But what shall we say of the pope himself? It is generally held that the cardinals, because they do elect him, or if they fail in their duty, the patriarchs who are next in rank to them, may upon certain occasions maugre the pope, call a council, yea, and in it judge him; as when by some notorious offence he scandalizes the universal church. If he be incorrigible, if reformation be as necessary in the head as the members, if contrary to his oath he refuse to call a general council. And we read for certain, that divers popes have been deposed by general councils. But if they obstinately abuse their authority, there must (saith Baldus) first be used verbal admonitions; secondly, herbal medicaments or remedies; thirdly, stones or compulsion; for where virtue and fair means have not power to persuade, there force and terror must be put in use to compel. Now, if according to the opinions of most of the learned, by decrees of councils, and by custom in like occasions, it plainly appears, that the council may depose the pope, who, notwithstanding, vaunts himself to be the king of kings, and as much in dignity above the emperor, as the sun is above the moon, assuming to himself power to depose kings and emperors when he pleases: who will make any doubt or question, that the general assembly of the estates of any kingdom, who are the representative body thereof, may not only degrade and disthronize a tyrant; but also, even disauthorize and depose a king, whose weakness or folly is hurtful or pernicious to the state.

Junius Brutus, A Defence of Liberty Against Tyrants, Treatise III (also available for Kindle and in paperback)

Read Revelation 5 at Bible Gateway.

Rev 4:2-5:14 chiastic structure

1a) Rev 4:2-11, The glory of the Lord on His throne/ 4 living creatures + 24 elders worship Him;

1a) Rev 4:2-3, The glory of the Lord + of His throne;
1b) Rev 4:4-6a, The thrones of the 24 elders / the glory of the throne room;
1c) Rev 4:6b-8a, The 4 living creatures in the midst of the throne;
central axis) Rev 4:8b, And they do not rest day or night, saying: “Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty, Who was and is and is to come!”
2c) Rev 4:9, When the living creatures give glory to Him who sits on the throne;
2b) Rev 4:10, The 24 elders worship Him + cast their crowns before the throne;
2a) Rev 4:11, Extolling the glory of the Lord + His majesty;

1b) Rev 5:1, I saw, in the right hand of Him who sat on the throne, a book written inside + outside, sealed shut with seven seals;

1c) Rev 5:2-3, Who is worthy to open the book + break its seals/ No one in heaven, earth, under the earth;

1a) Rev 5:2, I saw a mighty angel proclaiming with a loud voice, “Who is worthy to open the book + break its seals?”
central axis) Rev 5:3a, No one in heaven above, or on the earth, or under the earth;
2a) Rev 5:3b, Was able to open the book, or to look in it;

central axis) Rev 5:4-5a, I wept much, because no one was found worthy to open the book + look in it. One of the elders said to me, Don’t weep;

2c) Rev 5:5b-6, The Lion of Judah is He who opens the book + its seals/ the Lamb who was slain;

1a) Rev 5:5b, Behold, the Lion who is of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David;
central axis) Rev 5:5c, Has overcome; He who opens the book + its seven seals; 
2a) Rev 5:6, I saw in the midst of the throne + 4 living creatures + elders, a Lamb standing, as though it had been slain, having 7 horns + 7 eyes (7 Spirits of God), sent out into all the earth;

2b) Rev 5:7, Then He came + took it out of the right hand of Him who sat on the throne;

2a) Rev 5:8-14,  The worth of the Lamb/ 4 living creatures, 24 elders, angels, all creation worship Him;

1a) Rev 5:8, When he had taken the book, 4 living creatures + 24 elders fell down before the Lamb, each with a harp + golden bowls of incense (prayers of the saints);
shim1b) Rev 5:9-10, They sang a new song: “You are worthy to take the book + open its seals/ You were killed + bought us for God with Your blood, out of every tribe, language, people, nation + made us kings, priests to our God + we will reign on earth;”
shim2b) Rev 5:11-13 (repeated 2x for emphasis), Angels + living creatures + elders cry Worthy is the Lamb!/ All creation cries Worthy is the Lamb!
2a) Rev 5:14, The 4 living creatures said, “Amen!” The elders fell down + worshiped.

My Revelation 5 notes
Revelation index of studies
Revelation Scripture Pictures (terms of use)

Read Revelation 4 at Bible Gateway.

Rev 4:2-11 chiastic structure

1a) Rev 4:2-3, The glory of the Lord + of His throne;

1b) Rev 4:4-6a, The thrones of the 24 elders / the glory of the throne room;

1c) Rev 4:6b-8a, The 4 living creatures in the midst of the throne;

1a.1) Rev 4:6b, In the midst of the throne + around the throne were 4 living creatures;
1a.2) Rev 4:6c, Full of eyes before + behind;
central axis) Rev 4:7, The 1st was like a lion + 2nd like a calf + 3rd had a face like a man + 4th was like a flying eagle;
2a.1) Rev 4:8a, The 4 living creatures, each one having 6 wings;
2a.2) Rev 4:8b, Are full of eyes around + within;

central axis) Rev 4:8b, And they do not rest day or night, saying: “Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty, Who was and is and is to come!”

2c) Rev 4:9, When the living creatures give glory to Him who sits on the throne;

2b) Rev 4:10, The 24 elders worship Him + cast their crowns before the throne;

2a) Rev 4:11, Extolling the glory of the Lord + His majesty.

My notes on Revelation 4
Revelation index of studies
Revelation Scripture Pictures (terms of use)

Read Revelation 3 at Bible Gateway.

Rev 2:1-3:22, Letters to the Seven Churches Chiastic Structure

1a) Rev 2:1-7a, To Ephesus: You have left your first love/ Repent + return to the first works;

1a) Rev 2:1, To the angel of the assembly in Ephesus write: He who holds the seven stars + walks among the seven golden lampstands says these things;
1b) Rev 2:2-3, Commendation: perseverance + non-tolerance of evil me;
1c) Rev 2:4, But I have this against you, that you left your first love;
central axis) Rev 2:5a, Remember therefore from where you have fallen;
2c) Rev 2:5b-d, Repent and do the first works, or else I will move your lampstand;
2b) Rev 2:6, Commendation: you hate the works of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate;
2a) Rev 2:7a, He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies;

1b) Rev 2:7b, To him who overcomes I will give from the tree of life in the Paradise of My God;

1c.1) Rev 2:8-9, To Smyrna: I know your works + blasphemy of those who say they are Jews but are not, but are a synagogue of Satan;

1c.2) Rev 2:10-11, Don’t be afraid/ you will be tested + oppressed ten days/ be faithful to death;

1c.3) Rev 2:12-25, To Pergamum + Thyatira: You held/ hold that which you have firmly;

1a.1) Rev 2:12-13a, To Pergamum: He says: I know your works + you dwell where Satan’s throne is;
1a.2) Rev 2:13b, You hold firmly to My name, and didn’t deny My faith;
1b) Rev 2:13c, Who was killed among you, where Satan dwells;
1c) Rev 2:14-16, I have against you: teaching of Balaam + Nicolaitans/ Repent therefore;
1d) Rev 2:17, Hear what the Spirit says/ to him who overcomes;
central axis) Rev 2:18a, To the angel of the assembly in Thyatira write;
2d) Rev 2:18b-19, The Son of God says these things/ I know your works + patient endurance;
2c) Rev 2:20-22, I have against you: teaching of Jezebel/ I gave her time to repent;
2b) Rev 2:23, I will kill her children with Death/ all the assemblies will know that I am He;
2a.1) Rev 2:24, To the rest in Thyatira, who don’t know ‘deep things of Satan,’ I say, no other burden;
2a.2) Rev 2:25, Nevertheless, hold that which you have firmly until I come;

1d) Rev 2:26-28, He who overcomes + keeps My works to the end, I will give authority;

1e) Rev 2:29-3:1b) He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies;

1a) Rev 2:29a, He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says;
1b) Rev 2:29b, To the assemblies;
2b) Rev 3:1a, To the angel of the assembly in Sardis write;
2a) Rev 3:1b, He who has the seven Spirits of God + seven stars says these things;

1f) Rev 3:1c, I know your works;

1g) Rev 3:1d, That you have a reputation of being alive, but you are dead;

1h) Rev 3:2a, Wake up;

1i) Rev 3:2b, Keep the things that remain, which you were about to throw away, for I have found no works of yours perfected before My God;

central axis) Rev 3:3a, Remember therefore how you have received and heard;

2i) Rev 3:3b, Keep it;

2h) Rev 3:3c, And repent;

2g) Rev 3:3d, If therefore you won’t watch, I will come as a thief at an hour you will not know;

2f) Rev 3:4-5, Nevertheless there are those in Sardis who are not defiled/ He who overcomes;

1a) Rev 3:4a, Nevertheless, you have a few names in Sardis that did not defile their garments;
1b) Rev 3:4b, They will walk with Me in white;
central axis) Rev 3:4c, For they are worthy;
2b) Rev 3:5a, He who overcomes will be arrayed in white garments;
2a) Rev 3:5b, I will not blot his name out of the book of life/ I will confess his name before My Father + angels;

2e) Rev 3:6, He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies;

2d) Rev 3:7-8, To Philadelphia: I know your works + you have kept My word/ the open door;

1a) Rev 3:7a, To Philadelphia write: He who is holy, He who is true;
1b) Rev 3:7b, He who has the key of David + who opens and shuts, says these things;
central axis) Rev 3:8a, I know your works;
2b) Rev 3:8b, Behold, I have set before you an open door, which no one can shut;
2a) Rev 3:8c, That you have a little power + kept My word + didn’t deny My name;

2c.1) Rev 3:9, The synagogue of Satan, who say they are Jews but are not, will know I have loved you;

2c.2) Rev 3:10, Because you kept My command to endure, I will keep you from the hour of testing;

2c.3) Rev 3:11, I am coming! Hold firmly that which you have, that no one takes your crown;

2b) Rev 3:12-13, He who overcomes, I will make him a pillar in the temple of My God;

2a) Rev 3:14-22, To Laodicea: You are neither cold nor hot/ As many as I love, I reprove, so repent;

1a) Rev 3:14, To Laodicea: The Amen, Faithful + True Witness, Head of God’s creation, says;
1b) Rev 3:15a, I know your works;
1c) Rev 3:15b-16, You are neither cold nor hot but lukewarm/ I will vomit you out of My mouth;
central axis) Rev 3:17-18, Because you say, ‘I am rich, and have gotten riches, and have need of nothing;’ and don’t know that you are the wretched one, miserable, poor, blind, and naked; I counsel you to buy from Me gold refined by fire, that you may become rich; and white garments, that you may clothe yourself, and that the shame of your nakedness may not be revealed; and eye salve to anoint your eyes, that you may see;
2c) Rev 3:19-20, I love + reprove you/ become zealous + repent/ admit Me + I will dine with you;
2b) Rev 3:21, He who overcomes, he will sit down with Me on My throne, as I also overcame;
2a) Rev 3:22, He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies.

My Revelation 3 notes
Revelation index of studies
Revelation Scripture Pictures (terms of use)

Read Revelation 2 at Bible Gateway.

Each individual letter to the seven churches forms its own chiastic structure:

Rev 2:1-7, The letter to the assembly in Ephesus

1a) Rev 2:1, To the angel of the assembly in Ephesus write: He who holds the seven stars in His right hand, He who walks among the seven golden lampstands says these things;

1b) Rev 2:2-3, Commendation: Perseverance + non tolerance of evil men;

1a) Rev 2:2a, I know your works, and your toil and perseverance;
1b) Rev 2:2b, You can’t tolerate evil men/ have tested those who call themselves apostles;
central axis) Rev 2:2c, And they are not;
2b) Rev 2:2d, And found them false;
2a) Rev 2:3, You have perseverance, have endured for My name’s sake, have not grown weary;

1c) Rev 2:4, But I have this against you, that you left your first love;

central axis) Rev 2:5a, Remember therefore from where you have fallen;

2c) Rev 2:5b-d, Repent and do the first works, or else I will move your lampstand;

1a) Rev 2:5b, And repent and do the first works;
central axis) Rev 2:5c, Or else I am coming to you swiftly/ will move your lampstand out of its place;
2a) Rev 2:5d, Unless you repent;

2b) Rev 2:6, Commendation: You hate the works of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate;

2a) Rev 2:7a, He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies;

conclusion) Rev 2:7b, To him who overcomes I will give to eat from the tree of life, which is in the Paradise of My God.

Some of the letters also form single structures when combined:

Rev 2:12-29, The letters to the assemblies in Pergamum + Thyatira

1a) Rev 2:12, To the angel of the assembly in Pergamum write: He who has the sharp two-edged sword says these things;

1b.1) Rev 2:13a, I know your works and where you dwell, where Satan’s throne is;

1b.2) Rev 2:13b, You hold firmly to My name, and didn’t deny My faith in the days of Antipas My witness, My faithful one;

1c) Rev 2:13c, Who was killed among you, where Satan dwells;

1d.1) Rev 2:14-15, But I have a few things against you, because you have there some who hold the teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to throw a stumbling block before the children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed to idols, and to commit sexual immorality. So you also have some who hold to the teaching of the Nicolaitans likewise;

1d.2) Rev 2:16, Repent therefore, or else I am coming to you quickly, and I will make war against them with the sword of my mouth;

1e.1) Rev 2:17a, He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies;

1e.2) Rev 2:17b, To him who overcomes,

central axis) Rev 2:17c, To him I will give of the hidden manna + white stone with a new name written, which no one knows but he who receives it;

2e.1) Rev 2:18, To the angel of the assembly in Thyatira write: The Son of God, who has His eyes like a flame of fire, and His feet are like burnished brass, says these things;

2e.2) Rev 2:19, I know your works, your love, faith, service, patient endurance, and that your last works are more than the first;

2d.1) Rev 2:20, But I have this against you, that you tolerate your woman, Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess. She teaches + seduces My servants to commit sexual immorality + eat things sacrificed to idols;

2d.2) Rev 2:21-22, I gave her time to repent, but she refuses to repent of her sexual immorality. Behold, I will throw her into a bed/ those who commit adultery with her into great oppression, unless they repent of her works;

2c) Rev 2:23, I will kill her children with Death/ all the assemblies will know that I am He who searches the minds + hearts. I will give to each one of you according to your deeds;

2b.1) Rev 2:24, But to you I say, to the rest who are in Thyatira, as many as don’t have this teaching, who don’t know what some call ‘the deep things of Satan,’ to you I say, I am not putting any other burden on you;

2b.2) Rev 2:25-28, Nevertheless, hold that which you have firmly until I come. He who overcomes, and he who keeps My works to the end, to him I will give authority over the nations. He will rule them with a rod of iron, shattering them like clay pots; as I also have received of my Father: and I will give him the morning star;

2a) Rev 2:29, He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies.

Then there are multiple overlapping structures crossing over multiple letters, of which this is just one example:

Rev 2:1-25 chiastic structure

1a) Rev 2:1-4, To you I say: I know your good works, but you have left your first love;

1a) Rev 2:1-2a, To the angel of the assembly in Ephesus write: He who holds the seven stars in His right hand, He who walks among the seven golden lamp stands says these things: I know your works;
1b) Rev 2:2b, And your toil and perseverance;
central axis) Rev 2:2c, And that you can’t tolerate evil men, and have tested those who call themselves apostles, and they are not, and found them false;
2b) Rev 2:3, You have perseverance and have endured for My name’s sake, and have not grown weary;
2a) Rev 2:4, But I have this against you, that you left your first love;

1b.1.a) Rev 2:5, Remember therefore from where you have fallen, and repent and do the first works; or else I am coming to you swiftly, and will move your lamp stand out of its place, unless you repent;

1b.1.b) Rev 2:6, But this you have, that you hate the works of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate;

1b.2) Rev 2:7, He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies/ To him who overcomes I will give to eat from the tree of life, which is in the Paradise of My God;

1c.1) Rev 2:8, To the angel of the assembly in Smyrna write: The first and the last, who was dead, and has come to life says these things;

1c.2) Rev 2:9, I know your works, oppression, poverty (but you are rich)/ the blasphemy of those who say they are Jews, and they are not, but are a synagogue of Satan;

central axis) Rev 2:10-11, Don’t be afraid of the things which you are about to suffer. Behold, the devil is about to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested; and you will have oppression for ten days. Be faithful to death, and I will give you the crown of life. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies. He who overcomes won’t be harmed by the second death;

2c.1) Rev 2:12, To the angel of the assembly in Pergamum write: He who has the sharp two-edged sword says these things;

2c.2) Rev 2:13-14, I know your works/ where you dwell, where Satan’s throne is;

1a) Rev 2:13a, I know your works;
1b) Rev 2:13b, And where you dwell, where Satan’s throne is;
central axis) Rev 2:13c, You hold firmly to My name, and didn’t deny My faith in the days of Antipas My witness, My faithful one, who was killed among you;
2b) Rev 2:13d, Where Satan dwells;
2a) Rev 2:14, But I have a few things against you, because you have there some who hold the teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to throw a stumbling block before the children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed to idols, and to commit sexual immorality;

2b.1.b) Rev 2:15, So you also have some who hold to the teaching of the Nicolaitans likewise;

2b.1.a) Rev 2:16, Repent therefore, or else I am coming to you quickly, and I will make war against them with the sword of my mouth;

2b.2) Rev 2:17, He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the assemblies/ To him who overcomes I will give of the hidden manna + white stone with a new name written, which no one knows but he who receives it;

2a) Rev 2:18-25, To you I say, I know your love + your last works that are more than the first, but you tolerate a false prophetess, Jezebel;

1a) Rev 2:18-19, To the angel of the assembly in Thyatira write: The Son of God, who has His eyes like a flame of fire, and His feet are like burnished brass, says these things: I know your works, your love, faith, service, patient endurance, and that your last works are more than the first;
1b) Rev 2:20, But I have this against you, that you tolerate your woman, Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess. She teaches + seduces My servants to commit sexual immorality + to eat things sacrificed to idols;
1c) Rev 2:21, I gave her time to repent, but she refuses to repent of her sexual immorality;
central axis) Rev 2:22a, Behold, I will throw her into a bed/ those who commit adultery with her into great oppression;
2c) Rev 2:22b, Unless they repent of her works;
2b) Rev 2:23, I will kill her children with Death/ all the assemblies will know that I am He who searches minds + hearts/ I will give to each one of you according to your deeds;
2a) Rev 2:24-25, But to you I say, to the rest who are in Thyatira, as many as don’t have this teaching, who don’t know what some call ‘the deep things of Satan,’ to you I say, I am not putting any other burden on you. Nevertheless, hold that which you have firmly until I come.

This structure, crossing the letters to multiple churches, has an interesting central axis. It is a prophecy of coming tribulation, lasting for ten “days,” with the exhortation to remain faithful to death – the death of the body, for the one who overcomes the testing will not be subject to the second death – the death of the soul – but will receive the crown of life. These letters were delivered to the churches in ~96 AD, and it just so happens that the primitive Church established by the apostles suffered a great tribulation, where believers were hunted and put to death by the Roman State, until 313 AD, in ten waves of persecutions. Could each of the ten “days” of the prophecy indicate each of the deadly persecutions? I think so.

Other multiple letter structures have different matching elements which highlight a different message. Two such elements are what the churches of Ephesus and Thyatira will not or will tolerate:

Rev 2:2, I know your works, and your toil and perseverance, and that you can’t tolerate evil men, and have tested those who call themselves apostles, and they are not, and found them false;

Rev 2:19-20, I know your works, your love, faith, service, patient endurance, and that your last works are more than the first. But I have this against you, that you tolerate your woman, Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess.  (The implication being that she is a false prophetess, but Thyatira doesn’t know it yet.)

My Introduction to the Letters to the Seven Churches study notes
Revelation index of studies
Revelation Scripture Pictures (terms of use)

Read Revelation 1 at Bible Gateway.

Rev 1:8-20 chiastic structure

1a.1) Rev 1:8-11a, Jesus: I am the Alpha + Omega, the Beginning + End, the First + Last;

1a) Rev 1:8, “I am the Alpha + the Omega, the Beginning + the End,” says the Lord, “who is + who was + who is to come, the Almighty;”
1b) Rev 1:9a, I, John;
1c) Rev 1:9b, Both your brother + companion in the tribulation + kingdom + patience of Jesus Christ;
central axis) Rev 1:9c, Was on the island that is called Patmos;
2c) Rev 1:9d, For the word of God + for the testimony of Jesus Christ;
2b) Rev 1:10a, I was in the Spirit on the Lord’s Day;
2a) Rev 1:10b-11a, I heard behind me a loud voice, as of a trumpet, saying, “I am the Alpha + the Omega, the First + the Last;”

1a.2) Rev 1:11b, And, “What you see, write in a book;”

1a.3) Rev 1:11c, “And send it to the seven churches which are in Asia: to Ephesus, to Smyrna, to Pergamos, to Thyatira, to Sardis, to Philadelphia, and to Laodicea;”

1b) Rev 1:12a, Then I turned to see the voice that spoke with me;

central axis) Rev 1:12b-16, The description of the Son of Man;

And having turned I saw seven golden lampstands, and in the midst of the seven lampstands One like the Son of Man, clothed with a garment down to the feet and girded about the chest with a golden band. His head and hair were white like wool, as white as snow, and His eyes like a flame of fire; His feet were like fine brass, as if refined in a furnace, and His voice as the sound of many waters; He had in His right hand seven stars, out of His mouth went a sharp two-edged sword, and His countenance was like the sun shining in its strength;

2b) Rev 1:17a, And when I saw Him, I fell at His feet as dead. But He laid His right hand on me;

2a.1) Rev 1:17b-18, Saying to me, “Do not be afraid; I am the First + the Last/ I am He who lives, + was dead, + behold, I am alive forevermore. Amen. And I have the keys of Hades + of Death;”

2a.2) Rev 1:19, “Write the things which you have seen/ the things which are + the things which will take place after this;”

2a.3) Rev 1:20, “The mystery of the seven stars which you saw in My right hand + the seven golden lampstands: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches + the seven lampstands which you saw are the seven churches.”

My Rev 1 study notes
Revelation 1:10, the Lord’s day
Revelation index of studies
Revelation Scripture Pictures (terms of use)

The Lion of the tribe of Judah:

Judah is a lion’s whelp;
From the prey, my son, you have gone up.
He bows down, he lies down as a lion;
And as a lion, who shall rouse him? Gen 49:9.

For it is evident that our Lord arose from Judah, of which tribe Moses spoke nothing concerning priesthood. Heb 7:14.

The Root of David:

There shall come forth a Rod from the stem of Jesse,
And a Branch shall grow out of his roots.

“And in that day there shall be a Root of Jesse,
Who shall stand as a banner to the people;
For the Gentiles shall seek Him,
And His resting place shall be glorious.” Isa 11:1, 10.

And again, Isaiah says:
“There shall be a root of Jesse;
And He who shall rise to reign over the Gentiles,
In Him the Gentiles shall hope.” Rom 15:12.

“I, Jesus, have sent My angel to testify to you these things in the churches. I am the Root and the Offspring of David, the Bright and Morning Star.” Rev 22:16.

The cross references in the NASB are especially helpful for references back to the Old Testament prophets.

“The deaths of a few eminent martyrs have been recorded with care; and from the time that Christianity was invested with the supreme power, the governors of the church have been no less diligently employed in displaying the cruelty, than in imitating the conduct, of their Pagan adversaries. To separate (if it be possible) a few authentic as well as interesting facts from an undigested mass of fiction and error, and to relate, in a clear and rational manner, the causes, the extent, the duration, and the most important circumstances of the persecutions to which the first Christians were exposed, is the design of the present chapter.”

Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 2, Ch. XVI, “Conduct Towards the Christians from Nero to Constantine,” Pt. 1.

“Gibbon’s apparent antagonism to Christian doctrine spilled over into the Jewish faith, leading to charges of anti-Semitism. For example, he wrote: ‘From the reign of Nero to that of Antoninus Pius, the Jews discovered a fierce impatience of the dominion of Rome, which repeatedly broke out in the most furious massacres and insurrections. Humanity is shocked at the recital of the horrid cruelties which they committed in the cities of Egypt, of Cyprus, and of Cyrene, where they dwelt in treacherous friendship with the unsuspecting natives; and we are tempted to applaud the severe retaliation which was exercised by the arms of legions against a race of fanatics, whose dire and credulous superstition seemed to render them the implacable enemies not only of the Roman government, but also of humankind.’ Gibbon is considered to be a son of the Enlightenment and this is reflected in his famous verdict on the history of the Middle Ages: ‘I have described the triumph of barbarism and religion.’”

“Edward Gibbon,” Wikipedia.

The Wikipedia article “Persecution of Christians,” contained the quoted statement without citation on June 17, 2006, when I first accessed it. I have a record of the quote on that date at “Christian Martyrs of the Roman Empire.” However, it has since been changed to read,

“The New Catholic Encyclopedia states that ‘Ancient, medieval and early modern hagiographers were inclined to exaggerate the number of martyrs. Since the title of martyr is the highest title to which a Christian can aspire, this tendency is natural’. Estimates of Christians killed for religious reasons before the year 313 vary greatly, depending on the scholar quoted, from a low of 10,000 to a high of almost 100,000.”

(Verified April 30, 2015).

When I searched for this statement at The Catholic Encyclopedia to verify it myself, I could not find it. If a reader finds the reference, please send me a note.

See Leroy Huizenga’s critical academic review of Moss’ book published at First Things.

“But the last persecution was even more severe than any of the previous attempts to extirpate Christianity. In Nicomedia ‘a great multitude’ were put to death with their bishop, Anthimus; of these some perished by the sword, some by fire, while others were drowned. In Egypt ‘thousands of men, women and children, despising the present life, . . . endured various deaths’ (Eusebius, Church History VII. 4 sqq.), and the same happened in many other places throughout the East. … But besides those who actually shed their blood in the first three centuries account must be taken of the numerous confessors of the Faith who, in prison, in exile, or in penal servitude suffered a daily martyrdom more difficult to endure than death itself. Thus, while anything like a numerical estimate of the number of martyrs is impossible, yet the meagre evidence on the subject that exists clearly enough establishes the fact that countless men, women and even children, in that glorious, though terrible, first age of Christianity, cheerfully sacrificed their goods, their liberties, or their lives, rather than renounce the faith they prized above all.”

Maurice Hassett, “Martyr,” The Catholic Encyclopdedia.