History of the Internet

2010-11-18T01:15:00.000-08:00

The concept of data communication - transmitting data between two different places, connected via some kind of electromagnetic medium, such as radio or an electrical wire - actually predates the introduction of the first computers. Such communication systems were typically limited to point to point communication between two end devices. Telegraph systems and telex machines can be considered early precursors of this kind of communication. The earlier computers used the technology available at the time to allow communication between the central processing unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved new systems were devised to allow communication over longer distances (for terminals) or with higher speed (for interconnection of local devices) that were necessary for the mainframe computer model. Using these technologies it was possible to exchange data (such as files) between remote computers. However, the point to point communication model was limited, as it did not allow for direct communication between any two arbitrary systems; a physical link was necessary. The technology was also deemed as inherently unsafe for strategic and military use, because there were no alternative paths for the communication in case of an enemy attack.

As a response, several research programs started to explore and articulate principles of communications between physically separate systems, leading to the development of the packet switching model of digital networking. These research efforts included those of the laboratories of Vinton G. Cerf at Stanford University, Donald Davies (NPL), Paul Baran (RAND Corporation), and Leonard Kleinrock at MIT and at UCLA. The research led to the development of several packet-switched networking solutions in the late 1960s and 1970s, including ARPANET, Telenet, and the X.25 protocols. Additionally, public access and hobbyist networking systems grew in popularity, including unix-to-unix copy (UUCP) and FidoNet. They were however still disjointed separate networks, served only by limited gateways between networks. This led to the application of packet switching to develop a protocol for internetworking, where multiple different networks could be joined together into a super-framework of networks. By defining a simple common network system, the Internet Protocol Suite, the concept of the network could be separated from its physical implementation. This spread of internetworking began to form into the idea of a global network that would be called the Internet, based on standardized protocols officially implemented in 1982. Adoption and interconnection occurred quickly across the advanced telecommunication networks of the western world, and then began to penetrate into the rest of the world as it became the de-facto international standard for the global network. However, the disparity of growth between advanced nations and the third-world countries led to a digital divide that is still a concern today.

Following commercialization and introduction of privately run Internet service providers in the 1980s, and the Internet's expansion for popular use in the 1990s, the Internet has had a drastic impact on culture and commerce. This includes the rise of near instant communication by electronic mail (e-mail), text based discussion forums, and the World Wide Web. Investor speculation in new markets provided by these innovations would also lead to the inflation and subsequent collapse of the Dot-com bubble. But despite this, the Internet continues to grow, driven by commerce, greater amounts of online information and knowledge and social networking known as Web 2.0

Three terminals and an ARPA
Main articles: RAND and ARPANET

In the 1950s and early 1960s, before the widespread inter-networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited in that they only allowed communications between the stations on the network. Some networks had gateways or bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer networking method was based on the central mainframe method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long leased lines. This method was used in the 1950s by Project RAND to support researchers such as Herbert Simon, at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, when collaborating across the continent with researchers in Sullivan, Illinois, on automated theorem proving and artificial intelligence.

A fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network, J.C.R. Licklider, articulated the ideas in his January 1960 paper, Man-Computer Symbiosis.

"A network of such [computers], connected to one another by wide-band communication lines [which provided] the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions."
—J.C.R. Licklider, [1]

In August, 1962, Licklider and Welden Clark published the paper "On-Line Man Computer Communication", one of the first descriptions of a networked future.

In October, 1962, Licklider was hired by Jack Ruina as Director of the newly established IPTO within DARPA, with a mandate to interconnect the United States Department of Defense's main computers at Cheyenne Mountain, the Pentagon, and SAC HQ. There he formed an informal group within DARPA to further computer research. He began by writing memos describing a distributed network to the IPTO staff, whom he called "Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network". As part of the information processing office's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, one for Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley and one for the Compatible Time-Sharing System project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Licklider's identified need for inter-networking would be made obvious by the apparent waste of resources this caused.

"For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. [...]

I said, it's obvious what to do (But I don't want to do it): If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet."
—Robert W. Taylor, co-writer with Licklider of "The Computer as a Communications Device", in an interview with the New York Times, [2]

Although he left the IPTO in 1964, five years before the ARPANET went live, it was his vision of universal networking that provided the impetus that led his successors such as Lawrence Roberts and Robert Taylor to further the ARPANET development. Licklider later returned to lead the IPTO in 1973 for two years.[3]

Hacker (computer security)

2010-11-17T01:43:00.000-08:00

In common usage, a hacker is a person who breaks into computers and computer networks, either for profit or motivated by the challenge.^[1] The subculture that has evolved around hackers is often referred to as the computer underground but is now an open community.^[2]

Other uses of the word hacker exist that are not related to computer security (computer programmer and home computer hobbyists), but these are rarely used by the mainstream media because of the common stereotype that is in TV and movies. Before the media described the person who breaks into computers as a hacker there was a hacker community. This group was a community of people who had a large interest in computer programming, often sharing, without restrictions, the source code for the software they wrote. These people now refer to the cyber-criminal hackers as "crackers", a term which has not been picked up by the media or general public

History

Main article: Timeline of hacker history

In today's society understanding the term Hacker is complicated because it has many different definitions. The term Hacker can be traced back to MIT (Massachusetts Institute Technology). MIT was the first institution to offer a course in computer programming and computer science and it is here in 1960 where a group of MIT students taking a lab on Artificial Intelligence first coined this word. These students called themselves hackers because they were able to take programs and have them perform actions not intended for that program. “The term was developed on the basis of a practical joke and feeling of excitement because the team member would “hack away” at the keyboard hours at a time.” (Moore R., 2006).^[4]

Hacking developed alongside "Phone Phreaking", a term referred to exploration of the phone network without authorization, and there has often been overlap between both technology and participants. The first recorded hack was accomplished by "Joe Engressia" also known as The Whistler. Engressia is known as the grandfather of Phreaking. His hacking technique was that he could perfectly whistle a tone into a phone and make free call.^[5] Bruce Sterling traces part of the roots of the computer underground to the Yippies, a 1960s counterculture movement which published the Technological Assistance Program (TAP) newsletter. ^[6]. Other sources of early 70s hacker culture can be traced towards more beneficial forms of hacking, including MIT labs or the homebrew club, which later resulted in such things as early personal computers or the open source movement.

hacking

2010-11-15T20:07:00.000-08:00

Hacking (English verb to hack, singular noun a hack) refers to the re-configuring or re-programming of a system to function in ways not facilitated by the owner, administrator, or designer. The term(s) have several related meanings in the technology and computer science fields, wherein a "hack" may refer to a clever or quick fix to a computer program problem, or to what may be perceived to be a clumsy or inelegant (but usually relatively quick) solution to a problem, such as a "kludge".

The terms "hack" and "hacking" are also used to refer to a modification of a program or device to give the user access to features that were otherwise unavailable, such as by circuit bending. It is from this usage that the term "hacking" is often used to refer to more nefarious criminal uses such as identity theft, credit card fraud or other actions categorized as computer crime.

The term "hack" was first used by US university computing centre staff in the mid-1960s. The context determined whether the complimentary or derogatory meanings were implied. Phrases such as "ugly hack" or "quick hack" generally referred to the latter meaning; phrases such as "cool hack" or "neat hack", to the former. In modern computer programming, a "hack" can refer to a solution or method which functions correctly but which is "ugly" in its concept, which works outside the accepted structures and norms of the environment, or which is not easily extendable or maintainable (see kludge). The programmer keeps beating on it until a solution is found. The jargon used by hackers is called "Hackish" (see the Jargon file). This should not be confused with "1337" or "leetspeak."

In a similar vein, a "hack" may refer to works outside of computer programming. For example, a math hack means a clever solution to a mathematical problem. The GNU General Public License has been described as^[who?] a copyright hack because it cleverly uses the copyright laws for a purpose the lawmakers did not foresee. All of these uses now also seem to be spreading beyond MIT as well.

On many internet websites and in everyday language the word "hack" can be slang for "copy", "imitation" or "rip-off."

A DIY musician probes the circuit board of a synthesizer for "bends" using a jeweler's screwdriver and alligator clips

The term has since acquired an additional and now more common meaning, since approximately the 1980s; this more modern definition was initially associated with crackers. This growing use of the term "hack" is to refer to a program that (sometimes illegally) modifies another program, often a computer game, giving the user access to features otherwise inaccessible to them. As an example of this use, for Palm OS users (until the 4th iteration of this operating system), a "hack" refers to an extension of the operating system which provides additional functionality. The general media also uses this term to describe the act of illegally breaking into a computer, but this meaning is disputed. This term also refers to those people who cheat on video games using special software. This can also refer to the jailbreaking of iPods.

The term is additionally used by electronics hobbyists to refer to simple modifications to electronic hardware such as a graphing calculators, video game consoles, electronic musical keyboards or other device (see CueCat for a notorious example) to expose or add functionality to a device that was unintended for use by end users by the company who created it. A number of techno musicians have modified 1980s-era Casio SK-1 sampling keyboards to create unusual sounds by doing circuit bending: connecting wires to different leads of the integrated circuit chips. The results of these DIY experiments range from opening up previously inaccessible features that were part of the chip design to producing the strange, dis-harmonic digital tones that became part of the techno music style. Companies take different attitudes towards such practices, ranging from open acceptance (such as Texas Instruments for its graphing calculators and Lego for its Lego Mindstorms robotics gear) to outright hostility (such as Microsoft's attempts to lock out Xbox hackers or the DRM routines on Blu-ray Disc players designed to sabotage compromised players).

causes to be a hacker

2010-11-15T20:06:00.000-08:00

Hacking used to be about intellectual stimulation and discovering exploits for fun or educational purposes. Originally it didn't do much harm because rarely was anyone affected because computers were not typically used by many people except by those engaged in technology and science development.

Nowadays we all use computers as an integral part of our daily lives and today's hacker impacts us all. Over the years the reasons behind hacking have changed and as a result can cause serious consequences. The ability to intrude in someone else's computer has emerged with a new appeal for those with impure motives, ones which are dangerous in nature for the rest of us. Motivation is at the root of the reasons of why a person becomes a hacker.

What drives people to hack into other people's computer systems?

The altruistic reasons of intellectual stimulus and to discover vulnerabilities are still a reason why some people hack, but today these are overshadowed by "crackers". Cracker is a term the computing community has devised in hopes of distinguishing the "good" from the "bad" hackers (with little success).

These "bad guys" lurk in the dark shadows of the Internet trolling for opportunities to exploit others for self-seeking purposes. Some crackers are truly knowledgeable and use their wisdom to harm, while others steal the work of others and download "kiddie scripts" off the Internet to use for their attack. The practice of hacking these days isn't necessarily about talent, but rather is driven by motivators which have changed the dynamics of why people hack.

What are some of these motivators?

Some crackers turn to intruding into other's computer systems as a source of revenge. They get angered and send out Malware to settle a score. Their goal is to either try to harm their victim's system or simply to be a nuisance. Usually it's not the latter.

Others crackers resort to sneaking in through vulnerabilities simply to gain notoriety. They'll intrude into a popular website, maybe a visible business or even a government agency's database or website. Afterwards they sit back and revel in the attention their handiwork receives.

The challenge of completing a successful hack is another reason why some resort to it. Hacking is a form of intellectual stimulus, but differs in the fact that this type of intruder doesn't care who gets hurt. Their primary interesting is attaining a "win" by meeting their goals and objectives of a successful intrusion. Successfully entering a system may provide the cracker with the "high" of a "job well done".

Financial gain is another dark reason some people resort to hacking. All of the reasons which drive crackers to intrude on others are destructive, but the ones looking to extort monetary gain are the most harmful because they steal personal files and commit the crime of theft. This unfortunately has become regularity because we rely so much upon our electronic transactions. As times move forward and technology progresses, more and more processes will become web centric and our information will be at higher risk.

No matter what the reason as to why a person turns to hacking, each reason is associated with a level of thrill. It may be the thrill of attention, financial gain, successful revenge or an inflated ego, but these are attributes crackers find attractive. Each of these justifications is birthed from the motivating factor which drives them. There are many rationales as to why people become hackers, but ultimately it comes down to a variety of motivators.

vocab hacker

2010-11-15T19:59:00.000-08:00

a person, as an artist or writer, who exploits, for money, his or her creative ability or training in the production of dull, unimaginative, and trite work; one who produces banal and mediocre work in the hope of gaining commercial success in the arts: As a painter, he was little more than a hack.

a professional who renounces or surrenders individual independence, integrity, belief, etc., in return for money or other reward in the performance of a task normally thought of as involving a strong personal commitment: a political hack.

a writer who works on the staff of a publisher at a dull or routine task; someone who works as a literary drudge: He was one among the many hacks on Grub Street.

British .

a horse kept for common hire or adapted for general work, esp. ordinary riding.

a saddle horse used for transportation, rather than for show, hunting, or the like.

an old or worn-out horse; jade.

a coach or carriage kept for hire; hackney.

Informal .

a taxi.

Also, hackie. a cabdriver.

Slang . a prison guard.

–verb (used with object)

to make a hack of; let out for hire.

10.

to make trite or stale by frequent use; hackney.

–verb (used without object)

11.

Informal . to drive a taxi.

12.

to ride or drive on the road at an ordinary pace, as distinguished from cross-country riding or racing.

13.

British . to rent a horse, esp. by the hour.

–adjective

14.

hired as a hack; of a hired sort: a hack writer; hack work.

15.

hackneyed; trite; banal: hack writing.

Origin:
1680–90; short for hackney

—Synonyms
2. mercenary. 3. scribbler. 9. lease, rent.

hacker

2010-11-15T19:41:00.000-08:00

Hacker is a term used by some to mean "a clever programmer" and by others, especially those in popular media, to mean "someone who tries to break into computer systems."
1) Eric Raymond, compiler of The New Hacker's Dictionary, defines a hacker as a clever programmer. A "good hack" is a clever solution to a programming problem and "hacking" is the act of doing it. Raymond lists five possible characteristics that qualify one as a hacker, which we paraphrase here:

A person who enjoys learning details of a programming language or system
A person who enjoys actually doing the programming rather than just theorizing about it
A person capable of appreciating someone else's hacking
A person who picks up programming quickly
A person who is an expert at a particular programming language or system, as in "Unix hacker"

Raymond deprecates the use of this term for someone who attempts to crack someone else's system or otherwise uses programming or expert knowledge to act maliciously. He prefers the term cracker for this meaning. 2) The term hacker is used in popular media to describe someone who attempts to break into computer systems. Typically, this kind of hacker would be a proficient programmer or engineer with sufficient technical knowledge to understand the weak points in a security system.