R.K. KHANNA

2024-12-03T11:37:00.000+05:30

Firaq Gorakhpuri : The Poet of the totality of Love

by Sham Dass Khanna

Dr. Gopi Chand Narang writes, “Firaq Gorakhpuri was a giant of poetry. To many, Firaq was one of the greatest poets of Urdu ranking next only to Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib and Iqbal. He left a deep impress on Urdu poetry and inspired many generations of Urdu poets both in India and Pakistan. His poetry is marked by a lyrical quality and depth of feeling unparalleled in Urdu poetry.”

He prided in representing the Aryan mind in Urdu and made his Ghazal reflect Indianness. His verse echoed the finest shades of Indian culture, ancient, medieval and modern.”

Firaq defined poetry as a heightened awareness of the world and he showed this heightened awareness in his Ghazals and Nazams for nearly half a century. About his Ghazals, critic Niaz says, “He takes the top position among his contemporaries, the grace and texture of his verse are so pure and pleasing that we can rate it as the ultimate in intellectual delectation.”

Firaq was conscious of his primacy. Some days before his death, an interviewer asked "what he thought of the statement that many considered him the greatest Urdu poet after Ghalib.” His reply was, “How can I say anything different from what others say about me?”

A bitter critic of Hindi, which he considered utterly incapable of being anybody’s language, Firaq was a great admirer of Ramayana and Mahabharata. He never accepted Tulsidas, Surdas or Kabir as Hindi poets. As for Hindi poets like Maithili Sharan Gupta, Suryakant Tripathi Nirala and Sumitranandan Pant, he said their language was crude and an ugliness made vocal.

Firaq was the trendsetter in impressionistic criticism. He rediscovered some of the classical Urdu poets through his articles in his analytical book ANDAZE which he considered as the first example of impressionistic AESTNETICAL criticism in Urdu literature. In his poetry, he was influenced by English poets like Wordsworth, Keats, Shelley and Byron as also by the “Shringar Rasa” of Sanskrit poetry. He inspired a whole generation of new poets in Urdu language. He was a romantist but his poetry also gave expression to the humanism of India as reflected in the various shades of the country’s culture. At the same time, Firaq considered English, the language he taught at the Allahabad University, the only medium which could bring the Indians in touch with the world.

The third son in the family, Firaq received conventional education like his brothers, sisters and cousins, but as he himself put it once, the legends, facts, songs and scenes affected him so intensely “that they often became unbearable with their power of joy or sorrow.” As a child, he was shy and wanted to “remain as unnoticed as a broom.”

In 1913, Raghupati Sahai Firaq came to Allahabad for college education. By this time, he was married. However, this marriage was a disaster, and he expressed his bitterness about it in a poem Hind (the cradle), which he wrote in 1960.

He graduated from the Allahabad University in 1918. Two years later, he was selected for the Indian Civil Services, from which he resigned to join Mahatma Gandhi in the freedom struggle. He did his M.A. in English from the Agra University in 1920 and became a lecturer in the Allahabad University. While teaching English, he started writing poetry in Urdu. Firaq’s forte was “Rubai”. He wrote with equal ease the Ghazal and the Nazam, which have been published in an anthology of 90 pieces in Gul-e-Nagma. The anthology brought him Jnanpith Award in 1969.

Firaq’s Ghazal shows that he first digested the tradition he inherited, and only then introduced the new dimensions of physical love. His poetry is not bound by the temporal but marked by the universal.

Here are some couplets of Firaq:
Orhni Uski Hawaein Hai Ke Taron Bhari Raat,
Kisi Ghunghat Hi Ko Sarkao Ke Kuchh Raat Katae.
(She is draped in the breezes or the star filled sky! Gently remove the veil, so that the night passes by.)

Kis Liye Kam Nahin Hai Dard Firaq
Ab To Who Dhyan Se Utar Bhi Gaye.

Tujhe To Haath Lagaya Hai Barha Lekin
Tire Khayal Ko Chhute Hue Main Darta Hun
(I have fondled you so many times, but I fear even to care the thought of you.)

Tum Mukhatib Bhi Ho Qarib Bhi Ho
Tum Ko Dekhun Ke Tum Ko Pyar Karun
(You are attentive, and you are close. Shall I look at you or speak to you?)
And now specimen of his quatains:-

Doshiza Ka Faza Mein Lahlahaya Hua Roop
Aaina-e-Subh Mein Jhalakta Hua Roop
Yeh Naram Nikhar, Yeh Sigil Dhaj Yeh Sugandh
Ras Mein Hai Kanwarepan Ka Duba Hua Roop.
(Against the immaculate air this understanding Beauty
In the mirror of the dawn, this shining beauty,
The soft glow, the elegant figure, the fragrtance
Steeped in the elixir of virginity, this Beauty.)

Hai Byahata Par Roop Abhi Kunwara Hai
Man Hai Par Ada Jo Bhi Hai Dishiza Hai
Who Mad Bhari, Mang Bhari, God Bhari
Kanya Hai Suhagan Hai Jagat Mata Hai.
(She is married, but her Beauty still is virgin
She is a mother, but all her charm is still untouched
She is joy-filled, her hair-part filled, her lap is filled
She is a daughter, a happy wife, mankind’s mother.)

In the words of Dr. Gopi Chand Narang, “Though this type of verse, both on the sematic and expression levels, Firaq introduced a new tenderness and new intimacy to Urdu lyric poetry. His sensuousness reminds one of Sanskrit literature. Obviously he has been influenced by Indian classical literature and the theory of Rasa, and one can make a stray of the parallels between the two. He seems to have the mind of modern man but the heart of an ancient Aryan, and he has separately said that he wanted to make his poetry the voice of the very soul of India. Under the impact of his verse, Urdu poetry gradually became more conscious of its Indian heritage. Firaq was a great advocate of Khari Boli Hindustani, which forms the common base for both Hindi and Urdu.” His compositions were a great source of inspiration and gave a new direction to urdu literature. He epitomized the highest form of patriotism, steadfastness and intellectual reliance.

Firaq belonged to a middle class Hindu Kayastha family. He joined Allahabad University as a lecturer in English Literature. He was never accorded Professorship so as not to burden him with chorus that would have detracted from his creativity. His lectures were more in the nature of conversations with his students, laced with his brilliant wit, ranging from Keats to Kalidas with dazzling virtuosity. This enormous range was part of Firaq’s repertoire till the very end.

Position and Powers of Vakil under Akbar

2024-12-01T20:19:00.001+05:30

The position and powers of Vakil (Prime Minister} during Akbar’s reign was one of gradual decline. In the beginning of Akbar’s reign, the Vakil enjoyed unlimited authority—political, military, financial and administrative, but his office was gradually shorn of all these powers one by one. By the end of Akbar’s reign, the post of Vakil had become more or less honorific, and though he continued to enjoy the dignity and prestige, he had become the shadow of his former self.

Bairam Khan, who was responsible for the reconquest of India in 1555 AD, was the first Vakil of Akbar. As the emperor was a child of merely thirteen years old, Bairam Khan acted as his Ataliq (tutor). He was virtually the Grand Wazir, exercising all sovereign powers in the name of the emperor and controlling the affairs of the State. Ibn Hasan has aptly remarked, “The King was behind the veil and the rule was that of the Vakil.” He commanded the army, controlled the finances, and appointed as well as dismissed the high officials of the State at his will. The dismissal of Pir Mohammad, who in Abul Fazl’s words was not only Bairam Khan’s deputy, but was virtually the Vakil of the Sultanate, and the appointment of Shaikh Gadai of the Shia sect to the office of Sadr (head of ecclesiastical department) in preference to all Saiyyads, clearly illustrate the vast authority enjoyed by Bairam. Rivals like Tardi Beg were ruthlessly crushed by capital punishments and imprisonments, while the emperor was simply informed of what had been done. Further, he conferred Jagirs and ranks at his own discretion, but caused dissensions to Akbar as his servants were neglected by the Vakil. Moreover, he directly interfered in Akbar’s private affairs. As pointed out by Ibn Hasan, “There is no parallel in the history of Northern India of this position and power of the vazir. Though Bairam Khan’s services to the ruling family and the newly established kingdom of the Mu^^ cannot be ignored yet the events of his regime conclusively show that, after having got the strings of power into his hands, he failed to rise above the level of an ordinary administrator, and some of his actions were beyond doubt based on personal considerations, apart from political exigencies, or the needs of the state.” However, by his lack of tact and statesmanship, he failed to retain the confidence of the emperor and win the support of either the nobility or of the public, and was consequently removed from the office in 1560 AD.

After the fall of Bairam Khan, the office of Vakil began to decline and gradually lost all its unlimited powers. Akbar’s personal experience of Bairam Khan’s Vikalat was a sufficient warning against placing all powers in the hands of a single noble as Vakil-i-Sultanate.

Akbar distributed the functions, powers, distinctions and privileges, which had hitherto been the monopoly of the all-powerful Bairam Khan, among three bodies. Shahab-ud-Din Khan and Maham Ananga enjoyed political and financial powers, Shams-ud-Din Atka Khan was given Bairam Khan’s standard drum, and Munim Khan was appointed to the office of the Vakil.

The appointment of Munim Khan as the Vakil caused great frustration to Shams-ud-Din Atka Khan, who himself had been an aspirant for this office. His chief claim, as contended by him, lay in the services rendered in the overthrow of Bairam Khan. Ultimately his plea was accepted and the office of Vakil was conferred upon him in November 1561 AD.

Atka Khan’s appointment not only deprived Munim Khan of his office, but also Maham Ananga and her party of all power and influence. The reason stated is that he did not belong to the Maham party and like Munim Khan, exercised full power in the management of affairs, political and financial, and disposed of matters relating to the army and civil population. A conspiracy was formed and Atka Khan was murdered on May 16, 1562 AD. Akbar took prompt action and put Adham Khan to death. Maham Anga died shortly after.

Akbar, however, pardoned Munim Khan and restored him to the office of Vakil in June 1562, but the prestige attached to it was gone. Munim held the office till 1567 AD, but he never wielded full authority of the Vakil. Moreover, Akbar had by this time formed the policy of clipping the powers of the Vakil. Consequently within three months of his reinstatement, Munim was deprived of his financial powers, as a new office of the Diwan was created and the revenue and financial matters were separated from the office of the Vakil. Muzaffar Khan, the first full-fledged Diwan, was not only unrivalled in his knowledge of finance, but was also independent-minded and did not tolerate any interference in his department. At about the same time, Lashkar Khan was made in charge of the military department under the designation of Bakshi, which had the effect of depriving the Vakil of his military duties and responsibilities as well. Munim Khan’s negotiations with the Uzbeg rebels further undermined the prestige of the office and in June 1567 AD, he was transferred to Jaunpur to look after the affairs in the East. The transfer of Vakil from the political center ended his career as the Vakil of the Emperor.

The career of Munim, however, determined the position of the Vakil in the empire. He ceased to be the chief moving spirit of the State and the motive power of the administrative machinery. The office of the Diwan before long eclipsed that of the Vakil. However, his position as the first man in the State continued, and he held his highest rank, but his influence from this time on depended not on his office, but upon his personality, the conditions of the time and the atmosphere of the court. Ibn Hasan aptly remarked, “The power was gone, but the show of power and marks of outward distinction and prestige were retained.”

After Munim Khan’s transfer, the office was kept in abeyance for about six and a half years. However, the enormous increase in the size of the empire and the work of administration, in the meanwhile, necessitated a revival of the office and in 1573 AD, Muzaffar Khan was appointed as Vakil-i-Sultanate. He combined the offices of Vikalat and Diwan, but could not enjoy the honour for long. His refusal to accept and carry out the proposed reforms in the Jagirdari system led to his dismissal from office in the same year.

However, two years later, owing to his meritorious services, he was re-appointed as Vakil, but now his control over finances was only nominal. The Diwans, Raja Todar Mal and Shah Mansur, were merely to act in consultation with him. Thus he was the head of ministry, but other ministers were his colleagues and not his subordinates. Moreover, Akbar was by this time a complete master of all branches of administration and nothing important could be undertaken by the Vakil without his full concurrence and approval. It appears that once again he failed to come up to the expectations of the emperor and his transfer, like that of Munim, ended his career as the Vakil of the empire.

Muzaffar was the last of Akbar’s Vakil, who exercised some influence over the administration and wielded some significant power, but his position was purely personal and the respect which Akbar showed to him was due to his capacity, loyalty and efficient services and not to his office.

After this, Akbar raised Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan to the post of Vakil, but as pointed out by Ibn Hasan, “It was more a favour and a mark of distinction for his attachment to the King from his boyhood than the conferment of any real power.” Nevertheless, he remained in office for about five and a half years. On April 19, 1595 AD, Khan-i-Azam Mirza Aziz Koka, the emperor’s favorite companion, was elevated to the Vakil’s office, which he held for the rest of the reign. Though he wielded immense influence with the King, he does not appear to have exercised any influence in the administration or the affairs of the empire.

The functions of Akbar’s Vakil have been aptly summed up by Abul Fazl, “He is the emperor’s lieutenant in all matters concerned with the realism and in the household. He traces the Council by his wisdom and settles with penetration the great affairs of the realm. Promotion and degradation, appointment and dismissal depend upon his insight…. Although the financial offices are not under his immediate supervision, yet he receives returns from the hands of all financial offices and wisely abstracts of this return.”

In the final analysis, the Vikalat retained its dignity and prestige, but it was shorn of most of its powers. It remained the highest office of the empire and its holder was always the first man in the State, but he ceased to wield the power which was associated with its name. Regarding the ultimate position of the office of the Vakil, Ibn Hasan has very rightly observed that the practice of keeping the office of the Vakil vacant at times and carrying on the administration in the empire without the Vakil, further minimized its importance and it ceased to be a necessary part of the administrative machinery. In fact, the Vakils were the heads of the nobility and not of administration. They possessed rank, honour and prestige, but not any significant powers.

Relations of Guru Gobind Singh with the Punjab Hill Chiefs

2024-11-02T22:10:00.006+05:30

The story of Guru Gobind’s relations with the Rajput chiefs of the Punjab Hill States constitute one of the most significant chapters in the history of Punjab in particular and the history of India in general. It was the nature of these relations that gave the peculiar mould to the history of the period. Had the hill chiefs chosen to co-operate with Guru Gobind Singh in a common cause against the fanatic government of the Mughals, instead of opposing him, the history of not only Punjab but also of the Northern India would have been much different from what it actually turned out to her.

After the martyrdom of Guru Teg Bahadur in 1675 A.D., his nine year old son, Gobind Rai, then at Makhowal, ascended to the Guruship with a determination not only to avenge the brutal murder of his father but also to liberate the country from the oppressive and tyrannical yoke of the Mughals. As such, soon after his accession to the gurugaddi, he started the programme of military preparations. He not only revived the programme of his grand-father, Guru Hargobind, but gave it a further impetus on a much larger scale.

He gave a call to the Sikhs in all the directions to come and join the ranks in his army and thus organized a strong army and strengthened his resources. The Guru had even started beating of a big drum called ‘Ranjit Nagara’ at Makhowal which in those days was considered as a symbol of sovereignty. The Guru made an appeal to the hill chiefs for a joint front against the Mughals, but in vain.

The warlike preparations of the Guru and the ever growing strength of his army coupled with the beating of drum, created a sense of alarm in the mind of Bhim Chand, the ruler of Bilaspur, who observed not only an infringement of his authority by these activities of the Guru, but also a danger to his own existence. It was all the more so because Bhim Chand was a vassal of the Mughal emperor and could not allow an abode enemy of the Mughal government to openly make war-like preparations against the paramount power, except at the risk of inviting a Mughal invasion to his own territory which was so closely situated to the Mughal territory in the plains.

As such, Bhim Chand became eager to oust the Guru from his territory as early as possible on one pretext or the other. He was also annoyed with the Guru who refused to part with a trained elephant and a costly carpet presented to the Guru by his devotees from Assam and which Bhim Chand wanted ostensibly for the marriage of his son, but in reality keeping them with him permanently. Thus relations between Guru Gobind and Bhim Chand were further estranged and an armed conflict was not a remote possibility between the two. However the crisis was averted for the time being because of the Guru’s mother and well-wishers, who advised him moderation and patience. Moreover, he also got an invitation from Medini Prakash, the ruler of Nahan, who had a boundary dispute with Fateh Shah, the neighbouring hill chief of Srinagar. The Guru’s services were required by the Nahan chief to act as a mediator. Most possibly, he also wanted to impress upon the neighbouring ruler the fact that the Guru with his newly raised army was his friend.

Guru Gobind decided to retire further to the hills. He had his own reasons behind it:

- Firstly, in view of his tender age and meager resources, he needed a sense of security and time to make elaborate preparations for fighting against the mighty and resourceful Mughals, by remaining at an arm’s length, so that to avoid an immediate attack from them. The interior of the hills, situated distantly from the Mughal territories, was an apt place for such retirement.

- Secondly, the Guru hoped that by doing so, he would persuade the hill chiefs, by cultivating intimate relations with them, for making a common cause against the Mughals.

- Thirdly, the rugged and uneven territory of the hills with its steep valleys along with high and low peaks, was the most suitable topographical area for the type of military training which he aimed at imparting to the soldiers.

- Finally, Guru Gobind also aimed at carrying further the work of propagation of the mission of Guru Nanak, which condemned casteism, idolatry and false conventionalism—a mission which had hitherto been, somewhat, remained abeyance in the hilly region ever since the days of Nanak’s travels in the North.

With these objectives, Guru Gobind retired from Makhowal to the State of Nahan, where Medini Prakash allotted a beautiful spot to him, on the banks of river Kalindri (Yamuna), now called Paonta Sahib.

Here at Paonta, Guru Gobind indulged in the activities which brought him into clash with other hill chiefs. The activities of military preparations of Guru Gobind caused a feeling of fear in the minds of the hill chiefs. It was felt that he wanted to establish an independent State in the midst of them. So, it was natural that they could not tolerate the increase of any external influence in their territories. Moreover, Guru Gobind represented a faith with liberal ideas, and much against the contemporary Hindu social order, which was based on orthodoxy. It was not liked upon by the orthodox Hindu chiefs of the Punjab hills. Moreover, most of the followers of Guru Gobind were Jats, who were looked down and hated by the Rajput chiefs and considered as an ‘inferior race’. Thus, as Dr. I. B. Banerjee observes, “political privilege, social exclusiveness and tribal pride—all combined to induce the Hill chiefs to present a united front against the Guru.”

Under these circumstances, the allied troops of the hill chiefs under Bhim Chand attacked the Guru at Bhangani in 1686 A.D. (1688 A.D. by some other scholars), between Yamuna and its tributary, Giri. A very fierce battle ensued. Both the sides fought with great courage and bravery. But ultimately, the hill men were put to flight and the Guru achieved a complete victory.

After Bhangani, a new chapter opened in the relations of the Guru with the hill chiefs. The latter became friendly to the Guru rather than opposing him. Bhim Chand again invited the Guru to make his headquarters at Makhowal. Here the town of Anandpur was founded and the forts of Anandgarh, Lohgarh, Keshgarh and Fatehgarh were constructed.

The immediate outcome of these friendly relations between Guru Gobind and the hill chiefs was that the latter stopped paying their annual tribute to the Mughal Emperor. Consequently, an army was sent under Alif Khan to realize the tribute. He succeeded in subduing the chiefs of the Kangra tract. When he approached Bhim Chand, he refused to pay it and gave a call to the Guru and all the allied chiefs to participate in the attack on Alif Khan, who was then at Nadaun. Guru Gobind gave a practical demonstration of his friendship. Alif Khan was defeated and put to flight.

These relations were further estranged when the chiefs at the instance of Bhim Chand reconciliated with the Mughal government without giving any intimation to Guru Gobind. However, the Mughals were resisted by the Rajput rulers of Guler and Jaswan. Guru Gobind also supported them in their struggle of repeated Mughal expeditions. The Guru also felt that he must depend on his own resources rather than the hill chiefs, who were no more reliable.

In 1699 A.D., Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa Panth—religious in foundation and military in discipline. The immediate result of the Khalsa was that its military character terrified the hill chiefs and its creation came upon them like a bomb-shell. They felt that as long as the Guru is present amidst them, he was a standing menace to their princely order. Also, the increasing followers of the Guru had created many problems regarding the essential supplies in the hills. Bhim Chand could not tolerate it and sent a messenger asking for the evacuation of Anandpur or to pay rent for it. However, Guru Gobind Singh refused to accept any of these terms and once again the relations of mutual warfare started between the Guru and a confederacy of the hill chiefs.

The allied troops of the hill chiefs besieged Anandpur and a battle was fought in 1701 A.D., which lasted for many days. At last, when the hill chiefs found no chance of victory, they made peace with the Guru, and assured him of their friendship if he left Anandpur for some time. As Guru Gobind Singh did not want to waste his energy and resources against the hill chiefs, he decided to retire to Nirmoh, near Kiratpur.

At Nirmoh, there were skirmishes here and there, and in one of these Sahib Chand was killed, resulting to a battle, which ended in Khalsa victory. Finding it impossible to crush the Sikh power, Bhim Chand sought help from the Mughals, and made a joint attack on the Sikhs with the support of the Governors of Lahore and Sirhind. Here also, the army of the Guru got a remarkable victory.

At the request of the ruler of Basoli, the Guru shifted his headquarters to his territory. Bhim Chand’s army was again put to flight. The Sikhs also defeated many a times the villagers who had often skirmishes with the Sikhs. The result was that Bhim Chand was very much frightened with these repeated successes of the Sikhs, and made peace with the Guru. He even invited the Guru to stay at Anandpur and some time passed in peace.

Soon, the hill chiefs became jealous at the increasing power of the Guru and formed a confederacy against him, ordering him to leave Anandpur. On his refusal, they got assistance from Lahore and Sirhind, and declared war against the Guru. Even the Gujjars and the Banghars were brought in to join the battle against the Sikhs. Initially the Sikhs were successful, but ultimately, their position became very critical when the siege of Anandpur was laid. Finally, the Guru had to leave Anandpur with his Sikhs and the family. Although the Hindu chiefs and the Mughals had assured the Guru ‘of safe conduct if he left Anandpur’, but when they got news of the evacuation, they violated their promises and set themselves in pursuing the Guru wherever he went.

Thus it is clear from the above study that the hill chiefs were never friendly towards the Guru. They were jealous of his rising power and regarded him as a danger to their existence, although the Guru had no such motives in his mind. He was never offensive against the hill chiefs, but had to resort to arms against them only to defend himself and his Sikhs. He had no political objectives, but to oust the tyranny from this soil. The hill chiefs established many a times the relations of friendship and cordiality with the Guru, but never stuck to it for long. However, Guru Gobind Singh performed as a true friend every time. He, in fact, did not want to come to open hostilities with the hill chiefs, but instead wanted to come to an understanding with them. His relations, however, failed him in this direction.

Allama Iqbal : The Poet and Philosopher

2024-11-01T11:46:00.003+05:30

(This article was written about 25 years back by my father, Sh. Sham Dass Khanna. He served as the News Editor in Daily Hind Samachar. In the field of journalism, he had the experience of almost 60 years. An M.A. in Urdu, he had keen interest in Urdu poetry and was himself also a poet in the language.)

Iqbal is probably the most quoted poet in world’s literary and intellectual circles. His admirers attach some sort of sanctity to his opinions and use his verses as arguments. Probably his most remarkable achievement was that he gave an abiding place to the teachings of Islam and patriotism in the hearts of the people. The language he used was one of rare beauty and charm. With its solid Islamic background, wealth of stirring phrases and telling epigrams, his verse can be memorized easily and recalled and reproduced effortlessly. Even moderately educated has a readily useable treasure of Iqbal’s wisdom on the tip of his tongue.

Allama Iqbal is the spokesman of reality. The limits of his poetry are unbounded and limitless. He used it as a source of his message, which he wanted to give to the nation. Iqbal was considerably influenced by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s thoughts. He sprang into prominence about the time of Sir Syed’s death. He studied the ups and downs of the culture of man very deeply. He dedicated Godly gift of his mind for only one work – spiritualism and patriotism. It was the only motive of his life. He lived for only this work. This work was to give message to the nation, which he gave in each and every way. He provided it with a philosophical and spiritual content and drove it deep into people’s consciousness.

To Allama Iqbal, we owe not only a poetry that stirs our soul and philosophy that serves us a clarion call for a dynamic life, but a message to his countrymen to fulfill their destiny as ordained for them in the Holy Qoran. For his exhortations, Allama Iqbal used the vehicle of poetry that he weaved with prophetic vision, religious, historical, psychological, social, cultural and political themes as if in a Kaleidoscope.

There are, indeed, countless facets of Iqbal’s message each replete with limitless truths, each capable of blazing a resplendent trail. But the quintessence of his message is best expressed in his own words in his lectures on “The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam”. Iqbal says, “Humanity needs three things today – Spiritual interpretation of the universe, Spiritual emancipation of the individual and basic principles of a universal impart directing the evolution of human society on a spiritual basis.”

Sir Abdul Qadir said, “There are so many things which are alike between Ghalib and Iqbal. If I were a believer in the transmigration of soul, I would have remarked that Mirza Ghalib had great love for Persian and Urdu poetry. This love did not let his soul take rest in paradise and compelled it to transmigrate again in someone’s body to irrigate the garden of poetry and he was again born in Sialkot – a city of Punjab. He was named Iqbal.”

The couplets of Iqbal symbolize the true teachings of Holy Qoran. He says, “Know Thyself. Everything in this world belongs to you. Remove fear and intimidation from your hearts. Dive into seas. Fight with tides and strike with rocks, because life is not a bed of roses, but a battle field.”

Iqbal also made some very pertinent comments on the rising generation. “The youth,” he said, “had been largely captivated by western ideas and was impatient to put them into practice in their immediate environment, little realizing the incalculable damage that exotic ideologies had done in the land of their birth. In trying to evolve a nationhood of the western pattern, the countrymen would be wiping out of the brightest achievements of Islam. Iqbal led an unrelenting crusade against all forces of disruption from the beginning to the end. Apparently coming from an overused pen and a tired mind, his last Urdu work published in his lifetime, lashes out at all the major evils that would banish from the kind of society he was advocating. What he branded as forces of disintegration including colonialism, western education, indifference to religion etc. All of these are more or less closely inter-related political slavery, in Iqbal’s reckoning, is the main spring of all evils; it brings out the most sinister side of human nature warps and minds of the rulers and the ruled alike and dehumanizes vast segments of humanity. Western education changes our habit of thought and scale of valves, intellectual serfdom leads to indiscriminate adoption of alien wonts and usages. Immitation kills initiative and discourages independent thought and effort. Much of what he said constitutes the warp and woof of our thinking. His idealism is a force that goes deep into our mental and moral make up.

Iqbal is not a poet of insurrection but a poet of man’s awakening. With reference to Sir Abdul Qadir, it can be said, with confidence and without doubt that except elementary practice, he initiated writing in Urdu before beginning of the 20th century. In 1897-98, he was seen in poetical symposiums. He attended a meeting in which the renowned literary personalities participated. There, he recited his poem Himalaya that was published in the first issue of MAKHZAN, after some days. When Iqbal started composing couplets, Daag Dehlvi was in high esteems. By the efforts of Maulana Mohammad Hussain Azaad, the base of new poetry was prepared. The Hexameter (a verse which consists of six metrical feet) of Hali was becoming popular among the masses. Akbar Allahabadi, in his special way, was criticizing social and political problems. The speeches and writings of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan had done well in eradicating the darkness of minds and thoughts. Several religious movements had breathed their last. The light of the teachings of Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Shah Wali Allah was quite new. The struggle for independence of 1857 had not vanished from the minds. Fifteen to twenty years had elapsed in coming into existence of the Congress. A great revolution was created in political and social life with the efforts of Surinder Nath Bannerji, Dada Bhai Naoroji, Sir Feroz Shah Mehta and Badr-ud-Din Tyabji. The roaring of Gokhale had shaken the foundations of the palaces of the government. Such was the background of mind when our world was feeling the necessity of a new culture. This was the environment when the spokesman of reality opened his eyes; he as totally of light saw the wall of India – “Himalaya”. At that time, he by making the Ganges a witness spoke lonely:
                       Jal Raha Hun Kal Nahin Parti Mujhe
(I am burning and find no peace and tranquility in anyway.)
                       Sone Walon Ko Jaga De
                       She’r Ke Aijaaz Se
                       Khirmane Batin Jalaa De
                       Shaula-o-Awaaz Se
(O poet! Rouse the people from sleep with the miracle of poetry. Set ablaze the internal nest by the voice of flame.)

Lahore, the legendary city of united Punjab, blossomed at the turn of the century into a new centre of knowledge and culture. A galaxy of writers, litterateurs and educationists appeared on the literary scene. Among them were Mohammad Hussain Azaad, a first rank writer known for the first authentic history of Urdu poets, Aab-i-Hayat; Tirath Ram Ferozepuri, a noted translator; Lala Hans Raj, the saintly Principal of the local D.A.V. College, who dedicated his services to the Arya Samaj and the cause of education; and Principal Hakim Ali of Islamia College – an embodiment of simple living and high thinking. There were also Lala Lajpat Rai, the firebrand nationalist and Sir Abdul Qadir, a legal luminary, philanthropist, humanist, editor and many more. They slowly but silently brought about renaissance in thought and literature in the province. More or less, it was the time when Home Rule League was founded. In the struggle of independence of country, the Congress, in accordance with the demands of the circumstances, was changing its own strategy. The day had not come yet, when from the platform of the Congress, an open challenge should have been given to British Imperialism. Gokhale was about to demand the reduction and annihilation of new colonialism. Our angel Poet, Iqbal, warns us:
                       Yeh Khamoshi Kahan Tak
                       Lazzte Faryaad Paida Kar
                       Zamin Par Ho Too Aur Teri
                       Sa’daa Ho Aasmano Mein
(O man! How long will your silence continue? You should reveal your hardships and create such a situation that your voice should go from earth to sky.)
Again,
                       Utho Meri Duniya Ke
                       Garibon Ko Jaga Do
                       Kakhe Umra’a Ke
                       Daro Deewar Hila Do
                       Jis Khet Se Dekhan Ko
                       Muyassar Nahin Rozi
                       Us Khet Ke Har
                       Khosha-e-Gandam Ko Jala Do
(Rise and rouse the poor of my world. Strike and shake the palaces of the rich. A field that does not give bread to the farmer should be burnt completely.)

One of the great forums of literary and religious gatherings in Lahore was Anjuman-e-Himayat-Islam, which had the avowed object of promoting the cultural, educational and social interests of the Muslims. The Anjuman provided a ready platform to Iqbal to recite some of his famous poems, like Nalaa-e-Yateem (orphan cry), a pathetic verse lamenting the pitiable condition of the Muslims. “Shikwa” (the complaint) written soon after Italy had grabbed Tripoli from the Turks, voices the grievances of the Muslims against their God. Khizr-e-Rah (The Guide), a poem unmasking and dissecting the European civilization and statesmanship and Talu-e-Islam (The Rise of Islam), in which the poet glorifies the vision of the rebirth of Islam, of which Mustafa Kamaal Pash’a coup in Turkey, was in his opinion, the promise to flourish.

His verse invariably succeeded in generating the right atmosphere of emotional upsurge. “Hindustan Hamara” his short poem of nine stanzas pointedly refers to the citizens of the sub-continent as Indians and India as their motherland. It chides communalists by saying that “Religion does not teach bigotry.” (Mazhab nahin sikhata aapas mein bair rakhna) One critic hails it as the best patriotic poem written by any Indian in modern times. The last two stanzas of the poem require a special significance:
                   Yunan-o-Misr-o-Roma Sab Mit Gaye Jahan Se
                   Ab Tak Magar Hai Baki Naam-o-Nishan Hamara
                   Kuchh Baat Hai Ke Hasti Mit’ti Nahin Hamari
                   Sadiyon Raha Hai Dushman Daur-e-Zaman Hamara.
(The civilizations of Greece, Egypt and Rome are dead and gone but the glory of India shines still. There must be something and some reason why we have not been wiped out of existence, despite the fact that for centuries the horrible winds have been blowing against us.)
Iqbal summed up for all times to come his and the nation’s emotions in lines of ineffable beauty and splendour.

Iqbal, the poet of world celebrity, played an important role in the history of the Indian Muslims. Though he supported the Liberal movement, he asked the liberal Muslims to be on guard so that the broad human principle, which Islam stood for, was not thrown in the background by emphasis on the nation and the race.

Iqbal described the European civilization as inhuman, rapacious, predatory and decadent. He even quoted such writers as Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, Spengler and Karl Marx holding conflicting views to denounce in different aspects. He passionately attacked the European civilization in poems which are pearls of Persian and Urdu poetry. He was essentially a humanist and considered Islam as a religion of broadest humanism.

The Aligarh Movement, started under the leadership of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, played a significant role in bringing about awakening among the Muslims, especially among its middle classes. Chirag Ali, Syed Mehdi, Mustafa Khan, Khuda Bakhsh, Hali, Nazir Ahmed and Mohammad Shibli were the outstanding leaders and exponents of the ideas of the movement. They exhorted the Muslims to imbibe the western culture to interpret Qoran in the rational terms and in accordance with the needs of the Muslims in the present period and to revise their social system on more or less modern and democratic lines.

Josh Malihabadi : A Great Revolutionary Poet

2024-11-01T11:37:00.001+05:30

(This article was written by my father, Sh. Sham Dass Khanna. He was the News Editor of the Urdu daily, Hind Samachar. He was himself a great poet of Urdu and was the literary follower of Josh Sahib.)

KAAM HAI MERA BAGHAWAT

NAAM HAI MERA SHABAB

MERA NA’ARA INQUILAB-O-

INQUILAB-O-INQUILAB

(My function is to revolt and my name is youth. My slogan is revolution and total revolution.)

This couplet vividly symbolizes the revolutionary spirit of great poet, Shabbir Husan Khan, whose nom de plume is Josh. He throughout his life preached revolution and worked for it. He raised a banner of revolt against society, social, political and economic set up of the country and more over his family. He selected his own way, adopted his own principles and gave a new message to humanity.

Born on December 5, 1898 in Malihabad (Oudh) in Uttar Pradesh, Josh had his early education in Husainbad, Lucknow and Aligarh and obtained his senior Cambridge diploma from St. College, Agra. He joined ‘DARUL TARJUMA’ in 1925, where he came in contact with well known writers, poets and scholars of his time.

Later, he moved to Delhi, where he was appointed to head a Government of India publication, Aaj Kal, a monthly magazine. He migrated to Pakistan around 1956 and was appointed there as a literary advisor to the Urdu Development Board. A pupil of a well known poet Aziz Lakhnawi, the first collection of his prose and poetical composition, Rooh-e-Adab, was published in 1920. He had written some fifteen books, some of which are Shola-o-Shabnam, Ravish-o-Rang, Junoon-o-Hikmat, Saif-o-Subu, Yaadon Ki Barat and Shair Ki Raatein.

Josh spent the last year of his stormy controversial life of struggle in virtual oblivion in the Pakistani capital. A third generation poet in his family, Josh regretted till his death his migration to Pakistan, which attracted the wrath of fanatic Mullahs and the suspicion of the Military regimes of Pakistan. Even as early as December 22, 1955 Josh realised his mistake and even shared it with one of his friends in India, Diwan Singh Maftoon, an Editor of Riyasat weekly, expressing his unhappiness and worries as to what would happen to his wife and family after his death.

Tall, well built, handsome with flowing hair, Josh, a Pathan had fiery temper but at the same time he was equally sentimental, especially in religious affairs.

Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad fired his revolutionary zeal. While freedom struggle inspired him, youth and beauty bewitched him. A versatile poet of his era, Josh equally dominated in Nazm and Ghazal, but preferred the former as better vehicle for giving expression to his feelings of revolutionary thought, patriotism and anti-colonialism. Though a scion of the feudal aristocracy, he identified himself with the toiling masses and the working class and preached communal harmony.

His ‘MARSIA’ (elegy) on the death of Mahatma Gandhi is considered a master-piece in Urdu poetry. He was equally adept in prose writing of which ROOM-i-ADAB and YADON KI BARAT, a biographical account, are the best specimens. The latter became controversial though it was regarded as a trend setter in prose writing of those days.

Fond of good things of life, economic constraints took him to Bombay for a while, before he left for Pakistan in 1956. In Bombay, he wrote songs for films, some of which became hits, but literary critics accused him of “prostituting with his pen.”

Even in his age disregard for delicacy elegance colloquial usage of language courtesy and manners, Josh always regarded the Lucknow school as his bible. This is how he summed up this aspect of life :

TABIYAT KHUSH HUI AE HUMNASHIN

KAL JOSH SE MIL KAR

ABHI AGLI SHARAFAT KE

NAMUNE PAYE JATE HAIN.

Stung by allegations of being a traitor and an Indian agent, soon after raaching Pakistan, Josh gave a statement to a newspaper in Karachi declaring that he had decided to lead a solitary life so that nobody even know whether he was living or dead even if he had ever been a poet. He could not but mourn :

IN BUZDILON KE HUSAN PAR

SHAIDA KIYA HAI KYON

NAMARD KAUM MEIN MUJHE

PAIDA KIYA HAI KYON

(Why have you made me enamoured of the beauty of these cowards. Oh! why have you given me birth in a race of impotents.)

Fed up, he beseeched his friends in letters to pray to Allah to take away Josh from this world immediately. Yet he had once said

MUDATTON ROYA KARENGE

JAM-o-PAIMANA MUJHEY

(For a long time to come, the goblet and the wine measure would bemoan my loss.)

One of the last of his genre, his contemporary and somewhat elder, Raghupati Sahai, well knkown as Firaq Gorakhpuri, has spoken highly of his poetry as well as the man himself. As for ability and contribution to literature, it was always too close to call. But at the mushairas (poetical symposia), Josh always recited his piece after Firaq, a sort of recognition of his seniority.

As Josh was from a family of the Taluqdars, this background left a lasting imprint on him. When P.C.Joshi, as Secretary General of the Communist Party of India, was scouting for important Urdu poets to strengthen the cultural wing of the party, he cast his net as far as Josh, but inspite of his revolutionary ideas, he could never be cast in that role. He remained the feudal aristocrat till his death. No doubt, he did compose highly rhetorical and powerful anti-colonial poetry during the freedom struggle, which earned him the title of Shair-i-Inquilab (Revolutionary Poet), a fact which brought him close to leaders like Mr. Nehru; but a factor that contributed towards sustaining this question may well have been a shared aristocratic demeanour.

Through his fiery poems against the British imperial rulers, Josh Malihabadi inspired the Indians in their fight for freedom and defence of the country.

Guru Hargobind’s Relations with Shah Jahan: An Era of Warfare

2024-11-01T09:01:00.002+05:30

Jahangir’s death in 1627 AD opened a new chapter in the career of Guru Hargobind. The death was an important event with which we enter into a new phase of relations of Guru Hargobind with the Mughal Emperor, Shah Jahan. The relations between them grew so worst that battles between them became evident. The estrangement between them was caused due to the following factors:

- Guru Hargobind’s New Policy was an important cause for this estrangement. When Shah Jahan became the emperor, the Guru had given due shape to his New Policy. The Akal Takhat had been constructed upto this time and the fortification of Amritsar had also been completed. The Guru had established his well-organized Sikh army and had even formed a contingent of the Pathan troops under Painda Khan. He had himself started wearing royal dress and adopted royal-symbols, besides being called the Saccha Padshah. In this way, he was forming an imperium-in-imperio. “Thus the Guru was becoming a potential source of danger to the established order,” states Dr. I. B. Banerjee, and it was possible for Shah Jahan to take action against him.

- The fanatic policy of Shah Jahan was another factor. The repair of old temples or the construction of new temples was not allowed to the Hindus. At Banaras and certain other places, the Hindu temples were demolished. While he was returning home from Kashmir, he got the news about the marriage of Hindu boys with Muslim girls at Rajouri, Bhimber and Gujarat. Shah Jahan not only declared such marriages illegal, but also forcibly seized the Muslim girls from their Hindu husbands.

- In the case of Punjab, three temples were destroyed and mosques were constructed over there. The Baoli of Lahore was filled with mud and dirt, and the Langar Bhawan was converted into the mosque. The Sikhs were stunned at it and stood against the fanatic rule.

- As Jahangir had in his early days of accession come under the influence of the Naqshabandis, he was responsible for the martyrdom of Guru Arjan. Since then, it is stated that he had come under the influence of Mian Mir and adopted the policy of Sulah-i-Kul. Soon the relations between Jahangir and Guru Hargobind became friendly. On the accession of Shah Jahan, the situation had changed. Masud, the son of Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi, led the Naqshabandis and the number of fanatic Muslims increased under him. Shah Jahan was also highly influenced by him. As these people were full of hatred against the non-Muslims, especially against the Hindus and the Sikhs in Punjab, they poisoned the ears of Shah Jahan against the Sikhs.

- The Kaulan affair also strained the relations between the two. Kaulan was the daughter of the Qazi of Lahore. She was a religious minded girl and was a follower of Mian Mir. Being a staunch Sunni, the Qazi could not tolerate the religious sentiments of his daughter. Therefore, he started inflicting atrocities on her. Mian Mir sent her in the shelter of Guru Hargobind. When Shah Jahan came to know about it, he flared up against the Guru.

The above are some of the fundamental factors responsible for the warfare between the two. Though the writers differ on the number and places of the battles fought, the view of Macauliffe is the most acceptable, that Guru Hargobind fought the following three battles against the Mughals.

1. Battle of Amritsar, (1628 A.D.): The battle of Amritsar “was the first combat between the Muhammedans and the Sikhs.” Shah Jahan was on a hunting trip in the forests near Amritsar. Guru Hargobind was also on a similar mission in the same forest. It so happened that the Mughals started pursuing a very beautiful hawk. After some time, Shah Jahan returned to Lahore leaving his men to accomplish the task. As fortune has it, the Sikhs also met with the same hawk and captured it for their Guru. However, the Mughals claimed their authority over the bird, because they were the first to pursue it. When the Mughals resisted, they were driven out with slaughter, and as Dr. I. B. Banerjee states, it “was too great an offence to be lightly passed over.”

The Mughals in the command of Mukhlis Khan made an attack against the Guru. The Mughals were 7,000 in number. Though all the records unanimously agree with the Sikh victory, the writer of Dabistan narrates, “At Ramdaspur, Hargobind sustained an attack of the army, which Shah Jahan, the Shadow of God, sent against him, and the Guru’s property was then plundered.” The statement of the author of Dabistan may indeed be true, but what happened was that the invaders had taken possession of the Guru’s palace. The sweets had been stored there in plenty, because the marriage date of the Guru’s daughter, Viro, had been fixed, which was in the near future. The Mughals ate plenty of sweets and could not help sleeping. Consequently they could not cope with the surprise attack of the Sikhs in the command of their Guru. The Sikhs came out victorious in the battle. The Mughals were killed in a great number, including their commander, Mukhlis Khan.

The battle of Amritsar is considered an important landmark in the Sikh history. Dr. A.C. Banerjee comments, “It marks the beginning of their armed resistance to the Mughal Empire, a process which reached its culmination in the early years of the eighteenth century.” The victory popularized the Guru among the non-Muslim masses, who were fed up by the fanatic rule. Sir Jadu Nath Sarkar has also believed that “many men came to enlist under the Guru’s banner. They said that no one else had power to contend with the Emperor.”

Although the Guru had won the battle, yet he retreated from Amritsar to Kartarpur and here thrashed a small contingent of the Subahdar of Jullundur, sent against him.

2. Battle of Lahira, (1631 A.D.): Guru Hargobind was not interested to lead a life of warfare, but wanted to live in peace. He had been living a peaceful life for three years since his first encounter with the Mughals, and the process would have longed when suddenly an event occurred.

It is said that two Masands, Bakht Mal and Tara Chand, were bringing two horses of extreme beauty and fleetness for their revered Guru. On the way, the Mughal officials seized both these horses. Bidhi Chand, a notorious dacoit of his times, but now an ardent follower of Guru Hargobind, succeeded in recovering these horses from the royal stable at Lahore. This act of Bidhi Chand annoyed the emperor and he sent an expedition under Lala Beg and Qamar Beg against the Sikhs. The news alarmed the Guru and he thought it wise on his part “to seek shelter in some advantageous position and retired to the wastes of Bhatinda, south of Sutlej, where it might be useless or dangerous to follow him.” When the Mughal commanders got information of the reaction of the Guru, they foolishly ordered their troops to advance to the area where the Sikhs had settled. Here the Mughals attacked the Sikhs for the second time, but could not cope with the natural difficulties. Hence the Sikhs under Guru Hargobind defeated the Mughals very easily at Lahira. A good number of the Mughals were killed in the battle and the Sikh soldiers also were either badly injured or killed in great number.

The victory at Lahira made the Guru and the Sikhs feel themselves so powerful that without convincing any danger they returned in the plains. According to S. M. Latif, “Hargobind having twice beaten the Mughal army in the open field, now began to entertain some degree of confidence in his own power and in the prowess of his followers.”

3. Battle of Kartarpur, (1634 A.D.): The Guru had settled down along with his Sikhs at Kartarpur and was leading a peaceful life. But Painda Khan, in the service of the Guru as a Pathan commander, made the battle inevitable for the third time. It so happened that Painda Khan, on being pressurized by his son-in-law, Asman Khan, stole the favorite hawk of Bhai Gurditta, a son of Guru Hargobind. The Sikhs recovered the hawk from Painda Khan’s house, but he denied that it was in his house. In order to punish him, the Guru drove him out.

Munshi Sohan Lal in his monumental work, Umdat-ut-Tawarikh, has narrated a different story. According to him, Painda Khan incurred the Guru’s displeasure by making over to his son-in-law the horse and Khillat the Guru had given him for his personal use.

Be whatsoever it may, Painda was ousted and in order to avenge his humiliation, he approached Shah Jahan and offered to destroy the Sikhs this time, if he was given sufficient troops. Hence the Guru was attacked at Kartarpur in April, 1634 A.D. A desperate battle was fought here. Macauliffe writes, “The Pathans were powerless against the brave Sikhs fighting for their religion and their Guru.” The Mughal army was repulsed with great slaughter, Painda Khan, Asman Khan and Chandu’s son being among the slain.

Sir Gokul Chand Narang observes, “Victorious as the Guru was, he did not think it safe to live any longer in the plains.” After his victory at Kartarpur, he had left this place and reached Phagwara, but as Macauliffe states and the Guru himself would have been convinced, the town of Phagwara was on the road to Lahore, and the Mughal government could very easily send reinforcements against him. Consequently, he retired to Kiratpur, where he spent the remaining years of his life in peace and working for his spiritual mission, being alienated at all to the acts of warfare.

In his relations with Shah Jahan, Guru Hargobind introduced himself as a brave and an efficient military general. He had established his small army and under his command the Sikhs defeated the Mughals in three consecutive battles at Amritsar, Lahira and Kartarpur. These battles gave the Sikhs essential training of warfare. Though Guru Hargobind came out victorious in these battles, he did not occupy any territory, which makes it clear that his intentions were not political. According to Sir G. C. Narang, “Hargobind was the first of the Sikh Gurus to have entered upon a military career.” On the same hand, Dr. Indu Bhushan Banerjee observes, “The Guru’s military actions were mostly of a defensive nature, and in almost all cases, he did not lead expeditions, rather expeditions were led against him.”

New Policy of Guru Hargobind

2024-10-31T19:11:00.000+05:30

The nomination of Hargobind to the Guruship is of immense importance in the Sikh history. His predecessors had been busy in performing religious and spiritual activities, but now he started guiding his disciples in military fields as well. Thus he brought about the transformation in Sikhism and made an effort to make his followers the ‘Saint Soldiers’. The policy he carried out is known as the New Policy.

I. Circumstances leading to the adoption of New Policy

This New Policy was not adopted by Guru Hargobind due to any particular reason, but was the outcome of a variety of factors. Dr. Indu Bhushan Banerjee states, “Both externally and internally the situation was changing and the policy of Guru Hargobind had perforce to be adjusted to the new environment.”

Externally, the organizational development had made much progress in the Majha and Doaba tracts under Guru Arjan Dev. By the foundation of new towns of Taran Taran, Kartarpur and Hargobindpur, the jats in these regions adopted Sikhism. Moreover, it was the simplicity of the new religion that had influenced the Jats to it. These Jats had some extra-ordinary characteristic instincts among them. They were very brave, courageous and freedom-lovers. They could never tolerate any sort of injustice being done to them. They were also flesh-eaters and this was so far abandoned in the Sikh church. Other Sikhs asked Guru Hargobind to oust them from Sikhism as flesh eating was not permitted by the earlier Gurus. But as the Sikhs had themselves seen with the martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev that it had become expedient for them to arm themselves in order to meet the existing danger to the Sikh church from the fanatic rule of the Mughals. These Jats could play an important role by taking arms in their hands. Therefore, Guru Hargobind permitted them eating flesh. Dr. W.H. McLeod writes, “The growth of military within the Panth must be traced primarily to the impact of Jat cultural patterns.”

Internally, it was quite important to cope with the tyrannical rule and the martyrdom of Guru Arjan. In fact, under the fifth Guru, the Sikh church had made much development during the reign of Akbar, who is believed to be a liberal-minded ruler. He never attempted to interfere in the organizational affairs of Sikhism. He had, however, offered his help in different ways to the Sikh Gurus. But after his death in 1605 AD, the period of religious tolerance in the country also came to an end. Its first example was the martyrdom of Guru Arjan at the orders of the new emperor, Jahangir. According to Dr. I.B. Banerjee, “The execution of Guru Arjan and Hargobind’s own imprisonment definitely showed that stern days were ahead and that the old policy of mere peaceful organization no longer sufficed.” Guru Arjan, before his death, had sent a message to his son and successor, Hargobind, “Let him sit fully armed on his throne and maintain an army to the best of his ability…. Let him hold Bhai Buddha in honour, and in all respects except the wearing of arms hereby enjoined, adopt the practices of the preceding Gurus.” It is felt that it was because of the parting message of Guru Arjan that Guru Hargobind decided to put in action the message of his father. But there is no denying the fact that it was the result of both the external as well as internal changing environment. Sir J.D. Cunningham observes, “The temper and the circumstances of Hargobind both prompted him to innovation.”

II. Chief Characteristics of the New Policy

When Hargobind acceded to the throne, he decided to adopt a policy of transforming the peace-minded Sikhs into a race of militant warriors. He declared, “My Seli shall be a sword-belt, and I shall wear my turban with a royal aigrette.” By the time he became the Guru, he wore two swords—Miri and Piri. His Miri sword indicated his leadership for worldly matters, while the Piri sword was an indication of his guiding the Sikhs in spiritual affairs. His predecessors had led the Sikhs only in religious and spiritual affairs, but Guru Hargobind started guiding the Sikhs in the military field as well. He even crowned his turban with the Kalgi. He adopted all the symbols of royalty, and had even with him a band of 60 body-guards, which raised his royal prestige. The Sikh chronicler states that he sent for his arms and arrayed in martial style so that his splendor shone like sun.

Soon he informed the Sikhs about his New Policy. Accordingly, messages were sent to the Masands to collect mostly horses and arms from the Sikhs, and similarly the Sikhs were also directed. Immediately the message of the Guru was put in action, and in a short span of time, weapons and horses were collected in good number. It made very easy for him to organize an army.

Several warriors came to him for service and the Guru delightedly employed them. A number of Majha youth also enlisted his cause. Soon a body of 500 troops was established. Macauliffe states, “Several men out of employment and without a taste for manual labour flocked to the Guru’s standard,” and others also gathered “who were satisfied with two meals a day and a new uniform every half-year.” He had also organized an army of the Pathans, which according to Dr. A.C. Banerjee shows that “religious animosity against Mohammedans was not a factor in the arming of the Sikhs by Hargobind.” It is wrong to say that Guru Hargobind had taken in his service the rogues, dacoits and other convicts. There might be some who had entered his service in greed of loot and plunder. But mostly his army comprised of his devoted Sikhs.

The Guru also changed his daily routine and habits. He systematically turned his attention to chase and other war-like occupations. In the Harmandir, he gave religious directions to the Sikhs. He used to say that as long as he remained in the Harmandir, he should be reckoned ass a Saint, and in the Akal Bunga he should be looked upon as a King.

Guru Hargobind constructed a building near Harmandir and named it ‘Akal Takhat’ (Throne of the Almighty). It was here that the Guru guided his Sikhs on the political and military matters. He gave military education o his Sikhs, divided arms among them and made plans to fight the enemy out for the defense of their religion. Dr. Trilochan Singh observes, “The very erection of Akal Takhat was a challenge to all coercive authority of the Mughal Emperors.”

The Guru even fortified the city of Amritsar, feeling that the defense of the head-quarters was very necessary. A fort, named Lohgarh, was also constructed in the city of Amritsar.

III. Assessment

When Guru Hargobind adopted the new policy, misunderstandings and many kinds of doubts came in the minds of many of the devoted Sikhs regarding the objectives of the Guru. Bhai Gurdas in a Pauri of Var 26 refers to the doubts in their minds, and says

“The truth within him cannot possibly be concealed

…………………………….....................

He supporteth a burden intolerable to others and asserteth not himself.”

It is said that some devoted followers of the Guru met him with Bhai Buddha, but the Guru satisfied them saying that he was taking every step for the goodness and welfare of his Sikhs.

There are certain writers who hold the opinion that the New Policy was justified under the existing circumstances. Dr. I. B. Banerjee comments that externally and internally the situation was changing. The Guru had felt that without adopting the arms it was not easy to defend the situation. Therefore, Dr. I. B. Banerjee observes, “The way in which the Guru met the situation speaks a good deal for his resourcefulness and shrewd practical sense.” Had he not followed this policy, the community would have either not survived or would have relapsed into the limited merit of utility of saints and faquirs.

It is wrong to observe, as some critics of the policy put it, that the lure of politics and the glamour of arms were leading him away from the true path of a religious and spiritual leader. It can’t be denied that like his predecessors, he efficiently guided his Sikhs in religious and spiritual matters. He used to impart some time daily in religious preaching. It is also a matter of fact that he spent the last ten years of his life in performing religious activities at Kiratpur. His military activities against the Mughals were truly in defense of the religion. He had no political ambitions behind such activities.

This policy was not entirely new. Guru Nanak had boldly criticized the tyrant rulers. He also criticized those who tolerate injustice. Guru Arjan had also started giving military training to his Sikhs. Thus this policy had already started during the period of Guru Arjan, but it was Guru Hargobind who gave it a practical shape. Dr. H.R. Gupta writes, “Hargobind carried the torch lit by Nanak; but he added to it the lustre of the sword.”

The New Policy brought a great change in the character of the Sikhs. The Sikhs were now transformed into Saint-Soldiers and gradually became a brave race of the warriors. The Jats, who had adopted Sikhism in a great number, got an opportunity to show the instincts of their bravery and courage. It was also a factor in his imprisonment for some time in the fort of Gwalior. But still the policy could not be ended. Instead, the Akal Takhat was constructed, Amritsar was fortified and an army was organized. He carried on his policy establishing friendly relations with Jahangir. However, with Shah Jahan as the new emperor, warfare became inevident and many battles were fought against the Mughals. Dr. E. Trumpp observes that the Mughal authorities “were either too short-sighted or indolent or too powerless to stop effectively the concourse of such a turbulent and dangerous crowd.”

Janamsakhis as a Source for the study of Guru Nanak

2024-10-30T12:29:00.007+05:30

The Janamsakhis are the major source related to the study of Guru Nanak. However, there are still some others which help us in getting the knowledge of the life and times of Guru Nanak. Some reliable sources can be mentioned as under.

I. Vars of Bhai Gurdas

Bhai Gurdas was a nephew of the third Guru, Amar Das ji. He was a contemporary of the third, fourth, fifth and sixth Gurus. He was responsible for scripting the Adi Granth at the dictation of Guru Arjan Dev. He composed 39 Vars and 556 Kabits. Though his poetry was not included in the Adi Granth, Guru Arjan declared that the verses of Bhai Gurdas must be read first by a Sikh in order to understand fully the philosophy contained in the Holy Granth. The reader of these verses can gain spiritually and acquire the instructions regarding the teachings of the great Gurus. It is thus certain that the works of Bhai Gurdas existed even at the time of composition of the Adi Granth in 1604 AD and some of the Vars were written during the pontification of Guru Hargobind.

It is believed that Bhai Gurdas composed his Vaars about sixty years after the death of Guru Nanak, which give us a sketch of the life of Guru Nanak. The stanzas 23 to 45 of Var 1 and stanzas 13-14 of Var 11 provide us with a brief account of Guru Nanak. Mainly the religious aspect of Guru Nanak is dealt with in the Vars, while the Kabits contain merely ‘the Sikh tenets and a panegyric of the Gurus.’. Dr. Indu Bhushan Bannerjee writes that “it is important to note that they mark a definite landmark in the evolution of Sikhism and should thus be regarded as extremely valuable.

II. Janamsakhis

Janamsakhis are very important source to study the life of Guru Nanak Dev. There are many versions of the Janamsakhis.

1. Puratan Janamsakhi or Janamsakhi by Sewa Das: The Janamsakhi by Bhai Sewa Das is probably the oldest of all the Janamsakhis. Two manuscripts of this Janamsakhi are available:

(a) Colebrooke Manuscript: This manuscript was taken to London by Sir Thomas Colebrooke in 1815-16 A.D. and was donated to the Library of East India House. In 1872 AD, Dr. Ernest trump found it in India Office Library, London. The manuscript was published in 1877 AD. When the Sikhs of Punjab knew of it, they pleaded with Sir Charles Aitchison, the Lt. Governor of Punjab, that the Janamsakhis may be shown to them. The petition was accepted and the Government of India got its copy printed after photozincophing it. But in 1884 AD, the Singh Sabha of Lahore had lithographed its copy.

(b) Hafizabad Manuscript: Bhai Gurmukh Singh of Lahore got this manuscript in Hafizabad and M.A. Macauliffe found some of its last pages missing, completed it by the Colebrooke manuscript. He has based his famous work, The Sikh Religion, on it.

Macauliffe is of the opinion that it was written in 1588 AD, half a century after the death of Guru Nanak. But most of the scholars are of the view that it was written in 1634-35 AD. It contains 57 sakhis and is considered to be the genuine source to study the life of Guru Nanak. Bhai Vir Singh published a sakhi based on it in 1926 AD.

When the accounts were written by Bhai Gurdas and Bhai Sewa Das, some of the disciples of Guru Nanak were still alive and “would have acted as a powerful check on the introduction of doubtful and exaggerated details.” Yet these cannot be concluded to be free from legendary myths and supernatural touches, even though scrappy. Bhai Gurdas has, however, avoided to give a complete life sketch of the Guru as its details could have been easily obtained at that time.

Whatever may be the nature of these accounts, we can’t omit its supernatural and mythical details, because by doing so, we will be having a bare skeleton which will be regarded as even the necessary minimum. Trumpp observes, “Compared with the later Janamsakhis, which enter into minute details in order to satisfy curiosity, and which have no sense but for the miraculous, however absurd, it is relatively sober.”

2. Janamsakhi by Meharban Sodhi: Meherban was the son of Prithi Chand, elder brother of Guru Arjan Dev. Being related to the Guru family, he knew pretty well the traditions regarding Guru Nanak. This Sakhi was compiled probably during the Var 1 by Bhai Gurdas and the Janamsakhi of Sewa Das. The chief feature of this Janamsakhi is the account of Guru Nanak’s settlement in Kartarpur, which is not available in any other Janamsakhi.

Historically, this account is regarded very much valuable because

(a) The names of persons and places mentioned in it are generally correct;

(b) There are few miraculous stories in it; and

` 3. Bhai Bala’s Janamsakhi : Bhai Bala’s Janamsakhi has been a controversial issue among the historians. According to the Sikh chronicles, Bhai Bala was one of the earliest accomplices of Guru Nanak. He is even stated to have accompanied Guru Nanak during his travels. The Sakhi is stated to have been written during the period of Guru Angad with Bala’s help, who dictated these to Paira Mokha. This Janamsakhi, as compared to other sakhis, contains a number of events in Nanak’s life.

However, today the authenticity of this Janamsakhi as well as its author is doubted. It is stated that when Bala came on a visit to Guru Nanak’s successor, Guru Angad, at Khadur, the new Guru sought his introduction as to whose disciple he was and also about his religious convictions. Bala informed that he was a disciple of Guru Nanak and had been very closely associated with Him since his early childhood. On hearing this, Guru Angad entrusted upon him the task to narrate the incidents of the Master’s life. Moreover, it is also said that one day Bhai Bala started making an enquiry to know about the successor of Guru Nanak.

Now how is it probable that two close associates of the same Guru are not familiar to each other, and Guru Angad had even sought Bala’s introduction. Also, Bhai Gurdas has mentioned the names of various eminent personalities associated with Guru Nanak, including Mardana, Bhai Budha, Daulat Khan Lodhi etc, but Bala’s reference does not come even once.

Again, it is believed that had Bala been a genuine person, he would not have mentioned the disparaging stories to show that Nanak was born again and again because of the result of the bad Karmas in his previous lives. According to the Sikh traditions, Nanak was sent by God to liberate mankind from sins and from the shackles of birth and rebirth.

Certain aspects are forwarded to prove that Bala’s Janamsakhi is spurious:

- ‘Waheguru’ is the word used in this Sakhi. But it was used since the period of Guru Ramdas and not Guru Nanak.

- Eminabad was the name given to the town during the period of Akbar and Guru Arjan Dev. During Guru Nanak’s period it was called Syedpur. However, Bala has used the name Eminabad for it.

- A story in the Janamsakhi refers to Devlut Masand. However, it is a matter of fact that the Masand system was introduced by Guru Ramdas

- The language in the Janamsakhi is also not of Guru Nanak’s age but much later than that.

Dr. W.H. McLeod believes, “The Bala version is, however, the least trustworthy of all the Janamsakhi traditions. Errors of fact occur with considerable frequency and the fabulous material which it incorporates far exceeds that of the other Janamsakhis, both in quantity and in degree.” Dr. Trilochan Singh, however, refutes this theory.

4. Gyan Ratnavali: Bhai Mani Singh was initiated into the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh. His Gyan Ratnavali, also known as Mani Singh’s Janamsakhi, appears to be the expansion of Bha Gurdas’ Vaar 1 and includes the popular theories regarding Nanak in the age of Guru Gobind Singh.

5. Mahima Parkash : Mahima Parkash Vartik was written by Kirpal Singh in 1741 AD, while the Mahima Parkash Kavita was composed in 1776 AD by Sarup Das Bhalla. These accounts are the other important sources regarding the period of Guru Nanak. Basically, the two accounts appear the same, but Kirpal Singh’s Vartik is shorter. Sarup Das’ account of Guru Nanak is based on Puratan Janamsakhi. The later version is composed by imagination. He started writing at Varanasi and completed it at Amritsar. It is also known as Vairowal Wali Janamsakhi.

III. Nanak Prakash

It was composed by Bhai Santokh Singh in 1823 AD. Imagination was in full swings at this time. Taking the clue from Nanak’s visit to Ceylon, he narrates the meetings of Guru Nanak with Hanuman, Vibhishana, Prahlad, Dhruva and other bhaktas. To give it a touch of reality, he introduces long dialogues in this connection. Dr. I.B. Banerjee comments, “In fact, imagination once let loose, does not stop till it has effected a complete metamorphosis of the personality of Nanak and brought him into the line with the legendary figures of old.”

IV. Dabistan-e-Mujahib

The author of this work wrote under the pseudonym of Mohsin Fani. He was a contemporary of the fifth, sixth and seventh Sikh Gurus, and was a personal friend of Guru Hargobind. He has given a good account of the teachings of Guru Nanak. He seems to have deep regard and tolerance towards Sikhism. As Dr. I.B. Banerjee believes that his work is of special value as he is an independent witness. But he has also given a number of mythical stories, he heard from the Sikhs of his time.

These sources are not without their limitations. So far as the period of these sources is concerned, no account was written during the period of Guru Nanak. These sources were composed much after Nanak’s death. The Janamsakhis of Sewa Das, Meherban and Bala were written not before the first half of the 17^th century, while the versions of Mahima Prakash were written in the 18^th century. Moreover, these Sakhis were a mixture of legends, myths and supernatural elements. In fact, these were written by the devoted Sikhs for the faithful followers of Sikhism and not for the sake of historians.

Another drawback in these sources is that they are not arranged in chronological order. Therefore, it becomes difficult to arrange different aspects of the life of Guru Nanak in a chronological sequence.

Dr. W.H. McLeod writes, “The Janam Sakhis must be regarded as examples of hagiography and any inclination to treat them as biographies will distort both our understanding of Guru Nanak and our appreciation of the true value of Janam Sakhis themselves.”

Despite these shortcomings, we possess only Janamsakhis as a source of our knowledge for the life of Guru Nanak. Our chief aim is to find out how much material containing in these sakhis and other sources can be acceptable as historical, because as McLeod feels, “In spite of their manifest shortcomings, we are bound to rely on the Janamsakhis for almost all of our information concerning these events….”

Circumstances leading to the Martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev

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The martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev was the cumulative result of a variety of factors. Now the controversy revolves around the issue whether the Guru was a political offender, as the Persian and other writers like Mohsin Fani, S.M. Latif, Jadu Nath Sarkar, J.D. Cunningham etc. contend; or he fell a prey to the religious fanaticism of the Mughal emperor as Dr. I.B. Banerjee, Sir G.C. Narang, Macauliffe, Dr. H.R. Gupta, Dr. Ganda Singh, Pr. Teja Singh etc. state.

The theory that Guru Arjan was a political offender is based on an excerpt from Tuzuq-i-Jahangiri. The supporters of this theory believe that the Guru was politically ambitious to have power in his own hands. The works he carried out had behind them his political objectives. As a result of these, the Sikhs had come to acquire the position of an imperium in imperio. In this organizational development of the Sikhs, Jahangir, the Mughal emperor, saw the impending danger to the stability of the Mughal Empire. The realization of the tax from the Sikhs, called Daswand, the appointment of the representatives at different places— the Masands, the establishment of the Sikh troops and the encouragement to the trade in horses—all these indicate the objectives of Guru Arjan.

But majority of the writers refute these views, the reasons being clear. Daswand was not a tax at all, but the Guru had directed his Sikhs to contribute one-tenth of their income for the development of the Church. It was by this only that the Guru could arrange his budget with much more certainty. Moreover, the Masands were appointed by the Guru in order to cope with the difficulties raised by the rapid increase in the number of the Sikhs. These Masands were the spiritual rather than the political representatives of the Guru. The encouragement to trade in horses dealt “an effective blow at the stringency of caste and Hindu superstitions, in breaking down the barrier which prevented the Hindus from crossing the Indus.”

In the Tuzuq, there is a reference to the political offence of the Guru, i.e. Guru Arjan helped Prince Khusrau during his revolt against his father, Jahangir. According to it, he had done so in order to achieve his political ends. Jahangir could not tolerate these rebellious activities on the part of Guru Arjan, and tortured him to death.

However, going into the details of the Tuzuq itself, we do not find any such objectives behind the Guru. Firstly, in the Tuzuq there is a list of the helpers of Khusrau. These helpers were punished by the emperor according to the gravity of their offence. But the name of Guru Arjan does not figure in it. Had Guru Arjan, at that time, played his alleged role in the rebellion, his name would have been included in it. One thing more, had the Guru been active in connection with the revolt, he might have issued the Hukumnamas for his Sikhs to join the army of Khusrau. But no such Hukumnama is found.

Moreover, Jahangir in his auto-biography mentions that the Guru blessed Khusrau for success and also marked tilak on the prince’s forehead, which is believed fortunate enough. However, as Dr. Ganda Singh comments that the marking of tilak was not prevalent in the Guru family or in the Mughals. So this allegation also seems to be baseless.

The above statements prove that the efforts to involve Guru Arjan in the revolt of Khusrau are meaningless. Thus it was the religious fanaticism of Jahangir, which compelled him to torture the Guru to death.

The organizational development of Sikhism under Guru Arjan and his predecessors was not tolerated by Jahangir, who wanted to convert the Guru to Islam, either peacefully or by compulsion, when he writes in the Tuzuq, “In Gobindwal, which is on the river Biyah (Beas), there is a Hindu named Arjun, in the garments of sainthood and sanctity, so much so that he has captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus, and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners, and they had loudly sounded the drum of his holiness…They call him Guru, and from all sides stupid people crowded to worship and manifest complete faith in him. For three or four generations (of spiritual successors) they have kept this shop warm. Many times it occurred to me that to put a stop to this vain affair or to bring him into the assembly of the people of Islam.” When Jahangir failed to convert Guru Arjan to Islam, he tortured him physically, which ultimately resulted to his death.

The nobility and the members of the Sunni order of Islam felt hatred for the organizational development of Sikhism. This development had reduced the numerical strength of the Muslims in Punjab, which would also reduce their influence in the empire.

The enemies and even the kith and kin of the Guru participated as a factor in the martyrdom of Guru Arjan. Chandu Shah, the Dewan of Lahore, offered his daughter’s hand for Hargobind, the son of Guru Arjan. But the Guru rejected the offer, because of the haughtiness of Chandu Shah. He became very angry at this attitude of the Guru, and as says Sir G.C. Narang, “The Dewan was exasperated and resolved to punish he Guru for his insolence.” Further, he says, “In all likelihood the part that Chandu could have played in this tragic episode was that as an official of the Government, he made a report to the Central Government in his official capacity about the incident mentioned by the Emperor.”

Prithia, the elder brother of Guru Arjan, was kept away from the guruship and he could not tolerate it. He always sought an opportunity when he could take his revenge from the Guru. Both Chandu and Prithia poisoned the ears of the emperor through Qazi Suleh Khan.

Jahangir was already waiting for an opportunity to take action against the Guru, and Khusrau’s revolt provided it. Guru Arjan’s involvement in this revolt was alleged. By the orders of the emperor, Guru Arjan was imprisoned and brought before him. The emperor asked him why he helped the rebel prince. The Guru’s reply was that his assistance to the prince had nothing to do with his opposition to the emperor. “Had I failed to show some kindness to the grandson of my former benefactor (Akbar), it would have been the height of heartlessness and ingratitude on my part.” But this reply of the Guru had no impact upon Jahangir. He fined the Guru for Rs. two lakh and also omit those verses from the Adi Granth which opposed the religious sentiments of the Hindus as well as the Muslims. But the Guru refused to omit even a single word from the Holy Granth. For the payment of fine, he said that he would not pay even a single penny because “whatever money I have is for the poor, the friendless and the stranger.” He even prevented his Sikhs when they tried to collect money for his release. When the Guru refused to accept the terms, he “was forced to submit to infinite tortures which ultimately led to his death.” The torturers of the Guru poured boiling sand on him, seated him on red hot cauldrons and bathed him in boiling water. These physical tortures led to his death in June 1606 AD. Thus Dr. I.B. Banerjee sums up the causes of Guru Arjan’s martyrdom in these words: “The organizational strength of Sikhism, the Guru’s position as the leader of a fairly compact community and the facts that he was called a Sacha Padshah by his followers, and that he had compiled a book which did not spare the current perversions of both Hinduism and Islam, were all used to create a prejudice against the Guru.”

The martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev is of great significance in the Sikh history. It brought about the transformation in the Sikh movement. So far, the Sikhs were known as a religious and spiritual community only, but now in self-defence they took to arms under the sixth Guru, Hargobind, for whom Guru Arjan had sent a message, “Let him sit fully armed on the throne and maintain an army to the best of his ability.” He organized his army and fortified the city of Amritsar, apart from giving military training to his Sikhs. This development was not ignored by the State “particularly as the organizational strength of Sikhism and its unified leadership made it a magnet which might at any time become a rallying point of disaffection.” Trumpp also observes that Guru Arjan’s martyrdom was a great turning point in the development of the Sikh community. With it started the struggle which changed the whole character of this reformatory religious movement. Dr. Narang states that Guru Arjan opened the chapter of persecutions and he himself was destined to be the first to receive the ‘crown of martyrdom’.

Dr. I.B. Banerjee has approached the subject in these words: As a result of the reforms and more specially the organizational work carried out by Guru Arjan and his predecessors, ‘a State, peaceful and unobtrusive, had been slowly evolved and that the Sikh community had come to acquire the position of an imperium in imperio….By the year 1604, the Sikhs had become a more or less compact community, in command of an efficient and extensive organization reaching to the corners of the Province and even beyond….The spectacle of a religious teacher at the head of such an extensive organization and with a body of followers who had been taught that to sacrifice their all for the Guru was the highest and the most meritorious act, and whose sense of brotherhood and love for each other transcended all other feelings, could not but disturb the equanimity of the established State and clearly a crisis was coming when a direct conflict would be difficult to avoid.’

On the whole, it cannot be denied that it was the religious bigotry and cruelty of the Mohammedan government to which Guru Arjan fell a victim.

Development of Sikhism under Guru Arjan Dev

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The pontificate of Guru Arjan Dev is very significant in the history of Sikhism. He adopted a number of measures for the development of the Sikh Church. He was a powerful organiser and a great statesman. That is why even the Muslim writer, S.M. Latif, also praises him, “He was an energetic and aspiring Guru, and his aims were high. He organised the Sikhs into a community, and devised measures for extending his spiritual authority.”
The first work undertaken by Guru Arjan was the construction of Harimandir in Amritsar. Guru Ram Das, the fourth Guru, had started the work of excavation of two tanks at Amritsar or
Ramdaspur-- Amritsar and Santokhsar. As the work was left incomplete due to the death of Guru Ram Das, it was for Guru Arjan to complete it.
(A) Construction activities-
(i) Construction of Harimandir- After the completion of both these tanks, Guru Arjan schemed to construct a temple in the midst of Amritsar. The temple was called Harimandir-- the Temple of God. The foundation stone of the temple was laid down by the famous Muslim Sufi saint-- Mian Mir, in 1589 AD. Some Sikhs counselled the Guru that the temple must be the highest of all other buildings nearby. But Guru Arjan denied it, because says the Guru :
As the former Gurus had condemned the caste-system, Guru Arjan decided to stage four doors in this Temple, which meant that it is opened to all the persons belonging to any caste or any part of the world. A large number of Sikhs participated in this work of construction and performed the Sewa at the site as part of their daily routine. While the work was going on, the news about the outstanding project of the unique pilgrimage under construction spread far and wide. Devotees of the Guru contributed share from their earning to the construction fund. The construction of the Harimandir was completed in 1601 AD.
The construction of the Harimandir was significant in many ways. Dr. I.B. Banerjee states, “This was of the greatest importance for the firm establishment of Sikhism, for the Sikhs obtained thereby a fixed central place of worship.” Secondly, the Guru declared that its travel would be equate 68 visits to the Hindu pilgimages. Now the Sikhs had no need to visit such places as Benaras, Hardwar etc. He even asked his Sikhs to settle in Amritsar and deal in trade. The Harimandir came to be known as the Mecca of the Sikhs. Sir G.C. Narang observes, “It became, in fact, the capital and metropolis of the infant commonwealth that the genius of Arjan was gradually and peacefully building up.”
(ii) Foundation of new towns- Twenty two miles towards south from Amritsar was founded the town of Tarn Taran. A tank was excavated and the Guru declared that whoever took bath in the tank would get salvation. An Ashram was founded for the lepers, and the arrangement was made of free food, dress and medicines for them. The foundation of this town is of immense importance in the development of Sikhism, for a number of Jats from Majha joined Sikhism and later on proved to be great soldiers. According to Dr. Banerjee, “People of this tract have always formed the backbone of the Sikh community.”
In 1593 AD, Guru Arjan lay down the foundation of a new town near Jalandhar-- Kartarpur, literally meaning the place of God. He also excavated a tank here, called Gangasar and declared that its water had the sacredness equal to the water of the Ganges. The new town became an important preaching centre in the Bist Doab.
On the banks of the river Beas, he founded the town of Hargobindpur in 1595 AD, on the birth of his son, Hargobind.
(iii) Construction of a Baoli- At Lahore, he made arrangements for the construction of a Baoli at Dabbi Bazar. The Baoli became another place of pilgrim for the Sikhs. It was, however, filled with mud in 1628 AD, on the orders of the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan.
(B) Masand system- The organization and development of the Masand system is one of his most important achievements. There is much controversy on the view whether it was Guru Ram Das or Guru Arjan Dev, who established the Masand system. Mostly, the historians stress on the fact that the system was established by Guru Ram Das. However, Dr. Hari Ram Gupta denies this opinion and states that it was in the days of Guru Arjan that the Masands were appointed.
Be whatsoever it may be, it can’t be denied that it was under Guru Arjan that the Masand system had been organized and fully developed. The number of the Sikhs, in fact, was increasing rapidly in the time of the fifth Guru. He had, therefore, taken in his hands the construction work of many tanks and towns. For this work and also to continue the Langar system started by Guru Nanak, money was needed badly. Money collected by the means of offerings by the Sikhs was not definite. Moreover, times were seen when contributions made by the Sikhs did not reach to the Guru. Therefore, the Guru ordered his Sikhs to pay one-tenth of their income, known as Daswand, for the Church. This Daswand was collected by the appointed deputies of the Guru, called the Masands. The Masands deposited all the money to the treasury of the Guru on the day of Baisakhi. Complete accounts of money were kept. The Masands were ordered by the Guru not to use even a single penny on themselves out of the collections, and warned of severe physical troubles to those who didi not abide by this order. The Masands had further appointed their own deputies, known as Masandias, to perform the duties for the Masands at the regions afar, where the Masands themselves could not go.
The Masands also preached the message of the Guru in their areas. When they visited Amritsar on the first day of Baisakh, to pay the contributions collected from the Sikhs, they informed the Guru about the Sikhs in their respective regions and sometimes even accompanied with them many devoted of them.
Some writers have charged the Guru having political motives behind the establishment of this institution. As Trumpp writes that “the Sikhs were gradually accustomed to a kind of government of their own and began to feel themselves as a firmly organised and strong party within the State.” S.M. Latif also confirms this contention, “He organised a system of taxation and appointed delegates for the purposes of collecting it from his followers throughout the country.... Thus were the Sikhs accustomed to a regular system of government, and, having been formed into a community, gradually developed into a real power.” But hardly does any truth appear in it, because
   - Daswand was not a tax, but a contribution or Nazrana.
   - The Masand were the deputies of the Guru, who preached the religious message of the Guru and           collected money from the Sikh followers.
   - Moreover, the title of Sacha Padshah, as the Sikhs used to address their Guru, indicated his spiritual supremacy.
The institution of Masand left some important impact on the Sikh history. First of all, the Daswand gave the definite income to the Sikh Church. For this reason, the new towns could be established and the Langar system could be carried on successfully. Secondly, the Masands played an important role in the development of the Church. They brought the Sikhs quite close to the Guru in one instance, even though they were residing very far from the Punjab. They collected money from them and also gave them the mesage of the Guru. Dr. G.C. Narang observes, “The Guru could now arrange his budget with more certainty as the dues of the Guru were paid more readily and unfailingly than even the Mughal revenues.”
(C) Trade in horses- Guru Arjan encouraged his Sikhs to engage in the profession of trade in horses with the countries beyond the Indus. It became very significant for the Sikhs. It gave a severe death-blow to the caste-system. The Sikhs used to go beyond the Indus for this trade while the Hindu society prohibited to cross the oceans. This trade made the Sikhs a prosperous community and also increased the income of the Church. By trading in horses, the Sikhs were able to get knowledge of the best breed of horses, and it helped them in becoming a race of warriors.
(D) Compilation of the Adi Granth- The compilation of the Adi Granth is known as the crowning achievement of his life. The number of the Sikhs had increased rapidly during the life time of the fifth Guru. It was impossible for all the Sikhs to be present before the Guru. Moreover, many persons like Prithia, had started to narrate their own verses in the name of the Gurus. Therefore, to give the complete and authentic verses of the Gurus, Guru Arjan felt the neccesity to provide the Sikhs with a copy which consisted of all the verses of the Sikh Gurus.
Guru Arjan collected the verses of the first three Gurus from Baba Mohan, son of Guru Amar Das. The verses of Guru Ram Das were already with him, while he added his own to them. Guru Arjan also made selections from the compositions of various saints, both Hindu and Muslims. Whose principles he found in accordance with those of the Sikh Gurus, were also placed in the Granth, which was compiled on the banks of the tank Ramsar. The compilation of the Granth was named the ‘Adi Granth’. It was written out by Bhai Gurdas at the dictation of Guru Arjan, and the work was completed in 1604 AD after much arduous labour. The compilation was a very significant step of Guru Arjan. It gave the Sikhs a sacred religious Granth. It infused a new spirit into the minds of the followers of the Guru.
(E) Sacrifice for religion- Guru Arjan sacrificed his life for the sake of Sikhism. When Jahangir became the Mughal emperor in 1605 AD, he ordered for the execution of Guru Arjan, which is believed to be on the grounds of the rapid development of the mission under him. The revolt of Prince Khusro gave the emperor an opportunity to strike at. According to Sir G.C. Narang, “He was not only the first great organizer of the Sikh nation, but was also destined to be the first to receive the crown of martyrdom.”

The twenty-five years (1581-1606 AD) of the guruship of Arjan mark an important phase in the history of Sikhism. It was in this period that the Sikhism exhibited its independent identity and showed clear signs of difference from the Hindu orthodoxy. The Guru’s martyrdom brought transformation in the Sikh Church, when the Sikhs sought it expedient under Guru Hargobind to raise arms to defend their organised sect against the fanatic Islamic government.

Contribution of Guru Amar Das towards the development of Sikhism

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Dr. I.B. Banerjee writes, “Guru Angad had, no doubt, done something to give the Sikhs an individuality of their own, but it was under Amar Das that the difference between a Sikh and an orthodox Hindu became more pronounced.”
Guru Nanak, after his enlightenment, strove hard to convey his message to as large a number of people as possible. For this purpose he first took long and arduous journeys not only within India but also abroad, and had converted a good number of people as his followers. But Nanak had laid stress, more or less, on the fundamentals of his teachings, leaving the details to take care of themselves. In fact, he had made no direct innovations, particularly so far as social usages were concerned and there was nothing much that could distinguish the followers of Nanak from the general Hindu mass.
The founder of the Sikh religion, being conscious of the incomplete nature of his work, had taken the necessary precaution of nominating one of his most trusted followers, Lehna, a house-holder, to the guruship as Guru Angad.
The supreme need of the moment was to clothe Guru’s message with some distinctive emblems which might give it an individuality of its own. As such, Guru Angad being well-aware of his responsibility having ascended the guruship adopted a number of measures for the organizational development of Sikhism.
Guru Angad introduced or popularized the Gurumukhi script among the Sikhs. This script reminded the Sikhs of their duty towards their Guru, and “constantly kept alive in their minds the consciousness that they were something distinct from the common mass of Hinduism.” It also gave a severe blow to the monopolistic language of Sanskrit and the priestly classes. On the whole, it gave a definite language for the scriptures of Sikhism, when later on Guru Arjan compiled the Adi Granth. Secondly, Guru Angad collected the verses of Guru Nanak and added to them the verses of his own. Thus it avoided the verses from being forgotten or inter-mixed and also provided a barrier against the wrong-preachers in the name of Nanak. The institution of Langar was elaborated by Guru Angad by the joint efforts and sacrifices of the Sikhs. The Langar system played an important part to differentiate the Sikhs from the orthodox Hindus. It gave a severe blow to the caste-system. It served as a great bond of union among the Sikhs. Moreover, Guru Angad kept his Sikhs aloof from the Udasism of Baba Sri Chand, which was becoming a great danger to Sikhism. Guru Angad declared that Sikhism had no place for ascetics, but was wholly a religion for the house-holders. Due to this separation, the Sikhs got something of a social character in addition to the religious ties that held them together.
Thus Guru Angad had succeeded in giving a sort of local habitation and a name to the mission of Nanak. Besides the Guru, whose position as the sole and supreme religious leader was in itself a great source of unity and solidarity, the Sikhs had now the Guru’s hymns inscribed in their own Gurumukhi and the Langar maintained by their joint efforts and sacrifices. They could now claim an individuality of their own, however imperfect as yet it might have been.
But the danger of the absorption of the followers of Nanak still lingered on because there was nothing as yet which could distinguish the Sikhs as a distinct social community from that of the Hindus. As the followers of Sikhism still performed their social ceremonies connected with marriage, death etc. in the traditional Hindu way with the aid of the priestly classes, they continued to visit the places of pilgrimage of the Hindus as well.
Guru Amar Das immediately after his pontification realized the danger in which Sikhism stood and adopted the following distinctive measures to keep up their separate identity :
In 1552 AD, the work for the construction of a Baoli in Goindwal started. The Sikhs joined enthusiastically in the work of construction and after seven years, the task was accomplished. The Baoli was provided with 84 steps and Guru Amar Das said, “Whosoever should attentively and reverently repeat the Japji at every step, should escape from wandering in the wombs of 84 lakhs of living creatures.” In this way, Goindwal was raised to the status of a place of pilgrimage.Now the Sikhs felt no necessity to visit the pilgrim places of the Hindus. This measure of Guru Amar Das differentiate the Sikhs from the common Hindus.
Guru Angad had started the process of the compilation of the hymns, but the task could not be accomplished before his death. Guru Amar Das carried on this work with great enthusiasm and compiled the verses of Guru Nanak and Guru Angad. Sant Ram, the son of Baba Mohan (Guru Amar Das’ son), compiled 907 verses of his grand-father. Guru Amar Das ordered the compiler of the verses of the Gurus to “make a careful collection of the Gurus’ hymns and give them to the Sikhs in God’s name.” This measure of Guru Amar Das completely differentiated the Sikhs from the Hindus as the Sikhs got their own holy hymns and now felt no need to recite the Hindu scriptures.
The elaboration of the Langar institution under Guru Amar Das was another factor differing the Sikhs from Hinduism. The Langar was open to all. According to Macauliffe, “All who came to visit him were fed to repletion. None departed disappointed. What he daily received was daily spent and nothing was saved for the morrow.” The Guru even obliged all visitors and Sikhs to partake of food from the Langar before seeing him. In the Hindu society, people of high castes hated those of the lower castes. They were socially boycotted being considered as untouchables. But this institution knew no caste distinction and clarified that the Sikhs were different from the Hindus.
The institution of Manji was also an important factor which worked in differing the Sikhs from the Hindus. Guru Amar Das divided his spiritual empire into 22 units known as the Manjis. The head of each Manji was called Manjidar. Each Manji was sub-divided into Piris under the Piridars. This division was seen only in Sikhism and the Sikhs came into direct contact of the Guru through these Manjidars. These Manjidars acted as a binding the Guru and the Sikhs. They gave the message of the Guru to the Sikhs and collected donations from them, which were deposited with the Guru for the development activities. The Sikhs found themselves in contact with their Guru through these Manjidars. The Manjidars suppressed the importance of the priestly classes among the Sikhs as they were appointed by the Guru himself.
Guru Amar Das also undertook certain reformative tasks in the social field. There were many evils in the Hindu society; but people did not regard them as evils. However, to act upon them was considered as performing a religious ceremony. The condition of women in the society was very deplorable. One such evil was the practice of Sati, i.e. the burning of widows at the funeral pyre of their husbands. But Guru Amar Das condemned this practice and prohibited his Sikhs to adopt it. In one of his verses he observed-
               “Women are burnt in the fire with their husbands,
                   If they appreciate their husbands they undergo sufficient pain by their death,
                   O Nanak! if they appreciate not their husbands, why should they be burnt?”
Not only did he condemn the Sati system, but also favoured widow remarriage and took several steps to popularize it. He also ordered the Sikh women to avoid the Purdah system as he considered the Purdah as an obstacle in the physical, mental and spiritual development of the women.
Guru Amar Das also criticized the use of intoxicants and ordered his Sikhs to abstain altogether from them. He told his Sikhs not to drink that false wine “by which man forgeteth God and receiveth punishment at His court.”
Guru Amar Das also directed his Sikhs to celebrate the festivals in different modes. The Sikhs were to celebrate only these festivals-- Baisakhi, Diwali and Maghi. On these auspicious occasions, the Sikhs were to reach Goindwal and then celebrate these fesivals at the direction of their Guru.
The performance of the ceremonies of birth, marriage and death also differed a Sikh from a Hindu. The Lavan composed by Bhai Jetha, the son-in-law of Guru Amar Das, on his marriage began to be recited on the marriage occasions by the Sikhs. Similarly, Guru Amar Das composed the Anand Geet (Song of Joy) of 38 Pauris, on the birth of his grandson, Sidh jogi. Since then this song is recited by the Sikhs on occasions of rejoicings. It was enjoined upon the Sikhs that the Guru’s words be recited while celebrating the marriages of their relatives. In the Sadd hymns, Guru Amar Das narrates to his Sikhs neither to call the Pandit nor to read the ‘Garuda Purana’ while performing the death ceremonies of their relatives. In this way, the Sikhs started to differ from Hinduism.
Dr. I.B. Banerjee feels that two parallel developments can be traced in Sikhism. On the one hand, the work begun by Guru Angad was earnestly continued and new religious ties were added one after another. On the other, there was a gradual drifting away from the orthodox Hindu society and attempts were made through innovations to bring into existence a new brotherhood, social as well as religious, self-sufficient and independent. Dr. G.C. Narang also states that from the outset Sikhism stood distinguished from other reform movements by its reconciliation with secular life.
Under the auspices of Guru Amar Das, the name of the infant Church spread far and wide, rudiments of a separate organisation were given to the Sikhs, and new forms and practices were introduced to supersede the old and bind the newly converts more closely together. Hence Dr. I.B. Banerjee rightly observes, “Guru Angad had, no doubt, done something to give the Sikhs an individuality of their own; but it was under Amar Das that the difference between a Hindu and a Sikh became more pronounced.”

Contribution of Guru Angad Dev towards the development of Sikhism

2022-12-25T13:13:00.003+05:30

Dr. Indu Bhushan Banerjee has pointed out to the truest sense of the word that Guru Angad’s nomination is very significant in the Sikh history. Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, had strove hard after his enlightenment to convey his message to as large number of people as possible. Keeping this objective in mind, he first undertook long and arduous journeys not only within India but also abroad, and converted a large number of people as his followers. Nanak had, more or less, laid stress on the fundamentals of his teachings, leaving the details to take care of themselves. Still, being consciousness of the incomplete nature of his work, he had taken a very necessary precaution of nominating one of his trusted followers, Lehna, a householder, as his successor with the new name of Guru Angad.

This act of Guru Nanak was significant in more ways than one. Like other saints of the Bhakti cult, Guru Nanak had also laid stress upon the necessity of a Guru—a spiritual guide. In his verses he observed that a Guru is like a captain of a ship, who helps his followers to cross the ‘Bhav-Sagar’. Nanak not only observed likewise, but even translated his message, concerning the necessity of the Guru, into action by establishing the institution of Guruship and appointing Angad as the second Sikh Guru.

Guru Nanak had with his remarkable vigor and zeal given his message all over India and abroad. For this purpose, he had walked in all the four corners of India, Ceylon and the West Asian countries. But it seemed certain that after his death his teachings might be forgotten. A number of Hindus and Muslims had become his followers; but their disintegration was certain had Nanak not appointed any successor. Guru Angad carried on Nanak’s teachings amongst the Sikhs and thus saved this infant sect from its early death. Dr. G.C. Narang rightly points it, “Had Nanak died without a successor there would have been no Sikhism today or at the best simply another Kabirism.” The nomination placed the movement under the guidance of Angad and gave a distinct character to it.

The nomination of Guru Angad also avoided the hereditary conflicts, as were to be seen from the period of Guru Arjan Dev.

Moreover, Guru Nanak had in his teachings condemned the Sanyasis and yogis, who were opposed to the worldly or materialist life and gave stress only on the worship of God. According to them, the worldly cares a great hindrance in worshipping God whole-heartedly. Bu Guru Nanak had advised his followers to reconcile with the worldly life. He believed that the life of a house-holder is worth living. He even preferred Bhai Lehna, a house-holder, in nominating him to guruship in place of his own son, Sri Chand, who was a recluse.

Contribution of Guru Angad to the development of Sikhism

Following are the contributions made by Guru Angad towards the development of Sikhism:

1. Introduction of the Gurumukhi script: The Sikh chronicles ascribe Guru Angad with the introduction of the Gurumukhi script. However, a group of writers refuse to accept it on two grounds-

(a) Guru Angad was himself unlettered, as E. Trump writes, “Guru Angad was altogether unlettered and could himself neither read or write. The later tradition which makes him the inventor of the Gurumukhi letters, is therefore, without any foundation.”

(b) In Rag Asa, there is a Patti of 35 verses, each beginning with a letter of the alphabet, which belong to the same 35 alphabets of Gurumukhi.

Trumpp’s view that Guru Angad was ‘unlettered’ and could neither read nor write does not seem plausible. In fact, as Macauliffe states, he adopted the Punjabi alphabet, brought about amendments in it and gave it the name of Gurumukhi. Grierson’s views also seem to be acceptable. According to him, the rue script of the Punjab was known as the Mahajani script (Landa). This script was defective and was usually misread. Being the son of a trader, he was also formal to it. Hence he borrowed from the Devnagri script and polished up the forms of the Mahajani script. This new script came to be known as the Gurumukhi script.

Dr. I.B. Banerjee observes that the verses of Nanak in Rag Asa might have been originally composed in the Mahajani script and later on transliterated into Gurumukhi with necessary amendments. He may not be the inventor, and had merely adopted and modified the one already existing and given it a new name.

The Gurumukhi script was remarkable in many ways-

- It served the measures of Guru Angad. Mahajani script was knowledgable to the people. When Guru Angad made amendments in it, it became easier for the people to understand it.

- He made it the script of the Sikhs. Now they used it even in their daily routine. It reminded at once that the user was a Sikh.

- Its utilization also minimized the chances of the Sikhs being misled about what the Guru had said.

- It gave a severe blow to the monopoly of Sanskrit as the only language of divinity. With the superiority of Sanskrit, the priestly class of the Hindu society had made itself important, because they were the only class well-versed in Sanskrit. With its help, they used to exploit the common masses. But the popularity of Gurumukhi among the Sikhs gave a severe blow to the Hindu priestly class.

- It gave a definite script for the scriptures of Sikhism, when later on Guru Arjan Dev compiled the Adi Granth.

2. Compilation of Nanak’s biography: According to the Sikh chronicles, Guru Angad got compiled a biography of Guru Nanak. Bhai Bala, a follower and a friend of Guru Nanak, was asked to narrate all the incidents of the life of Guru Nanak and a person, named Paira, was ordered to write the same.

However. The above theory seems to be untenable on following grounds-

(a) Bhai Bala was too close to Guru Nanak, but when he first visited Guru Angad, he had to introduce himself. How is it possible that the two close disciples of a Guru don’t know each other.

(b) The language in this biography does not belong to the times of Guru Angad, but is of the early 17^th century.

(c) There is no reference of Bhai Bala in any other biographies. No even Bhai Gurdas has mentioned his name in his Var I, while he has included the names of many others Bhai Mardana and Bhai Lehna in it.

It is suggested that Guru Angad had secured the horoscope of Guru Nanak from his uncle Lalu, and got it translated into Gurumukhi.

3. Collection of the hymns of Guru Nanak- The hymns of Guru Nanak were scattered at various places. Guru Angad collected all of them which were known orally by then. The work continued in the days of Guru Amar Das as well. Thus Guru Angad got the started the work for the compilation of Adi Granth, which was ultimately compiled by Guru Arjan Dev.

The collection of these hymns saved them from being forgotten or inter-mixed. It also provided a barrier against those selfish elements who had wrongly preached in the name of Nanak.

4. Elaboration of the Langar institution- Guru Nanak had preached his message of Equality, when he started the institution of Sangat and Langar. Guru Angad not only continued the Langar, but contributed much for its stability and progress. More and more kitchens were started. It is stated that at Khadur Sahib, the system worked under Mata Khivi ji, the wife of Guru Angad. The Langar was prepared from one kitchen and all the followers of the Guru partook the food without any distinction of caste or creed. The faithful Sikhs made contributions for the maintenance of Langar institution. According to Dr. G.C. Narang, “The Langar of the Guru was probably the first to be supported by the combined contributions of a community, and it taught the Sikhs the first lesson of contributing money towards a common fund.” The Langar also served the poor and the orphans.

- It played an important part to differentiate the Sikhs from the Hindus. It gave a severe blow to the caste-system.

- It also served a great bond of unity among the Sikhs.

- Moreover, as Dr. I.B. Banerjee comments, it proved a powerful aid in the propaganda work. It made Sikhism very much popular.

5. Condemnation of Udasism- Guru Nanak had condemned asceticism. In his order, he had no room for it. He remained indifferent to all the worldly affairs. Even when he finally settled at Kartarpur, he resumed his family ties. Guru Nanak had told in his message that every man should lead his life in the family and only there should he try to find salvation, but “abide pure amidst the impurities of the world, so shall you succeed.”

After the death of Guru Nanak, his eldest son, Baba Sri Chand, set up a new order. He discarded the world and sought consolation in the undisturbed meditation of the True One in the solemn silence of the forest or the hill. A number of people, including the Sikhs, became his followers and came to known as the Udasis. Besides unmarried life and asceticism, the other tenets of the sect were the same those of Guru Nanak. The followers of this sect also had the same regard for the first Guru as the Sikhs had. The primary aim of Baba Sri Chand in setting up the Udasi sect , as Dr. Madanjit Kaur observes, was to propagate the mission of his father in his own way.

There was a danger that the Sikhs would mingle up with the Udasis. It became very important that the fundamental character of Sikhism was determined once for all, as the future of the movement depended upon it. Guru Angad very boldly told the Sikhs that the principles of Udasis were contrary to the message of Guru Nanak. Therefore, those Sikhs who had belief in asceticism, were not to be called the Sikhs. The result was that the Sikhs separated themselves from the passive and recluse Udasis. Consequently the Sikhs got something special as the sectarian ties held them together.

6. Composition of the Hymns: Guru Angad himself composed 62 hymns, which are compiled in the Adi Granth.

7. Foundation of Goindwal: Guru Angad founded a new town, Goindwal, near Khadur Sahib. He entrusted one of his staunch follower, Amar Das, to accomplish this task. Later on, during the guruship of Amar Das ji, Goindwal became the main centre of the activities of Sikhim.

8. Discipline in Sikhism: Guru Angad Dev laid stress on discipline among the Sikhs. He expelled the two singers—Satta and Balwand—from his court, as they had become haughty and even started claiming that they were the factors for the fame of the Guru. When the two singers observed their fault and repented. Later on, Guru Angad forgave them after he mediation of Bhai Laddha. However, this act of Guru Angad raised the importance of discipline among the Sikhs.

Guru Angad carried on the tradition of nominating his successor. Before his death, he appointed his follower, Amar Das, as his successor.

It was thus because of this nomination that Sikhism carried on its consolidation and developed rapidly. Dr. Narang’s statement appears to be true to the point, “Had Nanak died without a successor, there would have been no Sikhism today or at the best another Kabirism.” Moreover, the organizational development of Sikhism would not have taken place in that case. Hence Dr. I.B. Banerjee aptly remarks, “The nomination of Angad to the Guruship is a fact of profoundest significance in Sikh history.”

The Sant Tradition

2022-12-21T19:39:00.002+05:30

“It was this Sant tradition which provided the basis of Guru Nanak’s thoughts and inheritance, which like Kabir, he re-interpreted in the light of his own personality and experience.” (W.H. McLeod)

The essence of religion for the vast majority of Nanak’s contemporaries, both Hindus and Muslims, consisted in external authority and conventional ceremony. In case of the Hindus, this authority was generally accorded to the priestly classes and through them to the Vedas and the Puranas. The existence required consisted in the performance of a host of conventional rites and customs appropriate to a man’s status within the caste-structure of the society. In case of the Muslims, religion was likely to an objective authority namely Tura and exercise of this authority was the acknowledged function of the Qazis.

However, by the time of Nanak, this conventional pattern of religion both of the Hindus as well as Muslims had ceased to command universal acceptance. In fact, for quite some time past, these conventional patterns had received and were still receiving challenges and there were coming into existence a number of dissenting movements. Of these, the following were particularly to be noted :

(i) First was the tradition of Vaishnava Bhakti, which had spread to Northern India from the South, and whose representative in North India was Ramanand. For the Vaishnava Bhakti, the essential religious response was devotion and this devotion was directed to one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu.

(ii) The second movement was the ancient tradition of tantrik yoga, expressed in Northern India during the period of our study by a host of recluses, popularly known as Nath Yogis or Kanfata Sadhus. This was, in itself, sub-divided into various seb-sects, claiming allegiance to the semi-legendary Gorakh Nath. All of them essentially followed the Hatha-Yoga.

(iii) The third of these movements is symbolized by the numbers of the Sufi order, numerically lower than the followers of the other two movements. Yet these Sufis exercised greater influence on both the Hindus and the Muslims.

A close examination of these three movements would reveal that there was a cognizable continuity within each one of these, but none was completely insulated. All the three were to some extent influenced by one or more of others and hence underwent necessary modifications. However, in one case, this reciprocal exchange did not simply result in the modification of an existing tradition, but in the emergence of a remarkable synthesis, a new pattern which in various respects strongly resembled the other existing patterns but which in its wholeness correspond to none of them. This was the Sant tradition of Northern India.

The new movement was by no means the dominant religious tradition during this period, but it was certainly the most fertile and understanding of this Sant tradition.

The Sant tradition was essentially a synthesis of the three principal dissenting movements, a compound of elements drawn mainly from Vaishnava Bhakti and the Hatha Yoga, with a marginal contribution from Sufism. The essential religious response from the Sants and the Vaishnava Bhakts being love, the two have sometimes been confused by the writers who considered the Sant tradition just as an aspect of Vaishnava Bhakti.

But a close scrutiny would reveal that despite apparent similarities, the two -- namely the Sant tradition and the Vaishnava Bhakti-- differed widely from each other. These differences are of fundamental importance. To give one example, the love of the Vaishnava Bhaktas was directed to an Avatar or incarnation of God, whereas in the Sant tradition, it was directed to the Supreme Being Himself, there being no place for the intermediaries, such as incarnations. Further, whereas in case of Vaishnava Bhaktas, this love for incarnation was expressed through the media of images, that of the Sants was to involve oneself in meditation and devotion. In the Sant tradition, the stress was on a method which involved, if not intense sufferings, at least, some appreciable difficulties. It was definitely different from the Sahaj Bhakti (Easy Path) suggested by the Vaishnava Bhaktas.

Despite these differences, it were the Bhakti elements which provided the principal contribution to the Sant synthesis particularly in its early years. Traces of Nath influence are, no doubt, there in the earlier stages as well, but they became more pronounced during the later stages. In fact, it is at the time of Kabir that the Nath concepts assume a significant role. In the thought of Kabir, such concepts are more prominent and integral and it is at this point that the synthesis is fully developed. The Nath influence emerges in much of the basic terminology used by Kabir, and later on by Nanak, in a rejection of all exterior forms, ceremonies, caste-distinction, sacred language and scriptures in a strong emphasis upon unity as opposed to duality.

It is, therefore, not without significance that the common of all the terms used by both Nanak and Kabir to express their experience of Union as Sahaj -- a term which at once takes us back to the Nath theory and still earlier to the Tantrik Buddhism.

The Sants were monotheists. But God, with whom they sought the union was not an anthromorphic God. He was manifested through his immense in His Creation. As such, the love of these Sants was to express through meditation on the Divine Name and not on the worship of of any external idol or exercise of practices like visit to the places of pilgrimage, or taking bath in so-called Holy waters of a tank. Like the bhaktas, the stress was made on efficacy and the need of a Spritual Guru, and this Guru might or might not be a human being, but the Inner Voice of God.

Another notable distinction of the Sants is that they expressed their beliefs not in the traditional Sanskrit, but in a language which was closely related to that of the common people to whom these teachings were addressed in various parts of the country. In its ultimate form, it aimed to be called Sadhukari (Sant language) having in its elements drawn from old Rajasthani, Apabhramsa and Persian with Khari Boli.

The first great Sant was Namdev, who lived in Maharashtra and is closely associated with the Varkari sect -- a sect within the Bhakti tradition in which the worship is centered on the famous idol of Lord Vithal, an incarnation of Lord Krishna. Elements of traditional Vaishnava Bhakti is evident in Namdeva’s work, but his main emphasis is in accord with the Sant concepts.

The second important Sant was Ravi Das, an outcaste leather-worker of Benaras. He belongs to the earlier stage of the Sant movement and rejects the concept of Divine Avatar, as also all external aids which are aids to worship. In his works the stress is on the imminence of God in external phenomena. Ravi Das makes the characteristic Sant emphasis with an evident stress upon the irrelevancy of the caste-system.

With Kabir, the Sant tradition moves into a more complicated phase. The compositions attributed to Kabir are indeed innumerable, of which two famous are Kabir Granthavali and the rigid Bijak.

The basis of Kabir’s religious belief was Tantrik Yoga. Though his Muslim name would suggest the Islamic influence, this Tantrik Yoga as the basis of his religious belief should not take us to believe that he was a Nath Yogi. To this background of Tantrik Yoga, Kabir clearly added the elements from Vaishnava hakti, and to some extent even Sufism. That he is indebted to the ‘Bhaktas’ is evident in the primacy he attaches to love, but his concept of love as a way of suffering is derived from Sufism. It is with these and other elements from the same sources that Kabir compounded his own mystical nature and brought about a synthesis which is the distinctive religion of Kabir. It is a religion which in true Sant style renounces all, i.e. external; affirming that God may by Grace reveal Himself within a man’s soul. But the revelation comes to him only who has prepared himself to see Him. The preparation is the path of Love, a love addressed directly to the Supreme Being, who is both transcendent and immanent, and a love which will inevitably involve long periods in the anguish of separation. The point at which this revelation occurs cannot be foreseen. It comes at the point of Divine initiative and all of a sudden. God, through the True Guru (Satguru), discharges the arrow of Word (Shabad) and man is slain, that in Death he may find True Life. This life is to be found in mystical Union and ineffable experience of dissolution in the Divine.

It must not be forgotten that there is much in Kabir’s attempts which remain obscure and cannot be explained fully. The works of Kabir show that he is certainly influenced by monotheistic concepts, but it is his own understanding of the nature of God that is important and on this account his thought must be regarded as monotheistic. In the works of Kabir, we find a representation of the highly personal ray of an individual experience. But they never place him within the famous Sant beliefs.

It was this Sant tradition which provided the basis of Guru Nanak’s thoughts, and inheritance which like Kabir, he re-interpreted in the light of his own personality and experience. This again should not mean that Nanak was, in any real term, a disciple of Kabir.Sant tradition was by far the most important element in all that Nanak inherited from his past or absorbed from his contemporaries.

Still the question persists regarding the antecedants of Nanak’s thought -- that indirect influences created upon his Sant traditions in an independent way. The dominant issue in this case is to assess the extent of his deterness to Islamic sources for whatever influence the Nath beliefs may have exercised upon Nanak’s religious thoughts came through the indirect channel of Sant inheritance and the Nath concepts when congregated through Sant channels and underwent a great deal of transformation in their meanings.

Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen: Career and Principles

2021-01-26T18:23:00.000+05:30

The man who freed China from its 4000 years old absolute monarchy and whose ruling principle was “The Earth and the Universe belong to everyone” was none other than Dr. Sun Yat Sen. In the event, of which he was the main architect— the Revolution of 1911— was not necessarily “the greatest event since Waterloo” as his wife was to describe it; he certainly brought his country out of the 4^th century to the 20^th century by his idealism and integrity.

Dr. Sun Yat Sen is well known in the history of China as the Father of Modern China. He was born on 27^th November, 1866 in a village near the city of Canton (Island of Macao). His father was a poor farmer. He had come under the influence of Christian missionaries and as converted to Christianity. Therefore, Sun had received some kind of modern light from the missionaries. At the age of 13, he went to Honolulu to join his elder brother, who had emigrated there some years before. He gained one advantage by going to this place. This was a bi city with some good educational institutions. Here he joined an English school, where he learnt English and other Western sciences. Thus he came into contact with the Western civilization. At the age of 17, he returned to China, but did not like to work as a peasant in the farm and decided to continue his studies. Under the influence of Christianity, he began to criticize old Chinese religions and openly mocked at the old Chinese traditions and idols kept in the Chinese temples. Many villagers did not like it and even wanted to kill the young revolutionary. Ultimately his parents sent him out. He went to Hongkong and joined Queen’s Medical College. At the age of 18, he was baptized as a Christian. By 1892 A.D., he became a Medical graduate. During his studies, he came very close to one of his teachers, Sir James Cantlie, who was to play an important role in his life and also became his biographer. He joined his medical profession, but soon gave it up for political activities. He dedicated himself for the rebirth of his country into the modern world as maker of its own destiny.

Political activities of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen: In 1894 A.D., he formed a Secret Society with the object of uplifting the Chinese people by education, better cultivation of the soil, and more efficient production of goods. Branches of this society were organized at various points. As this Society was secret, its members had to act in a very cautious manner. A number of efforts were made to carry out a revolution, but these efforts failed. With the failure of each attempt, a number of its members were caught and hanged by the government. A prize was fixed at the head of Dr. Sun yat Sen. He fled away to Japan. This was the time when China was being defeated in the first Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). The Japanese promised to help him and thus his movement gained some importance in Japan, where a large number of Chinese were living, who also provided him financial support.

In England: In 1896 A.D., he went to London. Here he met a number of Chinese revolutionaries. While he was walking on one of the streets of London, a number of persons caught hold of him and he was dragged into the Chinese Embassy. The secret object of this act was to take him to China where he was to be hanged. At this stage he began to cry and was successful in conveying the news of his imprisonment to Sir James Cantlie. Sir James wrote to the British ministry and sought its help for the release of Dr. Sun, but with no success. So he wrote to the Editor of the London Times, a leading newspaper in England. The publication of this letter had a great effect. Soon the Govt. of England also acted and forced the Chinese government to release Dr. Sun. From England, he went to U.S.A. and here he collected a huge amount for the revolutionaries. Later on, he returned to Japan and from here he began to encourage the revolutionary activities. Although his one after the other attempts failed, he did not gave up his sustained efforts for overthrowing the Manchus. The result was that within a short time, the revolutionary movement began to gain momentum. In the meantime, the Railway agitation became quite serious. The issue of granting concessions of local railways brought the Chinese revolution of 1911 A.D. At that time Sun-yat-Sen was in U.S.A. It was here that he read the news of a revolt in China. In the beginning, he did not take it to be a serious one. He continued to collect money for the revolutionaries. From U.S.A., he came to England and from here to China. After the success of the revolution of 1911, the Republic was established in China and Dr. Sun-yat-Sen became its first President. On January 1, 1912 A.D., he entered Nanking, the Republican capital and received a salute of 21 guns. It appeared that within a short time, the whole of China would be under the control of the Republican Government. But this was not to happen, as Yuan-shi-Kai was playing his cards quite well and was creating difficulties for the Republicans. Ultimately, Dr. Sun found a solution by stepping down in favour of Yuan.

On February 12, 1912 A.D., the Manchu Emperor declared to abdicate in favour of the Republic. Thus the Imperial dynasty came to an end in China and a Republic was established in its place.

Setback to Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen: Although Yuan became the President, he was not a Republican from the core of his heart. Therefore, within a short time, he dissolved the Chinese Parliament as he was willing to become an Emperor and wanted to establish his own dynasty. This made the people of China very desperate. They decided to revolt against him. Soon China was divided into two camps. One camp, led by Dr. Sun, was in favour of the Republic, while the second camp was on Yuan’s side. The Republicans raised the banner of revolt under Dr. Sun, but were badly defeated and Dr. Sun was forced to flee to Japan. In the meantime, Yuan-Shih-Kai died and thus China was saved from a long civil-war. After Yuan’s death, Sun-Yat-Sen returned to China and was successful in winning the support of some war-lords (Tuchuns).

Congress of K.M.T. (1923 A.D.): In September, 1922 Dr. Sun was taking rest in Shanghai after suffering from illness. There he called a meeting of eminent nationalist leaders. It was decided to call a Congress of Nationalist leaders. In January 1923 A.D., the Kuo-Min-Tang manifesto was released which gave a programme of Democracy. This programme enunciated the principle “of striving for the revision of existing treaties to restore China to the status of a free and equal member in the family of nations” as a basic principle of the K.M.T. as far its foreign policy was concerned.

Soviet help obtained: Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen approached various nations of the world seeking their support. He was educated and had spent a larger part of his life in the West, but unfortunately no Democratic country came to his rescue. It was only Lenin’s Soviet Government, who promised to help him. Today American historians repent for not helping China at that time. They are of the opinion, and are quite right, that had U.S.A. then helped Dr. Sun and his K.M.T. at that critical juncture, China would not have been Red today. Soviet Union not only gave financial assistance, but even sent advisors like Borodin. He advised Dr. Sun to organize K.M.T. on the lines of Soviet Communist Party. Further, it was decided that the Communists of China coud become members in their individual capacity of the K.M.T. It was under this clause that Mao-Tse-Tung became a member of the K.M.T. Thus the K.M.T. and the C.C.P. (Chinese Communist Party) were united under the leadership of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen. For some years the relations between the two parties continued in an amicable manner.

Efforts to unite China: At that time, China was under the rule of the war-lords, who had become semi-independent under Yuan-Shih-Kai. After his death, they had virtually assumed independence. It was quite difficult to suppress their power. Dr. Sun tried to suppress their power, but unfortunately had no independent army with himself. Consequently, most of the China remained free, consisting of small independent principalities. To meet this new challenge, Dr. Sun adopted two policies:

- Firstly, he started a military academy and Gen. Chiang-Kai-Shek was made its Principal.

- Secondly, he won the friendship of one war-lord and defeated the other. Thus, he crushed the power of the war-lords.

Within a short period, he achieved many successes. He was carrying on his work very vigorously, when unfortunately he fell ill and died on 12^th March, 1925 A.D.

Political Philosophy of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen

In nationalist China, the writings of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen occupied the same cardinal position as those of Marx and Lenin in Soviet Union. The heart of Sen’s teachings is to be found in its favour in the series of lectures delivered in 1924, on the three People’s Principles (San Min Chu). These three principles correspond to Lincoln’s famous Trinity of Government “of the people, by the people and for the people,” and are commonly translated as Nationalism, Democracy and People’s Livelihood. Although Sun Fu, the son of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen prefers to translate them as National Democracy, Political Democracy and Economic Democracy.

Sun’s lectures, as pointed out by himself, were hastily prepared and even improved without adequate use of reference-books, and at a time when Sun’s health was not very good. Admirers of Dr. Sun point out that inspite of these facts they prove that these were the real needs of China in those days.

1. Nationalism: At the time when Sun-Yat-Sen delivered his lectures, he was strongly under the influence of his Russian advisor, Michael Borodin. In his lectures on Nationalism, he strongly attacked Imperialism and Capitalism, and praised Soviet Russia and Communism for their attacks on these evils. In the Marxist way, he expected that a Civil war would break out among the Capitalist countries.

Sun-Yat-Sen found the source of China’s inability to resist foreign imperialism in the absence of the strong feelings of Nationalism, and his lectures constitute an attempt to build such a feeling by an emotional attack on foreign misdeeds and by a glorification of China’s traditional greatness. Dr. Sun said, “China was a heap of loose sand.” He felt that the lack of a strong national bond made it possible for other countries to take advantage of China’s weakness and turn the land into a sub-colony. This colony was dominated by unjust principles. It was facing three kinds of foreign pressure:

- Firstly, there was the pressure of foreign population. Japan had been trying to settle her extra-population in China.

- Secondly, there was political pressure. This meant that the foreigners had seized some part of China’s territory in the Battle of Concessions.

- Thirdly, there was the economic pressure, which meant that the foreigners had obtained many trade and railway concessions.

Unless China met these different pressures, he thought that within a few years China would lose her independence. In this way, Dr. Sun warned the Chinese that Nationalism was an important thing. If it was not acquired within a short time, the Chinese would lose their national character. Thus he laid stress upon encouraging the feelings of Nationalism in China. Therefore, Sun-Yat-Sen said that 400 million Chinese (population of China in 1910) must become imbued with a spirit of nationalism. He wanted that Chinese should assume the leadership of the oppressed people in the world. (Japan in later years tried to do so when she raised the slogan of ‘Asia for the Asians.’) The spirit of nationalism would arise only if the Chinese realized the danger which their nation was facing from foreign enemies. Chinese nationalism, however, in contrast to European nationalism was to be based upon the traditional Chinese philosophy of (i) loyalty (ii) filial piety (iii) kindness (iv) love (v) faithfulness (vi) justice (vii) harmony and (viii) peace. Such a philosophy, Dr. Sun maintained, was not a threat to the rest of the world. This would, according to him, establish harmony between the Western Sciences and the ancient Chinese traditions.

2. Democracy: The second principle of his principle of his philosophy was Democracy. Sun-Yat-Sen said that the present age was an age of democracy throughout the world. In order to become a strong nation, China must be democratic. However, Dr. Sun was not in favour of the Western form of democracy. He was particularly critical of the idea of liberty. He insisted that China had rather too much of liberty. He insisted that the Chinese must maintain some kind of discipline. He also criticized the Western idea of Equality. He thought that men were basically unequal. Kings were bad as they exaggerated a natural inequality. Sun-Yat-Sen believed that there were three types of people or classes:

- Those who see first. They are the creators and discoverers, who possess superior wisdom and insight and can view the things themselves.

- Those who see later. They are the people who see only when they are instructed by other.

- Those who never see.

Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen asserted that in the Western democracy no such distinction was made. Therefore, it was a very improper kind of democracy. Under such circumstances, Dr. Sun proposed that democracy should be introduced in China in three stages. Firstly, those people who could see should be allowed to run the Government. Later on, those people who can see when instructed, should be allowed to take part in the administration. Lastly, the remaining part of the people should be given a chance to participate in the administration of the country.

3. People’s Livelihood: In his lectures on Democracy, Dr. Sun had made it clear that the two functions of a democratic government were (i) to defend the people against foreign enemies, and (ii) to provide them with economic needs. Therefore, the third principle of Dr. Sun’s philosophy was to transform the Chinese economy. Sun said that it was the responsibility of the State to provide food, clothing, shelter and means of travel for everyone, i.e. to ensure them livelihood. To Dr. Sun, livelihood was the central problem of the society. Sun-Yat-Sen had been greatly influenced by the philosophy of Karl Marx, but he wanted to maintain the tradition of harmony and peace in the Chinese society. Therefore, he maintained that there should be an adjustment of economic interest. Sun-Yat-Sen wanted to modernize China. He knew that without the foreign help, it was not possible to develop China within a short period. Therefore, he wanted to encourage both the Chinese as well the foreign capitalists for the development of China. Dr. Sun thought that two things were essential for the realization of the people’s livelihood— the equalization of land ownership and government control of capital. The two problems were closely connected for, according to Dr. Sun, China’s greatest capitalists were the owners of the land, but not the owners of factories. Therefore, he felt that in a very proper manner, it should be distributed among the actual peasants. He felt that every Chinese was a very poor man. Therefore, he felt, that not only should the land be distributed properly, but scientific methods should be adopted for increase in production. He was of the view that the government should encourage agriculture and reduce taxes on the poor farmers.

Proper distribution of Food Supply: Dr. Sun felt that proper measures be adopted for the proper distribution of food supplies. Food stuffs should be properly conserved. He also suggested irrigation, rotation of crops, protection against floods, better machinery, fertilizers, eradication of pests, preservation of food and better transportation facilities could improve production. Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen suggested that these improvements should be achieved through Straight Action.

Borrowing of Foreign Capital: As China was a poor country, it had to borrow money from other countries. Without this help, China could not set up huge factories.

Impact of Sun’s Teachings: The teachings of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen had a deep impact upon the future course of history. The Kuo-Min-Tang government adopted a new constitution, which was based upon the three principles of Sun-Yat-Sen (San-Min-Chu I). “It is Democratic Republic, governed for the people and by the people.” Similarly article 142 of the constitution provided that “natonal economy shall be based on the principle of people’s livelihood, for it was the distribution of land ownership and capital (money) in order to obtain a well balanced development of Public Economy and Private livelihood.”

Article 143 provided that “All land within the territory of the Republic of China shall in principle belong to whole body of citizens. Private ownership of land, acquired by the people in accordance with law shall be protected and restricted by law. Privately owned land shall be liable to taxation according to its value and government may buy such land. ”

In 1949 A.D., when the Communists acquired the Chinese power, they also adopted many of the principles of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen. It is a matter of great importance that both the Communists and the K.M.T. Party regard Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen as the ‘Father of the modern Chinese nation.’

Nur Jahan and her reactions in the administration

2020-03-14T14:45:00.004+05:30

Mehrun-nisa was married to Mughal Emperor, Jahangir in 1611 A.D, about four years after the death of her former husband, Sher Afghan. The Emperor was so much captivated by her charms that he conferred upon her the title of Nur Mahal and soon after that of Nur Jahan. As soon as Nur Jahan became Empress, she acquired an extra-ordinary influence upon the Emperor. Her influence increased day by day and with the passage of time, Jahangir became a mere tool in her hands and she became the paramount power in the State; she virtually began to exercise the power of sovereignty. Therefore, the period from 1611 A.D. to 1627 A.D. is considered as the reign of Nur Jahan rather than of Jahangir.

In the first instance, Nur Jahan installed her relatives to high offices of the State. Her father, Ghias Beg, who was a Mansabdar of 2,000 Zat and 500 Sawar in 1611 A.D, was raised to the rank of 7,000 Zat and 7,000 Sawar in 1619 A.D. He was given the title of Itmad-ud-Daula and raised to the high place and position of the Prime Minister. Her brother, Asaf Khan, who held the Mansab of 500 Zat and 100 Sawar upto 1611 A.D, was also promoted to the rank of 6000 Zat and 6000 Sawar in 1622 A.D, and was also appointed as the Finance Minister. He was a person of good intellect in politics and administration, and as Dr. Beni Prasad states, “As a financier, he stood unsurpassed in the Mughal empire.” Khurram, who was the favourite of Nur Jahan in early stages, was also patronized by her. His Mansab was raised to 30,000 Zat and 20,000 Sawar in honour of his victory in the Deccan. The title of Shah Jahan was also bestowed upon him.

She got her share with the Emperor in exercising her power and prerogatives of sovereignty. She got her name struck upon the coins. Of all the Farmans having the Royal Seal and signature, the Queen Begum (Nur Jahan) was jointly attached. She often appeared in the Jharokha along with the Emperor and listened to the complaints of her subjects. According to the author of Intikhab-i-Jahangiri, “Nothing was wanting to make her an absolute manner but the reading of Khutba in her name.”

Nur Jahan exercised full control on administration. All high appointments, promotions, transfers, postings and dismissals were done with consent. She took keen interest in the working of every department of administration and sent orders to ministers and officials, who were the highest nobles and dignitaries of the State, presented themselves before her and listened to her dictates. A word from her could make or marr the career of any one of them. Nur Jahan decided the question of war and peace, and also wielded judicial powers and could pardon or punish anyone. She was to V.A. Smith, “a power behind the throne.”

It was entirely the privilege of Nur Jahan to make grants of land to women. She could grant jagirs and also withdraw such grants. In this capacity, she helped many poor orphans and widows. Her influence was decisive to men. She easily persuaded the Emperor to grant or withhold the grant of jagir of a particular noble or officer.

Jahangir was so much under the influence of his queen that he was virtually a tool in her hands. He himself wrote so, “I have bestowed sovereignty on Nur Jahan who is wise enough to conduct the affairs of the State. I require nothing beyond a bottle of wine and a piece of meat to keep myself merry.” Dr. Smith remarks, “Nur Jahan was a real power behind the throne. She kept Jahangir under her influence and herself employed all royal powers in State affairs. High placed officials and amirs of the State were always vigilant to carry t her orders because she could make or marr them according to her sweet will.”

In 1612 A.D, Nur Jahan’s niece, Arjunamand Banu Begum, was married to Prince Khurram. Speaking of the political importance of this marriage, Dr. Beni Prasad observes, “It symbolized the alliance of Nur Jahan, Itmad-ud-Daula and Asaf Khan with the heir apparent. For next ten years, this clique of four supremely capable persons practically ruled the Empire. What had been called Nur Jahan’s sway is really the sway of these four personages.”

The period of Nur Jahan’s influence is usually considered in two divisions. The first was from 1611 A.D. to 1622 A.D, when her parents were still alive and exercised a wholesome restraint upon her ambitions, when Jahangir himself was more or less an invalid and full event was given to strife and faction. In the first period, Khurram and Nur Jahan were in alliance, while in the second period they were antagonized to each other. The marriage of Shah Jahan with Nur Jahan’s daughter from Sher Afghan – Ladli Begum – in 1620 A.D, introduced a fresh complication. Under these circumstances, the division of the court into parties was inevitable. At first, they were only two – the Junta and its opponents. Later on, when the Junta itself broke up, there were much more. Mahabat Khan throughout the period played an important part and stood forth as the champion of the older nobility and at one time went to the extent of advising the Emperor against the party in power. The author of the Intikhab-i-Jahangir Shahi says, “The whole world is surprised that such a wise and sensible emperor as Jahangir should permit a man to have so great an influence over him.” He also added that in his opinion it was “now very advisable to liberate Prince Khusrav from prison. Mahabat Khan championed the cause of popular and pathetic party struggle that was brewing at the court. But his bold counsel appears to have taken his good party by the Emperor, though its effect was ephemeral.” The Emperor acted in some measure upon the advice of Mahabat till he arrived in Kashmir, that if Malik Mahabat had advised him simultaneously to the same effect, this war would have made no permanent impression upon him.”

Nur Jahan took up the whole power of the government into her own hands. She made particular endeavours to make Jahangir give up his vices, and this cast upon him her good moral effect, but her influence in the political sphere was quite averse because she began to abuse her power. In order to increase and maintain her influence and position, she married her daughter, Ladli Begum, with Jahangir’s son, Shahriyar. She began to put in her strong efforts to make Shahriyar the successor of Jahangir, rather than Prince Khurram.

She added to Jahangir’s difficulties all the more. She injected poison in the body politics of the royal court simply for the sake of the achievement of success in her political ends. She turned hostile to herself by appointing her father, brother and relatives to high posts. As a result of these tactics, revolts began to take place in the country and several parts of the Mughal Empire began to become independent. This caused to Jahangir great anxiety and it became rather difficult for him to pass his last days peacefully.

The first consequence of Nur Jahan’s policy of favouritism was that the Mughals lost their control over Kandahar. In 1622 A.D, Shah Abbas, the ruler of Iran, took advantage of the political condition in India and occupied Kandahar. Nur Jahan, with a view to get rid of Prince Khurram, ordered him to recapture Kandahar. But the Prince, who well understood the tactics of Nur Jahan, refused to comply with the orders of the Queen and consequently Kandahar was lost by the Mughals.

The second consequence of Nur Jahan’s policy was that Prince Khurram revolted against his father in 1623 A.D. Nur Jahan was bent upon getting the throne for her son-in-law, Prince Shahriyar, after the death of Jahangir. Thus when Khurram refused to go to Kabul under her orders, she exalted Jahangir against him to a good deal. Royal orders were, therefore, issued for Prince Khurram to present at the Royal Court. Khurram was, at that time, the Governor of Deccan. When he received these orders, he at once made out that some kind of foul game was going to be played on him. He, therefore, revolted and marched from the Deccan towards Agra to take possession of the Royal treasury. But Prince Parvez and the famous general, Mahabat Khan, defeated him at Balochpur. He had to return to Deccan, and once again made preparations and advanced towards the East. He occupied Bengal and Bihar, but Mahabat Khan inflicted a severe defeat on him. Now being tired of the war, he surrendered himself in 1625 A.D. and sent his two sons – Dara and Aurangzeb – to the royal court. Jahangir pardoned him, but Shah Jahan continued to stay in the Deccan till 1627 A.D. i.e. the death of Jahangir.

Mahabat Khan was a famous and great general of Jahangir. Nur Jahan wanted to reduce his growing influence in the royal court in every possible way. She, therefore, got orders issued to Mahabat Khan by the Mughal emperor that he should appear in the royal court. Mahabat had already expected some kind of harassment in store for him. Consequently, he revolted in 1626 A.D. According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “Fully prepared for any contingency, Mahabat collected four or five thousand Rajputs and started for court.”

When Jahangir and Nur Jahan were going to Kabul, Mahabat Khan besieged the imperial camp on the banks of Jhelum and made Jahangir a captive, but Nur Jahan managed to escape.

As the Mughals found themselves in no match to the Rajputs, Nur Jahan acted very cleverly. She surrendered to Mahabat Khan and was allowed to join her husband n captivity. But she managed to cause mutual differences among the soldiers of Mahabat and freed herself. When Mahabat found himself in a tight corner, he rushed towards Lahore. Later on, he proceeded towards Thatta in Sind, where it was heard that Shah Jahan had laid a siege and had, thus, created a new problem for the emperor.

Jahangir died on October 28, 1627 A.D. Nur Jahan proclaimed Shahriyar the new emperor at Lahore. But Shah Jahan with the help of Asaf Khan, invaded Lahore and took Shahriyar a prisoner. Thus he himself became the Mughal emperor and Nur Jahan found it in her favour to submit.

Nur Jahan forms as the pivot on which the history of the rest of the reign turns. The rebellions of Shah Jahan and Mahabat Khan were primarily the reactions against the activities of Nur Jahan. To quote Dr. Beni Prasad, “No figure in the medieval history has been shrouded in such romance as the name of Nur Jahan calls to the mind. No incident in the reign of Jahangir has attracted such attention as his marriage with Nur Jahan. For full fifteen years that celebrated lady stood forth as the most striking and most powerful personality in the Mughal Empire. ”

Post Panipat problems of Babur

2020-02-29T11:29:00.000+05:30

According to S. Lanepoole, “Babur was now (after Panipat) king of Delhi, but not yet king of Hindustan, much less of India.” Babur’s victory at Panipat had not given him the throne of India, but it had opened the gates of Hind for him. Speaking aptly, he was faced by a number of problems since Panipat. If he was successful in solving three problems, he was surely to be the ruler of India; or he would have lost here everything had he failed in tackling these problems. The problems are as follows:

(A) Climate:

The first problem faced by Babur was the climatic conditions prevailing in Punjab and he had to adjust himself with these conditions. The scorching heat had trembled the Mughal soldiers in the months following the battle, because it is too hot during April to July in the Punjab. The Mughals wanted cool air as they had been in Kabul. Therefore they prepared themselves to leave India and return to Afghanistan. Even Babur admits, “The heats chanced to be unusually oppressive, and many men dropped at about the same time, as though struck by the samum, and died on the spot.” These climatic deaths also enforced them to leave India.

But Babur was very wise in dealing with this problem. He tried to prevent his soldiers from leaving India: “A mighty enemy has been overcome, and a rich and powerful kingdom is at your feet. And now having attained our goal and won our game, are we to turn back from all we have accomplished and fly to Kabul like men who have lost and discomfited? Let no man who calls himself my friend ever again moot such a thing. But if there is any of you who cannot bring himself to stay, then let him go.” This speech had a magical influence upon his soldiers and they left the idea of returning to Kabul.

(B) Hostility of the natives:

For every ruler who has to face the hostility of his subjects, is his greatest problem. In case of Babur, although he had established his rule over Delhi and Agra, he was not supported by the natives. To them, he was a stranger, a dacoit. There was a heavy till of life in the battle of Panipat. More than 50,000 Indians had died in this battle. Therefore, the Indians could never forgive the Mughals and considered them as murderers. They were never prepared to subsidize the Mughals. Babur also writes, “When I came to Agra, it was the hot season. All the inhabitants fled from terror, so that we could find neither grain for ourselves nor fodder for our beasts. The villages, out of mere hatred and spite to us, had taken to anarchy, thieving and marauding. The roads became impassable.”

The natives in India were always seeking an opportunity when they could take revenge against the Mughals. Unfortunately, Babur till his end could not win their favour, although he adopted many measures to console their hearts.

(C) Consolidation of the newly founded empire:

After the victory at Panipat, the Mughals were opposed by the Rajputs and the Afghans. People here were also against the establishment of the Mughal rule. It was important at this stage to consolidate the newly founded empire by means of reforms etc. However, Babur’s early death left the Mughal power in India in a precarious position. He had no time to consolidate his conquests or to establish any permanent machinery of government. What he had won, he had won by the sword, and it is not until the reign of his grandson, Akbar, that active and orderly administration can be said to have existed. Though Babur could not find enough time, and remained busy with his military transactions in India, he got the measurement of land, established the dak-chaukis, which were some of his steps taken with regard to his consolidation work of his empire.

(D) The Rajputs:

The Rajputs were the foremost trouble to the Mughals. Babur’s decision to stay in India and to establish the Mughal rule here, clashed with the interests of Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar (better known as Rana Sanga in history), who according to S.M. Jaffar, “was at that time the most powerful prince and his was the premier state…. As a prince of great wisdom, valour and virtue, he occupied a high position among the Rajput princes of India.” Rana Sanga was ambitious to re-establish the Hindu rule in the North India. So Babur wanted to put an end to this problem.

But it was not an easy task for Babur, as his own men were afraid of the Rajputs, the stories of whose bravery and courage they had heard. The Rajputs had repeatedly over-run the Mughal troops in the pre-Kanwaha skirmishes. A prophecy, by an astrologer from Kabul, of the Mughal defeat at the hands of the Rajputs had also terrified the Mughals.

It was an anxious moment for Babur. He renounced wine, poured his store of liquor on the ground and broke his precious vessels before an assemblage of his officers and troops. Tamgha was abolished for all the Muslims in his dominion. But even then the morale of his dispirited men was not raised. Then he addressed them in these words: “Noblemen and soldiers! Every man that comes into the world is subject to dissolution. When we are passed away and gone, God only survives unchangeable. Whoever comes to the feast of life, must, before it is over, drink from the cup of death. He, who arrives at the inn of mortality, must one day inevitably take his departure from that house of sorrow – the world. – How much better is it to die with honour than to live with infamy? – God Most High has been gracious in giving us this destiny that if we fall we die martyrs, if we conquer we triumph in His Holy Cause.” Also, “What will all the Mohammedan kings of the world say of a monarch whom the fear of death obliged to abandon such a kingdom?”

These words inspirited the Mughal troops and filled their hearts with confidence. They swore by the divorce of their wives and on the Holy Quran, declaring to stand by their king in weal and woe.

On March 16, 1527 A.D, the two armies met at Khanua. Babur adopted the araba war-strategy. He took his place in the Centre. On the Right were Chin Timur and Khusrav Kukiltash. Humayun, Dilawar Khan Khanan and other Indian nobles were also on the right wing. The Left was commanded by Syed Mahdi Khwaja. On the extreme right and left were the flanking parties, while the artillery line was commanded by Nizam-ud-Din Ali Khalifa.

The war was opened by Rana’s left wing by attacking the right of the Mughals. But Chin Timur drove them back. The Turkish gunner, Mustafa Rumi, forwarded the carts and guns from the Centre of Humayun’s division and broke the enemy’s ranks. The attack by Rana’s right also failed. Then Babur directed his Centre to come forth and within ten hours the Mughals were victorious. Rana Sanga was wounded and took to flight. Hasan Khan Mewati, allied with the Rajputs, was killed while Sultan Mahmud Lodhi escaped from the battle-field.

Though Babur had won a great victory over the Rajputs, the problem was not yet over. A Rajput chief, Medini Rai, had established himself in Chanderi on the border of Bundelkhand and Malwa. The Mughals besieged the fort on January 27, 1528. The Rajputs resisted the enemy, but as Sir E.D. Ross writes, “The garrison on the second day gave up all hope of resistance, and having put their women to death they rushed out raked to perish, but not to be captured.”

In these two battles, the Rajputs were killed in thousands and it is even said that there was no single Rajput house which had not to mourn the death of at least a single member. It crippled the power of the Rajputs completely.

(E) The Afghans:

Although the Afghans had been defeated at Panipat, they were likely to raise problems for Babur, so that he left India for the Afghans. Many Afghan nobles – Alam Khan Lodhi, Hasan Khan Mewati, Nasir Khan Lohani, Maruf Farmuli and many others had been united to drive the Mughals out of India. Darya Khan’s son, Bahar Khan, was elected as the chief of all the Afghan nobles and he adopted the title of Sultan Mahmud. The other Afghan nobles – Biban, Bayazid and Azam Khan, along with Sultan Ibraham Lodhi’s brother, Mahmud Lodhi, were invited to join them in Bihar.

Towards the end of January 1528 A.D, the Afghan rebels advanced from Bihar to Doab. On February 2, Babur started for the east to meet the Afghan aggression. After some days, the Afghans conquered Shamsabad and Kannauj. Babur reached Kannauj on February 25, but found the resistance of the Afghans (February 27). On March 13, Babur got built a bridge and crossed the river. The Afghans finding their resistance in vain decamped. The Mughals pursued them to Oudh. Thus for some time, the Afghan danger was averted.

Soon Mahmud Lodhi joined hands with other Afghan nobles and was accepted as their ruler. Babur reached Dakdaki, a pargana of Kara on the banks of the Ganga on January 20, 1529 A.D. Here he got the information that the Afghans had organized a three-pronged drive:

(i) Biban and Bayazid were sent towards Sarwar;

(ii) Sultan Mahmud and Fateh Khan Sharwani along with 1,00,000 Afghans were coming towards Chunar along the Ganges;

(iii) Sher Khan Sur along with his men had crossed the river and was marching towards Benaras.

On March 23, Babur reached Chunargarh, and hurried forward when he was informed of Mahmud Lodhi’s appearance at Son. On reaching Ghazipur, Babur received the submissive letters from Mahmud Khan Lohani, Jalal Khan, Farid Khan and Sher Khan Sur. The Afghan rebels then sought refuge in Bengal. Babur was in friendly relations with Nusrat Shah, ruler of Bengal. As he was interested in waging a war against Nusrat, Babur opened negotiations with him demanding

(i) not to give shelter to the Afghan rebels; and

(ii) to open the passage for the Mughals.

However, the Bengal ruler denied accepting these terms. Then Babur declared that if any unpleasant circumstances occurred, Nusrat Shah himself would be responsible for those.

Babur, after his meeting with the ‘Council of War’, decided to cross the Ganges, which was done on May 1. On 4^th May, the Mughals attempted to cross the Ghagra. The Afghans put strong resistance against the Mughals. On 6^th May, the issue was finally decided in the battle of Ghagra. The Mughals used their artillery. Lanepoole concludes, “Good generalship had once more guided valour to victory.” It was a battle which, according to Dr. R.P. Tripathi, “broke the back of the Afghan rebels.”

In this way, Babur overcame the difficulties he had to face in way of establishing his rule in North India. His success over these problems made him definitely the ruler of the North. He crushed the power of the Rajputs and the Afghans, but not for ever. The Afghans had soon after Babur’s death, organized themselves under Sher Khan Sur and re-established the Afghan rule. S.M. Jaffar concludes, “The net result of Babur’s victories in India was that the Afghans were crushed, the Rajput supremacy was shattered, the Mughal Empire was founded and Babur was the master of almost the whole of Northern India.”

The Administration of Sher Shah Sur

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According to Dr. J.N. Chaudhry, “Not only did he (Sher Shah) establish an empire by dint of his great military skill, wonderful courage, ability and resourcefulness, but with his usual skill and promptitude, he made necessary arrangements for its smooth and efficient administration.” Sher Shah was, no doubt, one of the greatest administrators in the contemporary world. He had “breathed a new spirit in the old institutions and turned them into instruments of popular good.”

The administration of Sher Shah was military in nature but on the same hand he undertook every possible step for the welfare of his subjects. His was a Muslim State, but showed justice to every community. That is why his State is known as the First Muslim Welfare State.

Sher Shah discarded the theory of the decentralization of powers. Although he had nominally to retain some provinces, he dispensed with them altogether as far as administrative purposes were concerned.

Centre:

Sher Shah was the pivot of the Indian administration. He possessed all administrative powers in his own hands, and was thus a despot, but benevolent. As it was unable for one man to look after all the matters of administration, he had a Council of Ministers, who were in charge of all the administrative routine, but possessed “no authority to initiate policy or to propose radical changes in the mode of transacting business or in the administrative set-up.” Sher Shah’s Council of Ministers was:

(i) Vakil was the Prime Minister. He looked after the matters of other Departments and generally dealt with the problems which were not directly assignment to others.

(ii) Wazir was the Finance Minister. He was in charge of the income and expenditure of the empire.

(iii) Diwan-i-Ariz was the Army Minister, as may be called. He was not the Commander-in-Chief of the army, but was in charge of its recruitment, organization and discipline. He made arrangements for the payment of salaries of the troops and officers, and looked after the disposition of the army on the battle-field. The work of Diwan-i-Ariz was often interfered by Sher Shah.

(iv) Diwan-i-Risalat was the head of the Foreign Department. He remained in close touch with the ambassadors and envoys sent to and received from foreign States.

(v) Diwan-i-Insha performed the duties to draft Royal proclamations and dispatches. He was also in charge of government records.

(vi) Sadr was the highest officer of religion.

(vii) Diwan-i-Qaza was the ‘chief qazi’ and supervised the administration of justice either in first instance or appeals against the decisions from the courts of provincial qazis.

(viii) Barid-i-Mamalik was the head of the Intelligence Department. He also made arrangements for the posting of news carriers at various places to carry the royal dak.

The Chief Muhtsib was the religious censor on one hand and supervisor of markets on the other. He must have supervised the collection of jizya also.

However, these Ministers occupied the position of secretaries as they had no power of initiative or final determination of any policy or transacting matters of importance without the orders of the Emperor.

Sher Shah’s daily time-table shows him too busy with his administrative business. But his routine was interrupted by the frequent warfare. All his expeditions claimed his personal attention and he could not devote much attention to the details of the administration. It may be possible that Sher Shah succeeded in infusing his spirit in the routine work of the administration which was carried on as usual by the Secretariat officials at the headquarters.

Provinces:

There is a lot of controversy regarding the administrative division of Sher Shah’s empire. Dr. Qanungo believes that the highest division of his empire was the Sarkar. But Dr. P. Saran observes that his empire was divided into regular provinces. Bengal was the only Province which is said to have been split up into smaller governorships, keeping in view minimizing the ‘chances of rebellion.’

There were military governorships in cases of Ajmer, Malwa and the Punjab. Bengal was at first administered likewise, but the lesson of a bitter experience in this distant province taught him to adopt a more prudent measure and he abolished the post of the military-governor, dividing the whole province into several Sarkars. Amin-i-Bangala or the Civilian Viceroy was appointed at the top for the smooth running of the administration.

Sarkars:

The Provinces were divided into a number of Sarkars. The chief officers of a Sarkar were:

(a) Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran was in charge of law and order in the Sarkar and had a body of troops to assist him in his work. He also tried criminal cases and supervised the work of the Shiqdars in his jurisdiction.

(b) Munsif-i-Munsifan tried civil cases, specially arising out of revenue matters. He also supervised the work of the Pargana Amins.

(c) There was a Qazi for every Sarkar.

Parganas:

The Sarkars were further divided into a number of Parganas. The main officers were:

(a) Shiqdar was a military officer in charge of a small contingent of troops. He was to maintain peace in his jurisdiction and punish the rebels. He was also to assist the Amin.

(b) Amin (Munsif) was to make the arrangements for the settlement of the land-revenue.

(c) Fotadar was the treasurer of the Pargana.

(d) Karkun kept the accounts of the Pargana. There were two Karkuns in every Pargana. One kept the accounts in Persian, while the other kept in Hindi.

Villages:

Sher Shah had kept contact with the villages through the village officials – the Patwari and the Chowkidar. The elders of the village constituted a Panchayat, which maintained peace and order in their respective villages and worked for the public welfare.

Military Administration:

The military administration of Sher Shah is note-worthy. The Afghans from all parts of the country were invited and given posts according to their merit. Considering the inefficiency of the feudal system, he followed the system of Ala-ud-Din Khalji and established a permanent standing army, paying partly by grant of jagirs and partly in cash from the royal treasury.

Sher Shah, as a matter of fact, took personal interest in the army and recruited troops and fixed the salaries of individual soldiers.

In order to prevent the troops from selling away the government horses and exchanging them with worthless ponies, he promulgated the practice of branding horses --- a fine system of Ala-ud-Din. The practice of recording the descriptive roll of every soldier was instituted, so as to do away with the practice of sending proxies at the time of military review. Prof. Qanungo writes that the credit of organizing the Indian army on a new model goes to Ala-ud-Din, and it was Sher Shah, who following his foot-steps, established a well-organized army of his times. Promotion of the soldiers depended on their merit. Sher Shah had, in fact, not abolished the jagir system completely.

Sher Shah’s army chiefly consisted of cavalry, but he had also infantry armed with muskets. It is recorded that he had always 1,50,000 horses and 25,000 infantry armed with either matchlocks or bows, present with him. In his elephant-sheds, he had 5,000 elephants. Besides this, he had kept contingents of troops posted at strategic places all over his kingdom. The army was divided into divisions, each under a veteran commander. He allowed his troops to come into close contact with him.

Revenue System:

The revenue of the Sher Shah empire can be divided into two parts:

(a) Central Revenue: Its sources were heirless property, commerce, mint, presents, inheritance, salt, jizya, khams, and land revenue. The vassals and nobles, officials and visitors made presents to the ruler. Jizya was collected from the non-Muslims. Khams was the 20% of the plunder taken during the war.

(b) Local Revenue: It was taken from abwabs levied on production and consumption of various trader professions and transport.

The Land revenue was the most important source of income. Dr. J.N. Chaudhry states that it was his land-revenue administration which has given undying fame to him. The land revenue was realized 1/3 of the total production. The view of Moreland is, “The historical importance of Sher Shah’s methods lies in the fact that they formed that starting point of the series of experiments in administration which marked the first half of Akbar’s reign.” Sher Shah classified all cultivable land and fixed the revenue. Patta and Qabuliyat were also introduced.

Justice:

“Justice is the most excellent of religious rites and it is approved alike by the Kings of infidels and of the faithful,” was the observation of Sher Shah. Therefore, he established a very efficient judicial system. Sher Shah himself held court in the evening of every Wednesday. Next to him was the Chief Qazi, head of the justice administration, while the Chief Munsif administered civil justice in the district. The Munsifs administered the same in the Parganas.

Sher Shah was deeply furnished with his administration of justice. In justice, he saw no kith and kin and saw everybody with the same eye. He did not hesitate punishing even his nephew, who threw a betel leaf at the wife of a goldsmith who was taking her bath inside her house. He compensated the peasants when their crops were destroyed during the marches of the royal troops. Nizam-ud-Din Ahmed records that during the reign of Sher Shah, a merchant could travel or sleep in the desert, without any fear of being robbed of his merchandise. So great was his fear and his love of justice.

Sher Shah inflicted very severe punishments on the convicts, and was an ‘Angel of Death’ to the robbers, thieves and dacoits.

Police:

In the period of Sher Shah, the duty of the police was rendered by the army. In the Sarkar, the Chief Shiqdar maintained peace and order. The Shiqdar performed the same duty in the Parganas. They had to keep an eye on the disturbers of peace and order and punish them. Sher Shah made a headman of every village and similar services were to be performed by these persons. If they failed in their service, the punishment due to the convicts was given to them. The result was that these officers took every step possible to maintain peace and order in their respective jurisdictions. Dr. A.L. Srivastava comments, “The system was based on the correct knowledge of the rural psychology and the condition of the people of medieval times.” Abbas Khan Sarwani also narrates, “In the time of Shar Shah’s rule a decrepit old woman might place a basket full of gold ornaments on her head and go on a journey and no theif or robber would come near her for fear of punishment which Sher Shah inflicted.”

Intelligence Department:

Sher Shah appointed an officer known as Darogha-i-Dak Chauki for his Intelligence Department. A number of news-writers and news-carriers were kept under him to give him accounts of daily happenings in their regions. This Department worked so well that Dr. A.L. Srivastava writes, “Much of the success of Sher Shah’s administration was due to the efficiency of his spy system.”

Sher Shah was “undoubtedly one of the greatest statesmen among the Sultans of Delhi.” But as Dr. R.P. Tripathi writes, “Although he ruled well and justly, he was primarily the ruler of the Afghans. His reforms were certainly calculated to bring uniformity in administration and unity in the empire, establish closer contacts between the provinces and encourage tolerance to some extent. But he did nothing positive which could create enthusiasm among or inspire his non-Muslim subjects to honour him as their ruler.”

Be as it may, it cannot be denied that Sher Shah had brought law and order in the country by his efficient administrative machinery. Since the reign of Feroz Tughlaq, Sher Shah was the first ruler who established internal peace to a great extent. His reorganization of administration and settlement of land revenue mark him as one of the greatest rulers of the medieval India. Dr. A.L. Srivastava finds the secret of his greatness as a ruler in the spirit he brought to his administration. Even V.A. Smith observed, “If Sher Shah had been spared he would have established his dynasty, and the ‘Great Mughals’ would not have appeared on the stage of history.”

Babur was a great General but not an administrator

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Zahir-ud-Din Mohammad Babur is regarded as one of the greatest military generals and conquerors in the world. During his life time, he found himself busy in the constant battles. The result was that in due course he came out to be one the greatest military generals of his time. His initial failures had taught him so many lessons of success. ‘Failures are the stepping stones to success’ prove to be true in Babur’s case. He had been defeated many a times for Samarqand. He conquered Samarqand thrice but to lose it all the times. His defeat in Sar-i-Pul taught him the significance of the Tulughama. In every failure was hidden the secret of his ultimate success.

An able general is regarded the one who cares for his soldiers, and Babur was one amongst them. He himself suffered pains but never thought for his pleasures and comforts while his soldiers were suffering natural calamities. An example can be cited from Babur’s Memoirs, when after one of his expeditions, he was trapped in a snow-fall and was forced to take shelter in a small mountain cave. His soldiers requested him to go inside and have some rest, but Babur did not agree with them and asked them to share the cave with them. He writes: “I felt that for me to be in warm shelter and comfort whilst my men were in the snow and drift, for me to be sleeping at ease inside, whilst my men were in misery and distress, was not a man’s act, and far from comradeship. What strong man can stand I would stand; for, as the Persian proverb says, ‘In the company of friends, Death is a nuptial feast.’ So I remained in the snow and wind in the hole that I had dug out, with snow four hands thick on my head and back and ears.”

As a general, Babur also knew the skill of using the time appropriately. His battles in India confirm this theory, as to how excellently he displayed the one-week gap period against Sultan Ibraham. His war-tactics and strategy on the field shows how shrewd general he was. He knew very well how to attack and when. Every time he forced his enemies to take the initiative, and let them crowded there, making them helpless against his strategy. Only then did he start his task, which was made easy for him.

However, he seems to be a complete failure as an administrator. He took no steps to consolidate his conquests in India. He let the prevailing institutions continue in the country. He even failed to conciliate with the people on whom he was to rule, and this Babur himself accepts in his diary.

Babur even failed to utilize properly the treasures he gained from conquered territories. He spent them among the beggars and the members of his nobility. Consequently, the administration was weakened financially, and after his death, his successor Humayun had to face a number of difficulties owing to financial crisis.

He knew the art of winning the hearts of his soldiers (as he did in Kanwaha), but his subjects remained wholly alienated to him. He was to them not a ruler but a dacoit. When he had decided to stay in India, he should have invented new institutions and taken certain steps in the administrative direction, but he did not care for it.

Dr. R.P. Tripathi has tried to defend him on the following points:

(i) He got less time to rule.

(ii) He was a stranger to India.

(iii) Despite these problems, he had instituted the system of Dak-Chowki, and also had the measurement of land.

But if we look at these points, they do not cope with reality. The system of posting letters was only for the private business of the government and had nothing to do for the public. Also, the measurement of land was not in the entire country, but was limited only around Delhi. Dr. Tripathi’s view of his being a foreigner and stranger to India is also not acceptable. He could undertake measures with the help of able Indians. Moreover, his period of reign was also not brief. Sher Shah Sur also had ruled for less than five years. During this period also, he was engaged in numerous battles, yet “he had breathed a new spirit in the old institutions and turned them into instruments of popular good.”

Sir E.D. Ross states that Babur held a high place among the sovereigns of his age. V.A. Smith calls him the “most brilliant Asiatic prince of his age and worthy of a high place among the sovereigns of any age or country.” Babur was, no doubt, one of the greatest military generals of his time. He achieved many successes on the battle-field, but as a statesman he remained a complete failure.

Course of the First Battle of Panipat

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After his repeated failures in Samarqand, Babur was attracted towards Hindustan. Taking advantage of the political conditions in India, which was “a congeries of States” and “parceled out among numerous mutually warring States”, Babur attacked it five times during 1519 A.D. to 1525 A.D. Thus state Edwards and Garrett, “As had happened more than once in past history, the internal dissensions of the country made it an easy prey to a determined invader.”

In November 1525 A.D, Babur set out from Kabul for his Indian conquest. After his conquest of Punjab, defeating its governor Daulat Khan Lodhi, the Mughal invader advanced towards Delhi. He writes, “As it was always in my heart to possess Hindustan, and as these several countries had once been held by the Turks, I pictured them as my own and was resolved to get them into my own hands, whether peacefully or by force.” Babur’s ambitions clashed with those of Sultan Ibraham Lodhi of Delhi. Although it was a difficult task to perform, as he had to take a battle against the central power of the country, yet he was not discouraged: “Having placed my foot on the stirrup of resolution and my hands on the reins of confidence in God, I marched against Sultan Ibraham…..”

The Mughal forces reached the town of Panipat on 29^th Jamadi, 932 Hijri (April 12, 1528 A.D.). Probably the same time, the Sultan had also reached there along with his troops. For about a week, both the armies stood facing each other, but neither took the offensive.

There is a controversy regarding the numerical strength of the Mughals. While Babur in his Memoirs accepts it 12 thousand, Rushbrooke Williams gives the number 8 thousand. However, the most accepted view is that the Mughal troops were numbered not less than 25 thousand against one lakh Afghans with 1,000 horsemen, at a ratio of 4:1. Ferishta is of the opinion that the Afghan horsemen numbered 100 and not one thousand.

Babur in his Memoirs accepts that before the battle, his army had lost its courage: “Many of the troops were in great tremor and alarms. Trepidation and fear are always unbecoming; whatever the Almighty has decreed from eternity cannot be reversed. At the same time I cannot blame them; they had some reason of anxiety, for in two or three months they had travelled from their native land and were now to engage in arms a nation of whom they knew nothing.”

Before the start of the battle, there was a week’s gap. Babur utilized the time efficiently and his major success in this period lies in making his men courageous to fight. He took a defensive line-up, drawing up his army in a long line. On his right, stood the town and the suburbs of Panipat. From the left, he defended himself by ditches, the felled trees and thorny shrubs. The centre was defended by 700 carts, connected by twisted bull-hides; between every pair of guns were five to seven movable breast-works (tura) for the protection of the matchlock men. At fixed intervals, open space was left for 100 to 200 horsemen to charge abreast. In the Centre (ghul) stood Babur in person. His major commanders were Humayun and Khwaja Khan on the Right; Mohammad Sultan Mirza and Mahdi Khwaja on the Left; Chin Timur Sultan in the Right-Centre (ung-ghul); and the Prime Minister Mir Ali Khalifa in the Left-Centre (sul-ghul). The Tulughama party was under the Mongol chiefs and was standing on the extreme right and left. Their duty was to take the enemy in rear. At a little distance behind the line was the Reserve of picked horsemen under Abdul Aziz.

On the other end, Ibraham Lodhi had also taken the field and divided his army into four divisions: Centre, Right Wing, Left Wing and Advance Guard. The fighting experience and the resources of the Afghan army was not contemporary, but much of the ancient times. Moreover, Ibraham Lodhi made a great blunder as he did not utilize even a minute of that one week period in completing and reviewing his military preparations. Keene has nicely distinguished the two armies – “On one side were the courage of despair and something of the resources of scientific warfare; on the other side, men-at-arms of the medieval type with crowded ranks of supermen and archers thronging on in foolhardy disorder.”

On Thursday, 7^th Rajab, 932 Hijri (i.e. April 19, 1526 A.D.), the Sultan celebrated a Jashan (merry making) and distributed immense wealth among his men. In the meantime, Babur had militarily prepared himself and wanted Ibraham to take offensive, who seemed to be in no such mood.

Next night i.e. on 20^th April, Babur ordered his four or five thousand soldiers to make a night attack upon the Afghans. Although the attack failed, yet it fulfilled Babur’s objectives. Next day (21^st April), the Afghans rushed towards the Mughal camp. They moved so breezily covering the four mile distance in a bit three hours. However, they fell in confusion when found the front line defense of Babur, and immediately checked their speed. In due course, the formation of the Afghan army was badly broken and was crowded in the Centre. This was what Babur exactly wanted. He then directed his Tulughamas to take the enemy in flank and rear. The Left Wing of the Mughals was marching unconsciously and was surrounded by the Afghans.

Babur, a great military general, was very keenly observing his men’s movements and found his Left Wing in great difficulty. He immediately directed his Centre to support the Left. In due course, the Right also had to experience some hard moments and the Right-Centre was sent to its assistance. Then Babur ordered Ustad Ali, the master gunner, to do the magic, who was well supported by the cannoneer, Mustafa, on the Left-Centre. The Afghans, at this stage, were surrounded on all sides, facing arrows on either flank and the rear and fire-shots from the front. They found themselves helpless against the Mughals and were crowded in the centre.

All the friends and the companions of the Sultan had fallen around him. Mahmud Khan, one of his companions, advised him to run away and save his life. However, the Sultan considered it disgraceful to run away from the field of his ‘death’ where thousands of his loyals had sacrificed their lives for him. He wanted to die not the death of cowardice but of a soldier, a true soldier and a true king. He marched to the Front with his 4,000 loyal soldiers and fought like a brave warrior, but was ultimately killed. The Afghans took to flight. The Mughals sued them and massacred many of them.

Babur, having won this historic battle, rushed to Delhi and sent Prince Humayun to take control of Agra and its treasures. Thus observes Babur: “The sun had mounted spear-high when the onset began, and the battle lasted till mid-day, when the enemy were completely broken and routed and my people victorious and triumphant. By the grace and mercy of Almighty God this difficult affair was made easy to me.” About 50,000 Afghans are supposed to have been killed in the battle.

The first battle of Panipat was thus a decisive battle which decided the Fate of India. With this battle, the rule of the Afghan Sultanate came to an end and the Mughals made their way for the establishment of their empire in India. S. Lanepoole has very accurately pointed out, “To the Afghans of Delhi, the battle of Panipat was their Cannae. It was the ruin of their dominion, the end of their power.”

Causes of Babur’s success:

A variety of factors can be enumerated for Babur’s success against the Afghans at Panipat. Babur was a great and an experienced military general. There is no exaggeration in the observation that he was brought up in the battle-fields. He had adopted a number of war-tactics during his constant wars in Central Asia. The utilization of Tulughama was taken to task after he came across Shaibani Khan in the battle of Sar-i-Pul in 1501 A.D. He knew very well how, when and where to strike. Another vital example of his brilliant leadership can be seen in his organization of the army and making proper arrangements for the support to that division he found in difficulty. S.M. Jaffar comments, “Babur was a scientific general, skillful in planning and thorough in execution.” Lanepoole completes this observation, “Babur’s generalship had much to do with the successful issue.” On the other hand, Babur himself believed of his rival that he was “an inexperienced youngman, careless in his movements, who marched without order, halted or retired without method and engaged without foresight.”

The numerical strength of the Afghans was much more than that of the Mughals. However, number does not matter unless it is well-experienced and well equipped in arms etc. The Afghans, though more than a lakh in numbers, were not as experienced as the Mughals were. They stood in the midst of the battle-field as if standing in a fair.

On the other hand, Babur adopted such war-tactics that the enemy was found in a gear. The masterly utilization of a week’s gap before the battle and the Tulughama war-tactics made it easy for Babur to achieve success.

Babur had appeared at Panipat with his artillery which was new to the Afghans. They had neither seen nor heard of it. They possessed arrows which were of ancient times. Lanepoole writes, “Arrows cannot answer the bullets and the work was done within few hours.” Dr. Radhey Shyam has also considered this battle as “an unequal contest between fire and man.” Indeed it was Babur’s artillery which played an important role in his victory. According to Rushbrooke Williams, “If there was one single material factor which more than any other conduced to his ultimate triumph in Hindustan, it was his powerful artillery.”

Thus owing to his brilliant leadership, excellent war-tactics, usage of artillery and well organized army – Babur was able to win the battle of Panipat. It was a landmark in the history of India. Dr. Radhey Shyam has given his opinion on the battle in these words: “Babur’s wide experience of warfare and close observation of battles, which he himself had fought against his adversaries or he had heard from others about the way in which his ancestors used to fight,” gave him his victory in the field of Panipat. The battle “testified Babur’s superior generalship, military technique, superb skill and ability to combine effectively the artillery with cavalry…. There is no doubt that the first battle of Panipat was one of the greatest battles ever fought on the soil of Hindustan.”

Political Conditions in India in the beginning of the 16th Century

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Dr. Ishwari Prasad has very aptly pointed out that “India was a congeries of States at the beginning of the 16^th century, and likely to be the easy prey of an invader who had the strength and will to attempt her conquest.” In fact, there was no strong central authority in the country and it was divided into numerous “mutual warring States” to achieve the supremacy of power. Of course, there was no State hesitating to do so, provided it had the required sufficient strength for it. The Indian sub-continent was a disintegrated one, and the advantage of this disintegration was gained by the invader, Babur, as Edwards and Garrett have very wisely reaffirmed, ”As had happened more than once in past history, the internal dissensions of the country made it an easy prey to a determined invader.”

Babur, in his Tuzuq-i-Babari, mentions the political conditions of the country: “At the time when I conquered that country, five Mussalman kings (of Delhi, Bengal, Malwa, Gujrat and the Bahmanis) and two Pagans (of Mewar and Vijayanagar) exercised the royal authority. Although there were many small and inconsiderable Rais and Rajas in the hills and woody country, yet these were the chief and the only ones of importance.”

I. Delhi: The Central Power: The first Muslim ruler mentioned by Babur is the Sultan of Delhi. In the beginning of the 16^th century, it was under the rule of Sikander Lodhi (1489 – 1517 A.D.), who had succeeded his father, Bahlol (1452 – 1489 A.D.). Sikander proved to be a successful ruler, although by his dogmatic policy he lost the confidence of the non-Muslim subjects, yet succeeded in winning the hearts of his chiefs and nobles, upon whose support his power rested.

In 1517 A.D., Sikander was succeeded by Ibraham Lodhi, on whose accession, comments Ahmed Yadgar, “many nobles became aware of his fieble disposition and raised the standard of opposition.” In fact, he lacked all those qualities which were essential for a ruler. As the chiefs and soldiers were satisfied with Sikander, the situation had totally changed under Ibraham. It was under him that the Afghans were divided on the question of the Division of Empire. Many nobles stood to revolt against him. All this was because of his proud and suspicious nature. He even adopted a very stern policy against his own relatives and chiefs, and even declared that ‘kingship knows no kinship’. The result was that Punjab and Jaunpur openly started rebellious activities. Therefore, Rushbrooke Williams writes, ”Not only did he alienate his nobles upon whose support his power rested, not only did he drive into active opposition the very men he ought to have conciliated at all hazards, but to make matters worse, he attempted to play the tyrant.”

II. Other States in the North

(A) Muslim Zonal States-

1. Towards the East of Delhi:

(a) Jaunpur: In 1473 A.D, Bahlol Lodhi defeated the Sharqi ruler of Jaunpur, and since this period the State was under the Delhi Sultan. But in 1517 A.D, Jalal Khan led a revolt against his brother, Sultan Ibraham. However, the revolt was crushed. Jalal Khan was imprisoned while trying to flee, and the Sultan got him murdered privately, when he was being taken to Hansi.

(b) Bihar: Immediately after the accession of Ibraham Lodhi to the throne, the Eastern region openly raised the revolt. The Afghans in Bihar formed independent State under Darya Khan Lohani, who remained its ruler in the first quarter of the 16^th century.

(c) Bengal: Nasir-ud-Din Nusrat Shah of the Hussain dynasty was the ruler of Bengal. He was a very efficient and capable administrator and also a very ambitious person In the East, he was the most powerful ruler and by 1521 A.D, he had extended his kingdom to Monghyr and Hajipur. He was very popular among his subjects and was the first Muslim ruler in Bengal to form the composite culture there. He got some Hindu books, including the Mahabharata translated into Bengali.

2. In the South-West of Delhi

(a) Malwa: About the ruler of Malwa, Babur writes, “Sultan Mahmud reigned in the country of Malwa, which they likewise call Mandu. This dynasty was Khalji. Rana Sanka, a Pagan, had defeated them and occupied a number of their provinces. This dynasty had also become weak.”

In 1519 A.D, during the rule of Mahmud II, Malwa fell into the hands of a Rajput, Medini Rai. He gave all the high posts to the Rajputs, which caused jealousy to Mahmud II and other Muslims. Mahmud got help from Muzaffar Shah of Gujrat, but Medini Rai with Rana Sanga’s support defeated Mahmud, but restored him to his throne.

(b) Gujrat: It was ruled by the Tang race. In the opening of the 16^th century, its ruler was Mohammad Begarha (1458 – 1511 A.D.), the greatest ruler of Gujrat. He was succeeded by Muzaffar Shah II, the contemporary ruler of Babur’s invasions. For him, Babur writes, “He was a prince, well skilled in learning and fond of reading the hadis. He was constantly employed in writing the Koran.” He was defeated by Mewar’s Rana Sanga in 1519 A.D. His death in 1526 A.D caused political confusion in the State.

3. Towards North-West of Delhi

(A) The Muslim States:

(a) Punjab: During the first quarter of the 16^th century, Punjab was a part of the Delhi Sultanate. Its governor, Daulat Khan Lodhi, had become a rebel because of the stern policy of Sultan Ibraham. He started making preparations to assume independence and in order to accomplish his ambitions, he sought help from Babur, and invited him to invade India. Dr. A.L. Srivastava writes, “The north-western province of the Sultanate was thus not in a position to put up any resistance against a foreign invader.”

(b) Kashmir: Zain-ul-Abidin (1420 – 1470A.D.), the Sultan of Kashmir, adopted the policy of religious toleration and is known as the Akbar of Kashmir. Mohammad Shah remained the ruler of Kashmir from 1499 A.D. to 1526 A.D. However, Kashmir did not play any important role in the politics of Northern India.

(c) Sind: The Sumras ruled over Sind up to 1521 A.D, when its ruler Feroz was defeated by Shah Beg Arghun, the ruler of Qandahar and laid the foundation of the Arghun dynasty. He was succeeded by his son, Shah Hussain, who also annexed Multan.

(B) The Hindu States

(a) Orissa: Orissa was ruled by Rudra Pratap Dev during this period. No Muslim ruler was successful in defeating this State. Though Orissa was not interested in the politics of Northern India, it remained in constant wars against the Muslim State of Bengal in the east and the Hindu State of Vijayanagar in the South.

(b) Mewar: The ruler of Mewar was the lion hearted Rajput, Rana Sangram Singh, better known as Rana Sanga, who according to Babur “has attained his present high eminence only in these later times by his own valor and his sword. His original principality was Chittor. During the confusion that prevailed among the princes of the kingdom of Mandu, he seized a number of provinces which had depended on Mandu, such as Rantpur, Sarangpur, Bhilsan and Chanderi.”

Rana Sanga was the head of the Rajput clan of his times and the most superior power in India. He was an experienced warrior who had fought 18 pitched battles against the rulers of Malwa and Delhi. He was a great diplomat and an ambitious ruler. With the assistance of other Hindu rulers of the Central Provinces, he wanted to establish the Hindu rule in the entire North, overthrowing the Muslim States. For his ambitious task he even joined hands with Babur against Ibraham Lodhi.

III. States in South India

1. Muslim Zone

(a) Khandesh: The territory of Khandesh lay between the rivers Narmada and Tapti. Gujrat had been trying to annex Khandesh, resulting to which both the States remained in constant wars. Since 1508 A.D, there was no stability in the politics of Khandesh. Adil Khan III was the ruler of Khandesh till 1520 A.D, and was succeeded by Mohammad I. Khandesh showed no interest in the politics of North India, because of the long distance between Delhi and Khandesh

(b) Bahmani Kingdom: Mahmud Gawan was an able Prime Minister of the Bahmani Kingdom. However, immediately after his death in 1481 A.D, the downfall of the Kingdom started. After 1482 A.D, it split into five independent States: (i) Ahmednagar, (ii) Bijapur, (iii) Golconda, (iv) Bidar, and (v) Berar. These States remained in constant mutual warfare, and also against the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire.

In the Bahmani States, there were two factions consisting of

(i) Indian nobles – who were the native Muslims, and

(ii) Turkish nobles – who came from Central Asian territories.

These political factions resulted into the political confusion in the States. Internally, as well as externally, the position was not very good.

2. Hindu State of Vijayanagar: Vijayanagar was the most extensive Hindu State in India. During the opening of the 16^th century, it was under the Saluva dynasty (1490 A.D. – 1505 A.D.) and was succeeded by the Taluva dynasty. Krishnadeva Raya (15009 A.D. – 1530 A.D.) was the greatest ruler of this empire. He was a great diplomat and an able economist. Militarily, the State was extremely strong under his rule. It can be noted by the fact that he defeated the Bahmanis many a times. He w as also engaged in direct clashes with Orissa and Mysore.

3. Advent of a foreign power : Portuguese

The Portuguese were a newly established foreign power in the South. Albuquerque was an undaunted Governor of the Portuguese. In 1510 A.D, the Portuguese defeated the Bahmanis, annexed Goa from them and established themselves there.

Military strength: Militarily, India cannot be said to be a weak power at that time, even though it did not face the enemy successfully. Numerically, its strength is estimated to be nearly 7 lakhs. Rana Sanga is believed to have assistance of seven Rajas, nine Raos, 104 chieftains with titles of Rawat and Rawal, 500 war-elephants, 80,000 horsemen, adding to it unlimited cavalry. Thus in numbers, Indian army was not weak. But number never cares for the military power of a country. In case of India, lack of unity and the inexperience of the Indians was the major reason of the weakness of India’s military strength. For Sultan Ibraham Lodhi, Babur writes, he “was an inexperienced young man, careless in his movements, who marched without order, halted or retired without method and engaged without foresight.”

The Indian States were not equipped with modern arms, which had weakened them militarily. Moreover, the Jagirdari system was also the worse. Dr. A.L. Srivastava has summed up the military conditions of India as: “Though there was no dearth of soldierly talent, we lagged behind other countries in matter of military progress, qualities and caliber of weapons and development of tactics. … The fortification and defense of the north-western frontier was completely neglected. The military condition of the country was thus far from satisfactory.”

Thus the political conditions in India were far from satisfactory during the opening of the 16^th century. There was not a single State to face an invader successfully. What we find in the politics is the attempts made to fulfill the selfish motives by the native chiefs and nobles. Prof. Rushbrooke Williams sums up the conditions in these words, “The Muhammedan powers were weak, distracted by their own divisions; the Rajput confederacy, led by Mewar, was almost ready to seize the empire which lay within its grasp. But the Fates willed otherwise. That Sangram Singh was cheated of his prize, that the forces of Islam were re-established, that the Rajputs were doomed to endure rather than enjoy.”

Mussolini and Fascism in Italy

2020-02-03T13:55:00.001+05:30

The rise of Fascism in Italy was one of the most striking developments in Europe between the two world wars. The chief objective of Fascism was a sweeping programme of political, social and economic reforms in the country. It was a counter offense against communism and established what may be called ‘a dictatorship of the middle class’. Fascism has also been represented as the last stand of capitalism.

Rise of Fascism in Italy: Genesis

The genesis of the rise of Fascism in Italy can be studied as under:

Italy had sided with the Allies during the World War I. However, she did not get the reward promised to her in the Treaty of London (1915).

When the interests of Italy and Yugoslavia clashed on the question of Fiume, the Allied Powers favoured the latter, which annoyed Italy.

The Communist government in Italy had failed to maintain law and order in the country. The government was weak enough and did not dare to take action against the instigators. Riots, fighting, strikes and violence had become usual in Italy. The Socialists and the Fascists fought almost in all the big cities and the government paid no attention to these disturbances. It gave the Fascists an opportunity to rise in power.

Even the Ministers were very inefficient. The Government under Netti and then under Giolitti proved incapable to deal with the situation. It required bold leadership, which was provided by the Fascists.

A number of patriots, mostly belonging to the middle-classes, were alarmed at the failure of the government and desired a strong Government in the Centre. The party in power was pacifist. But these patriots felt that a pacifist Government had always failed to rule efficiently. When they found that the government was not interested to take any strong action against the destroyers of law and order, they decided to save the country from the Communist yoke and to perform where the communist rulers had failed. Out of these patriots rose a body, which later on came to be known as the Fascists. Jackson remarks, “Italians felt themselves disgraced in the eyes of the world, swindled by their own politicians…. The political party in power in 1919 was pacifist, its leaders old and cynical. It is little wonder that Italians turned to violence.”

In brief, the failure of the Communist experiment, the weakness of the government, the subsidies of the rich, the revival of the middle class, the spread of patriotism, and the desire for a strong Central Government by the various classes of people created ground for the birth and success of Fascism in Italy.

Career of Mussolini

Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 A.D. in the home of a black-smith in Italy. His mother was a teacher in a school. Having attained the age of 18, Mussolini started his career as a teacher. However, he did not find this profession of his taste and aspiration. So he resigned and went to Switzerland hoping for a better future. In Switzerland, he was influenced by the views of socialism. During his stay there, he formed many trade unions and succeeded in calling on strikes. Considering his activities harmful for peace in the country, the Swiss government expelled him. On his return to Italy, Mussolini was charged for his participation in the Agrarian Riots and was imprisoned. After his release, he went to Trent in Austria, where he caused the displeasure of the Austrian government and was expelled. In 1911 -12, Mussolini returned to Italy and was again arrested for criticizing the Italian attack on Tripoli (Africa).

For his sacrifices, he was appointed the Editor of Avanti, the official paper of the Socialist Party. Being a socialist, he opposed the Italian participation in the World War I. However, he soon changed his views and began to support his country’s participation in the War. Consequently, he was expelled from the Socialist Party and removed from his post of the Editor of Avanti. But he was not discouraged and founded a newspaper named Populo De’ Italia and became its Editor.

When the Bill of compulsory military service was passed, Mussolini was also sent to the frontiers. He was wounded in a bomb explosion and was, therefore, released from the army.

After the World War, Mussolini called a meeting of the ex-servicemen and formed a new organization --- Fascia De Combatemento (Union of Combats). A large number of people joined this organization.

Mussolini on the path of progress

Fascists denounced the Italian government both at home and abroad through the pamphlets, speeches and patriotic demonstrations. Fascism gained popularity in Italy, particularly after the failure of the Communist sponsored movement for the capture of the factories. Mussolini, in his war against communism, started a military agitation, namely Senadrite. Its members wore black shirts, wandered in various parts of the country and combated with the communists using such destructive weapons like kerosene oil, petrol, iron rods etc., resulting in heavy loss of life on both the sides. These activities of the Fascists were even secretly supported by the Government of Giolitti.

Fascist movement in progress

The number of the Fascists went on increasing tremendously as the movement became more and more popular. The employers supported it as a guarantee against lockouts and strikes. The landlords supported it as a security against peasant uprisings. Common men and the intellectuals found in it a symbol of peace and order, while the patriots saw the realization of their national goal.

The Fascist Party, established in November 1921A.D, further strengthened the movement. There was to be a Fascist Grand Council at the Centre for the entire country, whose head was to be known as Duce. Under him, was the Secretary General of the Party, who was appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Duce. About 10,000 branches of the Fascist Party were spread in various provinces. Each province had a Provincial Secretary, who was appointed by the Duce on the recommendation of the Secretary General. The Fascists established four auxiliary organizations --- two for the boys and two for the girls.

In 1928 A.D., the Fascist Party was written into the constitution of Italy, which legalized its existence. The Government ordered the suppression of all non-Fascist organizations in Italy.

Fascistization of the Government

Having come to power, Mussolini got unlimited powers from the Parliament for a year. He adopted a number of measures to fascistize the entire system of the Government. No person could get a government job unless he was a Fascist. By a law, the Prime Minister was rendered powers to dismiss any civil or military servant, whose views were contrary to Fascism. By another law, the political party which got maximum number of votes in the election was given the right to send 2/3 members to the Chamber. It was also declared that, in future, the Prime Minister and not the Parliament would be responsible towards the Emperor. It made Mussolini, as the Prime Minister, the head of the State and all supreme powers in the State passed into his hands. He also became the supreme commander of all the forces. No legislative measures passed by the two Houses of the Parliament could become a law unless it was approved by Mussolini.

In 1928 A.D., a law was passed banning all the social, educational, moral and political institutions in the country, which did not adhere to the Fascist ideas. No question regarding the national importance, declaration of war, conclusion of peace, or the succession to the throne could be decided in the absence or the refusal of the head of the Fascist Party. Thus by these measures, Mussolini completely Fascistized the Government and usurped all the powers. Generally it is said, “Constitutionally speaking, he was merely the Prime Minister of Italy, but actually he was a dictator.” The above contention is confirmed by Sumner Wells, “The members of what was politically termed the Italian Government, were no more than Mussolini’s lackeys. … For no one in Italy, from the King to his Ministers, from the Generals to the Industrial magnates, dared to oppose him.”

Criticism

Mussolini brought efficiency in the administration. All possible steps were taken to increase efficiency in it. Works for public welfare were also undertaken. Strikes were banned. However, agricultural and industrial unrest was not solved. Moreover, it destroyed the Parliamentary form of government. There was no freedom of opinion to people. Citizens were subjected to the rule of corrupt officials, and so long as the Fascist regime continued, there was no scope of any relief.

Achievements of Mussolini or Fascism

The early years of power under the Fascist regime were marked by a series of social and economic reforms. According to the Fascists, “everything is within the State and nothing is outside it.” From the economic point of view, Fascism was strictly against communism. It stood for a co-operative idea of life. Syndicate system was also important in Fascism. Principle of collective labour was given emphasis. People of different trades were given permission to make unions.

In 1870 A.D., when Rome was seized by the Italians, the relations between Italy and the Pope became the worst thereafter. However, the struggle was settled in 1929 A.D. by the Latern treaty. Accordingly,

(i) The Pope recognized the Kingdom of Italy under the House of Savoy, with Rome as its capital.

(ii) Small area of the Vatican City and St. Peter’s Church was assigned to the Pope in full sovereignty.

Feeling that the support of the Church to the Government would remove its weakness, the Catholicism was declared to be supreme in Italy. The Pope was given the right to appoint all bishops in Italy. However, he was not to appoint any such person who was against the Fascist rule. The Pope was also given the power to appoint teachers of religious education. Hence Southgate writes, “Perhaps Mussolini’s most conspicuous success was the settlement of the sixty year old quarrel between Italy and the Papacy.”

This settlement checked the interference of religion into the politics. Moreover, Mussolini adopted the policy in order to accomplish his political interests, just as Napoleon Bonaparte did in the case of Concordat.

Foreign Policy of Mussolini

Discussing the foreign policy of Italy before the World War I, Schumann states that she had been playing the role of a jackal in the international politics since the period of Bismarck, attacking and threatening the smaller and weak States, but feeling contented whatever she secured from the Great Powers. But after the rise of Mussolini, this policy was changed. He adopted peace for some years ‘despite bellicose speeches.’ But soon he adopted an aggressive foreign policy. It was because of this policy that amendments were made in the Treaty of Versailles, Italy occupied some African colonies and Italy got a respectable seat in the international politics. Moreover, Mussolini wanted to divert the attention of the Italians from the internal politics. It could be possible if he kept Italy busy in the foreign adventures.

Corfu Incident

General Tolini of Italy was killed along with his four companions on the Greek land. Mussolini demanded from Greece to give death sentence to the culprits and pay five million lures to Italy. Greece refused to accept these terms and took the matter to the League. Mussolini, however, did not care for it, and bombarded and annexed Corfu. As the League failed to settle the matter, the third world countries decided that Greece should accept the terms of Mussolini, and asked the latter to retreat from Corfu. Thus the dispute was settled and Mussolini gained much popularity.

Treaty of Rome

According to the Paris Peace Conference, Italy was deprived of Fiume, which got her independence in 1920 A.D. However, Mussolini signed the treaty of Rome with Yugoslavia in 1924 A.D., as she was also not happy over the independence of Fiume. According to the terms, Fiume was divided into two parts. Fiume proper was occupied by Italy, while its neighbouring town of Port Baros was given to Yugoslavia. It was a political triumph of Mussolini.

Treaty of Tirana

In 1926 A.D., Mussolini concluded a treaty of Tirana with Albania. By this treaty, Albania practically became Italy’s dependency. In 1939 A.D., on the day of Good Friday, Mussolini attacked Albania and annexed it.

Domination of Tangier

In 1928 A.D., England, France and Spain invited Italy to have a share in the International Government of the Free City of Tangier on the West Coast of Morocco. Italy was given much authority in the government of this city.

Opposition to the Nazi attempt on Austria

Adolf Hitler, the Nazi leader of Germany, was very keen to annex Austria. He, however, could not succeed in his aim. He then encouraged the Nazis in Austria to revolt against the Austrian government. On July 25, 1934 A.D., they killed the Austrian Prime Minister, Dollfuss, and claimed their authority over some government buildings and Radio Station. But soon, the Nazis were defeated by the government troops. All over the world, Hitler was criticized for his attempts. Mussolini also openly criticized him.

Influence in Central Europe

Mussolini signed many pacts with Hungary in April 1928 A.D., with Greece in September 1928 A.D., and with Austria in February 1930 A.D. Mussolini’s influence spread in the world when he made an alliance with Great Britain and France on July 1, 1933 A.D. In March 1934 A.D., he also signed an alliance with Austria and Hungary known as the Roman Protocol. In 1935 A.D., a treaty with Great Britain and France was concluded against Germany at Stresa.

Conquest of Abyssinia

In 1896 A.D., Italy was defeated by Abyssinia at Adowa. Mussolini wanted to wipe off this humiliation. Secondly, Mussolini’s imperialist policy also encouraged him to attack over Abyssinia. Thirdly, Italy needed to acquire more and more colonies and food for her growing population. And if Mussolini defeated Abyssinia, it would raise his prestige. Mussolini got an opportunity to attack Abyssinia in 1935 A.D. due to some border incidents at Walwal. Haile Selassia, the Emperor of Abyssinia, took the matter to the League. Italy was declared to be the aggressor, but Mussolini defied the League decision and attacked Abyssinia. Though Abyssinians put much resistance, the Italians succeeded to reach near the capital of Abyssinia in April 1936 A.D. The Emperor of Abyssinia left his country on May 1, and with it all the Abyssinian resistance came to an end. Mussolini occupied Abyssinia and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel, the Emperor of Italy, as the King of Abyssinia as well.

The conquest of Abyssinia played an important role in the history between the two Wars. As Gathorn Hardy puts it that it “marks a crucial turning point in post-war history. The triumph of Italian aggression naked and unashamed, affected the whole world with fundamental consequences. To England it meant the virtual destruction of the institution which successive governments of different parties had proclaimed to be the keystone of their foreign policy. To France, it meant that the enemy for whom she stood most in terror was encouraged. ….”

Understanding between Germany and Italy

The Italian conquest quite affected the international relations between the two wars. By this conquest, Hitler got encouragement in his aggressive designs. Italy also tilted towards the Axis nations alienating the Allies. Thus, day by day, Italy and Germany came close to each other. In 1936 A.D., Mussolini came to an understanding with Hitler and signed the Anti-Common Term Pact with Germany and Japan, well known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. Italy left the League of Nations in December 1937 A.D.

Italian intervention in Spain

Mussolini intended to increase his influence in Spain. He got an opportunity when the civil war broke out in Spain. He supported Gen. Franco against the Republicans. Despite the appeals made by the Republicans to the League to prevent Italy to interfere in the internal affairs of Spain, Mussolini continued with his activities. He also got help from Hitler. His influence increased in Spain, when Gen. Franco defeated the Republicans and established his government there.

Agreement with England

Since the incident of Abyssinia, England had been on unfriendly terms with Italy. But in 1938 A.D., an Anglo-Italian Pact was concluded. England accepted Italy’s occupation of Abyssinia and gave recognition to her African Empire. Mussolini, in turn, accepted to withdraw his volunteers from Spain.

Mussolini joins Hitler in World War II

In January 1936 A.D., the British Prime Minister, Lord Chamberlain, and the Foreign Minister, Halifax, went to Rome for friendly relations, but their mission was not successful. In May 1939 A.D., Mussolini signed the Steel Pact with Hitler, according to which both the countries were to help each other militarily, when one was at war. In September 1939, Hitler attacked Poland to start the World War II, and in June 1940 A.D., Mussolini also declared the Italian entrance in the World War.

Role of the philosophers in the French Revolution of 1789

2020-02-02T12:19:00.000+05:30

The outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789 was the cumulative result of the variety of factors, of which the enlightenment or awakening brought about by a group of intellectuals or philosophers among the various sections in the French society regarding the degenerate conditions of the time -- political, social, economic, religious and moral-- was an important factor.

The administration in France was far from satisfactory. Various administrative units possessed ill-defined and over-lapping jurisdictions. The French government was arbitrary at all.The Emperor was liable to do whatever he liked and the people were bound to obey him whether he was right or wrong. He paid no attention to the sufferings of the subjects. Different laws prevailed in different parts of the country, and as Prof. Hayes opines, "What was lawful in one town might be illegal in a place not far away."

The French society also possessed too much of inequality. The society was formed of three groups. The First Estate, comprising of the clergymen, was a privileged class. This estate performed the spiritual services. The Church was supposed to be the guardian of the souls of the people. The condition of the lower clergy was highly miserable and was neglected and exploited by the higher clergy, whose life was full of luxury and comforts. The Second Estate was also a privileged class and was formed of the Nobility. The Third Estate was the unprivileged class and all those who were neither the clergymen nor the nobles, came in this class. Generally it was formed of the bourgeoisie, artisans and the peasantry.

The French finances were in a deplorable state of affairs. Owing to the series of expensive wars, the French finances were completely upset and the financial bankruptcy was on its peak. As the clergymen and the nobles were exempted from taxation, the burden of taxation fell on the Third Estate, and whatever the State earned was highly spent on the royal family.

Such was the state of affairs when the philosophers and the writers influenced the depressed masses of France with the might of their intellect.

Montesquieu, a member of the nobility of robe, an eminent lawyer and a judge of the Parlement of Bordeaux, started a philosophic movement and "revealed the batteries of criticism and satire" which were to strike at the foundation of the ancien Regime in France. He supported the constitutional monarchy like that in England. He believed in the supremacy of law. He wanted all the three powers to be put into different organs, because "liberty is impossible without the separation of powers." The combination of any two or all the three powers in one organ resulted in tyranny. L' Spirit des lois, published in 1748 A.D., was a study in political philosophy, an analysis of the various forms of Government known to men, a cold and balanced judgement of their various characteristics, merits and demerits.

Voltaire proved himself an accomplished poet, historian, dramatist and even scientist. His power of spirit was seen in everything he wrote. He deeply hated the Old Regime. He had been thrown into prison many times by the odious and arbitrary lettres de' cachet. The main target of his attack was the superstitious church. He considered it the storage of superstitions, the enemy of free thinking, the persecutor of innocent persons who differed from it, and the supporter of narrow and bigoted prejudices. He stood for religious toleration. His views were, "Since we are all steeped in error and folly, we must forgive each other for our follies." He was not an atheist. He used to say, "If God did not exist, it would be necessary to create Him. He was not a political thinker in general. As an institution, he was satisfied with monarchy. His ideal of government was a benevolent despotism, but not democracy. He used to say, "I would prefer to be ruled by one lion than by a hundred rats."

Rousseau opened up the springs of emotion. He wished for the total reorganization of the society. The reason was that the present system had become too tolerable to render liberty. He was not in favour of the historical studies and did not care for knowledge. He felt that studies, art and knowledge degraded one.

In his fundamental thesis, he declared that man, naturally good and just and happy, had been corrupted and degraded by the very thing he called civilization. So he appealed to the people, "Sweep away, therefore, all the false fabric of society, the world of ugly want and insolent riches miscalled civilization, the oppression miscalled order, the error miscalled knowledge. Level its inequalities, repudiate its learning, break its function, shatter its chains. Let men return to the simplicity of ancient days, to the idyllic state, when uncorrupted instinct only ruled them. .... Immortal and celestial voices, of reasons, seek the high paths of felicity of life." He awakened the people telling them that all the concessions and privileges in the society were reserved for the First and Second Estates only. "They get lucrative employments, and if they murder anybody, no action is taken against them, while the unprivileged is given harsh punishment even for a minor fault."

The Social Contract summarizes his ideal on social and political organization. He proposed the idea of the sovereignty of the people. "Man is born free and yet everywhere he is in chains." As the sovereignty rested with the people, no Government had the power to seize it from them and people had the full right to revolt against the Government. He was not in favour of the representative form of Government and demanded that people should directly make the laws themselves.

The course of the revolution was influenced by his two forthcoming principles --- the sovereignty of the people and the political equality of all the citizens.

Rousseau's political influence progressed not only in France or Europe, but in various parts of the world.Lord Morley praised him, "He spoke words that can never be unspoken, and kindled a hope that can never be extinguished."

Despite this three joint of philosophers, there were still a number of intellectuals. Though of small stature, they influenced the thoughts of the people with their writings and powerfully contributed to the destruction of the Old Regime. Diderot, the Editor of the Encyclopedia, to which many writers contributed, desired for the improvement of mankind.

The Physiocrats also played an important part in the economic sphere. Adam Smith, Mirabeau, Say, Quesnay and Turgot were the chief representatives in this field. They attacked the prevailing mercantile system with its insistence on State control of trade and commerce. Their slogan was laissez faire. They wanted complete free trade and wanted all taxes to be reduced to a single land tax. Mirabeau remarked that those principles were sufficient to "set everything right and renew the age of Solomon." As the Controller General of Finance, Turgot also attempted to establish freedom of trade within and beyond France.

The other intellectuals known only to the name of history are Beaumarchais, Helvetius, Holbach, the Abbe de Raynal, and the socialist publicist Abbe de Mably.

There is a great controversy regarding the contribution of philosophers towards the revolution. A group of writers refuse to believe that among the philosophers and intellectuals lies the real cause of the revolution and insist on believing that the philosophers have only the secondary role in it. Such historians, however, ignore the fact that how without dignified leadership and illuminating thought provoking ideas, any movement could have risen much less a revolution in France.

Further, a question which is often raised 'why there was revolution only in France and not in any other country of Europe', signifies the fact that the grievances in the world of Europe were of similar nature. There was not any sort of enlightenment anywhere except France and that is a reason why the revolution broke out in France only.

Cambridge History (Vol. XI) states, "The ideas had been there even before the Encyclopedia was published and before Rousseau and Montesquieu gave their logic to the masses." In the words of Prof. Hazen, the writers did not cause the revolution, still they were the factor instilling and infusing the new ideas by their criticism and comparisons, agreements and logic which made the French public understand their despicable position. The principal features of the revolution were engraved on the lips of the French people. These were Equality, Liberty and Fraternity, the ideas which every nation desire, which every human loves, and which nobody achieves, and up to this time nothing as such could had been achieved. In the psychology of the greatest philosopher of the modern times, B. Russell, "Tear a plant, cut it and it would still grow more." The more the people were being crushed, the more desire to spare themselves from the evils grew and there were born the writers, poets, thinkers and philosophers with new ideas, new outlook, new passion, which were to work for a time; the social evils and the diseases which otherwise were incurable.

The Fourth Estate also played a significant role in the propagation of new ideas. The publication of new journals from Paris ---Journal de' Paris and Journal de' Politique --- lit the flames in the hearts of the suppressed and depressed and impressed them. In 1763 A.D., Rousseau published his concern over the gravity of the french situation. In 1764 A.D., Diderot in one of his plays, indirectly helped imposing the so-called Revolution and the free distributing of Quesnay's pamphlets made the situation from bad to worse. The three joints of the French revolution --- Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau--- appeared on the scene. For Rousseau, it has been confirmed, "But for Rousseau, there could have been no revolution." The phrase of Carlyle can never be missed, "Though Rousseau, practically an idealist, caused discontent, thesis no revolution; it was he who led the revolutionary era through the proper channel, and guided the palm who held it in great difficulty and who spoilt it with sufficient zeal." On firm foundations, Rousseau proved that Equality, Liberty and Fraternity were not just the maxims on paper, they are to be practised and implemented.

The ambers of the revolutionary data that had been secretly smouldering was burst into an open obligation when the philosophers dominated the french State. It were they who instigated and inspired the few who led, who provided them with logical logic, who watered them with the happy future and always warning them that if they left the field, they would be no more either in body or in spirit.The Revolution had, thus, its work in the seeds sown by the philosophers and these seeds fortunately fell upon fruitful soil. Hence the philosophers had happy dreams with a new vigour, new vitality, new emotions, new aspirations, as if they were championing the cause of the oppressed and the depressed, dejected and rejected, the people of France, nay of the world.

Civil Works of Napoleon Bonaparte

2014-04-29T11:46:00.004+05:30

Napoleon Bonaparte is one of the most remarkable figures in the history of Europe. Despite being a great conqueror of his time and creating terror in the continent, he also carried out a number of reforms and lay down a very sound administration in France and proved himself a very efficient administrator. He carried out his civil works and established law and order in France after it had seen many years of anarchy and confusion. That is why H.A.L. Fisher says, “If Napoleon’s conquests were ephemeral, his civil work in France was built on granite.” Even Ludwig observes, “He strives for order and peace more resolutely than for war and conquest.”

He carried out his works in all spheres --- political, financial, religious, social, cultural etc. so successfully that his name still lives in France.

Centralized Local Government: The National Assembly in France had framed the local administrative system on the electoral basis. But Napoleon was not satisfied with this system.His system was, instead, based on the principles of centralization and autocracy, and resembled more to the Old Regime than to the Revolutionary. He had more of the spirit of Louis XIV. Grant & Temperley observe, “He desired in everything the establishment of a central authority --- which could only be his own authority --- which should direct or control every part of the life of France.”He placed the Departments and other smaller administrative units ---- arrondissements and communes ---- in the hands of prefects, sub-prefects and mayors. These officers were appointed directly or indirectly by Napoleon.

Napoleon knew that it was only through this system of Centralization that peace and order could be restored in France and an efficient administrative machinery could be framed. the system worked well, indeed, though it completely ignored the ideas of self-government.

Equality vs. Liberty: Napoleon had devoted himself to the reorganization of France. According to him, “Bonaparte came to close the romance of revolution, to heal the wounds, to correct extravagances.” To establish efficiency in administration, he adopted many measures to bring social and economic equality. Equal social rights were provided to all. High posts were no more reserved only for the privileged classes, and merit was the only basis for selection. The officials had to remain faithful to the Emperor and obey his orders. Thus all the able and meritorious persons were offered an opportunity to rise. He also brought many important changes in the Taxation system. Equal taxes were imposed and there was no sign left in the indifference and inequality of taxes.According to A.J. Grant, “He never proposed to re-establish the system of financial privilege.” By making appointments on merit, he became very popular among his subjects, because no French ruler had ever taken steps in this direction so far.

However, he did not favour Liberty, because he considered it as an important factor for creating chaos and anarchy. Grant & Temperley observe, “He thought of liberty as a disturbing factor that prevented the efficiency of a State. There is no hint in anything that he said or wrote that he thought of it as the great force making for stability, order and efficiency.” Press and books were kept under censor-board. Even theatres were controlled by the Government.

Finances : The financial condition in France was deplorable under the rule of the ancien regime. The National Assembly took some steps to reform the French finances, but its reformatory measures added to its debts. The National Convention and the Directory had also not been successful to check the financial indebtedness. The economic settlement had failed all trade and industry in the country. Napoleon took very sound measures in this regard. First of all, he equated the taxation system in the country. Then he developed means of irrigation for the development of agriculture. New debt letters were replaced by the old ones. A separate treasure was established for the payment of the national debts. The Government made many arrangements for the technical education in the country. To popularize the national goods among the French, he increased the taxes on the imported goods.

The most significant work, which increased his honour in France, is the establishment of the Bank of France. It was a remarkable measure in the economic field. It was founded in 1800 A.D. Through this bank, he made many attempts to revive the economy of France. Prof. Hayes is very right in his assumption when he considers as “one of the soundest financial institutions in the world.”

Crushing of Rebels and policy of conciliation : The Monarchists attempted to overthrow Napoleon and to reinstate monarchy in France. The Jacobins were seeking an opportunity to defend the Republic. But Napoleon had already made himself popular and won the public support by his extra-ordinary reforms and remarkable successes in the military front. He had raised the prestige of France in the entire world. He arrested his rivals and executed many of them. During the revolutionary days, the members of the privileged classes had to run away from France. Now he treated very sympathetically towards these emigrees and invited them to their native country. The offices were opened to all, including the royalists and the Girondists, provided they accepted the existing system.

Military Policy : Basically Napoleon was himself a soldier. Whatever he was and whatever he had achieved was all due to his military power. He introduced many changes in the military organization and made several reforms in order to defend his achievements and also France against the foreign invasions. He established a very powerful army with modern techniques and arms. He gave no opportunity to his Generals and soldiers to make any complaint. He served them with dresses, shoes and good food. Payments were made regularly. Thus this organization helped him to establish internal peace and order, conquer the foreign States and defend France against any invasion.

Napoleonic Codes : There existed a number of laws in France before Napoleon. Prof. Hayes says that the laws varied from one place in France to the other. To reconstruct France internally, his greatest achievement in this field was his Codes, which are considered as ‘a benefactor of mankind.’ During his days of exile in St. Helena, he once said that his Civil Code and not his victories in war, was his most real claim to fame. His Codes came into existence in 1804 and many of them form the law in France till this day. It gave to France a common system of law, which was at all clear, orderly and systematic. It also made justice more rapid, cheap and reliable. Besides, it established social equity in the eyes of law and secured religious toleration for all.

In all, there were five Codes of Napoleon --- Civil Code, Code of Civil Procedure, Code of Criminal Procedure and Penal Law, Penal Code, and the Commercial Code. The Codes passed through many stages before they became binding on France. He took an active part in revising the final draft of the Code. By his Civil Code, he stood for the absolute authority of father within the family. This Code even allowed the father to imprison his children. He was strongly in favour of the subjection of women. He used to say, “The angel told Eve to obey her husband.” It secured many of the victories that had been won by the Revolution. The Code of Criminal Procedure followed in many respects the English practice. Although the jury-system was severely criticized, Napoleon maintained it by his influence.

In the Penal Code, branding and confiscation of property was allowed as penalties.

Fisher concludes that although there are some defects, “the Codes preserve the essential conquests of the revolutionary spirit --- civil equality, religious toleration, the emancipation of land, public trial, the jury of judgment. ”

The Concordat : The Civil Constitution of Clergy (1790 A.D.) had divided the Church and the French people in their attitude towards the revolution. A large number of lower clergy had completely turned against it. It had made a considerable section of masses against it. Napoleon sought to win their gratitude by restoring the Roman-Catholic Church in France which had been the chief stumbling throne of the Revolution. In 1801 A.D., he made an agreement with the Pope, popularly known as the Concordat. He approved Catholicism as the greatest religion in France. The Church was returned its confiscated property. The bishops were now to be appointed by the State though nominated by the Pope. “The Pope could only reject his nominees on the ground of heresy or immorality, and, if there was no fault to be found with them on these points, was bound to grant canonical investiture.” The bishops had to take an oath of fidelity to the Government. Thus Catholicism was re-established in France, dependent on the State and satisfying the majority of the population.

Though Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France, its position was entirely different than in the pre-revolutionary France. To quote Napoleon, “The people must have a religion and the religion must be in the hands of the Government.” The object of his religious policy in the words of Ketelby is, “Religion was to him only a useful political instrument, a national imaginative focus, a social cement, a safety valve.”

Educational system : Napoleon introduced a number of reforms in the educational field as well. ‘Education is very essential for the development of a nation’, were his views. There were to be schools of four categories : primary, secondary, military training (lycees), and technical training. There was to be the Imperial University at the head of all the centres. There was to be one University for all France, and it was intended to bring the whole educational system of France under the control of the University. To be a Graduate was an essential qualification to teach.

The Institut de France was established in 1795 A.D. for higher studies and research. Napoleon was satisfied with its works in physical science, fine arts, mathematics and literature. He disliked the study of moral and political sciences, and suppressed these departments by one his Decree of January 23, 1803.

His object in the educational field, like in religion, was also to fulfill his self-interests. He, however, did not succeed in his educational mission, because of the lack of wealth and experienced teachers. Moreover, his much attention to the military and political exigencies also prevented him to fulfill his desires in this field.

Legion of Honour : In 1802 A.D., Napoleon established an institution, Legion of Honour. It was established because “the French are accessible to only one sentiment --- love of honour.” This honour was confined on those persons who, according to Napoleon, had done something extra-ordinary either in civil or in military spheres. In the beginning, it was criticized very much, but soon its members got very respectable position in the French society. Even today, this system works in France and is a very significant and important institution.

Works of Public Welfare : Napoleon inaugurated a vast series of public works. Roads were projected and many were taken under construction. Canals were cut. Agriculture was improved by the introduction of modern scientific methods; industry was developed in France. Gas was introduced for illuminant. Trees were grown on both sides of the roads. These works also helped the improvement of finances in France. To quote Grant & Temperley, “The general condition of France until the Empire touched its period of ruin, showed an air of prosperity in all classes.”

David Thompson observes that between 1800 and 1803 A.D., Napoleon as First Consul devoted himself mainly to the interval reorganization of France. “It was in this period that his most constructively valuable work was done. He brought to the task of reorganization the qualities of swift decision and action, the same precision and concentration upon essentials which had already brought him success in war. The spirit behind the great reforms of the Consulate at home was the transference of the methods of Bonaparte the general to the tasks of Bonaparte the statesman. And, as in war, he was able to enlist in his service a brand of men imbued with the same spirit and devoted to the same ends.” Fisher confirms the above contention as he says, “Napoleon’s reforms in the domain of law, education, finance, religion and local administration certainly proved more solid and more enduring as compared to his military conquests. He established many many enduring and everlasting institutions in France. He consolidated his country and at the same time preserved certain fruits of revolution. He had displayed his marvellous quality as an organizer and talented administrator.”

Continetal System of Napoleon Bonaparte

2014-04-27T21:07:00.001+05:30

Continental System was a political fight of Napoleon through economic means to ruin his obstinate enemy, England. After the treaty of Tilsit (1807), Napoleon became the paramount master of the entire continent. However, there was one hindrance in his way to the supremacy which blocked his path and that was the Navy. Napoleon was aware of his weakness in the Naval Front, and, therefore, followed the continental system, which the historians have termed as the court of last throw of political gamble, compelled by the exigencies of the game to risk all or fail correspondingly. Napoleon having lost his Navy to Nelson had never tried to rebuild it to match the British strength. He thought that there was one weak point in the British industry and commerce, and if he attacked it, he would be able to bring the British on their knees. What he was required to do was to put an end to the monopoly of the British goods in the Continent. The cheap markets of the British goods promoted it, but once the British trade and commerce was lost, the British prosperity was to go to loss. This, in his opinion, was the best method of teaching a lesson to the ‘nation of shopkeepers’, as he called the British.

In Napoleon’s opinion, France was a self-sufficient country. Through his commercial codes, he organised his trade and commerce and made it prosperous and profitable. He knew that Britain was a manufacturing country. They sold their surplus goods outside their country, and thus earned huge profits and foreign exchange. Being prevented from carrying on this trade outside the country, she would no more have supply of cash and would go bankrupt. Her financial tendency would not then permit her to pay for the continuance of war and hence would submit to the French.

Napoleon felt that the ruin of the British overseas trade would result in her ruin of industry. The British manufacturers, due to the lack of customers, would draw the shutters of godowns and factories. Thousands of workers would be thrown out of work and prevail starvation. Commercial classes would raise in revolt and would put terrific pressure on the government to make peace with Napoleon. In the words of Prof. Hayes, “During the period 1806 to 1812, the struggle between Napoleon and Great Britain was an economic endurance test. On the one hand the question was whether British government could retain the support of the British people. On the other hand, the question was whether Napoleon could rely upon the co-operation of the whole continent.”

After having thought the problem, Napoleon resolved and embarked upon his plan of conquering England. The adopted policy of Continental Blockade, which the Convention and the Directory had started, gave it the real shape and forced more. In 1806 A.D., when he had his deserving victories at Moringo, Austerlitz and Jena, he considered himself the master of Europe and was in a position to enforce the Economic Blockade. He, therefore, used his weapon unflinchingly without changing his mind. He came out in November 1806 with the intention in this connection, for the first time, openly by issuing what are known as the Berlin Decrees. Through these Decrees, he out rightly came out with what had been going on so far in his mind. He declared England to be the enemy of the European continent and expressed his intention unequivocally to fight and defeat the obstinate British, who had nothing but contempt for Europe and its people. These islanders (i.e. the British) had never considered themselves, in his opinion, the members of the same European family. He told the European nations that time had come to pay them back with the same contempt as the British had shown them. Till then, Napoleon in this way wanted to arouse the feelings of the Europeans against his enemy to get their whole-heart co-operation in this great and earnest endeavour to defeat the British. It was a good plan and he could succeed if the Continental Blockade had not lingered on. Had it been a short affair, it would have succeeded. Unfortunately for Napoleon, the British had a reply for the Continental Blockade and it was this answer from which Napoleon’s scheme of conquering England came to grief.

Though the continental blockade of England had been done by the National Convention and the Directory, but with no success. Now it was Napoleon;s turn to give it a definite shape. The Berlin Decree, the first in the series, was issued on November 18, 1806. It was compared to a thunder-bolt. He declared that the whole of the British isles, i.e. England, Scotland, Ireland and the Wales, was to be in the state of blockade. He miscalculated the usefulness of the French Navy to enforce the blockade on the superior British Naval Fleet. That is why the historians have called it the most fictitious blockade ever ordered in history. He prohibited all commerce with British ports, wholly or partially of British origin, and declared them liable to seizure. This was the most outrageous violation of the neutral rights under International Law, which had been perpetuated by Napoleon. The Cambridge Modern History has summed it up in the following words, “It is no exaggeration to say that the Berlin Decree of 18th November, 1806 was the climax to which Napoleon’s policy had so long been working for.” How strict Napoleon wanted to be to the blockade can be found in a letter written to General Juno in which he stated that the wives of his chief officers and Generals should also avoid using English goods, because they were the people who were to set an example for others. “Let them take care also,” wrote Napoleon, “that no part of their dress is composed of English merchandise. ....... It is a contest of life and death between France and England. I must look for the most cordial times in those homes I am surrounded.” To the Berlin Decrees, England’s most useful weapon lay, as according to Ramsay Muir, “ She could damage Napoleon in the eyes of the subjects by making them realise that his commercial war was cutting them off by necessary supplies and was a victim upon grievous harshes.”

An Order in Council was issued in January 1807, which pointed out that England had prohibited all trade with France. Again, the Orders were issued in which England made concessions to Denmark and Russia by making its goods available for sale in those countries. In November 1807, England imposed blockade of all European ports and thus brought to an end the neutral trade. It made the neutrals miserable as they were now between the devil and the deep sea. It made, in fact, impossible for them to be strictly neutral. At the same time, the British relaxed the navigation and offered substantial concessions to non-neutrals and thus encouraged the neutral countries openly to come out for trade with Great Britain instead of France.

Realising a setback and a dent in his Continental System, Napoleon again issued decrees from Warsaw, whereby he ordered the confiscation of the British goods and prohibited the possession of the British goods by any trader or householder. Again, he issued from Milan his decrees. In this Decree, he declared that any neutral vassal was liable to seizure. This was done to encounter the British orders. In 1809, Britain modified her policy by limiting her blockade to the coasts of Holland, France and Italy, thus leaving the trade open with Spain, Portugal, Hungary and Politic lands. Napoleon, on the other hand, stiffened his policy. He had realised that his vassals were not carrying on his policy on a large scale. So by the Tariff Decrees of August 5, 1810, he imposed duties amounting to 15% average on Principal Colonial Prospects. On the same time, by the Decree of Fountainbleau, issued in 1810, Napoleon ordained the seizure and destruction of Britain manufacturing goods and set up a special tribunal to enforce this order. “These monster inactments brought ruin and suffering wherever they were applied and nothing did more to Napoleon’s subjects than the spectacle of the wanted destruction of grave stones of desperately needed supplies.”

Such were the measures of attack and reprisals by means of which Napoleon carried on his commercial war for years together. In the opinion of Marriott, “Between the Decrees launched by Napoleon and the British reprisals, there was this essential difference -- Great Britain had the power of enforcing them effectively, Napoleon had not. Britain was the mistress of seas and it ruled the waves. She could cut off the trade of France and her allies from the rest of the world.”

Despite all this and the early realisation for the success of Continental System, it was essential that he had the support of every European country, more essentially that with Naval Power, he would survive off the aggression upon the countries in the European Continent. He was reluctant in resolving the deadlock, resulting to the costly wars. Prof. Trevelyan writes, “England’s resistance unexpectedly continued and drew Napoleon on into more and more dangerous schemes of Spain and Russia into ever stricter prohibition against trade. It seemed that he must conquer and starve the whole world in order to starve and conquer the islanders i.e. British.”

The Tsar of Russia had promised Napoleon at Tilsit in 1807 that he would not allow the British ships and her goods to enter any of the Russian ports. Austria and Prussia had been severely crushed by Napoleon that they had to enforce his policy willy-nilly in their dominions. Sweden was still in alliance with England and in 1808, Napoleon declared war against her and forced her to close all Scandinavians to England. Napoleon’s brother, Louis Bonaparte, was made the master of Holland, but he could not enforce the blockade. Consequently, Louis was forced to abdicate and Holland was annexed into France. Napoleon also captured North Coast. His empire included the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and the Duchy of Westphalia, and also forced the system on Cis Alpine, Naples, Tuscany etc. His negotiations with the Pope brought him in conflict with the Papal States, which were captured and the Pope was put in the prison. This completely made him the enemy of all the Christian States, who would not forgive him for the insult inflicted on the Pope.

Portugal, the old friend of Britain, was also antagonised and this gave the British an opportunity to create trouble for Napoleon during the Peninsular War. Thus it was all suicidal for Napoleon during to enforce the Continental System on the unwilling nations of Europe. It failed right from the beginning and did fail ultimately because it lacked the sympathy and co-operation of the people of Europe. His policy of starving the world in order to starve Great Britain was also a negative one, which brought nothing but miseries, sufferings, trials and timulations for the people of Europe and people of France and ultimately led to his downfall. Napoleon had matured earlier and probably he had grown old earlier as well. It is said that after forty, he was not the same Napoleon. His knack of doing right things at the right time had left him in forty, hence his downfall.

Annexation of Lahore by Ranjit Singh

2011-11-11T21:19:00.001+05:30

When Ranjit Singh succeeded to the leadership of Sukerchakia Misl in 1790 A.D., Lahore was being ruled by the weak Bhangi trio. In 1765 A.D., a Bhangi-Kanheya combination had expelled Kabuli Mal, the rapacious governor under Durrani. The new masters of Lahore ransacked it indiscriminately, dividing the spoils among themselves. The city itself was divided among the three Bhangi Sardars. The Sukerchakia chief at that time, Charat Singh, captured the famous canon, Zamzama, and retired to his headquarter at Gujranwala. Thus the Bhangi chiefs became too engrossed in their debaucheries and too jealous of each other to offer a united resistance to any of their rivals.

Another peculiar favourable circumstance which helped Ranjit Singh in the conquest of Lahore was the revived ambitions of the Durrani Emperor. In 1793, Shah Zaman succeeded to the throne of Kabul and decided to recover Punjab from the Sikhs. To achieve his mission, he sent approximately 7,000 horsemen under his General, Ahmed Khan Shahanchi, from Hasan Abdal. However, the Afghans were routed by the Sikhs. Two years later, Shah Zaman again appeared at Peshawar and took possession of the fortress of Rohtas, but had to hasten back to Kabul on hearing the news of the Persian invasion.

In 1796-97, Shah Zaman was urged by the hard-pressed Rohilla chief, Ghulam Mohammad, and Nawab Asif-ud-Daula of Oudh to invade India.In November 1796, the Shah marched at the head of 30,000 men and reached unhindered the precincts of Lahore. He even set up his camp on the banks of Ravi. The Bhangi chiefs left the town in hurry and Shah Zaman occupied Lahore on January 3, 1797. Shah’s stay at Lahore, however, proved to be a short one, as the news of the rebellion of his brother, Shah Mahmood, hastened his departure.

As yet, Shah Zaman’s invasion had failed to dislodge the Sikh confederacy from their established position. The Bhangi chiefs, Lehna Singh and Sobha Singh, came out of their hidings and re-occupied Lahore. While the Durrani invasion convulsed the centre of the Punjab, Ranjit Singh had realized inability of the Bhangis to hold it permanently against the onslaughts of the Afghans. Lahore represented the symbol of prestige and power to any master of the Punjab. It commanded sub-mountainous region in the North-West, the hilly tracts in the North-East, the Doab in the center and the barren land in the South including Multan, Bahawalpur and Sind. To wrest it from the Bhangis was the main ambition of Ranjit Singh.

On October 25, 1798, Shah Zaman left Peshawar and advanced on Lahore. A Sukerchakia-Bhangi coalition attempted to hem in the Afghan army and Zaman, however, occupied Lahore. During the siege Ranjit Singh, in spirit of his youthful bravado, challenged the Shah from the Samman burj. The Bhangi chiefs, as usual, retired to the hills. Shah Zaman stayed at Lahore for about four months, but had to return once again because of the rebellion of Shah Mahmud. He left his Indian possessions under the control of Shahanchi Khan, who was later defeated by the combined forces of Ranjit Singh and others. With the dispersal of the Afghan forces, all semblance of Afghan authority between Ravi and Jhelum was obliterated.

The brave effort that Ranjit made against the Afghan chief, had impressed the citizens of Lahore, who were fed up with the oppression of the Bhangis. They approached Ranjit Singh to liberate them from the Bhangis. On 4th July, 1799, he led an army of 25,000 soldiers and invaded Lahore. On 6th July, the guards threw open the gates of the citadel and the next day the fort was occupied. The Bhangis, however, were left unmolested.

“The occupation of Lahore,” as Bikramjit Hasrat remarks, “by the youthful Sukerchakia chief in July 1799 is a landmark in the history of the Sikhs. It laid the foundation of sovereign Sikh monarchy in Punjab.” The conquest of Lahore, in the words of G.L. Chopra, “was an important addition to Ranjit’s possession, and greatly enhanced his political prestige as the holder of the traditional capital of Punjab.”

Writers like Princep and Lepel Griffin allege that Lahore was bestowed upon Ranjit Singh for his service rendered to the Afghan ruler for the return of 15 canons which were lost in the Jhelum while the latter was on his way back to Kabul. Shah Zaman, pleased on the act of Ranjit Singh presented the Khillat to the Sikh chief. Dr. N.K. Sinha, however, refutes this allegation and justifies his full claim.

No doubt, that Ranjit Singh dug out and delivered to Shah Zaman’s Vakil 15 pieces of canon and got in return a rich Khillat from Shah. But at the same time, Shah had not relinquished his design on Hindustan and was anxious to conciliate Ranjit Singh, whose position in the Punjab is best described in the words of British Resident with Daulat Rao Scindhia, “Zaman Shah is endeavouring to attach to his interest Ranjit Singh, the usurper of Lahore who has lately received Khillat from the Durrani Prince..... The Sikh chief possesses considerable influence in Punjab and seems ambitious of acquiring still greater authority which he hopes of attaining by means of a close connection...”

Ranjit Singh became the master of Lahore on 6th July,1799, while Shah Zaman returned from that city on 4th January of the same year. But Dr. Sinha asserts that the Durrani grant could not have helped him to conquer the capital of Punjab which he took on 6th July, 1799 while the Khillat was most probably conferred in March of the following year, when 15 pieces of canon were delivered. Dr. Sinha’s argument is based on the British Record of April 1800, according to which “Ranjit has lately delivered to Shah Zaman’s Vakil 15 pieces of canon which Durrani prince had lost last year in retreat....”

At this stage of his career Ranjit Singh was not so strong as to refuse the Durrani support, dubious though it certainly was. Keeping in line with this, Dr. N.K. Sinha remarks, “Each wanted to make use of other to serve his own interest and the submissive attitude of the one and the conciliatory attitude of the other must be regarded as mere diplomatic camouflage to hide the real objective for which they were striving.”

Conclusively, the arguments advanced by Dr. Sinha with the help of dates disprove the theory that Ranjit Singh secured Lahore as a gift from Shah Zaman.