, twice, at Laodiceia, twice, at Thyateira, twice, at Mytilene, twice - at the (Provincial) Community of Pontus games, twice - at the (Provincial) Community of Galatia games, twice - at the (Provincial) Community of Macedonia games - at the (Provincial) Community of Bithynia games at Nicaea, twice - at the (Provincial) Community of Cappadocia games - and at other competitions in the half-talent class, 110 times. (In all) 150 victories. By decision of the Senate (ISinope 105; trans. by French with adaptations, see below).

“Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee,” I guess.

The second is the grave of a Cynic philosopher of the second or third century. This is the first grave of such a philosopher I have encountered, but there may well be others:

This then is (the) stone of a man whom, moreover, — an expounder of wisdom — this city has produced, [ - - ] of [ - - ] Perseus. Why does he have the name “wing”? Tell us! Because a raised wing too drew (him) through the air of Greece. This Perseus (was) [inclined] too towards Cynic thought, since he carried a wallet (and) a scimitar (small sword) in the place of a staff . . . (ISinope 171; trans. French, with adaptations).

The third involves the grave-stone of a shipper from Sinope (first-third century CE), the hometown of another more renowned shipper, named Marcion:

Hail, O passer-by! (I), Callinicus, having sailed (over) many waves, sailed (on) the last voyage of Lethe, (I) whom the sea in the deeps did not extinguish, but the earth destroyed by a heavy sickness; having lived two and thirty years, eager to come to (the) fate of (my) younger brother Calligonus, long dead, having lived nobly for fourteen years; thus are the plans of (the) fates arranged. Iulius Callinicus, ship-master (naukleros), lies here (ISinope 169).

This inscription also points to another reality of life in the ancient world, namely, the short life expectancy: Callinicus lived to the age of only 32 and his brother had died when he was only 14.

I plan to do more posts on interesting inscriptions I encounter.

David H. French, ed., The Inscriptions of Sinope (Inschriften griechischer Städte aus Kleinasien, vol 64; Bonn: Rudolf Habelt, 2004).

Podcast 3.7: Jewish Followers of Jesus, part 1 - Ebionites

Phil Harland — Fri, 16 Jan 2009 00:51:15 +0000

Beginning with James the brother of Jesus and the Jerusalem church, here I trace evidence for Judean followers of Jesus and discuss their gradual marginalization. In particular, I focus attention on Jewish-Christian groups that the patristic sources (e.g. Irenaeus, Epiphanius) label “the Ebionites”, or “poor ones”. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.7: Jewish Followers of Jesus, part 1 - Ebionites (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Is my podcast the beast?, or an update on the podcast

Phil Harland — Wed, 14 Jan 2009 14:12:15 +0000

The podcast has been doing fairly well with an ever increasing listener base. I noticed today that subscribers to the podcast (through iTunes and such) have now reached the “number of its name” (666). Browsing through all episodes on the archive.org page for my podcast (where the actual audio is hosted), I can see the number of times that each episode has been heard (including and beyond the subscribers). Most fully released episodes have been listened to 1500-2000 times, with the champion being the episode on Paul’s response to the Romans, coming in at 3342 (what’s so special about the letter to the Romans?). So I’m finding that this is a valuable use of my time and effort, and will continue for now. Thanks to all you listeners!

You can subscribe to the podcast here, if you haven’t already. Or you can simply listen to them on this site by clicking on the podcast category or you can go to the archive.org page (where you can also listen to episodes before their “official” release.) Three easy ways to learn about early Christianity in order to impress your friends! Join now;)

Some ancient education-related jokes (Jokes 4)

Phil Harland — Thu, 08 Jan 2009 16:29:02 +0000

When MSNBC links to your blog, the smartest thing to do is find out why, and then post more on the same.

Quite some time ago I started a series on ancient humour and it’s time to revive it again. See:

Ancient jokes: Humour now and then
Regional rivalries and humour in the Greco-Roman world
A few more ancient jokes, or selling your textbooks is not that impressive (also some haunting humour here).

The Philolegos, or Laughter-Lover is a treasure trove of ancient humour. As I wait anxiously for the strike to end at York University, here are some ancient education-related jokes:

“An egghead elementary school teacher suddenly darted a glance at the corner and shouted, ‘Dionysius is misbehaving in the corner!’ When one of the other boys pointed out that Dionysius had not yet arrived, he rejoined, ‘Well, he will be when he gets here’ (Laughter-lover, no. 61)

“An egghead was writing a letter from Athens to his father. Wanting to show off over how well his studies were going, he added this postscript: ‘I pray that when I come home I shall find you on trial for your life, so that I can show you how great an advocate I am’” (no. 54).

“A professor from [the city of] Sidon (see post here) asked a schoolteacher how much a five-litre flask holds. ‘That all depends on whether you mean oil or wine” (no. 136).

“A gluttonous teacher called up to a loaf of bread he saw on a high shelf, ‘Come down and recite your lesson or I’ll come up there and teach you another one’ (no. 220).

“An egghead gym instructor was told first that his pupil was not feeling well, next that he had a fever, and finally that he was dead. ‘If you keep giving him all these excuses to miss class, he’ll never have a chance to learn’ (no. 258).

Now even I would accept that last excuse for missing classes.

Podcast 3.6: Sources for the Study of Diversity - Gnostic, Apocryphal, Patristic

Phil Harland — Mon, 05 Jan 2009 15:32:50 +0000

Here I sketch out our main sources for the study of various Christian groups or “heresies” in the second and third centuries, including discussion of the early Christian Apocrypha, the Nag Hammadi writings (associated with “gnosticism”), and the Church Fathers. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.6: Sources for the Study of Diversity - Gnostic, Apocryphal, Patristic (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

New article on Jewish associations in Palestine by Instone-Brewer and I

Phil Harland — Wed, 31 Dec 2008 15:32:51 +0000

A while back David Instone-Brewer (of Tyndale Tech fame) and I co-wrote an article which has now appeared on the Journal of Greco-Roman Judaism and Christianity site in volume 5 (2008).

“Jewish Associations in Roman Palestine: Evidence from the Mishnah”.

Most of what is original there is by David, and I primarily provide associational context for his discussion of the Mishnaic evidence.

Happy Holidays

Phil Harland — Thu, 18 Dec 2008 19:13:49 +0000

Happy holidays, Christmas and/or Hanukkah! Have a nice holiday break!

Rather than reinvent the wheel, here are some posts from previous holidays:

Podcast 3.5: Diversity in Asia Minor - A Regional Case Study

Phil Harland — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:53:50 +0000

Here I use the region of Asia Minor (Turkey) as a case study that allows me to outline various strands and styles within Christianity in the first and second centuries. I then go on to outline our approach to studying the worldviews and practices of Christian groups and “heresies”. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.5: Diversity in Asia Minor - A Regional Case Study (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options ).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Beate Dignas, Economy of the Sacred in Hellenistic and Roman Asia Minor (2002)

Phil Harland — Wed, 03 Dec 2008 16:03:39 +0000

I had been planning to read Beate Dignas’ book on the economics of sanctuaries in Asia Minor for some time, and I have finally done so: Beate Dignas, Economy of the Sacred in Hellenistic and Roman Asia Minor (Oxford Classical Monographs; Oxford: OUP, 2002). Here I’ll merely provide some highlights from my reading; this will not be a formal review.

Dignas argues that many studies of sanctuaries of Asia Minor in both the Hellenistic and Roman periods have been working with problematic assumptions. The main assumption that Dignas challenges throughout the work is that concepts such as “polis religion” (in other words “city-state run religion”) or “state cults” or “public cults” are the most appropriate concepts when describing cults in Asia Minor. In other words, she suggests that the common identification of cult with city (polis) and the notion that the sanctuaries were utterly dependent on civic government is not correct. Dignas also feels that past attempts to categorize sanctuaries and to deal with the different categories in isolation do not find a basis in the ancient evidence. In particular, she challenges a stark differentiation between urban and rural cults, or between Greek and so-called indigenous sanctuaries, or between regular sanctuaries and “temple-states”. Here Dignas would stress similarities more than differences among these previously common categories.

Instead, Dignas emphasizes inscriptional evidence which points to the independence of certain cults from the cities with which they have been associated. She also highlights cases when those in charge of a sanctuary (priests or what have you) sought to assert the interests of the sanctuary over against the city’s interests, usually by means of diplomatic relations with Hellenistic, Attalid, or Roman rulers. The relationship between the cult of Zeus at Labraunda and the polis of Mylasa serves as the ongoing illustration of this point, alongside other examples. The advantage of this particular case is that we possess epigraphic evidence from various points in the Hellenistic and Roman eras. Dignas’ focus is on the economic management of the sanctuaries, with issues of administration, land, and income.

Dignas proposes a triangular understanding of the relation between city, cult, and ruler, with cases of rulers siding with cults being an important factor in her argument. Hellenistic or Roman rulers and governors served a mediating role in these conflicts of interest, sometimes siding with a sanctuary’s leadership against the polis’ stance, and sometimes with the polis. This approach rightly emphasizes the request-response and ad hoc nature of both Hellenistic and Roman rule. She suggests that the motivations of these rulers in supporting the requests of specific cults may well have been related to concerns to honour the gods and ensure the ongoing welfare of the sanctuaries (rather than mere political interests).

Built into Dignas’ approach is an emphasis on continuity in the administration of sanctuaries from the Hellenistic to the Roman periods, with little change in the overall dynamics of this triangular relationship. She also suggests the ongoing economic stability of many sanctuaries over this period. In doing so, she is correctly arguing against a far more common scholarly tradition which emphasizes the decline of traditional cults in the late Hellenistic and, especially, in the Roman periods. She is definitely on the right track in deconstructing that older, previously dominant view. For my own views on such theories of decline, you can check out my article: The Declining Polis? Religious Rivalries in Ancient Civic Context.

Although I feel that Dignas has a legitimate point to make regarding evidence for the independence of some sanctuaries at certain times, she sometimes tends to substitute repeated assertions regarding independence for actual evidence. At times the rhetoric of these assertions or claims is problematic as well. On one occasion, her confidence in her own claims approaches prophetic status: “future studies will confirm” what I [Dignas] am saying (p. 242). In cases when the evidence is minimal or difficult to interpret, she nonetheless proceeds full steam ahead with assuming or asserting a high level of independence. Although I think she is right about some level of continuity in sanctuary life from the Hellenistic to the Roman period, the strength with which she asserts this continuity is not necessarily consonant with the fragmentary nature of the evidence she presents. Strong claims of either continuity (Dignas’ point) or discontinuity (far more common in previous studies) are based on very partial evidence, and it is important to be very clear about that situation. More nuanced statements are called for. Still, she is right to suggest that the evidence does point to the ongoing vitality of many cults in Asia Minor.

Another conceptual difficulty with somewhat far-reaching implications is Dignas’ repeated contrast between “secular” and “profane” with the modern notion of the separation of “church” and “state” as a loose analogy (e.g. p. 13). This is based, in part, on Dignas’ attempt to assert the independence of sanctuaries (the sacred) from the polis or civic control (profane). Dignas is here working against a now common claim that what we as moderns label “religion” was in fact embedded within various other dimensions of life in antiquity. So that what we as moderns might label a “political” factor or an “economic” factor was, in the Greco-Roman world, bound up in what we would tend to call a “religious” sphere, and vice versa. In other words, some scholars (including myself) would emphasize the relative inadequacy of these categories for studying cultural life in antiquity. On the other hand, Dignas can conclude with the claim that “a religious sphere can be distinguished within any context of life in ancient Anatolia” (p. 223). I find Dignas’ attempt to go back to a clear differentiation between religion and politics or the sacred and the profane quite odd. In reading her theoretical comments on such matters it becomes clear that Dignas is not exactly up to date on the academic study of religion generally. Nor does she actually engage such theoretical issues in a direct way. This is problematic when dealing with the subject of sanctuaries in the Greco-Roman world. And yet it’s important to recognize that this book began as a dissertation in a Classical Studies department, not a Religious Studies department. And, in an overall way, Dignas’ assertions that an independent “religious sphere” existed is based less on any theoretical consideration of the issue than it is based on her attempt to argue for the independence of many sanctuaries from the cities (which to me does not require a claim that religion was separate from other aspects of life).

Despite these theoretical problems, I nonetheless found Dignas’ work very useful, particularly since we generally lack monographs on the topic of cults in Asia Minor.

Resurrecting EarlyChristianWritings.com and EarlyJewishWritings.com

Phil Harland — Wed, 03 Dec 2008 14:50:29 +0000

A reader of this blog (whose comment I by accident deleted rather than approved) recently reminded me that we can still access both earlychristianwritings.com and earlyjewishwritings.com using the Way Back Machine on Archive.org. There are various snapshots of the sites to choose from, with the most successful and complete ones for me being:

http://web.archive.org:80/web/20060131092132/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com

http://web.archive.org/web/20070611063719/http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/

This will certainly help since I included some readings from these sites in my course outline for the upcoming Winter term (assuming that the York U. strike gets solved before January!).

Podcast 3.4: Docetic and Judaizing Opponents of Ignatius, part 2

Phil Harland — Wed, 26 Nov 2008 22:21:03 +0000

Here I discuss Ignatius’ Judaizing opponents, who advocated certain Jewish beliefs and practices. I also deal with Ignatius’ strategies in combating groups he considered heretical. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.4: Docetic and Judaizing Opponents of Ignatius, part 2 (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Angel-loving association cancelled - A new reading of an often cited inscription from Asia Minor

Phil Harland — Wed, 19 Nov 2008 15:19:52 +0000

The availability of the journal Epigraphica Anatolica online is already paying off! There you will find a new article which has some notable repercussions not only for the study of associations in Asia Minor but also for the study of the opponents of Colossians: Hasan Malay, “ΦΙΛΑΝΠΙΛΟΙ in Phrygia and Lydia,” Epigraphica Anatolica 38 (2005) 42–44.

Back in 1980/81, A.R.R. Sheppard published a little inscription (from near Kotiaion) involving Holiness and Justice, two personifications that were commonly honoured in certain areas of Phrygia and Lydia (”Pagan Cults of Angels in Roman Asia Minor,” Talanta 12-13 [1980-81]: 77-101 = SEG 31 1130). The more exciting element in the inscription was the apparent reference to non-Christians or non-Judeans who devoted themselves in some way to “angels”, which was based on Sheppard’s reading: ΦΙΛΑΝΓΕΛΩΝ (”Friends-of-angels”). Sheppard’s translation of the inscription was as follows:

“Aur(elius) … the Association of Friends of the Angels (made) a vow to Holiness and Justice”.

Sheppard suggested that this involved “pagans” who had some contact with the Jewish notion of angels. Sheppard’s reading of the inscription was also discussed in New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity, vol. 6, number 31.

This idea that there were “pagans” devoted to divine messengers or “angels” then became background for some New Testament scholars who were sorting out the “philosophy” combated by the author of Colossians (2:8-23), particularly the reference to the “worship of angels” (2:18). Clinton Arnold’s theory regarding the opponents of Colossians, for instance, drew attention to the importance of angels in Asia Minor not only among diaspora Judeans but also among pagans, such that we could speak of a common folk practice in this region. He suggested that the opponents were practicing the (magical) invocation of angels for protection and that this reflected both the Judean and pagan devotion to angels in Asia Minor specifically (see Clinton Arnold, The Colossian Syncretism: The Interface between Christianity and Folk Belief at Colossae [Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996]).

However, Malay’s recent study of this particular inscription has shown that Sheppard likely misread a key letter here (what a difference one letter can make). What Sheppard read as a “gamma”, Malay now says is surely a “pi”, which leaves us with ΦΙΛΑΝΠΙΛΟΙ, “Friends-of-the-vine” or “Vine-lovers”, and no angels at all in this inscription.

Malay publishes another inscription which confirms the existence of associations devoted to the vine, in other words relating to wine production and/or consumption, in the same region (in this case from nearby Katakekaumene, now in the Manisa Museum, dating 161/2 CE):

“To the Good Fortune! In the year 192, on the fourth day of the month Peritios, New Lovers of Vine (φιλάνπιλοι) set this up as a vow to Mother Leto on account of their own salvation.”

The meeting of the association of friend-of-angels is apparently canceled.

Epigraphica Anatolica (Anatolian Epigraphy) journal articles now online

Phil Harland — Wed, 19 Nov 2008 13:39:22 +0000

Maybe this is old news to others, but I was pleasantly surprised to find that the latest articles from Epigraphica Anatolica (EA; from 2003 to present) are available for free online at:

http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/EpAnat/index-web.html

That journal publishes studies on the latest of inscriptions relating to Asia Minor. Let’s hope they digitize all earlier volumes as well.

A comment on the Current Epigraphy blog inspired me to investigate to see if EA was available online in any form ~~(it may be that that blog has already announced the online version, but this is a heads up to them if they haven’t seen that yet).~~ — They’ve known about it since August, which shows just how behind (or how much of a behind) I am.

Justin just out . . .

Phil Harland — Sun, 16 Nov 2008 22:10:32 +0000

ten days ago, that is (though the celebration continues as you can see by the upraised arms).

(I didn’t come up with that one. I’m told that this was the paper headline — “Justin Just Out” — when Trudeau’s Justin showed up, not to be confused with our Justin without a silver spoon).

Consulting the gods about your favourite blanket

Phil Harland — Thu, 13 Nov 2008 15:43:30 +0000

Oracles were an important part of life in Greek cities of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Individuals, groups or communities went to locales such as Delphi, Didyma, and Claros to consult a god — in these cases the god Apollo — and to ask for guidance on various dilemnas or problems faced in their lives. The questions asked could range from what we would consider quite important political decisions (should be go to war with this or that power?) or important health concerns (how can we conceive?) to what we would consider more mundane matters. In reading Pierre Bonnechere’s chapter on “Divination” (A Componanion to Greek Religion, p. 157) today I came across this inscriptional gem in which a man consults Zeus and Zeus’ wife, Dione, about some missing bedding:

“Agis asks Zeus Naios and Dione about his blankets and pillows, whether he has lost them or whether someone else has stolen them” (SIG, 3rd edition 1163).

Sounds a bit like me consulting the local oracle on a wintery day: “Alright, who stole my gloves. Cheryl, have you seen my gloves?”

Haunted house for sale in Athens — belated Halloween post

Phil Harland — Mon, 10 Nov 2008 18:32:00 +0000

Usually I like to post some scary stuff from antiquity in connection with Halloween (see earlier ones about talking, decapitated heads and such here and here), but I’m a bit behind. Here is a somewhat entertaining tale of a haunted house preserved by Pliny the Younger (Roman governor of Bithynia-Pontus in the early second century). This ghost sounds a bit like a double for Jacob Marley. Pliny seems to believe the tale:

There was at Athens a large and roomy house, which had a bad name, so that no one could live there. In the dead of the night a noise, resembling the clashing of iron, was frequently heard, which, if you listened more attentively, sounded like the rattling of chains, distant at first, but approaching nearer by degrees. Immediately afterward a phantom appeared in the form of an old man, of extremely emaciated and filthy appearance, with a long beard and messy hair, rattling the chains on his feet and hands. The distressed occupants meanwhile passed their wakeful nights under the most dreadful terrors imaginable. This, as it broke their rest, ruined their health, and brought on distempers, their terror grew upon them, and death ensued. Even in the day time, though the spirit did not appear, the impression nonetheless remained so strong upon their imaginations that it still seemed before their eyes, and kept them in perpetual alarm. Consequently the house was at length deserted, as being deemed absolutely uninhabitable, so that it was now entirely abandoned to the ghost. However, in hopes that some tenant might be found who was ignorant of this very alarming circumstance, a sign was put up, giving notice that it was either for rent or sale.

(Pliny the Younger, Letters 7.27.5-6; adapted from the translation by William Melmoth, Letters of Pliny [Boston: Greenough and Stebbens, 1809], online at Project Gutenberg).

Moral of the story: Always ask if a place is haunted before you buy or rent.

(I came across the tale while reading D. Felton, “The Dead,” in A Companion to Greek Religion [edited by D. Ogden; London: Blackwell, 2007], 86-99.)

Podcast 3.3: Docetic and Judaizing Opponents of Ignatius, part 1

Phil Harland — Tue, 04 Nov 2008 13:31:57 +0000

There are two main groups of opponents combated by Ignatius of Antioch in his letters to followers of Jesus in Asia Minor: Docetic and Judaizing opponents (part 1 of 2). This episode introduces Ignatius (who wrote in the early second century) and explains the position of his docetic opponents, who thought that Jesus only appeared to be human when in fact he was a divine being. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.3: Docetic and ‘Judaizing’ Opponents of Ignatius, part 1 (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Biblical Studies Carnival 35

Phil Harland — Sat, 01 Nov 2008 13:01:24 +0000

The latest biblical studies carnival XXXV has been posted over at Abnormal Interests, and it is very well-done.

Patristics Carnival 16

Phil Harland — Fri, 17 Oct 2008 00:32:42 +0000

Phil Snider has posted the latest Patristics Carnival XVI covering September.

Podcast 3.2: A Schism in John’s Community, part 2

Phil Harland — Thu, 16 Oct 2008 18:46:55 +0000

Here I continue to consider the opponents in John’s epistles (part 2 of 2). These epistles provide evidence of an early Christian schism over how to view Jesus’ humanity. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.2: A Schism in John’s Community, part 2 (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

Tony Burke’s excellent piece on “Heresy Hunting in the New Millenium”

Phil Harland — Tue, 14 Oct 2008 12:28:36 +0000

You’d think that by hanging around a guy on a regular basis, you might hear it from him that he has a new article out. I only now discovered for myself (via a comment on Bill Arnal’s facebook page) that Tony Burke has an excellent piece on the parallels between the techniques of ancient and modern apologists in attacking perceived heresies: “Heresy Hunting in the New Millenium,” SBL Forum (October 2008). Besides hitting the nail on the head, it’s a great read.

UPDATE: Tony may well counter: You’d think that a guy that pretends to show interest in another’s scholarship would actually look at his blog (Tony has noted the article on his own blog, where there’s also a new post on the childhood of Jesus).

UPDATE (Oct 16): Tony now has a response to Rob Bowman’s critique of Tony’s heresy hunting article.

Ballparking the historical Jesus - The importance of context

Phil Harland — Thu, 02 Oct 2008 15:53:16 +0000

In my previous posts on the historical Jesus, I have stressed the difficulties modern historians face in reconstructing this first century peasant or in being precise about what exactly the peasant of Galilee did or said. The limits of historical method and the scholarly choices that are involved every step of the way help to explain why solid scholars such as E.P. Sanders and John Dominic Crossan come up with quite different results in their attempts to say something about the historical Jesus. (I hope to return to these guys in another post).

When it comes down to it, one could say that what we know with a relatively high level of probability using historical approaches are two specific things: that there is a very high likelihood that Jesus was executed by crucifixion under Pilate and that Jesus was probably baptized by John the immerser. There are, of course, important corollaries to these two items that allow us to go further. Yet, beyond such historically secure statements, it is difficult to be precise about sayings and actions of Jesus from an historical perspective. Some things may be more securely probable or likely than others, but we are dealing with less secure items the rest of the way in the search for the historical Jesus. What one scholar considers to be a more likely case of an authentic saying or action of Jesus, another will consider probably a product of an early Christian author, and therefore inauthentic. Modern historical methods are limited in what they can tell us about a specific person living two thousand years ago, and our ancient sources have interests other than historical reporting.

As the title to my post puts it, we are in some sense better off admitting that we can only (carefully) ballpark it when it comes to evaluating many aspects of the historical Jesus. What I mean by “ballparking it” here is that we can gain a relatively good picture of some aspects of the social, economic, and cultural contexts in which the peasant Jesus was active, and we can know with some degree of likelihood about some of Jesus’ contemporaries in the context of Galilee and Judea. We can construct a likely picture of the overall ballpark or range of possibilities within which to place the figure of Jesus — a first century Galilean ballpark set within the Roman empire.

View Larger Map
(The Galilean ballpark)

A typical student in a second year course or your average Jane-blog-reader may know very little about ancient history. They may know even less about the Mediterranean world as a whole in that ancient period. They may know even less about what was going on in Israel in the first century, and still less about what it was like in the region of Galilee or in some village like Nazareth. Then there’s the question of whether one’s limited knowledge is focussed on what we moderns distinguish as geography, politics, economics, society, or culture. The thing to teach here, I would suggest, is the ballpark (itself hard to recreate using historical methods) in which to plot out the various possibilities for a peasant like Jesus. If we spend considerable time studying the world in which Jesus lived, through both literary and archeological evidence, and focus our attention on studying other near-contemporaries of Jesus who produced writings or who left behind artefacts, then we can get quite a bit closer to the ballpark in which Jesus played.

Biblical Studies Carnival 34

Phil Harland — Wed, 01 Oct 2008 13:18:19 +0000

Doug Chaplin has done an excellent job on the most recent Biblical Studies Carnival XXXIV.

Podcast 3.1: Introduction to Diversity - A Schism in John’s Community, part 1

Phil Harland — Mon, 29 Sep 2008 18:34:07 +0000

Here I delve into the issue of diversity in early Christianity by using the opponents in John’s epistles as a starting point (part 1 of 2). These epistles provide evidence of an early Christian schism over how to view Jesus’ humanity. This is part of series 3 (”Diversity in Early Christianity: ‘Heresies’ and Struggles”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 3.1: Introduction to Diversity - A Schism in John’s Community, part 1 (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music.

New “heresy” podcast series - Diversity in early Christianity: “Heresies” and struggles (series 3)

Phil Harland — Sun, 28 Sep 2008 14:21:07 +0000

Starting in October (this coming week), the third series in the podcast will begin. This series looks at the variety of Christian groups that existed in the first to third centuries, especially marginalized groups and those traditionally labelled “heresies” (e.g. Gnostics, Marcionites, Ebionites, etc). This series is more advanced and assumes some knowledge of the history of early Christianity, so it is suggested that you first listen to series one (Paul and his communities) and two (Early Christian portraits of Jesus).

For those who would rather not wait for the staggered release of episodes over the next few months (through iTunes or the feed), I should remind you that all episodes are currently accessible on my archive.org podcast page (click on “Browse episodes starting with recent additions”).

Here is an overview of the episodes:

Podcast 3.1: Introduction to Diversity - A Schism in John’s Community, part 1
Podcast 3.2: A Schism in John’s Community, part 2
Podcast 3.3: Docetic and Judaizing Opponents of Ignatius, part 1
Podcast 3.4: Docetic and Judaizing Opponents of Ignatius, part 2
Podcast 3.5: Diversity in Asia Minor - A Regional Case Study
Podcast 3.6: Sources for the Study of Diversity - Gnostic, Apocryphal, Patristic
Podcast 3.7: Jewish Followers of Jesus, part 1 - Ebionites
Podcast 3.8: Jewish Followers of Jesus, part 2 - Pseudo-Clement
Podcast 3.9: Marcionites and the Unknown God
Podcast 3.10: Introducing Gnostic Worldviews
Podcast 3.11: Secret Book of John, part 1 - The Spiritual Realm
Podcast 3.12: Secret Book of John, part 2 - Salvation from the Material Realm
Podcast 3.13: The Wisdom of Jesus Christ and Middle Platonism
Podcast 3.14: The Gospel of Philip, part 1 - Ideas of Salvation
Podcast 3.15: The Gospel of Philip, part 2 - Ritual Enactments of Salvation
Podcast 3.16: The Gospel of Mary - Secret Knowledge from the Ultimate Disciple

A second highly probable thing about the historical Jesus: Immersion by John the Baptizer

Phil Harland — Fri, 26 Sep 2008 14:05:57 +0000

My previous discussion of Tacitus and Josephus concluded with the observation that the execution of Jesus under the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate is one of the most secure things we can know about the peasant from Nazareth with a high degree of probability using modern historical methods. This is because reference to the execution is attested in multiple, independent sources (criterion of multiple, independent attestation), including sources which refer to Jesus only incidentally, as an aside. Historical methods are limited in what they can reveal to us, particularly in the case of ancient history and especially in the case of studying an obscure Galilean villager who lived two thousand years ago (our knowledge of Galilee is quite limited, let alone our knowledge of an individual living there). When historical approaches can reveal something to us, it is only with certain levels of likelihood or probability, not certainty or “truth.” So cases of “high probability” that x or y happened are the best you can get in doing history (in the modern sense).

(Joachim Patenier, The Baptism of Christ [1515; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna])

A second highly probable thing about Jesus accessible through historical methods is his immersion or baptism by John the Baptist. Scholars of early Christianity have developed a set of criteria for establishing the historical “authenticity” of particular activities or sayings attributed to Jesus in our sources, and multiple attestation is an important one. Another is known as the criterion of embarrassment. The principle here is: if a source reports some incident or saying even though the author of that source was hesitant about reporting it and somewhat embarrassed by the incident or saying, that author is not likely to have completely made up that incident or saying. On the other hand, the author in question could have simply omitted it to avoid any difficulty. In other words, when our sources report something in a round about way that reveals some embarrassment, there is a higher likelihood that it actually did happen.

One of the most illustrative cases in which this criterion plays a key role relates to the immersion of Jesus by John the Baptizer. The actual incident of Jesus being baptized in this case is attested in the gospel of Mark and in both Matthew and Luke. However, if one is using the two-source hypothesis, this would entail only one independent source for the incident, since Matthew and Luke are here drawing their material from Mark, the earliest ancient biography of Jesus. The Gospel of John completely omits the baptism itself and the Q-sayings source may or may not have included the actual baptism (Q did have material about John the Baptist and Jesus interacting). The so-called Gospel of the Hebrews and Gospel of the Nazoreans each report the immersion, so they may or may not (depending on their reliance on the synoptic traditions) supply further independent attestation. So the criterion of multiple attestation is not much help here.

This is where evidence of embarrassment comes in handy for the historian. The way that New Testament scholars explain this is that the embarrassment arises from the implications of a superior teacher or mentor in relation to an inferior student or protégé. At the time when the authors of the synoptics were writing (late first century) there were apparently still groups of followers of John the Baptizer (cf. Acts 19:1-7), which might raise the question: why not join a movement devoted to the superior baptizer rather the inferior baptized one. An early follower of Jesus might be concerned to assert that Jesus is superior to John the Baptist, even though Jesus’ baptism by John might imply otherwise.

Each of the gospels deals with this in different ways. The earliest, Mark, presents a saying in which John explicitly identifies his inferiority to Jesus, in terms of not being worthy to even undo Jesus’ sandals, and a dove, interpreted as the Spirit, confirms Jesus special status (Mk 1:7-11). Mathew uses Mark but adds in a further interchange in which John tries to prevent Jesus from being baptized by him, which would imply Jesus’ inferiority, but Jesus gives the green-light in terms of “fulfilling righteousness” (Mt 3:13-15). Luke goes about dealing with the embarrassment in an interesting way. Mark, Luke’s source, has that Jesus was “baptized by John in the Jordan” but Luke takes out John here and changes the phraseology so that there’s an ambiguity about who exactly baptized Jesus: “when Jesus also had been baptized… ” (Lk 3:21-22).

Finally, the Gospel of John (1:29-34) is usually out in left-field in comparison to the synoptic gospels, but the material on John the Baptist and Jesus is one of the very few cross-overs. How does the author of the gospel of John show what scholars call “embarrassment” here? The gospel of John omits the baptism of Jesus altogether but still presents John’s proclamations about the superiority of Jesus (e.g. the “Lamb of God” that takes away the sins of the world) and the descent of the dove indicating Jesus’ special status.

So all of our sources for the relation between John the Baptist and Jesus reveal what could be called an embarrassment at the implications of the baptism itself, one gospel to the point of omitting the immersion altogether. Mark, Matthew, and Luke could have likewise simply omitted this incident to avoid having to explain, but they included it despite their embarrassment. It is highly unlikely that the authors of these sources made up the baptism, and in historical terms it is highly probable that Jesus was actually baptized by John the Baptist. There are important corollaries of this piece of information, particularly relating to the apocalyptic worldview of John the Baptist, but I’ll have to save those for another post.

Quote of the day

Phil Harland — Fri, 19 Sep 2008 01:13:59 +0000

“If the devil were to explode and evil were gone forever, what sort of party would you have?” (Michael Scott, The Office, in reference to throwing a farewell party for a departing employee).

The answer involves anti-gravity machines, naturally.

Non-Christian sources for the study of the historical Jesus: Josephus and Tacitus on the execution of Jesus

Phil Harland — Wed, 17 Sep 2008 19:12:15 +0000

One of the frustrating things about studying ancient history is the very limited nature of our sources, both in terms of quantity (only bits and pieces have come down to us) and in terms of quality. What I mean by quality is reliable and verifiable historical information (in a modern historian’s terms) regarding the figures and incidents literary sources describe. What the ancients were interested in telling us is seldom what a modern historian wants to know.

This also holds for the study of the historical Jesus, an obscure peasant from Nazareth in Galilee. Archeology is indispensable in providing insights into the cultural context of that peasant, but does little for solving details about what that figure said or did. When it comes down to it, the ancient biographies known as the gospels (e.g. Matthew, Mark, Luke, John) remain our principal source of evidence, along with other more recently discovered writings (e.g. The Gospel of Thomas). Yet the authors of ancient biographies, or “lives” (bioi), had very little interest in what a modern historian looks for in studying a figure of the past. The ancient “lives” of Jesus were instead very interested in explaining what they thought the meaning of Jesus was for those who wished to follow him, and in promoting their own particular takes on that figure’s significance.

What would help in this situation would be some non-Christian sources regarding Jesus which could be carefully compared with these ancient, insider “lives” of Jesus in order to assist the historian in reconstructing with some level of probability a picture of the historical Jesus or of certain aspects of his life. Such sources are few and far between, so it’s important to note the ones we have.

There are two main sources which I want to mention, one by a Judean author from a priestly family in Jerusalem (Josephus) who wrote in the last decades of the first century, and another by an upper class Roman imperial official (Tacitus) who wrote in the early second. Neither author cared much about Jesus, but each happens to mention something about Jesus nonetheless.

SOURCE 1: Josephus wrote several works, the most important of which were the Judean War (written in the decade following the destruction of the temple in 70 CE) and Judean Antiquities (written in the 90s CE). Josephus’ works (as well as some scholarly studies) are available online at the Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement (PACE) site. Figures related in some way to Jesus incidentally get mentioned three times in Judean Antiquities, including John the Baptist (Ant. 18.116-119), James (Ant. 20.200-201), and Jesus himself, who gets mentioned in one of the most important and controversial passages in all of Josephus’ writings (Ant. 18.63-64).

This passage is controversial because virtually all scholars agree that the text as it now stands (see below, including the strike-throughs) does not make sense as something Josephus would write: namely, there are no other signs anywhere in Josephus that suggest that he believed Jesus was an anointed one sent by God (”messiah”). Josephus is actually averse to any claims that average peasants or anyone other than a member of the elite was a messiah or king or worthy of some leadership position.

A very few scholars suggest that the whole passage was later inserted into a copy of Josephus which then got re-copied and ended up in copies that have survived into the modern period. Many other scholars would suggest that the passage was originally in Josephus’ book, but that someone (a Christian scribe) tampered with the passage and tweaked it significantly to make it sound like Josephus thought Jesus was absolutely wonderful, as though Josephus were actually a follower of Jesus. John P. Meier has done a good job of assessing the passage and in offering what seems a likely scenario of what was added in and what, therefore, should be struck-out in using the passage to study the historical Jesus :

At this time there appeared Jesus, a wise man, if indeed one should call him a man. For he was a doer of startling deeds, a teacher of people who receive truth with pleasure. And he gained a following both among many Jews and among many of Greek origin. He was the Messiah. And when Pilate, because of an accusation made by the leading men among us, condemned him to the cross, those who had loved him previously did not cease to do so. For he appeared to them on the third day, living again, just as the divine prophets had spoken of these and countless other wondrous things about him. And up until this very day the tribe of Christians, named after him, has not died out. (Ant. 18.63-64; translation by John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus [New York: Doubleday, 1991], vol. 1, p. 60; bold and strike-throughs mine).

This scenario is also supported by an Arabic version of this same passage in Josephus, which does not have the struck-through material and instead has similar material grouped at the end of the passage, suggesting that the Christian-sounding material is not original.

(Peter Paul Rubens, The Raising of the Cross (1620; Louvre)

SOURCE 2: Much more could of course be said about this passage in Josephus, but for now let’s move on to the second important non-Christian source pertaining to Jesus. Tacitus was a member of the imperial elite and senator, active in Rome, whose official positions included Roman governor of the province of Asia at one point (in 112-113 CE). In the early second century, Tacitus wrote a history of the Roman emperors of the first century, known as Annals (written in the early second century). There he deals with Nero’s time as emperor (54-68 CE). Tacitus, by the way, does not like Nero at all, but he’s safe since Nero died several decades earlier, and few of the imperial elite of Tacitus’ time looked back fondly on Nero. Tacitus’ works are available online on the Project Gutenberg site. There’s a short biography here.

Tacitus mentions that a fire engulfed a particular neighbourhood of the city of Rome, a neighbourhood that was slotted for heavy rebuilding by Nero. So, rumours began to spread that Nero himself had his men set the fire to clear the area and speed up the renovations. Nero’s response? Find someone to blame and quickly. He chose followers of Jesus since, he heard through some source, they were sometimes disliked and viewed as anti-social. Here is the passage from Annals 15.38 and 44:

(15.38) A disaster followed, whether accidental or treacherously contrived by the emperor, is uncertain, as authors have given both accounts, worse, however, and more dreadful than any which have ever happened to this city by the violence of fire. . . (15.44) But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man’s cruelty, that they were being destroyed (Tacitus, Annals, 15.38-44; trans. by A.J. Church and W.J. Brodribb, The Annals by Tacitus [London, New York: Macmillan, 1877]; public domain; bold mine).

SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE HISTORICAL JESUS: There are many historical issues that could be explored both in Josephus and in Tacitus. (On Tacitus and persecution, see my earlier post on the atheistic Christians). But what is the primary significance of these passages for study of the historical Jesus? These sources coincide with a claim made in the gospels, the claim that Jesus was executed in Judea with the most severe form of punishment available for criminals, crucifixion, and that this took place in connection with the Roman imperial official Pontius Pilate. So we have multiple sources, some non-Christian, that confirm this aspect of what happened to the peasant named Jesus. Multiple attestation is always a key criterion in historical reconstructions (and in gospel studies, by the way). This is the most reliable thing we know — using limited, modern historical methods — regarding that figure, Jesus.

I will soon return to a second key item that scores high on the scale of probability for modern historians: the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist, which has other significant corollaries regarding the peasant Jesus.

UPDATE: For those interested in reading further on some debates regarding the Josephus passage (the so called Testimonium Flavianum) on other blogs, see Stephen Carlson’s Testimonium Flavianum Series.

Did the peasant Jesus ignore Judean ritual laws? Crossan’s answer

Phil Harland — Mon, 15 Sep 2008 20:37:46 +0000

As I’m preparing to introduce second year students to the study of the historical Jesus, I am trying to pinpoint key issues and differences among scholars in order to highlight the problems in getting at that Galilean peasant. Soon enough, I’ll come to scholars (e.g. E.P. Sanders) who might point to the ways in which the Galilean Jesus was concerned to observe the Judean (Jewish) practices outlined in the Torah or Law, including some or most of its ritual observances. The proposal there would be that the difference between Jesus and many of his contemporaries was in the interpretation or application of those ritual laws, not in whether they were valid or not.

As I’m re-reading John Dominic Crossan’s book, however, I am starkly reminded of where his peasant Jesus diverges from some other portraits. For Crossan, Jesus significantly diverged from the apocalyptic message of his mentor, John the Baptist. John the Baptist’s warning of the imminent end and the impending kingdom of God in the near future was replaced by Jesus’ message focussed on transforming present arrangements in a way that acknowledged the kingdom of God in the present.

The central point of what Jesus was all about is centered on the implications of Jesus’ call for “open commensality” (meal practices open to anyone) in this present kingdom of God and it is related to the charge that Jesus was a glutton and a drunkard. Crossan’s claim to find in Jesus an egalitarian view on gathering together at the meal and a randomness in Jesus’ notion of the gathered community that will have a part in the kingdom or reign of God (e.g. parable of the feast in Gospel of Thomas 64 // Luke 14:15-24) becomes the interpretive key for all other aspects of the historical Jesus.

Crossan’s focus on this issue has implications regarding the degree to which Jesus was an observer of Judean customs and ritual ways as outlined in the Torah. You could even say that Crossan’s approach here determines the question of Jesus’ observance or non-observance of ritual requirements (apart from any other evidence or lack thereof):

it was obviously possible for the first Christian generations to debate whether Jesus was for or against the ritual laws of Judaism. His position must have been, as it were, unclear. I propose, from those preceding complexes [themes that converge in sayings of Jesus that center on open or egalitarian notions of meal practices, including the view that Jesus ate with sinners and was a glutton/drunkard], that he did not care enough about such ritual laws either to attack or to acknowledge them. He ignored them, but that, of course, was to subvert them at a most fundamental level. Later, however, some followers could say that, since he did not attack them, he must have accepted them [e.g. Crossan may be thinking of Matthew]. Others, contrariwise, could say that, since he did not follow them, he must have been against them [e.g. Crossan may be thinking of Mark]. Open commensality profoundly negates distinctions and hierarchies between female and male, poor and rich, Gentile and Jew. It does so, indeed, at a level that would offend the ritual laws of any civilized society. That was precisely its challenge (Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant [New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1992], 263).

Are the sayings of Jesus pertaining to meals and eating the primary (or only) means by which his relation to Judean ritual customs can be determined? may be a question to ask. There will be more to come on such things in future posts.

Podcast 2.11: Hebrews’ Portrait of Jesus - Highpriest Melchizedek, part 2

Phil Harland — Sat, 13 Sep 2008 12:14:03 +0000

Here I discuss the way in which the book of Hebrews portrays Jesus both as highpriest Melchizedek and once for all sacrifice (part 2 of 2). In particular, I explore the ways in which this author is saturated by the Hebrew scriptures and influenced by Platonic philosophy. This is the final episode in series 2 (”Early Christian Portraits of Jesus”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 2.11: Hebrews’ Portrait of Jesus - Highpriest Mechizedek, part 2 (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music remix.

RBL Review of Identity and Interaction in the Ancient Mediterranean

Phil Harland — Thu, 11 Sep 2008 15:25:19 +0000

In the midst of showing my students bookreviews.org (to help them understand the genre of the book review), I noticed today that there is now a review of the book Zeba Crook and I edited in honour of Steve Wilson. The reviewer, Thomas W. Gillespie of Princeton Theological Seminary, concludes, among other things, that the book is a “quality collection of essays” (whew). The review is here.

Biblical Studies Carnival no. 33

Phil Harland — Tue, 02 Sep 2008 15:09:52 +0000

The thirty-third biblical studies carnival is up at Pisteuomen.

Podcast 2.10: Hebrews’ Portrait of Jesus - Highpriest Melchizedek, part 1

Phil Harland — Wed, 27 Aug 2008 21:06:26 +0000

Here I discuss the way in which the book of Hebrews portrays Jesus both as high-priest Melchizedek and once for all sacrifice (part 1 of 2). This is part of series 2 (”Early Christian Portraits of Jesus”) of the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean podcast.

Podcast 2.10: Hebrews’ Portrait of Jesus - Highpriest Mechizedek, part 1 (mp3; archive.org page with various downloading options here).

You may also subscribe to this and subsequent episodes through iTunes or another podcatcher. View credits for my introductory music remix.

On Sexual Indulgence: Paul and contemporaries like Musonius Rufus

Phil Harland — Wed, 13 Aug 2008 14:31:53 +0000

Quite well-known are the moral exhortations of early Christian authors such as Paul, which include a fair bit of advice on how to conduct oneself sexually. Thus, for instance, Paul objects to a follower of Jesus at Corinth who was sleeping with his step-mother (the father was not likely around anymore) (1 Corinthians 5). Quite well known and controversial these days are Paul’s comments about Greeks and Romans (”gentiles” = non-Judeans) who engage in what Paul considers “degrading passions”: “Their women exchanged natural intercourse for unnatural, and in the same way also the men. . . were consumed with passion for one another. . . ” (Romans 1:26-27 [NRSV]). And Paul speaks to the followers of Jesus at Thessalonica and advocates that “you abstain from fornication; that each one of you know how to control your own body [vessel] in holiness and honor, not with lustful passion, like the gentiles [non-Judeans] who do not know God” (1 Thessalonians 4:3-5). In some ways, Paul is reflecting quite typical stereotypes about Greeks and Romans from a Judean perspective here.

Yet such perspectives on sexual morality and modes of moral exhortation were not necessarily specifically Judean or “Christian” in Paul’s time. Some of Paul’s “lustful” gentiles advocated similar moral choices when it came to sex. In many ways, the instructional techniques and lifestyle choices advocated by Paul have parallels in contemporary philosophers (see also my early post on the “Golden Rule” among the ‘pagans’).

Musonius Rufus is one of these contemporary philosophers, a Greek philosopher who combined elements from both the Stoic and Cynic schools. As I was designing my introductory Christian origins course this week, which this year focuses on placing Jesus, Paul, and other early Christian founders in the context of contemporaries, I re-read Musonius’ advice “On Sex”. There he includes the following advice addressed primarily to men:

Not the least significant part of luxury and self-indulgence lies also in sexual excess. For example those who lead such a life crave a variety of loves not only lawful but unlawful ones as well, not women alone but also men. Sometimes they pursue one love [women] and sometimes another [men], and not being satisfied with those which are available, pursue those which are rare and inaccessible, and invent shameful intimacies, all of which constitute a grave indictment of manhood. Men who are not wantons or immoral are bound to consider sexual intercourse justified only when it occurs in marriage and is indulged in for the purpose of begetting children, since that is lawful, but unjust and unlawful when it is mere pleasure-seeking, even in marriage. But of all sexual relations those involving adultery are most unlawful, and no more tolerable are those of men with men, because it is a monstrous thing and contrary to nature.

Trans. by Cora E. Lutz, “Musonius Rufus: ‘The Roman Socrates’,” Yale Classical Studies 10 (1947) 85-87, with adjustments to punctuation.

To modern ears, this may sound wonderful or ridiculous, or a bit of both, depending on who’s listening. Here one of my points is that Paul had more in common with a guy like Musonius than Paul’s condemnation of the morally bankrupt non-Judeans would imply.

Human sacrifice and cannibalism again — oh, and sexual perversion too

Phil Harland — Thu, 31 Jul 2008 13:37:52 +0000

I am in the midst of writing a book on Dynamics of Identity and Early Christianity (for Continuum) which tries to shed some new light on the question by looking to associations, cultural minorities, and ethnic groups in the world of the early Christians. “Identity” has to do with the way in which individuals and groups answer the questions “who am I” or ‘who are we in relation to others?” Social scientists emphasize that there are two main processes in identity-construction and re-negotiation: internal self-definitions and external categorizations. External categorizations involve outsiders’ perspectives on who a group is and stereotypes about that group, and they can play a role in how members of the evaluated group re-negotiate and express their own identities internally.

In previous posts (click here), I have noted a common set of ethnographic stereotypes that were used to categorize other peoples or groups as “barbarous” and dangerous to society, particularly cultural minority groups or ethnic groups. The early Christians, for instance, were charged with Thyestan feasts (cannibalism) and Oedipean unions (incest), and similar charges went back and forth between social and ethnic groups in antiquity. Judeans, too, were stereotyped and charged with the same sort of activities when a particular Greek or Roman author disliked them.

Yet, as I said, the charges go both ways. A good example of this is offered by a passage in the Wisdom of Solomon (first century BCE or CE — in the so called Apocrypha of the Bible) which characterized ‘pagans’ as dangerous and barbarous. This author describes the ‘detestable’ activities of those who inhabited the ‘holy land’ before the arrival of the Israelites. This gives this Hellenistic Judean author opportunity to critique contemporary associations or ‘societies’ of ‘initiates’ outside of the Judean sphere in the process, calling on the same sort of stereotypes we have seen in Greek or Roman slander against Judeans. God ‘hated them for practicing the most detestable things – deeds of sorcery and unholy rites (τελετὰς ἀνοσίους), merciless slaughters of children, sacrificial feasting on human flesh and blood – those “initiates” from the midst of a “society” (ἐκ μέσου μύστας θιάσου) and parents who murder helpless lives, you willed to destroy. . .‘ (Wis 12:4-5; cf. Wis 14:15-23 [NETS]).

At the same time, personified Wisdom herself is an ‘initiate’ of another, superior kind, an ‘initiate (μύστις) in the knowledge of God’ (Wis 8:4). Elsewhere the author critiques the ‘idolatry’ of Greeks generally, the ‘impious ones’ (άσεβοῦς) who do not know such ‘divine mysteries’ (2:22) and who instead establish their own inferior ‘mysteries and rites’ (μυστήρια καὶ τελετάς; 14:15): ‘For whether performing ritual murders of children or secret mysteries or frenzied revels connected with strange laws, they no longer keep either their lives or their marriages pure, but they either kill one another by treachery or grieve one another by adultery’ (Wis. 14:23-24). Once again, ritual murder and sexual perversion converge in this characterization of the associations of another ethnic group.

The process of defining the ‘other’ as dangerous barbarians who will kill and eat you if they can is in fact the process of defining one’s own group as well. This is the boundary-constructing process of distinguishing ‘us’ from ‘them’, and virtually all groups in antiquity engaged in such modes of external categorizations and self-definition that are at the heart of identity.

(Sure this post is somewhat long, but at least I’m trying — I’ve lost the knack for short and sweet, it seems, if I ever had it).

A computer in 100 BCE?

Phil Harland — Thu, 31 Jul 2008 12:43:44 +0000

I just received an email from Harold Remus who pointed me to an interesting article on a mechanism designed to compute solar eclipses and to arrange the calendar in connection with the cycles of the Olympiad (ancient Olympics). The New York Times article explains:

The Antikythera Mechanism, sometimes called the first analog computer, was recovered more than a century ago in the wreckage of a ship that sank off the tiny island of Antikythera, north of Crete. Earlier research showed that the device was probably built between 140 and 100 B.C.

The full article is available here: Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C.