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Prince William of Wales

2011-02-21T22:32:00.000-08:00

Prince William

Prince William of Wales KG FRS (William Arthur Philip Louis; born 21 June 1982) is the elder son of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Diana, Princess of Wales, and grandson of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He is second in the line of succession, behind his father, to the thrones of 16 independent states, although he is resident in and more directly involved with the United Kingdom, the oldest of these realms.
Following his education at numerous schools around the United Kingdom, obtaining a degree from the University of St Andrews, and spending parts of a gap year in Chile, Belize, and countries in Africa, William enrolled in the military. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Blues and Royals regiment of the Household Cavalry – serving with his brother Prince Harry and,^[2] two years later, earned his wings by completing pilot training at Royal Air Force College Cranwell.^[3] In 2009, the Prince transferred to the Royal Air Force, was promoted to flight lieutenant and underwent helicopter flying training with the aim of becoming a full time pilot with the Search and Rescue Force.^[4]^[5] As of Autumn 2010, he has completed his generic and special-to-type helicopter training and is now at RAF Valley on No. 22 Squadron performing co-pilot duties on the Sea King search and rescue helicopter. On 16 November 2010 it was announced by Clarence House, his home near Buckingham Palace, that Prince William and his long-term girlfriend Kate Middleton are to marry. The wedding will be on 29 April 2011 in Westminster Abbey, London. at 11 a.m.

Prince William was born at St Mary's Hospital, London on 21 June 1982, the first child of Prince Charles, Prince of Wales, and Diana, Princess of Wales, and third grandchild of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. "^[6] Baptised in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace on 4 August 1982 (the 82nd birthday of his paternal great-grandmother, Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother), by the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Runcie, William's godparents were: former King Constantine II of Greece (his paternal cousin); Princess Alexandra, The Hon Mrs Angus Ogilvy (his paternal cousin); the Duchess of Westminster; the Lady Susan Hussey; Lord Romsey (his paternal cousin); and Sir Laurens van der Post.^[7] As a male-line grandchild of the sovereign and son of the Prince of Wales, William was styled His Royal Highness Prince William of Wales, though he was affectionately called Wombat or Wills (the latter a name by which he is still known by the general public)^[8] by his parents.^{[citation needed]}
It was reported that, at age seven, the Prince said to his mother that he desired to be a police officer when he was older, so that he might be able to protect her; a statement to which his brother responded: "Oh, no you can't. You've got to be King."^[9] William's first public appearance was on 1 March 1991 (Saint David's Day), during an official visit of his parents to Cardiff, Wales. After arriving by aeroplane, the Prince was taken to Llandaff Cathedral, where he signed the visitors' book, thereby demonstrating that he was left-handed. On 3 June 1991, William was admitted to Royal Berkshire Hospital after having been hit on the side of the forehead by a fellow student wielding a golf club. The Prince did not lose consciousness, but did suffer a depressed fracture of the skull and was operated on at the Great Ormond Street Hospital, resulting in a permanent scar.^[10] William's mother desired that he, along with his younger brother, not just have "normal" experiences that other royal children had not had until later in life, if at all, but also more profound lessons, taking both boys to locales that ranged from Disney World and McDonald's to AIDS clinics and shelters for the homeless. She also bought them things typical teenagers used like video games.^[11] Diana, Princess of Wales, who was by then divorced from the Prince of Wales, died in a car accident in 1997. William, along with his brother and father, was staying at Balmoral Castle at the time, and the Prince of Wales waited until early the following morning to tell his sons about their mother's death.^[12] At his mother's funeral, William accompanied his father, brother, paternal grandfather, and maternal uncle in walking behind the funeral cortège from Buckingham Palace to Westminster Abbey.

Education

William was educated at independent schools, starting at Jane Mynors' nursery school and the pre-preparatory Wetherby School, both in London.^[13] Following this, he attended Ludgrove School and was privately tutored during summers by Rory Stewart.^[14] William sat for the entrance exam to Eton College and was admitted. There he studied geography, biology and history of art at A-Level, obtaining an A in geography, a C in biology and a B in history of art.^[15]^[16] At Ludgrove he also participated in football – along with swimming, basketball, clay pigeon shooting, and cross-country running. At Eton he continued to play football, captaining his house team, and took up water polo.^[17] The decision to place William in Eton went against the family tradition of sending royal children to Gordonstoun (William's grandfather, father, two uncles, and two cousins all attended); it did, however, make the Prince follow in the Spencer family footsteps, as both Diana's father and brother had attended Eton.^[11] It was also agreed between the Royal Family and the tabloid press that William would be allowed to study free of paparazzi intrusion in exchange for regular updates of the Prince's life. Then chairman of the Press Complaints Commission, John Wakeham, said of the arrangement: "Prince William is not an institution; nor a soap star; nor a football hero. He is a child: in the next few years, perhaps the most important and sometimes painful part of his life, he will grow up and become a man."^[11]
After completing his studies at Eton, the Prince took a gap year, during which he took part in British Army training exercises in Belize, and, for ten weeks, taught children in the town of Tortel, in southern Chile, as part of the Raleigh International programme. It was during his time in the latter location that he lived with other young teachers, sharing in the common household chores, including cleaning the toilet, and also volunteered as the guest disc jockey for the local radio station.^[18]
By 2001 William was back in the United Kingdom and had enrolled, under the name William Wales,^[19]^[20] at the University of St Andrews. News of this caused the number of applications to St Andrews to swell, mostly from young women who wanted an opportunity to meet the Prince.^[21] The extra attention did not deter him, though, and he embarked on a degree course in art history, later changing his main subject to geography, and going on to earn a Scottish Master of Arts degree with upper second class honours in geography – the highest honours of any heir to the British and other Commonwealth realms' thrones. While at university, Prince William also represented the Scottish national universities water polo team at the Celtic Nations tournament in 2004.^[17] He was known as “Steve” by other students to avoid any journalists overhearing and realising his identity.^[8]

Royal duties and career

William began to accompany his parents on official visits at an early age; his first overseas royal tour was with his parents to Australia and New Zealand in 1983,^[22] a decision made by the Princess of Wales that was considered to be unconventional; not only was William so young, but both the first and second in line for the throne would be travelling together.^[11] However, he accompanied either both parents or his father on subsequent tours, and, upon graduation from university, began to undertake duties of his own, as well as obtaining experience in the private workforce when he worked with land management at Chatsworth House and interned at HSBC.^[11]

Military career

Prince William (second from left) in uniform, with the Royal Family on the balcony of Buckingham Palace during Trooping the Colour, 2007.

Having decided to follow a military career, in October 2005 William attended the four day Regular Commissions Board at Westbury in Wiltshire where he underwent selection to judge his suitability to become an Army officer. Having passed selection, William went up to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in January 2006.^[23] Successfully completing the course, William graduated from Sandhurst on 15 December 2006, the graduation parade being attended by the Queen and the Prince of Wales, along with other members of the Royal Family, and William officially received his commission as a lieutenant at midnight. With his rank obtained, the Prince, under the name of William Wales, followed his younger brother^[24] into the Blues and Royals as a troop commander in an armoured reconnaissance unit, after which he spent four months in training for the post at Bovington Camp, Dorset.
Once officially enrolled and commissioned in the Armed Forces, William expressed a desire to participate in active service; in this there was a recent precedent of the service of his great-great-uncle Edward VIII who, as Prince of Wales, served in France during the First World War; his great-grandfather George VI who also served during World War I (with the Navy at the Battle of Jutland and in France with the Air Force); and his paternal grandfather, the Duke of Edinburgh, who served with distinction during World War Two. More recently, his uncle the Duke of York served in the Falklands war. Though Major General Sebastian Roberts, general officer commanding the Household Division, had said William being deployed was possible, the Prince's position as second in line to the throne, and the convention of ministers advising against the person in that position being put into dangerous situations, cast doubts on William's ability to see combat. These doubts increased after Prince Harry's deployment was cancelled in 2007, due to "specific threats". William, instead, went on to training in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force, obtaining his commission as a sub-lieutenant in the former and flying officer in the latter (both broadly equivalent to the rank of lieutenant in the Army). With this complete, the Prince undertook an attachment with the Air Force, undergoing an intensive four-month training course at RAF Cranwell,^[25] which, upon completing the course on 11 April 2008, he was presented with his RAF wings by his father,^[3] who had himself received his wings after training at the same college.^[26] It was later revealed that it had been during this secondment that Prince William had helped to man a C-17 Globemaster to Afghanistan, during which he assisted in the repatriation of the body of Trooper Robert Pearson.^[27] The Prince had been affectionately known by his fellow airmen, and his callsign was designated, as Billy the Fish, a pun on his title, which also uses a part of his father's title for his surname.^[28]
William then moved to train with the Navy for two months, from June to August 2008, during which time he spent three weeks at the Britannia Royal Naval College, training on units of the surface fleet, and submarines, as well as with the Fleet Air Arm and Royal Marines, before deploying for a further five weeks on HMS Iron Duke in the Caribbean.^[29] It was during this tour that the Prince took part in a secret underwater mission,^[30] as well as helping to identify and capture a small vessel that had been transporting an approximate £40 million worth of cocaine,^[31]^[32] and taking part in other raids.^[33]
Due to William's future role, a long term career in the military was considered out of the question; due to his position, his desire to see active service was always unlikely to be granted. William originally joined the military on a short-service commission lasting three years. However, it was announced in September 2008 that the Prince would be extending his time in the forces, first by taking on another secondment in the autumn of 2008 (including working at the MOD and non-operational flying with the Army Air Corps),.^[34] Then it was announced that he would transfer from the Army to the RAF in order to train as a full time search and rescue helicopter pilot; this role enables him to take an active role as a member of the armed forces without him being deployed on combat operations. In January 2009 William transferred his commission to the RAF and was promoted to Flight Lieutenant. He trained to become a helicopter pilot with the RAF's Search and Rescue Force. In January 2010, he graduated from the Defence Helicopter Flying School at RAF Shawbury, where he had been under the instruction of Squadron Leader Craig Finch.^[35] On 26 January 2010 he transferred to the Search and Rescue Training Unit at RAF Valley on Anglesey to receive training on the Sea King search and rescue helicopter and graduated from this course 17 September 2010.^[36] It was announced on 15 April 2010 that William will remain at RAF Valley for his operational tour, being assigned to No. 22 Squadron and initially performing co-pilot duties.^[37] It is expected that William's operational tour will last 30 to 36 months.^[38]
Prince William participated in his first rescue mission (as co-pilot of an RAF Sea King Helicopter) and responded on Saturday, 2 October 2010, to an emergency call from the Liverpool Coastguard. The prince, who was excited to finally take part in an active mission, and the other three members of the crew flew from their base at RAF Valley in Anglesey, North Wales, to an offshore gas rig in Morecambe Bay, northwest England. William and three other crew members picked up a man who had suffered an apparent heart attack on the rig and airlifted him to a local hospital, where he was resting comfortably.

Royal duties

Royal Monogram

William during the opening ceremony of the 21st World Scout Jamboree.

At the age of 21, Prince William was appointed as a Counsellor of State, and began his royal duties by first serving in that capacity when the Queen was abroad to attend the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2003, in Nigeria. For his 21st birthday, William also accompanied his father on a royal tour of Wales, where they visited the Anglesey Food Fair and opened a centre for the homeless in Newport.^[39] By July 2005, he was on his first solo overseas tour, travelling to New Zealand, on behalf of his grandmother in her role as Queen of New Zealand, to participate in World War II commemorations. For the 30th anniversary of his father's charity, The Prince's Trust, William and his brother were interviewed together for the first time by Ant & Dec.^[39] In July 2007, Prince William accompanied his grandmother's cousin The Duke of Kent, who is President of the UK Scout Association, in opening the 21st World Scout Jamboree, celebrating the centennial of the founding of the Scout Movement.
It was said in Tina Brown's 2007 biography of Diana, Princess of Wales, that Prince William had, like his father, expressed a desire to become Governor-General of Australia,^[40] though fulfillment of the idea was considered doubtful by then-Prime Minister of Australia John Howard, who said: "We have for a long time embraced the idea that the person who occupies that post should be in every way an Australian citizen."^[41]
In January 2010, Prince William toured Auckland and Wellington on behalf of the Queen; William opened the new building of the Supreme Court of New Zealand and was welcomed as a Māori chief.^[42] After twice accompanying his parents to the country, the Prince, with his wife, is expected to officially tour Canada in June and July of 2011, attending Canada Day celebrations on Parliament Hill.^[43]^[44] Speculation in late 2009 that William would be taking over increasing numbers of the Queen's ceremonial and state duties has been denied by the Palace.^[45]

Personal interests

Prince William playing polo in 2007.

Following his parents' examples, William took interest in various causes from a relatively early age. The late Princess of Wales' work with HIV/AIDS aid and prevention, and the Prince of Wales' work with the natural environment and the inner-city disadvantaged, directed William into those areas. He also showed a desire to focus on the needy in Africa, sometimes working with his brother's charity, Sentebale.
On 23 January 2009, it emerged that Prince William had written the foreword to a book for the first time.^[46] The cover of Home from War, the autobiography of a soldier from the Prince's regiment who was seriously wounded in a Taliban ambush, notes his contribution.

Humanitarian and environmental causes

William first became aware of HIV/AIDS in the mid 1990s, when his mother began to take her two sons to visit shelters and clinics for those suffering from the disease. In January 2005, Prince William and his brother volunteered at a British Red Cross aid distribution centre to pack emergency supplies for countries that were affected by the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami.^[47] Later, in September,^[48] William granted his patronage to Centrepoint,^[49] a charity that assists the homeless. During the period when his mother had been patron of Centrepoint, he had accompanied her on visits to its headquarters and projects.
Prince William also worked in the children's unit at The Royal Marsden Hospital for two days of work experience in 2005, as well as helping out in the medical research, catering, and fund raising departments.^[47] The same year, he spent two weeks in North Wales with a mountain rescue team of Mountain Rescue England and Wales.^[47] In May 2007, William became patron of both organisations (His mother had also previously been patron of the Royal Marsden Hospital) and he became attracted to Mountain Rescue England and Wales in order to, in his words, "highlight and celebrate the vital, selfless and courageous work of our mountain rescue organisations".^[47]
The Prince also became a patron of the Tusk Trust in December 2005,^[48] a charity that works towards conserving wildlife and initiating community development, including providing education, across Africa.^[50] William became associated with the organisation after he witnessed its work first hand when he was in Africa. Saying "rural African initiatives that foster education, responsibility and participation in the local community light the way to conservation",^[51] he carried out his first official duty with the trust in launching a 5,000-mile (8,000 km) bike ride across the African continent in 2007.^[48]

Sports

Prince William plays polo for charitable causes and is a fan of football, supporting Aston Villa F.C.^[47] In May 2006, he became President of England's Football Association and vice royal patron of the Welsh Rugby Union (WRU) in February 2007 (supporting the Queen as patron of the WRU). The same year, the WRU's decision to name a new cup for test matches between Wales and South Africa the Prince William Cup caused controversy, with some believing it would have been more fitting to name the trophy after Ray Gravell.^[52]^[53]^[54]
Also in 2006, the Prince, along with other Sandhurst officers, took part in running one mile to support the charity Sport Relief, as he had done in 2004 with a team from Clarence House. In May 2007, William became patron of the English Schools' Swimming Association.^[47]
Prince William is a noted follower of various packs of foxhounds throughout England and Wales, including the Duke of Beaufort's Hunt, with his father and brother since he was a very young child.

Relationship with Kate Middleton

During his years in university, Prince William participated in typical university life, going to bars and socialising with his friends; of himself he said: "I'm not a party animal, despite what some people might think."^[11] Like his father before him, William's private life became the subject of tabloid speculation and gossip, especially around his relationship with Kate Middleton, who had been one of William's university flatmates and whom William began dating in 2003. Middleton attended the Prince's passing-out parade at Sandhurst, marking the first high-profile event that she attended as William's guest. The relationship between Prince William and Middleton was followed so closely that bookmakers took bets on the possibility of a Royal Wedding and the retail chain Woolworths produced memorabilia bearing the likenesses of the two.^[55] Media attention became so intense that William had to make a specific request to the paparazzi that they keep their distance from Middleton and him. In March 2007, Middleton complained of media harassment by the Daily Mirror.^[55] It was reported in April 2007 that the couple had split,^[55]^[56] though in June, Middleton attended a party at Lulworth Army Barracks as the guest of Prince William,^[57] in July she attended the Concert for Diana, which had been organised by Princes William and Harry.^[58] in August, she accompanied William on holiday in the island of Des Roches in the Seychelles, and in October she joined Prince Charles and Prince Harry for a shooting party at Balmoral. In June 2008, along with the Royal Family, Middleton attended William's investiture into the Order of the Garter.
On 19 October 2010, on a trip to Kenya, the 28-year-old prince proposed to Middleton at Lewa game reserve, a favourite spot for Prince William.

Engagement

Main article: Wedding of Prince William of Wales and Kate Middleton

On 16 November 2010 it was announced by Clarence House that Prince William and Miss Catherine Middleton are to marry. On 23 November 2010, after much speculation, it was announced the wedding will take place on 29 April 2011 in Westminster Abbey, London and will be a bank holiday in the UK.^[59] The engagement ring given to Miss Middleton was the 18 carat sapphire engagement ring of Diana, Princess of Wales. Clarence House, the official residence of Prince Charles and his sons William and Harry, announced on the same day that the couple became engaged in Kenya in October, a fact that Prince William confirmed in a widely circulated television interview beamed from London^[60]

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

Royal styles of HRH Prince William of Wales

Reference style	His Royal Highness
Spoken style	Your Royal Highness
Alternative style	Sir

21 June 1982 – present: His Royal Highness Prince William of Wales

The Prince's style and title in full: His Royal Highness Prince William Arthur Philip Louis of Wales, Royal Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter. As a British prince, William does not use a surname for everyday purposes. For formal and ceremonial purposes, Prince William has used the name of the area over which his father holds title, i.e. Wales (as Princess Beatrice and Princess Eugenie use York, per their father, Prince Andrew, Duke of York). Past precedent is that such area-based surnames are dropped from usage in adulthood, after which either title alone or family surname is used.^[61] For the male-line grandchildren of Elizabeth II, however, there is currently some uncertainty over the correct form of family surname to use, or whether there even is a surname. The Queen has stipulated all her male-line descendants who do not bear the titular dignity of prince shall use Mountbatten-Windsor as their family surname although Letters Patent exist stipulating the name Windsor, but with the same caveat.^[62] According to their flight suits as seen in television interviews, Princes William and Harry both continue to use Wales as their surname for military purposes.
When Prince William marries in 2011, it will be in line with past custom for him to receive a dukedom. Possible titles suggested as most likely are the titles of Duke of Clarence, Duke of Cambridge, or Duke of Sussex. Another possibility which has been discussed is that of Duke of Windsor, previously held by his great-great uncle Edward VIII. Those of Kendal, Avondale and Strathearn have also been mooted, some of them as secondary or subsidiary title to the first list.^[63]^[64] However, there are also rumours suggesting that Prince William asked the Queen not to make him a duke.^[65] Should his father accede to the throne, William will immediately obtain the titles of Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, and it is expected that he would be invested as Prince of Wales, although the latter is not automatic. If Prince William succeeds to the throne and uses his first given name as his regnal name, he would be known as William V.
Prince William succeeded Lord Attenborough in 2010 as the fifth President of BAFTA.

Military ranks

January 2006 – 16 December 2006: Officer Cadet
16 December 2006 – 16 December 2006: Cornet (Second Lieutenant), The Blues and Royals (short service commission)^[66]
16 December 2006 – 1 January 2009 : Lieutenant, The Blues and Royals^[66]
1 January 2008 – 1 January 2009: Flying Officer, Royal Air Force^[67]
1 January 2008 – 1 January 2009 : Sub-Lieutenant, Royal Navy^[68]
1 January 2009 – present: Lieutenant, Royal Navy^[69]
1 January 2009 – present: Captain, The Blues and Royals (and transferred to a full regular commission)^[70]
1 January 2009 – present: Flight Lieutenant, Royal Air Force^[71]

Honours

Accompanied by his father, Prince William processes to St. George's Chapel to be installed as a Knight of the Garter.

Appointments

23 April 2008 – present: Royal Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (KG)^[72]
6 July 2009: Called to the Bar by the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple
6 July 2009: Called to the Bench by the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple
23 June 2010: Made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)

Medals

6 February 2002: Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal

Prince William, upon his appointment to the order, became the 1,000th member of the register of the Order of the Garter;^[73] he was officially invested by the Queen into the order on 16 June 2008, at a service at St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle.^[74] The last time a monarch had appointed a grandchild into the Order of the Garter was in 1894, when Queen Victoria invested Prince Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
Honorary military appointments

Canada

10 November 2009 – present: Canadian Ranger^[75]

United Kingdom

3 October 2008 – present: Honorary Air Commandant of RAF Coningsby^[76]
8 August 2006 – present: Commodore-in-Chief of HMNB Clyde
8 August 2006 – present: Commodore-in-Chief of the Royal Navy Submarine Service
8 August 2006 – present: Commodore-in-Chief of Scotland^[77]
10 February 2011 – present: Colonel of the Regiment Irish Guards^[78]

Arms

Arms of Prince William of Wales

Notes	On his 18th birthday, Prince William was granted his own personalised coat of arms; these consist of the escutcheon of the arms of the sovereign in right of the United Kingdom with a label for difference.

Escutcheon	Quarterly 1st and 4th Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale or (England) Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory counterflory gules (Scotland) Azure, a harp or stringed argent (Ireland).

Orders	The Order of the Garter ribbon. HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE (Shame be to him who thinks evil of it)

Other elements	The whole distinguished by a label of three points argent, the central point charged with an escallop gules.

Symbolism	As the eldest son of the Prince of Wales, Prince William's coat of arms has a label of three points.^[79] The escallop (seashell) alludes to his late mother Diana, Princess of Wales, whose Spencer coat of arms includes three escallops argent.

Ancestry

[show]Ancestors of Prince William of Wales

Through his maternal grandfather, Prince William is descended from Henry IV, Charles II and James II and VII. Should he become king, William will be the first monarch since Queen Anne to be descended from Charles I. Through his mother, William is of English descent and of remote Irish, Scottish and American descent. Through the Spencer family, he is also distantly related to several American presidents and British prime ministers. He is a third-cousin once removed of the actor Oliver Platt, through his great-great-grandmother, heiress Frances Work.^[80]
Prince William is descended from all kings and queens of England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom from Harold Godwinson onwards except for these eighteen: Henry V, Henry VI, Henry VIII (their lines are all extinct), Richard III, Anne, George IV, William IV (all of whom outlived their legitimate children), William II, Richard I, Richard II, Edward V, Edward VI, Jane, Mary I, Elizabeth I, William III, Mary II, and Edward VIII (all of whom were childless).^[81] He is also descended from many of the pre-Union monarchs of Scotland and the pre-Conquest monarchs of England, and many notable foreign monarchs including, Peter I of Russia ("Peter the Great"), Catherine II of Russia ("Catherine the Great"), George I of Greece, Christian IX of Denmark, Afonso I of Portugal, Andrew II of Hungary, Ferdinand II of Aragon, Isabella I of Castile, and early French kings.
Through his mother's lineage, Prince William (together with his brother) is descended from Caterina Sforza, an Italian noblewoman who had associations with the Borgia (Pope Alexander VI's family).^[82]

Pooja Chopra

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Pooja Chopra (from Pune) is an Indian beauty pageant contestant who was crowned Pantaloons Femina Miss India World 2009. Pantaloons Femina Miss India World 2009 is the title given to the best girl from the 25 finalists entering the pageant though all the top three are considered equal winners. She grew up with her mother and sister and represented India in the Miss World competition held on December 12, 2009.

1985–2008:Early life and beginnings

As a child she had a tough time with her father refusing her as their second child as her older sibling is also a girl. She considers her mother her role model who had the courage to walk out on her father with 20 days old Pooja and her seven year old sister with absolutely nothing. Her father is last heard to have remarried with two sons.^[1] Pooja Chopra is resident of Pune in Maharashtra. She was born on May 3, 1985 in Kolkata. Pooja Chopra is 5'8" tall and about 50 kg in weight. Her vital statistics is around 33-26-36 in inches.She has also acted in Fashion 2008 film

2008–present: Femina Miss India and Miss world 09

Pooja Chopra was one of the contestants of Femina Miss India East 2009, organized by Femina, a women's magazine, held on Feb 17, 2009 in Kolkata. She was crowned with the 2009 Femina Miss India East title thus getting a direct entry into the top ten finalists of the Femina Miss India 2009. Pooja Chopra was crowned the Pantaloons Femina Miss India-World 2009 on April 5, 2009.
Pooja Chopra trained by Pageant Coach Ritika Ramtri Kumar. Pageant Coach of The Tiara won Femina Miss India East 2009 on February 17, 2009, at Kolkata. She also won Miss Perfect 10; Miss Catwalk and Nakshatra Miss Sparkling Beauty. Twenty-four year old Pooja who is 5'8" inches tall has done commercials for Mr Muscle, Big 97 FM, Dabur Honey, Coke (Pakistan) and EZone. She has also walked the ramp for Gitanjali, D'Damas, Manish Malhotra, Vikram Phadnis, Wendell Rodricks, Mihika Mirpuri, and Roberto Cavalli. She was Navy Queen 2007 1st Runner Up, NDA Queen 2004 1st Runner Up and has also acted in Fashion the movie. Pooja's wardrobe was designed by Fashion Designer Priyanka Rajiv, who has also designed a saree for Angelina Jolie when she was visiting India. Umesh Mohite, Facility Head World Gym (Pune Branch) took care of her physical fitness.
She sprained her ankle while running down a flight of stairs on December 11, 2009 the eve of the Miss World 2009 finals. Doctors advised her 3 weeks complete bed-rest but she bravely took the stage and refused to back out. Chair of the Miss World Organization Julia Morley suggested that Pooja drop out of the dance round and so she had to take only few painful steps with her knee length cast.
Finally on on the pageant finals night on 12 December her "Nanhi Kali" project made her win the "Beauty With a Purpose" title in "Miss World 2009" beating the other two finalists for the title Guatemala and Barbados who came second and third respectively.^[3] This fast tracked her into the semifinalists. When announced the winner of the Beauty With a Purpose title she burst out crying hugging the host Angela Chow while she explained Pooja's injury.^[4] She made it into the top 16 finalists and she did win USD$10000 for her "Nanhi Kali" project which helps small girls fight poverty.

Sydney

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Sydney (pronounced /ˈsɪdni/^[3]) is the largest and most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. Inhabitants of Sydney are called Sydneysiders, comprising a cosmopolitan and international population of people from numerous places around the world.^[4]
The site of the first British colony in Australia, Sydney was established^[5] in 1788 at Sydney Cove by Arthur Phillip, commodore of the First Fleet as a penal colony. The city is built on hills surrounding Port Jackson which is commonly known as Sydney Harbour, where the iconic Sydney Opera House and the Harbour Bridge are featured prominently. The hinterland of the metropolitan area is surrounded by national parks, and the coastal regions feature many bays, rivers, inlets and beaches including the famous Bondi Beach. Within the city are many notable parks, including Hyde Park and the Royal Botanical Gardens.
In 2010, Sydney was ranked 7th in Asia and 28th globally for economic innovation in the Innovation Cities Top 100 Index by innovation agency 2thinknow.^[6] Sydney also ranks among the top 10 most livable cities in the world according to Mercer Human Resource Consulting and The Economist.^[7]^[8]
Sydney has a reputation as an international centre for commerce, arts, fashion, culture, entertainment, music, education and tourism, making it one of GaWC's Alpha + world cities. Sydney has hosted major international sporting events, including the 1938 British Empire Games, the 2000 Summer Olympics, and the final match of the 2003 Rugby World Cup. The main airport serving Sydney is Sydney (Kingsford Smith) Airport.

Main article: History of Sydney

Artwork depicting the first contact between the Gweagal Aborigines and Captain James Cook on the shores of the Kurnell Peninsula

Radio carbon dating suggests that the Sydney region has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years.^[10] The traditional Indigenous inhabitants of Sydney Cove are the Cadigal people, whose land once stretched from south of Port Jackson to Petersham.^[11] While estimates of the population numbers prior to the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 remains contentious, approximately 4,000–8,000 Aboriginal people lived in the Sydney region prior to contact with British settlers. The British called the Indigenous people the "Eora",^[12] because being asked where they came from, these people would answer: "Eora", meaning "here", or "from this place" in their language.^[11] There were three language groups in the Sydney region, which were divided into dialects spoken by smaller clans. The principal languages were Darug (the Cadigal, original inhabitants of the City of Sydney, spoke a coastal dialect of Darug), Dharawal and Guringai. Each clan had a territory, the location of said territory determined the resources available. Although urbanisation has destroyed much evidence of these settlements (such as shell middens), a number of Sydney rock engravings, carvings and rock art remain visible in the Hawkesbury sandstone of the Sydney basin.^[13]

Sydney circa 1828, looking north over Hyde Park towards the harbour

In 1770, British sea Captain Lieutenant James Cook landed in Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. It is here that Cook made first contact with an Aboriginal community known as the Gweagal.^[14] Under instruction from the British government, a convict settlement was founded by Arthur Phillip, who arrived at Botany Bay with a fleet of 11 ships on 18 January 1788. This site was soon determined to be unsuitable for habitation, owing to poor soil and a lack of reliable fresh water. Phillip subsequently founded the colony one inlet further up the coast, at Sydney Cove on Port Jackson on 26 January 1788. He named it after the British Home Secretary, Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, in recognition of Sydney's role in issuing the charter authorising Phillip to establish a colony. The original name was intended to be Albion until Phillip decided upon Sydney.^[15]

The International Exhibition of 1879 at the Garden Palace

However in 1789, shortly after the arrival in Botany Bay of the French expedition led by La Perouse, a catastrophic epidemic disease—smallpox or possibly chicken pox—spread through the Eora people and surrounding groups, with the result that local Aborigines died in their thousands, and bodies could often be seen bobbing in the water in Sydney Harbour.^[16] Colonial historian and First Fleet officer Watkin Tench, whose accounts are primary sources about the early years of the colony, suggested that the epidemic may have been caused by Aborigines disturbing the grave of a French sailor who died shortly after arrival in Australia (supposedly of smallpox) and had been buried at Botany Bay.^[17]
In April 1789 a disease, thought to be smallpox, killed an estimated 500 to 1000 Aboriginal people between Broken Bay and Botany Bay.^[12] There was violent resistance to British settlement, notably by the warrior Pemulwuy in the area around Botany Bay, and conflicts were common in the area surrounding the Hawkesbury River. By 1820 there were only a few hundred Aborigines and Governor Macquarie had begun initiatives to 'civilise, Christianise and educate' the Aborigines by removing them from their clans.^[12] Macquarie's tenure as Governor of New South Wales was a period when Sydney was improved from its basic beginnings. Roads, bridges, wharves and public buildings were constructed by British and Irish convicts, and by 1822 the town had banks, markets, well-established thoroughfares and an organised constabulary. The 1830s and 1840s were periods of urban development, including the development of the first suburbs, as the town grew rapidly when ships began arriving from Britain and Ireland with immigrants looking to start a new life in a new country. On 20 July 1842 the municipal council of Sydney was incorporated and the town was declared the first city in Australia, with John Hosking the first elected mayor.^[18] The first of several Australian gold rushes started in 1851, and the port of Sydney has since seen many waves of people arriving from around the world.

Sydney harbour in 1932

Rapid suburban development began in the last quarter of the 19th century with the advent of steam powered tramways and railways. With industrialisation Sydney expanded rapidly, and by the early 20th century it had a population of more than a million. In 1929, the novelist Arthur Henry Adams called it the "Siren City of the South" and the "Athens of Australia".^[19] The Great Depression hit Sydney badly. One of the highlights of the Depression era, however, was the completion of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932.^[20] There has traditionally been a rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne since the gold rushes of the 1850s made the capital of Victoria Australia's largest and richest city.^[21] Sydney overtook Melbourne in population in the early years of the 20th century,^[22] and has remained the largest city in Australia since this time. During the 1970s and 1980s Sydney's CBD with a great number of financial institutions including the headquarters of the Reserve Bank surpassed Melbourne as the nation's financial capital.^[23] Throughout the 20th century, especially in the decades immediately following World War II, Sydney continued to expand as large numbers of European and later Asian immigrants populated the metropolitan area.

Geography

Topography

Sydney's urban area is in a coastal basin, which is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the East, the Blue Mountains to the West, the Hawkesbury River to the North and the Royal National Park to the South. It lies on a submergent coastline, where the ocean level has risen to flood deep river valleys (ria) carved in the hawkesbury sandstone. Port Jackson, better known as Sydney Harbour, is one such ria and is the largest natural harbour in the world.^[24] The Sydney area is not affected by significant earthquakes.
The urban area has around 70 harbour and ocean beaches, including the famous Bondi Beach. Sydney's urban area covers 1,687 km² (651 sq mi) as of 2001.^[25] The Sydney Statistical Division, used for census data, is the unofficial metropolitan area^[26] and covers 12,145 km² (4,689 sq mi).^[27] This area includes the Central Coast, the Blue Mountains, and national parks and other unurbanised land.
Geographically, Sydney lies over two regions: the Cumberland Plain, a relatively flat region lying to the south and west of the harbour, and the Hornsby Plateau, a sandstone plateau lying mainly to the north of the harbour and dissected by steep valleys. The parts of the city with the oldest European development are located in the flat areas south of the harbour. The North Shore was slower to develop because of its hilly topography and lack of access across the harbour. The Sydney Harbour Bridge was opened in 1932 and linked the North Shore to the rest of the city.^[28]

Climate

Further information: Climate of Sydney, New South Wales

Sydney has a temperate climate with warm summers and mild winters. Rainfall is spread throughout the year.^[29] The weather is moderated by proximity to the ocean, and more extreme temperatures are recorded in the inland western suburbs. The warmest month is January, with an average air temperature range at Observatory Hill of 18.6–25.8 °C (65–78 °F). An average of 14.6 days a year have temperatures of more than 30 °C (86.0 °F). The maximum recorded temperature was 45.3 °C (113.5 °F) on 14 January 1939 at the end of a four-day heatwave across Australia.^[30]
In winter, temperatures rarely drop below 5 °C (41 °F) in coastal areas. The coldest month is July, with an average range of 8.0–16.2 °C (46–61 °F). The lowest recorded minimum at Observatory Hill was 2.1 °C (35.8 °F).
Rainfall is fairly evenly spread through the year, but is slightly higher during the first half of the year, when easterly winds dominate.^{[citation needed]} The average annual rainfall, with moderate to low variability, is 1,217 mm (48 in), falling on an average 138 days a year.^[31] Snowfall was last reported in the Sydney City area in 1836.^[32] However, a July 2008 fall of graupel, or soft hail, mistaken by many for snow, has raised the possibility that the 1836 event was not snow, either.^[33]

Partially cloudy with periodic sunshine over Vaucluse during the Spring season

Bondi Beach

The city is not affected by cyclones. The El Niño Southern Oscillation plays an important role in determining Sydney's weather patterns: drought and bushfire on the one hand, and storms and flooding on the other, associated with the opposite phases of the oscillation. Many areas of the city bordering bushland have experienced bushfires, notably in 1994 and 2001–02 — these tend to occur during the spring and summer. The city is also prone to severe hail storms and wind storms. One such storm was the 1999 hailstorm, which severely damaged Sydney's eastern and city suburbs. The storm produced massive hailstones of at least 9 cm (3.5 in) in diameter and resulting in insurance losses of around A$1.7 billion in less than five hours.^[34]
The Bureau of Meteorology has reported that 2002 through 2005 were the warmest summers in Sydney since records began in 1859. 2004 saw an average daily maximum temperature of 23.39 °C, 2005 of 23.35 °C, 2002 of 22.91 °C, and 2003 of 22.65 °C. The average daily maximum between 1859 and 2004 was 21.6 °C (70.9 °F). For the first nine months of 2006 the mean temperature was 18.41 °C (65.1 °F); the warmest year previously was 2004 with 18.51 °C (65.32 °F). Since November 2003, there have been only two months in which the average daily maximum was below average: March 2005 (about 1 °C below average)^[35] and June 2006 (0.7 °C below average).^[36]
The summer of 2007–08 proved to be one of the coolest on record. The Bureau of Meteorology reported that it was the coolest summer in 11 years, the wettest summer in six years, and one of only three summers in recorded history to lack a maximum temperature above 31 °C (88 °F).^[37]
The average annual daytime temperature at Observatory Hill was 22.9 °C (73.2 °F), which was 0.9 °C above the historical annual average. This ranks as 7th highest annual average maximum temperature since records commenced in 1859. During the year, average night-time temperatures at Sydney Observatory Hill were at 15.1 °C (59.2 °F), which was 1.2 °C above the historical average.^[38]
In the first weeks of February 2010, Sydney received some of the highest rainfalls in years, which caused flash flooding and traffic chaos. On 4 February, some suburbs in the North Shore region recorded their heaviest rain in 20 years. On 12 and 13 February, some suburbs were hit by thunderstorms which brought heavy rain and gusty winds which cut out power and damaged homes.^[39]^[40] On 13 February, Sydney experienced one of the highest rainfall of the last decade with 65 millimetres (2.6 in) of rain falling in one night at Observatory Hill.^[41] The heavy rain was caused by remnants of ex-tropical Cyclone Olga and humid north-easterly winds feeding into the low pressure trough.^[42]^[43]

[hide]Climate data for Sydney
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	45.3 (113.5)	42.1 (107.8)	39.8 (103.6)	33.9 (93)	30.0 (86)	26.9 (80.4)	25.9 (78.6)	31.3 (88.3)	34.6 (94.3)	38.2 (100.8)	41.8 (107.2)	42.2 (108)	45.3 (113.5)
Average high °C (°F)	25.9 (78.6)	25.8 (78.4)	24.7 (76.5)	22.4 (72.3)	19.4 (66.9)	16.9 (62.4)	16.3 (61.3)	17.8 (64)	20.0 (68)	22.1 (71.8)	23.6 (74.5)	25.2 (77.4)	21.7 (71.1)
Average low °C (°F)	18.7 (65.7)	18.8 (65.8)	17.5 (63.5)	14.7 (58.5)	11.5 (52.7)	9.3 (48.7)	8.0 (46.4)	8.9 (48)	11.1 (52)	13.5 (56.3)	15.6 (60.1)	17.5 (63.5)	13.8 (56.8)
Record low °C (°F)	10.6 (51.1)	9.6 (49.3)	9.3 (48.7)	7.0 (44.6)	4.4 (39.9)	2.1 (35.8)	2.2 (36)	2.7 (36.9)	4.9 (40.8)	5.7 (42.3)	7.7 (45.9)	9.1 (48.4)	2.1 (35.8)
Rainfall mm (inches)	101.5 (3.996)	118.7 (4.673)	128.9 (5.075)	125.8 (4.953)	121.1 (4.768)	130.7 (5.146)	97.3 (3.831)	81.2 (3.197)	69.1 (2.72)	77.6 (3.055)	83.1 (3.272)	77.8 (3.063)	1,212.8 (47.748)
Avg. rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm)	12.2	12.4	13.5	12.8	13.2	12.5	11.1	10.5	10.6	11.6	11.6	11.5	143.5
Sunshine hours	220.1	194.3	198.4	192.0	182.9	165.0	198.4	220.1	216.0	223.2	234.0	235.6	2,480
Source: Bureau of Meteorology^[44]

Urban structure

Sydney's Northern Beaches. The city's metropolitan area is characterised by large areas of urban sprawl, and, on the eastern side, beaches along the Tasman Sea

[edit] Parks and Open Spaces

The Chinese Garden of Friendship - designed by the City of Sydney's Chinese sister city, Guangzhou - was officially opened in 1988 as part of Sydney's bicentennial celebrations

Architecture

Martin Place. Sydney has a large stock of Victorian era buildings, built from the Hawkesbury sandstone on which the city lies.

Sydney has various heritage listed buildings, including Sydney Town Hall, The Queen Victoria Building, Parliament House, and the Australian Museum.
There is no architecture style that entirely characterises the whole of Sydney. Prominent styles include Gothic Revival, Georgian, Classical, Romanesque, Italianate, Federation, Edwardian, Second Empire, Queen Anne, as well as more contemporary styles. The first substantial buildings designed for Sydney were by transported convict Francis Greenway, who designed such buildings and structures as the Macquarie Lighthouse, Hyde Park Barracks, and Government House.^[53]

The Rose Seidler House was Harry Seidler's first building in Australia, and is credited with inspiring the development of modernist architecture in Sydney

Other prominent architects were James Barnett, who designed the General Post Office, The Customs House, and various court houses; and Edmund Blackett, who designed St. Andrew's Cathedral and St Philip's Church. More contemporary architecture includes the Sydney Opera house, designed by Danish Architect Jørn Utzon,^[54] which is one of the most recognizable landmarks in Sydney.
Harry Seidler built many modernist homes and skyscrapers in Sydney, and designed prominent buildings such as the MLC Centre, the Capita Centre, and Australia Square. Seidler's designs contrasted with the Sydney school of the 1950s and 1960s, who favoured more natural and organic designs, often hidden from view in bushland. This style of architecture often utilised natural local materials as structural elements.^[55] These views were shared by Glen Murcutt, who believed that a building should blend in with its environment. Sydney has the largest skyline in Australia.^[56] Current height restrictions limit future buildings to the height of 235 metres, in part due to the close proximity of Sydney Airport.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Sydney

The City of Sydney, the financial and economic hub of Australia

As the financial and economic hub of Australia, Sydney has grown to become a wealthy and prosperous city. The largest economic sectors in Sydney, as measured by the number of people employed, include property and business services, retail, manufacturing, and health and community services.^[57] Since the 1980s, jobs have moved from manufacturing to the services and information sectors. Sydney provides approximately 25 percent of the country's total GDP.^[58]
The Australian Securities Exchange and the Reserve Bank of Australia are located in Sydney, as are the headquarters of 90 banks and more than half of Australia's top companies, and the regional headquarters for around 500 multinational corporations.^[58] Of the ten largest corporations in Australia by revenue,^[59] four have headquarters in Sydney: Caltex Australia, the Commonwealth Bank, Westpac, and Woolworths. Of the 54 authorised deposit-taking banks in Australia, 44 are based in Sydney including nine of the 11 foreign subsidiary banks in Australia and all of the 29 local branches of foreign banks. Major authorised foreign banks in Sydney include Citigroup, UBS Australia, Mizuho Corporate Bank, HSBC Bank Australia and Deutsche Bank.
Shopping locations in Sydney include Pitt Street, George Street, King Street, Market Street, and Castlereagh Street, shopping complexes such as the Queen Victoria Building and Westfield Sydney, arcades such as The Strand Arcade and Mid City Centre, and department stores such as Myer and David Jones, all of which are in the shopping district in the city centre, a place to find major international brand name labels. Also in the city centre is Chinatown, which includes Paddys Markets, which is Sydney's city markets, a place for bargain hunting.

Parramatta, the second largest commercial district in Sydney^[60]

Outside the city centre there are number of other shopping destinations of interest. Inner eastern suburbs such as Potts Point, Darlinghurst and Surry Hills provide a diverse range of shops for the culturally creative and alternative lifestyle groups that live there, whilst other inner eastern areas like Paddington and Woollahra are home to boutiques selling more niche products. Inner western suburbs like Newtown and Glebe cater more towards students and alternative lifestyles. Double Bay in Sydney's harbourside eastern suburbs is un upmarket area known for its expensive boutiques. Seaside areas, including Bondi Beach in the eastern beaches area and Manly in the northern beaches area, have a retail scene based upon their beach locations, with many surfing and surfer style clothing shops.
Sydney received 7.8 million domestic visitors and 2.5 million international visitors in 2004.^[61] In 2007, the (then) Premier of New South Wales, Morris Iemma established Events New South Wales to "market Sydney and NSW as a leading global events destination". Fox Studios Australia has large film studios in the city.
As of 2004, the unemployment rate in Sydney was 4.9 percent.^[62] According to The Economist Intelligence Unit's Worldwide cost of living survey, Sydney is the sixteenth most expensive city in the world, while a UBS survey ranks Sydney as 15th in the world in terms of net earnings.^[63] As of September 2009, Sydney has the highest median house price of any Australian capital city at $569,000, and a median unit price of $400,000.^[64] Sydney also has the highest median rent prices of any Australian city at $450 a week.
The Sydney Region accounts for 12 percent (approximately $1 billion per annum) of the total agricultural production, by value, of NSW.^[65] Sydney provides 55% of NSW's flower production and 58% of its turf production, as well as 44% of state's nurseries.^[66] In 1994–1995 Sydney produced 44% of New South Wales' poultry meat and 48% of the state's eggs.^[67]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Sydney

Country of Birth	Population (2006)
The ten largest overseas born populations^[68]
United Kingdom	175,166
People's Republic of China	109,142
New Zealand	81,064
Vietnam	62,144
Lebanon	54,502
India	52,975
Philippines	52,087
Italy	44,563
Hong Kong	36,866
South Korea	32,124

Sydney population by year
1800	3,000
1820	12,000
1851	39,000
1871	200,000	(Gold Rush)
1901	500,000
1925	1,000,000
1962	2,000,000
2001	3,366,542
2006	4,119,190
2008	4,399,722
2010	4,504,469
2026	5,487,200	(Projected)^[69]
2056	7,649,000	(Projected)^[69]

The 2006 census reported 4,119,190 residents in the Sydney Statistical Division,^[70] of which 3,641,422 lived in Sydney's urban area.^[71] Inner Sydney was the most densely populated place in Australia with 4,023 inhabitants per square kilometre (10,420 /sq mi).^[72]

Friendship Arch in Cabramatta, a suburb home to a large proportion of Sydney's Vietnamese population

In the 2006 census, the most common self-described ancestries identified for Sydney residents were Australian, English, Irish, Scottish, and Chinese.^{[citation needed]} The Census also recorded that 1.1% of Sydney's population identified as being of indigenous origin, and 31.7% were born overseas.^[70] Asian Australians made up 16.9% of Sydney's population.^[73] The three major sources of immigrants are the United Kingdom, China and New Zealand, followed by Vietnam, Lebanon, India, Italy, and the Philippines.^[70]
Most residents are native speakers of English; many have a second language, the most common being Arabic (predominately Lebanese Arabic), Chinese languages (mostly Cantonese and Mandarin), and Greek.^[70] Sydney has the seventh-largest percentage of foreign-born individuals in the world.^[74] Immigrants account for 75% of Sydney's annual population growth.^[75]
The median age of Sydney residents is 34; 12% of the population is over 65 years old.^[62] 15.2% of residents have educational attainment equal to at least a bachelor's degree,^[76] In the 2006 census, 64% of the residents identified themselves as Christians, 14.1% had no religion, 10.4% left the question blank, 3.9% were Muslims, 3.7% were Buddhists, 1.7% were Hindus, 0.9% were Jewish and 0.4 were Bahai.^[68]

Culture

Sculpture by the Sea, Bondi Beach

Main article: Culture of Sydney

Sydney hosts many different festivals and some of Australia's largest social and cultural events. These include the Sydney Festival, Australia's largest arts festival which is a celebration involving both indoor and free outdoor performances throughout January; the Biennale of Sydney, established in 1973; the Big Day Out, a travelling rock-music festival which originated in Sydney; the Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras along Oxford Street; the Sydney Film Festival and many other smaller film festivals such as the short film Tropfest and Flickerfest. Sculpture by the Sea, Australia's largest outdoor sculpture exhibit, began in Bondi Beach in 1996.
Australia's premier prize for portraiture, the Archibald Prize is organised by the Art Gallery of New South Wales. The Sydney Royal Easter Show is held every year at Sydney Olympic Park, the final of Australian Idol takes place on the steps of the Opera House, and Australian Fashion Week takes place in April/May and September. Sydney's New Year's Eve and Australia Day celebrations are the largest in Australia.
A survey based on tracking the frequency of words and phrases in the media, cited Sydney as number 9 on a list of the world's top fashion cities in 2009.^[77] The city is the site of the world renowned Rosemount Australian Fashion Week, which occurs biannually, and is home to many of Australia's premier fashion houses. Most international designers have a major presence in Sydney and Australia's Next Top Model is one of the most watched shows on national television.

[edit] Entertainment and performing arts

Giraffes at Sydney’s Taronga Zoo

Sydney's cultural institutions include the Sydney's Opera House. It has five halls, including a large concert hall and opera and drama theatres; it is the home of Opera Australia—the third-busiest opera company in the world, and the Sydney Symphony.^[78] Other venues include the Sydney Town Hall, City Recital Hall, the State Theatre, the Theatre Royal, Sydney, the Sydney Theatre and the Wharf Theatre, the Capitol Theatre and the Lyric and Star Theatres, Star City.
The Sydney Conservatorium of Music is located adjacent to the Royal Botanic Gardens and serves the Australian music community through music education and biannual Australian Music Examination Board exams. The Sydney Dance Company was under the leadership of Graeme Murphy during the late 20th century. The Sydney Theatre Company has a regular roster of local plays, such as noted playwright David Williamson, classics and international playwrights.
In 2007, The New Theatre celebrated 75 years of continuous production in Sydney. Other important theatre companies in Sydney include Company B and Griffin Theatre Company. From the 1940s through to the 1970s the Sydney Push, a group of authors and political activists whose members included Germaine Greer, influenced the city's cultural life. The National Institute of Dramatic Art, based in Kensington, boasts internationally famous alumni such as Mel Gibson, Judy Davis, Baz Luhrmann and Cate Blanchett. Sydney's role in the film industry has increased since the opening of Fox Studios Australia in 1998.
Prominent films which have been filmed in the city include Moulin Rouge!, Mission: Impossible II, Star Wars episodes II and III, Superman Returns, Dark City, Son of the Mask, Stealth, Dil Chahta Hai, Happy Feet, Australia and The Matrix. Films using Sydney as a setting include Finding Nemo, Strictly Ballroom, Muriel's Wedding, Our Lips Are Sealed, and Dirty Deeds. Many Bollywood movies have also been filmed in Sydney including Singh Is Kinng, Bachna Ae Haseeno, Chak De India, Heyy Babyy. As of 2006, over 229 films have been set in, or featured Sydney.^[79]
Sydney's most popular nightspots include Kings Cross, Oxford Street, Darling Harbour, Circular Quay and The Rocks, which all contain various bars, nightclubs and restaurants. Star City Casino, is Sydney's only casino and is situated around Darling Harbour. There are many traditional pubs, cafes and restaurants in inner-city areas such as Newtown, Balmain, Leichhardt and Surry Hills. Sydney's main live music hubs include areas such as Newtown and Annandale, which nurtured acts such as AC/DC, Bliss n Eso, Sparkadia, Midnight Oil and INXS. Other popular nightspots tend to be spread throughout the city in areas such as Bondi, Manly, Cronulla and Parramatta.

Tourism

Sydney Opera House with the Harbour Bridge in the background. Both are significant tourist attractions in Sydney.

Main article: Tourism in Sydney

In the year ending March 2008, Sydney received 2.7 million international visitors.^[80] The most well-known attractions include the Sydney Opera House and the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Other attractions include Royal Botanical Gardens, Luna Park, some 40 beaches and Sydney Tower.^[81]
Sydney also has several popular museums, such as the Australian Museum (natural history and anthropology), the Powerhouse Museum (science, technology and design), the Art Gallery of New South Wales, the Museum of Contemporary Art and the Australian National Maritime Museum.^[82]

Sport and outdoor activities

Media

Main article: Media in Sydney

ABC building in Ultimo

Sydney has two main daily newspapers. The Sydney Morning Herald is the oldest extant newspaper in Australia, having been published regularly since 1831. The Herald's competitor, The Daily Telegraph, is a News Corporation-owned tabloid. Both papers have tabloid counterparts published on Sunday, The Sun-Herald and the Sunday Telegraph, respectively.
The three commercial television networks (Seven, Nine, Ten), as well as the government national broadcast services (ABC and SBS) are headquartered in Sydney. Also a community television station, TVS, broadcasts in the Sydney area. Historically, the networks have been based in the northern suburbs, but the last decade has seen several move to the inner city. Nine has kept its headquarters north of the harbour, in Willoughby. Ten has its studios in a redeveloped section of the inner-city suburb of Pyrmont, and Seven also has headquarters in Pyrmont, production studios at Epping as well as a purpose-built news studio in Martin Place in the CBD.
The ABC has a large headquarters and production facility in the inner-city suburb of Ultimo and SBS has its studios at Artarmon. Foxtel and Optus both supply pay-TV over their cable services to most parts of the urban area.^[84]^[85]
The five free-to-air networks have provided digital television transmissions in Sydney since January 2000. There are also nine additional Freeview Digital Services. These include ABC2, ABC3, ABC News 24, SBS Two, 7TWO, 7mate, GO!, GEM HD, ONE HD and Eleven.
Many AM and FM government, commercial and community radio services broadcast in the Sydney area. The local ABC radio station is 702 ABC Sydney (formerly 2BL).^[86] The talkback radio genre is dominated by the perennial rivals 2GB and 2UE. Popular Music radio stations include Triple M, 2Day FM and Nova 96.9, which generally target people under 40. In the older end of the music radio market, Classic Rock 95.3 and Mix 106.5 target the 25–54 age group, while WS-FM targets the 40–54 age group with their Classic Hits format mostly focusing on the 70s and 80s. Triple J (ABC), 2SER and FBi Radio provide a more independent, local and alternative sound. There are also a number of community stations broadcasting to a particular language group or local area.^[87]
On 1 July 2009, DAB+ Digital Radio officially started. ABC and commercial radios provide full programing.^[88]

Government

Sydney's Local Government Areas

Apart from the limited role of the Cumberland County Council from 1945–1964, there has never been an overall governing body for the Sydney metropolitan area; instead, the metropolitan area is divided into local government areas (LGAs) which are comparable to boroughs in cities such as London. These areas have elected councils which are responsible for functions delegated to them by the New South Wales State Government, such as planning and garbage collection.

NSW Parliament House. The State Government controls most citywide activities.

The City of Sydney includes the central business area and some adjoining inner suburbs, and has in recent years been expanded through amalgamation with adjoining local government areas, such as South Sydney. It is led by the elected Lord Mayor of Sydney and a council. The Lord Mayor, however, is sometimes treated as a representative of the whole city, for example during the Olympics.
Most citywide government activities are controlled by the state government. These include public transport, main roads, traffic control, policing, education above preschool level, and planning of major infrastructure projects. Because a large proportion of the New South Wales population lives in Sydney, state governments have traditionally been reluctant to allow the development of citywide governmental bodies, which would tend to rival the state government. For this reason, Sydney has always been a focus for the politics of both state and federal parliaments. For example, the boundaries of the City of Sydney LGA have been significantly altered by state governments on at least four occasions since 1945, with expected advantageous effect to the governing party in the New South Wales Parliament at the time.^[89]
The 38 LGAs commonly described as making up Sydney are:^[90]
The classification of which councils make up Sydney varies. The Local Government Association of New South Wales considers all LGAs lying entirely in Cumberland County as part of its 'Metro' group, which excludes Camden (classed in its 'Country' group).^[91] The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines a Sydney Statistical Division (the population figures of which are used in this article) that includes all of the above councils as well as Wollondilly, the Blue Mountains, Hawkesbury, Gosford and Wyong.^[92]

Education

The University of Sydney, established in 1850, is the oldest university in Australia

Main article: Education in Sydney

Sydney is home to some of Australia's most prominent educational institutions.^[93] The University of Sydney, established in 1850, is Australia's oldest university and the largest in Sydney. Other public universities located in Sydney include the University of Technology, Sydney, the University of New South Wales, Macquarie University, the University of Western Sydney and the Australian Catholic University (two out of six campuses). Other universities which operate secondary campuses in Sydney include the University of Notre Dame Australia, the University of Wollongong and Curtin University of Technology.
There are four multi-campus government-funded Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institutes in Sydney, which provide vocational training at a tertiary level: the Sydney Institute of Technology, Northern Sydney Institute of TAFE, Western Sydney Institute of TAFE and South Western Sydney Institute of TAFE.
Sydney has public, denominational and independent schools. Public schools, including pre-schools, primary and secondary schools, and special schools are administered by the New South Wales Department of Education and Training. There are four state-administered education areas in Sydney, that together co-ordinate 919 schools.^{[citation needed]} Of the 30 selective high schools in the state, 25 are in Sydney.^[94]

Infrastructure

Health systems

The government of New South Wales operates the public hospitals in the Sydney metropolitan region. Management of these hospitals and other specialist health facilities is coordinated by four Area Health Services: Sydney South West (SSWAHS), Sydney West (SWAHS), Northern Sydney and Central Coast (NSCCAHS) and the South Eastern Sydney and Illawarra (SESIAHS) Area Health Services. There are also a number of private hospitals in the city, many of which are aligned with religious organisations.

Transport

Main article: Public transport in Sydney

The Queen Elizabeth 2 moored at Circular Quay, the main ferry and shippng terminal in Sydney

Most Sydney residents travel by car through the system of roads and motorways. The most important trunk routes in the urban area are the nine Metroads, which include the 110 km (68 mi) Sydney Orbital Network. Sydney is also served by train, taxi, bus and ferry networks.
Trains in Sydney are run by CityRail, a state-run corporation. Trains run as suburban commuter rail services in the outer suburbs, then converge in an underground city loop service in the central business district. In the years following the 2000 Olympics, CityRail's performance declined significantly.^[95] In 2005, CityRail introduced a revised timetable and employed more drivers.^[96] A large infrastructure project, the Clearways project, is scheduled to be completed by 2010.^[97]^[98]^[99] In 2007 a report found Cityrail performed poorly compared to many metro services from other world cities.^[100]

Metro Monorail, Liverpool and Pitt Streets

Sydney has one privately operated light rail line, Metro Light Rail, running from Central Station to Lilyfield along a former goods train line. The Metro Monorail runs in a loop around the main shopping district and Darling Harbour. Sydney was once served by an extensive tram network, which was progressively closed in the 1950s and 1960s.^[101]
Most parts of the metropolitan area are served by buses, many of which follow the pre-1961 tram routes. In the city and inner suburbs the state-owned Sydney Buses has a monopoly. In the outer suburbs, service is contracted to many private bus companies. Construction of a network of rapid bus transitways in areas not previously well served by public transport began in 1999, and the first of these, the Liverpool–Parramatta Rapid Bus Transitway, opened in February 2003. State government-owned Sydney Ferries runs numerous commuter and tourist ferry services on Sydney Harbour and the Parramatta River.^[102]

Domestic Terminal at Sydney Airport

Sydney Airport, in the suburb of Mascot, is Sydney's main airport, and is one of the oldest continually operated airports in the world.^[103] The smaller Bankstown Airport mainly serves private and general aviation. There is a light aviation airfield at Camden. RAAF Base Richmond lies to the north-west of the city.
The question of the need for a Second Sydney Airport has raised much controversy. A 2003 study found that Sydney Airport can manage as Sydney's sole international airport for 20 years, with a significant increase in airport traffic predicted.^[104] The resulting expansion of the airport would have a substantial impact on the community, including additional aircraft noise affecting residents. Land has been acquired at Badgerys Creek for a second airport, the site acting as a focal point of political argument.^[105]

Utilities

Water storage and supply for Sydney is managed by the Sydney Catchment Authority, which is an agency of the NSW Government that sells bulk water to Sydney Water and other agencies. Water in the Sydney catchment is chiefly stored in dams in the Upper Nepean Scheme, the Blue Mountains, Woronora Dam, Warragamba Dam and the Shoalhaven Scheme.^[106] Historically low water levels in the catchment have led to water use restrictions and the NSW government is investigating alternative water supply options, including grey water recycling and the construction of a seawater reverse osmosis desalination plant at Kurnell.^[107] As of May 2009, the plant was 80% completed, and was due to start supplying fresh water to Sydney at the end of the year.^[108] In late January 2010, the NSW government announced that desalination plant was operating and people in different regions were being supplied with desalinated water. There were no complaints or reports about water odour, which people had previously perceived was going to be present.^{[citation needed]} Sydney Water also collects the wastewater and sewage produced by the city.
Four companies supply natural gas and electricity to Sydney: Energy Australia, AGL, Integral Energy and Origin Energy. The natural gas supply for the city is sourced from the Cooper Basin in South Australia. Numerous telecommunications companies operate in Sydney providing terrestrial and mobile telecommunications services.

Faisal of Saudi Arabia

2011-02-14T00:04:00.000-08:00

King Faisal bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud (1906 – March 25, 1975) (Arabic: فيصل بن عبدالعزيز آل سعود‎) ruled Saudi Arabia from 1964 to 1975. As king, he is credited with rescuing the country's finances and implementing a policy of modernization and reform, while his main foreign policy themes were pan-Islamism, anti-Communism, and pro-Palestinian nationalism.^[1]^[2] He successfully stabilized the kingdom's bureaucracy and his reign had significant popularity among Saudis.

Lineage

Faisal was born in Riyadh. He was the third son of Saudi Arabia's founder, Ibn Saud. Faisal's mother was Tarfa bint Abduallah bin Abdulateef al Sheekh,^[4] whom Ibn Saud had married in 1902 after capturing Riyadh. She was a descendant of Muhammad ibn Abd Al-Wahhab, and her father was one of Ibn Saud's principal religious teachers and advisers. By the time of his father's death, Faisal was the second oldest surviving son.^[3]

Early life

As one of Ibn Saud's eldest sons, Faisal was delegated numerous responsibilities during Ibn Saud's quest to consolidate control over Arabia. In 1925, Faisal, in command of an army of Saudi loyalists, won a decisive victory in the Hijaz. In return, he was made the governor of Hijaz the following year.^[1]
After the new Saudi kingdom was formalized in 1932, Faisal received the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs, a position which he continued to hold until his death, even during his reign as king.^[5] Faisal also commanded a section of the Saudi forces that took part in the brief Saudi-Yemeni War of 1934,^[6] successfully fighting off Yemeni claims over Saudi Arabia's southern provinces.
The large scale development of Saudi oil by U.S. concessionaire ARAMCO after World War II led to an increase in oil revenue from $10.4 million in 1946 to $56.7 million in 1950. Because Abdul-Aziz's personal rule became increasingly slack, Faisal and other oilmen at the realized the need to manage huge sums of money flowing into the kingdom. In summer 1951, Abdul-Aziz expanded the bureaucracy to allow more members of the royal family into key posts. Faisal's son Abdullah was granted control of the Ministry of Health and Interior.^[7]

Crown Prince and Prime Minister

Upon the accession of Faisal's elder brother, Saud, to the throne in 1953, Faisal was appointed Crown Prince. Saud, however, embarked on a lavish and ill-considered spending program^[1] that included the construction of a massive royal residence on the outskirts of the capital, Riyadh. He also faced pressure from neighboring Egypt, where Gamal Abdel Nasser had overthrown the monarchy in 1952. Nasser was able to cultivate a group of dissident princes led by Talal ibn Abdul Aziz who defected to Egypt (see Free Princes). Fearing that Saud's financial policies were bringing the state to the brink of collapse, and that his handling of foreign affairs was inept, senior members of the royal family and the religious leadership (the "ulema") pressured Saud into appointing Faisal to the position of prime minister in 1958, giving Faisal wide executive powers.^[8] In this new position, Faisal set about cutting spending dramatically in an effort to rescue the state treasury from bankruptcy. This policy of financial prudence was to become a hallmark of his era and earned him a reputation for thriftiness among the populace.
A power struggle ensued thereafter between Saud and Faisal, and on December 18, 1960, Faisal resigned as prime minister in protest, arguing that Saud was frustrating his financial reforms. Saud took back his executive powers and, having induced Talal to return from Egypt, appointed Talal as minister of finance.^[9] In 1962, however, Faisal rallied enough support within the royal family to install himself as prime minister for a second time.^[8]
It was during this period as head of the Saudi government, that Faisal, though still not king, established his reputation as a reforming and modernizing figure.^[1] He introduced education for women and girls despite the consternation of many conservatives in the religious establishment. To appease the objectors, however, he allowed the female educational curriculum to be written and overseen by members of the religious leadership, a policy which lasted long after Faisal's death. It was also during this time that Faisal formally abolished slavery.
In 1963, Faisal established the country's first television station, though actual broadcasts would not begin for another two years.^[10] As with many of his other policies, the move aroused strong objections from the religious and conservative sections of the country. Faisal assured them, however, that Islamic principles of modesty would be strictly observed, and made sure that the broadcasts contained a large amount of religious programming.

Struggle with Saud

The struggle with Saud, the king, continued in the background during this time. Taking advantage of the king's absence from the country for medical reasons in early 1963, Faisal began amassing more power for himself. He removed many of Saud's loyalists from their posts and appointed like-minded princes in key military and security positions,^[11]^[12] such as his brother Abdullah, to whom he gave command of the National Guard in 1962.^[13] Upon Saud's return, Faisal demanded that he be made regent and that Saud be reduced to a purely ceremonial role. In this, he had the crucial backing of the ulema, including an edict (or fatwa) issued by the grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, a relative of Faisal's on his mother's side, calling on Saud to accede to his brother's demands.^[11] Saud refused, however, and made a last-ditch attempt to retake executive powers, leading Faisal to order the National Guard to surround Saud's palace. His loyalists outnumbered and outgunned, Saud relented, and on March 4, 1964, Faisal was appointed regent. A meeting of the elders of the royal family and the ulema was convened later that year, and a second fatwa was decreed by the grand mufti calling on Saud to abdicate the throne in favor of his brother. The royal family supported the fatwa and immediately informed Saud of their decision. Saud, by now shorn of all his powers, agreed, and Faisal was proclaimed king on November 2, 1964.^[8]^[12] Shortly thereafter, Saud left into exile in Greece.

King of Saudi Arabia

Upon his ascension, Faisal still viewed the restoration of the country's finances as his main priority. He continued to pursue his conservative financial policies during the first few years of his reign, and his aims of balancing the country's budget eventually succeeded, helped by an increase in oil production.
Faisal embarked on a modernization project that encompassed vast parts of the kingdom and involved various public sector institutions. The pinnacle of his achievements in modernizing the Kingdom was the establishment of a judicial system, a project led and executed by an international lawyer and judge, the former Syrian Minister of Justice, Zafer Moussly.
The improved financial situation allowed Faisal to pursue various reforms and modernization projects. Several universities were established or expanded during his rule, and he continued to send a great number of students to foreign universities, especially in the United States. These students would later form the core of the Saudi civil service.
Many of the country's ministries, government agencies, and welfare programs were begun during Faisal's reign, and he invested heavily in infrastructure.^[14] He also introduced policies such as agricultural and industrial subsidies that were later to reach their height under his successors, Khalid and Fahd. In 1964, he issued an edict that all Saudi princes had to school their children inside the country, rather than sending them abroad; this had the effect of making it "fashionable" for upper class families to bring their sons back to study in the Kingdom.^[15] Faisal also introduced the country's current system of administrative regions, and laid the foundations for a modern welfare system. In 1970, he established the Ministry of Justice and inaugurated the country's first "five-year plan" for economic development.^[14]
Television broadcasts officially began in 1965. In 1966, an especially zealous nephew of Faisal attacked the newly-established headquarters of Saudi television but was killed by security personnel. The attacker was the brother of Faisal's future assassin, and the incident is the most widely-accepted motive for the murder.^[16] Despite the opposition from conservative Saudis to his reforms, however, Faisal continued to pursue modernization while always making sure to couch his policies in Islamic terms.
The 1950s and 1960s saw numerous coups d'état in the region. Muammar al-Gaddafi's coup that overthrew the monarchy in oil-rich Libya in 1969 was especially ominous for Saudi Arabia due the similarity between the two sparsely-populated desert countries.^[17] As a result, Faisal undertook to build a sophisticated security apparatus and cracked down firmly on dissent. As in all affairs, Faisal justified these policies in Islamic terms. Early in his reign, when faced by demands for a written constitution for the country, Faisal responded that "our constitution is the Quran."^[18] In 1969, Faisal ordered the arrest of hundreds of military officers, including some generals,^[1]^[19] alleging that a military coup was being planned. The arrests were possibly based on a tip from American intelligence,^[17] but it is unclear how serious the threat actually was.
Faisal also put down protests by Saudi workers employed by the international oil company, Aramco, in the Eastern Province, and banned the formation of labor unions in 1965. In compensation for these actions, however, Faisal introduced a far-reaching labor law with the aim of providing maximum job security for the Saudi workforce. He also introduced pension and social insurance programs for workers despite objections from some of the ulema.^[20]

Foreign relations

King Faisal, U.S. President Richard Nixon and his wife Pat Nixon (27 May 1971)

As king, Faisal continued the close alliance with the United States begun by his father, and relied on the U.S. heavily for arming and training his armed forces. Faisal was also anti-Communist. He refused any political ties with the Soviet Union and other Communist bloc countries, professing to see a complete incompatibility between Communism and Islam,^[1]^[21] and associating Communism with Zionism, which he also criticized sharply.
Faisal also supported monarchist and conservative movements in the Arab world, and sought to counter the influences of socialism and Arab Nationalism in the region by promoting pan-Islamism as an alternative.^[4] To that end, he called for the establishment of the Muslim World League, visiting several Muslim countries to advocate the idea. He also engaged in a propaganda and media war with Egypt's pan-Arabist president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, and engaged in a proxy war with Egypt in Yemen that lasted until 1967 (see Yemeni Civil War). Faisal never explicitly repudiated pan-Arabism, however, and continued to call for inter-Arab solidarity in broad terms.
Following the death of Nasser in 1970, Faisal drew closer to Egypt's new president, Anwar Sadat,^[4] who himself was planning a break with the Soviet Union and a move towards the pro-American camp. During the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, launched by Sadat, Faisal withdrew Saudi oil from world markets, in protest over Western support for Israel during the conflict. This action quadrupled the price of oil and was the primary force behind the 1973 energy crisis. It was to be the defining act of Faisal's career, and gained him lasting prestige among many Arabs and Muslims worldwide. In 1974, he was named Time magazine's Man of the Year, and the financial windfall generated by the crisis fueled the economic boom that occurred in Saudi Arabia after his death. The new oil revenue also allowed Faisal to greatly increase the aid and subsidies begun following the 1967 Arab-Israeli War^[2] to Egypt, Syria, and the Palestine Liberation Organization.^[22] It is a commonly-held, but so far unsubstantiated popular belief in Saudi Arabia and the Arab and Muslim world that Faisal's oil boycott was the real cause of his assassination, via a Western conspiracy,^[23]^[24] his assassin having just returned from the United States (see below).
Faisal also developed a close alliance with Pakistan, where he is regarded highly for his foreign policy and pan-islamic ideals. King Faisal was a very close friend of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto renowned Prime Minister of Pakistan, as well as General Muhammad Zia ul-Haq. Lyallpur, which was then the third largest city and currently is the fifth largest, was renamed Faisalabad (lit. "City of Faisal") in 1979 in his honor. The Faisal Mosque in Islamabad is named after him as well. The main highway in Karachi was renamed Shahrah-e-Faisal and a suburb close to Karachi Airport was also renamed Shah Faisal Colony. One of the two major air force bases in Pakistan's largest city, Karachi, is named "PAF Base Faisal" in the honour of King Faisal.^{[citation needed]}

Assassination

On March 25, 1975, Faisal was shot point-blank and killed by his half-brother's son, Faisal bin Musa'id, who had just come back from the United States. The murder occurred at a majlis, (Arabic for "a place for sitting") an event where the king or leader opens up his residence to the citizens to enter and petition the king.
Prince Faisal Bin Musa'id was captured directly after the attack and declared officially insane. He was later found guilty of regicide and in June 1975, despite Faisal's dying request that the life of his assassin be spared, he was beheaded in the public square in Riyadh.^[25]
Faisal was buried in Riyadh, and was succeeded by his half-brother, Khalid.

Family

Faisal married three times. He only had one wife at a time. The first wife passed away. He divorced his second wife. His last and his most prominent wife was Iffat Al-Thuniyyan, raised in Turkey, though a descendant of the members of the Al Saud clan who were taken to Istanbul or Cairo by Egyptian forces in 1818 (see First Saudi State). Iffat is credited with being the influence behind many of her late husband's reforms, particularly with regards to women.^[4]^[26]^[27]
The late King's sons have held and continue to hold important positions within the Saudi government. Khalid was the governor of Asir Province in southwestern Saudi Arabia for more than three decades before becoming governor of Makkah Province in 2007. Saud Al-Faisal has been the Saudi foreign minister since 1975. Turki bin Faisal Al Saud served as head of Saudi intelligence, ambassador to the United Kingdom, and later ambassador to the United States.^[28]
His sons received exceptional education compared to other princes born to Saudi monarchs. Turki received formal education at prestigious schools in New Jersey, and later attended Georgetown University,^[29] while Saud is an alumnus of Princeton.
Faisal's daughter, Haifa, is married to his nephew Bandar ibn Sultan, the former long-serving Saudi ambassador to the United States and current Saudi national security advisor. Bandar had been all but disowned by his father Sultan at the time due to his perceived inferior lineage. Faisal, however, forced Sultan to recognize Bandar as a legitimate prince by giving Bandar his own daughter's hand in marriage.
After his death, Faisal's family established the King Faisal Foundation.

Shikarpur District

2011-02-08T23:53:00.000-08:00

Shikarpur district (Sindhi: شڪارپور) (Urdu: ضلع شڪارپور) is a district in the Sindh province of Pakistan. The city of Shikarpur is the capital. It is spread over an area of 2,512 km², according to the 1998 census of Pakistan it had a population of 880,438 of which 23.51% were urban.^[1] Before the rule of Britishers, Sindh has three major districts, on the top Hyderabad was furnished and at the second number largest and populous, developed and rich was Shikarpur district and on the third number Karachi was the developed and famous. Shikarpur in the united India, the Reserve Bank of India was established and the building of bank is still exist in shiakrpur city. The famous Poets of shikarpur are Saami, Bedal Masroor and Shaikh Ayaz. The famous personalities of the Shikarpur are Shaheed Allah Bux Soomro, Sir Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah, Deen Mohammad Wafai,A.K.Brohi, Junaid Ahmed Soomro, Iftikar Ahmed Soomro, Imtiaz Ahmed shaikh, Makbool Ahmed Shaikh,MIR Abdul Nabi Khan Mengal, Mir Abdul Ghafoor Khan Mengal, Late Mir Muhammad Ayub Khan Mengal, Dr.Ghulam Rasool Khan Mengal, Mr.Barkat Ali Khan Mengal,Agha nawab Khan tareen.

The Shahi Bagh, which stands neglected today, was known for its thriving vegetation and scented flowers. At one time Shahi Bagh had a zoo with large population of lions, cheetahs, bears and wild boars. These animals were later shifted to Karachi Zoo. The garden had a wooden pavilion that was designed by Perston Phel and constructed by Sir W. Merewether in September 1871. Many other public and private gardens and open spaces of Shikarpur have vanished.
The Covered Bazaar, Contemporary cities of that time - Bukhara, Samarkand, and Istanbul - had bazaars with covered streets. Shikarpur's main bazaar too was covered.The standard of education moving high day by day.The long and narrow bazaar lined with shops on both sides almost passes through the centre of the old city.
The standard of education moving high day by day, Public transport facility is satifactroy and condition of underwater is good, water can get through hand pump.The political atmosphere is very high, currently Aftab shahban mirani and Ghos bux mehar are nominated as MNA from the district Shikarpur,Engineers and doctors are working in the most important parts of the country

Administration

The district is subdivided into 4 talukas these are:^[2]

As per the 1998 census of the country, Shikarpur district had a population of 0.880 million out of which 0.212 million (24%) was urban. Following are the demographic details of the district:
Religion
Islam: 98.03%
Hinduism: 1.80%
Christianity: 0.09%
Sikhism: 0.05%
undefined: 0.04%, Hindus are 6.14% from the urban population of district.
Languages
Sindhi: 75.77%
Balochi: 12.01%
Brohi: 6.35%
Seraiki: 3.60%
Urdu: 1.81%
Punjabi: 0.24%
Pashto: 0.22%

[edit] History

an old building architecture of Shikarpur.

Shikarpur has always been an important place as commanding the trade route through the Bolan Pass, and its merchants have dealings with many towns in Central Asia. It has seven gates like Hathi Gate, Lucky Gate etc. It is famous for its pickles and sweets. It has a large market and manufactures cotton cloth and pottery. Because of its rich history. Shikarpur used to be called an "Old Paris" because of unknown reason while some people thinks that it was called an "Old Paris" because of its modern building of that time but some things that it was because of some perfume or attur industry in the Shikarpur. At that time there was a popular caste Dahani was active and the chief of the caste was Sardar Ghulam Bashir Khan Dahani. Shikarpur is the most historical place of sindh, it was a place of Shikar means Hunting it was a place for hunting for the people because it had a large forest with the lot of animals so many people came here for hunting. This city has also another significance which is trading, it i s famous for its 1t banking system in the Asia.^[3]

Geography

Shikarpur District borders the districts of Larkana, Jacobabad, Khairpur and Sukkur. Two National Highways (N-65 & N-55) intersect the city of Shikarpur, making it the junction points of 4 provinces.
Chak, Beechangi a town in taluka Lakhi, has an important place in the district politically, socially and economically besides the main Shikarpur city.its Paris of the Past
Mian-Jo-Goth,a historical village in Taluka Khanpur is the second biggest town in Khanpur Taluka.

Infrastructure

Shikarpur District was famous for education and other civic amenities until the first half of the 20th Century, throughout undivided India these included, Rau Bahadur Udhau-Das Tara Chand Hospital, Heeranand Ganga Bai Ladies Hospital, Chella Ram and Seetal Das College, two old High Schools now known as school No:1 & 2 and Girls College here, are few dignified and marvellous towers, showing outstanding standards of Shikarpurians during that era. For security the city was then protected by seven gates & one window. Now, infra-structure being old constructed, is experiencing lot of problems. Heavy inflow of rural populace, has further burdened this old system, needing immediate over-hauling. District Shikarpur is having total road length of 920.0 kilo meters, including 125.0 kilo meters National Highways and 195.0 kilo meters Provincial Highways. It is thus deficient in road density (0.35 Km2 ) compared with recognized international parameters of development, ( 1km2 ). During last few years, the creeping development activity has taken pace and 71.0 kilo meters of road, 94 nos. schools and number of schemes in drainage, health and other sectors have been completed, under various Programmes. Basically agrarian economy of district Shikarpur, is dependent upon non-perennial irrigation system, so the district is practically in Semi Drought Conditions always. Last spell of drought has further worsened this situation, creating heavy unemployment and unsustainable poverty, which without doubt creates serious law & order situations.

Kate Winslet

2011-02-06T22:35:00.000-08:00

Kate Elizabeth Winslet (born 5 October 1975) is an English actress and occasional singer. She has received multiple awards and nominations. She is the youngest person to accrue six Academy Award nominations, and won the Academy Award for Best Actress for The Reader (2008). Winslet has been acclaimed for both dramatic and comedic work in projects ranging from period to contemporary films, and from major Hollywood productions to less publicised indie films. She has won awards from the Screen Actors Guild, British Academy of Film and Television Arts, and the Hollywood Foreign Press Association among others, and has been nominated for an Emmy Award for television acting.
Raised in Berkshire, Winslet studied drama from childhood, and began her career in British television in 1991. She made her film debut in Heavenly Creatures (1994), for which she received her first notable critical praise. She achieved recognition for her subsequent work in a supporting role in Sense and Sensibility (1995) and for her leading role in Titanic (1997), the highest grossing film for more than 12 years until 2010.

Since 2000, Winslet's performances have continued to draw positive comments from film critics, and she has been nominated for various awards for her work in such films as Quills (2000), Iris (2001), Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), Finding Neverland (2004), Little Children (2006), The Reader (2008) and Revolutionary Road (2008). Her performance in the latter prompted New York magazine to describe her as "the best English-speaking film actress of her generation".^[1] The romantic comedy The Holiday and the animated film Flushed Away (both 2006) were among the biggest commercial successes of her career.

Winslet was awarded a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children in 2000. She has been included as a vocalist on some soundtracks of works she has performed in, and the single "What If" from the soundtrack for Christmas Carol: The Movie (2001), was a hit single in several European countries. Winslet has a daughter with her former husband, Jim Threapleton, and a son with her second husband, Sam Mendes, from whom she is separated. She lives in New York City.

Early life

Born in Reading, Berkshire, Winslet is the middle of three daughters of Sally Anne (née Bridges), a barmaid, and Roger John Winslet, a swimming pool contractor.^[2] Her parents were "jobbing actors", which led Winslet to comment that she "didn't have a privileged upbringing" and that their daily life was "very hand to mouth".^[3] Her maternal grandparents, Linda (née Plumb) and Archibald Oliver Bridges, founded and operated the Reading Repertory Theatre,^[3] and her uncle, Robert Bridges, appeared in the original West End production of Oliver!. Her older sister, Anna, and younger sister, Beth, are also actresses.^[3]
Raised in an Anglican household, Winslet began studying drama at the age of 11 at the Redroofs Theatre School, a co-educational independent school in Maidenhead, Berkshire, where she was head girl.^[4] At the age of 12, Winslet appeared in a television advertisement directed by filmmaker Tim Pope for Sugar Puffs cereal. Pope said her naturalism was "there from the start".^[5]

Career

1991–1997

Winslet's career began on television, with a co-starring role in the BBC children's science fiction serial Dark Season.^[6] This role was followed by appearances in the made-for-TV movie Anglo-Saxon Attitudes in 1992, the sitcom Get Back for ITV and an episode of medical drama Casualty in 1993, also for the BBC.^[6]

Winslet at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival

In 1992, Winslet attended a casting call for Peter Jackson's Heavenly Creatures in London. Winslet auditioned for the part of Juliet Hulme, a teenager who assists in the murder of the mother of her best friend, Pauline Parker (played by Melanie Lynskey). She won the role over 175 other girls.^[7] The film included Winslet's singing debut, and her a cappella version of "Sono Andati", an aria from La Bohème,^[8] was featured on the film's soundtrack.^[9] The film was released to favourable reviews in 1994 and won Jackson and partner Fran Walsh a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay.^[10] Winslet was awarded an Empire Award and a London Film Critics Circle Award for British Actress of the Year for her performance.^[11] The Washington Post writer Desson Thomson commented: "As Juliet, Winslet is a bright-eyed ball of fire, lighting up every scene she’s in. She's offset perfectly by Lynskey, whose quietly smoldering Pauline completes the delicate, dangerous partnership."^[12] Speaking about her experience on a film set as an absolute beginner, Winslet noted: "With Heavenly Creatures, all I knew I had to do was completely become that person. In a way it was quite nice doing [the film] and not knowing a bloody thing."^[13]
The following year, Winslet auditioned for the small but pivotal role of Lucy Steele in the adaptation of Jane Austen's Sense and Sensibility, featuring Emma Thompson, Hugh Grant, and Alan Rickman.^[14] She was instead cast in the second leading role of Marianne Dashwood.^[14] Director Ang Lee admitted he was initially worried about the way Winslet had attacked her role in Heavenly Creatures and thus required her to exercise tai chi, read Austen-era Gothic novels and poetry, and work with a piano teacher to fit the grace of the role.^[14] Budgeted at US$16.5 million ($23.8 million in current year dollars) the film became a financial and critical success, resulting in a worldwide box office total of US$135 million ($194.5 million) and various awards for Winslet, winning her both a BAFTA and a Screen Actors Guild Award, and nominations for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe.^[11]^[15]
In 1996, Winslet starred in both Jude and Hamlet. In Michael Winterbottom's Jude, based on the Victorian novel Jude the Obscure by Thomas Hardy, she played Sue Bridehead, a young woman with suffragette leanings who falls in love with her cousin, played by Christopher Eccleston. Acclaimed among critics, it was not a success at the box office, barely grossing US$2 million ($2.8 million) worldwide.^[16]^[17] Richard Corliss of Time magazine said "Winslet is worthy of [...] the camera's scrupulous adoration. She's perfect, a modernist ahead of her time [...] and Jude is a handsome showcase for her gifts."^[18] Winslet played Ophelia, Hamlet's drowned lover, in Kenneth Branagh's all star-cast film version of William Shakespeare's Hamlet. The film garnered largely positive reviews and earned Winslet her second Empire Award.^[11]^[19]
In mid-1996, Winslet began filming James Cameron's Titanic (1997), alongside Leonardo DiCaprio.^{[citation needed]} Cast as the sensitive seventeen-year-old Rose DeWitt Bukater, a fictional first-class socialite who survives the 1912 sinking of the RMS Titanic, Winslet's experience was emotionally demanding.^[20] "Titanic was totally different and nothing could have prepared me for it. ... We were really scared about the whole adventure. ... Jim [Cameron] is a perfectionist, a real genius at making movies. But there was all this bad press before it came out, and that was really upsetting."^[20] Against expectations, the film went on to become the highest-grossing film of all time, grossing more than US$1.843 billion ($2.6 billion) in box-office receipts worldwide,^[21] and transformed Winslet into a commercial movie star.^[22] Subsequently, she was nominated for most of the high-profile awards, winning a European Film Award.^[11]^[23]

1998–2003

Shot prior to the release of Titanic, Hideous Kinky, a low-budget hippie romance, was Winslet's sole film of 1998.^[24] Winslet had rejected offers to play the leading roles in Shakespeare in Love (1998) and Anna and the King (1999) in favour of the role of a young English mother named Julia who moves with her daughters from London to Morocco hoping to start a new life.^[24]^[25] The film garnered generally mixed reviews and received only limited distribution,^[26] resulting in a worldwide gross of US$5 million ($6.6 million).^[27] Despite the success of Titanic, the next film Winslet opted to star in was Holy Smoke! (1999), featuring Harvey Keitel, another low-budget project—much to the chagrin of her agents, who felt "miserable" about her preference of arthouse movies.^[13]^[20] Feeling pressured, Winslet has said she "never saw Titanic as a springboard for bigger films or bigger pay cheques", knowing that "it could have been that, but would have destroyed [her]."^[28] The same year, she voiced Brigid in the computer animated film Faeries.^[29]
In 2000, Winslet appeared in the period piece Quills with Geoffrey Rush and Joaquin Phoenix, a film inspired by the life and work of the Marquis de Sade. The actress served as somewhat of a "patron saint" of the film for being the first big name to back it, accepting the role of a chambermaid in the asylum and the courier of The Marquis' manuscripts to the underground publishers.^[30] Well-received by critics, the film garnered numerous accolades for Winslet, including nominations for SAG and Satellite Awards.^[11] The film was a modest arthouse success, averaging US$27,709 ($35,337) per screen its debut weekend, and eventually grossing US$18 million ($23 million) internationally.^[31]
In 2001's Enigma, Winslet played a young woman who finds herself falling for a brilliant young World War II code breaker, played by Dougray Scott.^[32] It was her first war film, and Winslet regarded "making Enigma a brilliant experience" as she was five months pregnant at the time of the shoot, forcing some tricky camera work from the director Michael Apted.^[32] Generally well-received,^[33] Winslet was awarded a British Independent Film Award for her performance,^[11] and A. O. Scott of The New York Times described Winslet as "more crush-worthy than ever."^[34] In the same year she appeared in Richard Eyre's critically acclaimed film Iris, portraying Irish novelist Iris Murdoch. Winslet shared her role with Judi Dench, with both actresses portraying Murdoch at different phases of her life.^[35] Subsequently, each of them was nominated for an Academy Award the following year, earning Winslet her third nomination.^[11] Also in 2001, she voiced the character Belle in the animated motion picture Christmas Carol: The Movie, based on the Charles Dickens classic novel. For the film, Winslet recorded the song "What If", which was released in November 2001 as a single^[36] with proceeds donated to two of Winslet's favourite charities, the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and the Sargeant Cancer Foundation for Children.^[36]^[37] A Europe-wide top ten hit, it reached number one in Austria, Belgium, and Ireland,^[38] number six on the UK Singles Chart,^[39] and won the 2002 OGAE Song Contest.^[40]
Her next film role was in the 2003 drama The Life of David Gale, in which she played an ambitious journalist who interviews a death-sentenced professor, played by Kevin Spacey, in his final weeks before execution. The film underperformed at international box offices, garnering only half of its US$ 50,000,000 budget,^[41] and generating mostly critical reviews,^[42] with Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times calling it a "silly movie."^[43]

2004–2006

Following The Life of David Gale, Winslet appeared with Jim Carrey in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), a neosurrealistic indie-drama by French director Michel Gondry. In the film, she played the role of Clementine Kruczynski, a chatty, spontaneous and somewhat neurotic woman, who decides to have all memories of her ex-boyfriend erased from her mind.^[44] The role was a departure from her previous roles, with Winslet revealing in an interview with Variety that she was initially upended about her casting in the film: "This was not the type of thing I was being offered [...] I was just thrilled that there was something he had seen in me, in spite of the corsets, that he thought was going to work for Clementine.”^[45] The film was a critical and financial success.^[46] Winslet received rave reviews for her Academy Award-nominated performance, which Peter Travers of Rolling Stone described as "electrifying and bruisingly vulnerable."^[47]

Winslet at the 61st British Academy Film Awards.

Her final film in 2004 was Finding Neverland. The story of the production focused on Scottish writer J. M. Barrie (Johnny Depp) and his platonic relationship with Sylvia Llewelyn Davies (Winslet), whose sons inspired him to pen the classic play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up. During promotion of the film, Winslet noted of her portrayal "It was very important for me in playing Sylvia that I was already a mother myself, because I don’t think I could have played that part if I didn’t know what it felt like to be a parent and have those responsibilities and that amount of love that you give to a child [...] and I've always got a baby somewhere, or both of them, all over my face."^[48] The film received favourable reviews and proved to be an international success, becoming Winslet's highest-grossing film since Titanic with a total of $118 million worldwide.^[49]^[50]
In 2005, Winslet appeared in an episode of BBC's comedy series Extras as a satirical version of herself. While dressed as a nun, she was portrayed giving phone sex tips to the romantically challenged character of Maggie.^[51] Her performance in the episode led to her first nomination for an Emmy Award.^[11] In Romance & Cigarettes (2005), a musical romantic comedy written and directed by John Turturro, she played the character Tula, described by Winslet as "a slut, someone who’s essentially foulmouthed and has bad manners and really doesn’t know how to dress."^[52] Hand-picked by Turturro, who was impressed with her display of dancing ability in Holy Smoke!, Winslet was praised for her performance,^[52] which included her interpretation of Connie Francis's "Scapricciatiello (Do You Love Me Like You Kiss Me)".^[53] Derek Elley of Variety wrote: "Onscreen less, but blessed with the showiest role, filthiest one-liners, [and] a perfect Lancashire accent that's comical enough in the Gotham setting Winslet throws herself into the role with an infectious gusto."^[54]
After declining an invitation to appear in Woody Allen's film Match Point (2005), Winslet stated that she wanted to be able to spend more time with her children.^[55] She began 2006 with All the King's Men, featuring Sean Penn and Jude Law. Winslet played the role of Anne Stanton, the childhood sweetheart of Jack Burden (Law). The film was critically and financially unsuccessful.^[56]^[57] Todd McCarthy of Variety summed it up as "overstuffed and fatally miscast [...] Absent any point of engagement to become involved in the characters, the film feels stillborn and is unlikely to stir public excitement, even in an election year."^[58]
Winslet fared far better when she joined the cast of Todd Field's Little Children, playing Sarah Pierce, a bored homemaker who has a torrid affair with a married neighbour, played by Patrick Wilson. Both her performance and the film received rave reviews; A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote: "In too many recent movies intelligence is woefully undervalued, and it is this quality—even more than its considerable beauty—that distinguishes Little Children from its peers. The result is a movie that is challenging, accessible and hard to stop thinking about. Ms. Winslet, as fine an actress as any working in movies today, registers every flicker of Sarah’s pride, self-doubt and desire, inspiring a mixture of recognition, pity and concern that amounts, by the end of the movie, to something like love. That Ms. Winslet is so lovable makes the deficit of love in Sarah’s life all the more painful."^[59] For her work in the film, she was honored with a Britannia Award for British Artist of the Year from BAFTA/LA, a Los Angeles-based offshoot of the BAFTA Awards.^[60] and nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress, and at 31, became the youngest actress to ever garner five Oscar nominations.^[61]
She followed Little Children with a role in Nancy Meyers' romantic comedy The Holiday, also starring Cameron Diaz, Jude Law, and Jack Black. In it she played Iris, a British woman who temporarily exchanges homes with an American woman (Diaz). Released to a mixed reception by critics,^[62] the film became Winslet's biggest commercial success in nine years, grossing more than US$205 million worldwide.^[63] Also in 2006, Winslet provided her voice for several smaller projects. In the CG-animated Flushed Away, she voiced Rita, a scavenging sewer rat who helps Roddy (Hugh Jackman) escape from the city of Ratropolis and return to his luxurious Kensington origins. A critical and commercial success, the film collected US$177,665,672 at international box offices.^[64]

2007–present

Winslet at the 81st Academy Awards in February 2009

In 2007, Winslet reunited with Leonardo DiCaprio to film Revolutionary Road (2008), directed by her husband Sam Mendes. Winslet had suggested that both should work with her on a film adaptation of the 1961 novel of the same name by Richard Yates after reading the script by Justin Haythe.^[65] Resulting in both "a blessing and an added pressure" on-set, the reunion was her first experience working with Mendes.^[66] Portraying a couple in a failing marriage in the 1950s, DiCaprio and Winslet watched period videos promoting life in the suburbs to prepare themselves for the film,^[66] which earned them favorable reviews.^[67] In his review of the film, David Edelstein of New York magazine stated that "[t]here isn’t a banal moment in Winslet’s performance—not a gesture, not a word. Is Winslet now the best English-speaking film actress of her generation? I think so."^[1] Winslet was awarded a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress for her performance, her seventh nomination from the Golden Globes.^[11]
Also released in late 2008, the film competed against Winslet's other project, a film adaptation of Bernhard Schlink's 1995 novel The Reader, directed by Stephen Daldry and featuring Ralph Fiennes and David Kross in supporting roles. Originally the first choice for her role, she was initially not able to take on the role due to a scheduling conflict with Revolutionary Road, and Nicole Kidman replaced her.^[68] A month after filming began, however, Kidman left the film due to her pregnancy before filming of her had begun, enabling Winslet to rejoin the film.^[68] Employing a German accent, Winslet portrayed a former Nazi concentration camp guard who has an affair with a teenager (Kross) who, as an adult, witnesses her war crimes trial.^[69] She later said the role was difficult for her, as she was naturally unable "to sympathise with an SS guard."^[70] While the film garnered mixed reviews in general,^[71] Winslet received favorable reviews for her performance.^[71] The following year, she earned her sixth Academy Award nomination and went on to win the Best Actress award, the BAFTA Award for Best Actress, a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress, and a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress.^[11]
Winslet is set to headline in the HBO miniseries Mildred Pierce, a five-hour remake of the 1945 film of the same name, premiering on 27 March 2011.^[72] She has been cast in the Steven Soderbergh disaster film Contagion, which is scheduled to be released in October 2011.^{[citation needed]} Winslet will also join Jodie Foster and Christoph Waltz in Roman Polanski's adaptation of the play God of Carnage, which is scheduled to begin filming in Paris in February 2011.^[73]

Personal life

While on the set of Dark Season, Winslet met actor-writer Stephen Tredre, with whom she had a nearly five-year relationship.^[74] He died of bone cancer soon after Winslet completed filming Titanic, causing her to miss the film's premiere in order to attend his funeral in London.^[74] She and Titanic co-star Leonardo DiCaprio have remained best friends since the filming.^[75]
Winslet was later in a relationship with Rufus Sewell, but on 22 November 1998 she married director Jim Threapleton, whom she met while on the set of Hideous Kinky.^[76] They have a daughter, Mia, who was born on 12 October 2000 in London.^[76] Winslet and Threapleton divorced in 2001,^[77] Winslet began a relationship with Sam Mendes, whom she married on 24 May 2003 on the island of Anguilla in the Caribbean.^[76] Their son, Joe Alfie Winslet Mendes, was born on 22 December 2003 in New York City.^[76] Mendes and Winslet announced a separation in March 2010, stating, "The split is entirely amicable and is by mutual agreement."^[78]
Mendes and his production company, Neal Street Productions, purchased the film rights to the long-delayed biography of circus tiger tamer Mabel Stark.^[79] The couple's spokesperson said, "It's a great story, they have had their eyes on it for a while. If they can get the script right, it would make a great film."^[79]
The media have documented her weight fluctuations over the years.^[74]^[76] Winslet has been outspoken about her refusal to allow Hollywood to dictate her weight.^[75]^[80] In February 2003, British GQ magazine published photographs of Winslet which had been digitally altered to make her look dramatically thinner than she really was.^[76] Winslet issued a statement that the alterations were made without her consent, saying "I just didn't want people to think I was a hypocrite and that I'd suddenly lost 30 lbs. or whatever".^[81] GQ subsequently issued an apology.^[80] She won a libel suit in 2009 against British tabloid The Daily Mail after it printed that she lied about her exercise regimen.^[82] Winslet said she had always expressed the opinion that women should be encouraged to accept their appearance with pride, and therefore "was particularly upset to be accused of lying about my exercise regimen, and felt that I had a responsibility to request an apology in order to demonstrate my commitment to the views that I have always expressed about body issues, including diet and exercise."^[82]
Winslet and Mendes live in Greenwich Village in New York City.^[83] They also own a Grade II-listed five-bedroom house, set in 22 acres (89,000 m²) in the village of Church Westcote in Gloucestershire, England.^[84] After purchasing the house for £3 million, they have reportedly spent a further £1 million in renovations, as the house had fallen into disrepair after the death of its former owner, the equestrian artist Raoul Millais in 1999.^[84]
Mendes was scheduled to fly on American Airlines Flight 77, which was hijacked on 11 September 2001 and subsequently crashed into the Pentagon.^[85] In October 2001, Winslet was seven hours into a London-Dallas flight with her daughter Mia when a passenger who claimed to be a terrorist, later charged with creating mischief, stood up and shouted "We are all going to die."^[85] As a result of these incidents, Winslet and Mendes never fly together on the same aircraft, as they fear leaving their children parentless.^[85]

Awards and nominations

Winslet won an Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in The Reader (2008). She won two Golden Globe Awards in the same year: Best Actress (Drama) for Revolutionary Road and Best Supporting Actress for The Reader. She has won two BAFTA Awards: Best Actress for The Reader, and Best Supporting Actress for Sense and Sensibility (1995). She has earned a total of six Academy Award nominations, seven Golden Globe nominations, and seven BAFTA nominations.^[80]^[86]^[87]
She has received numerous awards from other organisations, including the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress for Iris (2001) and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role for Sense and Sensibility and The Reader. Premiere magazine named her portrayal of Clementine Kruczynski in Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) as the 81st greatest film performance of all time.^[88]

Academy Award nomination milestones

Winslet was 26 when she received her third Academy Award nomination, for Iris, just missing the mark of Natalie Wood, who received her third nomination at age 25.^[89] She set the mark as the youngest actor to receive five nominations, at age 31, for Little Children (2006). She surpassed Bette Davis, who was 33 when she received her fifth nomination for her performance in The Little Foxes (1941).^[90] With her Best Actress nomination for The Reader, Winslet became the youngest actor to receive six Oscar nominations. At age 33, Winslet passed the mark Davis, one year older, set with Now, Voyager (1942).^[91]
Winslet received Academy Award nominations as the younger versions of the characters played by fellow nominees Gloria Stuart, as Rose, in Titanic (1997)^[92] and Judi Dench, as Iris Murdoch, in Iris.^[93] These are the only instances of the younger and older versions of a character in the same film both yielding Academy Award nominations, thus making Winslet the only actor to twice share an Oscar nomination with another for portraying the same character.^[92]
When she was not nominated for her work in Revolutionary Road, Winslet became only the second actress to win a Golden Globe for Best Actress (Drama) without getting an Oscar nomination for the same performance (Shirley MacLaine was the first for Madame Sousatzka [1988], and she won the Golden Globe in a three-way tie). Academy rules allow an actor to receive no more than one nomination in a given category; as the Academy nominating process determined that Winslet's work in The Reader would be considered a lead performance—unlike the Golden Globes, which considered it a supporting performance—she could not also receive a Best Actress nomination for Revolutionary Road.^[94]

Awards for other work

In 2000, Winslet won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children for Listen To the Storyteller.^[95]^[96] She was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for playing herself in a 2005 episode of Extras.^[97]

Nawab Akbar Bugti

2011-02-02T22:41:00.000-08:00

Akbar Khan Bugti (Urdu: نواب اکبر شہاز خان بگٹی) (July 12, 1927–August 26, 2006) was the Tumandar (head) of the Bugti tribe of Baloch and served as Minister of State for Interior and Governor of Balochistan Province in Pakistan.^[1]
After wave of terrorism started in Balochistan in 2004, Bugti was widely perceived as a leader but went underground in 2005. On August 26, he was killed in his cave in Kohlu, about 150 miles east of Quetta, leading to widespread unrest in the area.^[2]

Early life and family

Bugti, meeting with Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

Nawab Akbar Khan was born in Barkhan the rural home of the rustic Khetran a (Marri-Bugti) Baloch tribe to which his mother belonged and now an upgraded district of Balochistan, on July 12, 1927. He was the son of Nawab Mehrab Khan Bugti and a grandson of Sir Shahbaz Khan Bugti. His immediate relatives were his brother Sardar Ahmed Nawaz Bugti and cousin Sardar Ghulam Mustafa Khan Bugti. He received his early education from Aitchison College and Higher Education from Oxford University.^[3]

In politics

Nawab Akbar Bugti was elected in a by-election to the National Assembly of Pakistan in May 1958 to fill the vacancy created as a result of the assassination of the incumbent, Dr Khan Sahib, and sat on the government bench as a member of the ruling coalition. Bugti (Republican) served as Minister of State (Interior) in the government of Prime Minister Malik Sir Feroz Khan Noon (Republican) from September 20, 1958, to October 7, 1958, when the cabinet was dismissed on the declaration of Martial Law by President Iskander Mirza.
He was arrested and convicted by a Military Tribunal in 1960 and subsequently qualify from holding public office. As a result of his legal battles, he did not contest the 1970 general elections. Instead, he campaigned on behalf of his younger brother, Sardar Ahmed Nawaz Bugti, a candidate of the National Awami Party.

Main article: Hyderabad tribunal

However, Bugti developed differences with the NAP leadership, especially the new Balochistan Governor, Ghaus Baksh Bizenjo. He informed the Federal Government and President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (Pakistan Peoples Party) of the alleged London Plan, which resulted in the dismissal of the provincial governor as well as the Chief Minister Sardar Ataullah Khan Mengal and his cabinet on February 14, 1973. The next day, the Federal Government appointed Bugti as the Governor of Balochistan, and the Pakistan Army was deployed in the province as part of a crackdown on the National Awami Party.
He resigned on January 1, 1974, after disagreeing with the manner in which the Federal Government was carrying out policies in Balochistan. The army had deployed 100,000 men in Balochistan and with the help of the Iranian airforce killed large numbers of Balochis. Muhammad Raza Shah Pahlavi, the King of Iran, sent F-14 fighter jets and AH-1 gunships along with his pilots, to help Pakistan Army combat the insurgency. The Pakistani army is alleged to have killed more than 4000 Balochi, mostly Marri insurgents, in these operations. Akbar Bugti is said to have supported the military action.
There was a lull in his activities when General Rahimuddin Khan was appointed Governor of Balochistan in 1978. Bugti remained silent throughout the course of Rahimuddin's rule, which was often characterized by hostility towards the Baloch Sardars.
In 1988, he joined the Balochistan National Alliance and was elected Chief Minister on February 4, 1989. His government frequently disagreed with the Federal Government led by the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan Peoples Party).
Bugti resigned on August 6, 1990, when the provincial assembly was dissolved by Governor of Balochistan General Muhammad Musa Khan in accordance with the instructions of President Ghulam Ishaq Khan, who was exercising his authority by virtue of Article 58 (2 b) of the Constitution of Pakistan. For the 1990 General Elections, Bugti formed his own political party, the Jamhoori Watan Party (JWP), being Balochistan's single largest party and was elected to the provincial assembly.
In 1993, he was elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan, representing the JWP in parliament. Also, in 1993, Nawab Bugti announced his candidacy to be President of Pakistan but later withdrew his candidacy and announced his support of the eventual winner, Sardar Farooq Ahmed Khan Leghari. In 1997, Nawab Bugti was re-elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan, representing the JWP.

[edit] Balochistan conflict

Bugti was involved in struggles, at times armed ones, in Balochistan in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. He led the current movement in Balochistan for greater autonomy. He was the public face and provided political support for the movement while his grandson, Brahamdagh Khan Bugti, led the Bugti tribesmen.^[4]
In recent years, he was accused by the Pakistani government of being a warlord and running a well-organized militia, sometimes thought to be the shadowy Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) with members numbering in the thousands. The BLA allegedly ran dozens of militant guerrilla training camps. While campaigning from the mountain ranges of Dera Bugti, he was, according to the Pakistani government, directing a “Mullah Omar” style guerrilla war. In July 2006, Pakistani president General Musharraf targeted him through aerial bombing, using air force jets and gunship helicopters. The leader of Balochistan National Party, Sardar Akhtar Mengal said, "The increase in bomb attacks in the Bugti and Marri areas are meant to target Baloch nationalist leader Nawab Akbar Bugti and his associates" and called upon the international community to take note of the situation.^[5]

[edit] Death

On Saturday August 26, 2006, around 2230 hrs (PST), Bugti was killed when a shell exploded in the cave in which he was hiding. The Pakistani government says that he killed himself along with senior security officials by firing a shell when he was cornered by the Pakistani officials who had come unarmed to arrest him, resulting in the collapse of the cave.^[4] Six Pakistani troops including one colonel & two majors also died who went there for negotiations.^[6]
Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf termed his death a victory for Pakistanis and congratulated the secret service chief who carried out this brutal operation.^{[citation needed]} Pakistan's Information Minister Mohammad Ali Durrani, confirmed that the operation included both air and ground assault. In a short telephone interview, made to a private television network, the Pakistani Information Minister said that Bugti's death occurred as the cave he was in collapsed.^{[citation needed]}
In a recent article the Pakistani Journalist Hamid Mir said that the last time that he talked to Nawab Bugti, he was in the mountains and had called Mir from his satellite phone. In this last conversation with Hamid Mir, Nawab Bugti told him "Read Mir Gul Khan Nasir's book on the history of Balochistan. The Baloch have always resisted unconstitutional measures.I'm not a traitor, the people who go against the Article 6 and take control of Pakistan are the real traitors. I, like Mir Gul Khan Nasir, only put forward the demand for Balochistan's rights. But in General Musharraf's view this is a crime punishable by death. (Bugti Laughs then continues) Your commando general will rest only after he martyrs me but after my martyrdom he will be held responsible. So now it's up to you people to either choose Musharraf or Pakistan. The choice is yours."^[7]^[8]

[edit] Funeral and rioting

Bugti's death was followed by rioting by hundreds of students from the state-run Balochistan university.^[9] As the news flashed across television screens in Pakistan, the government deployed Rangers and paramilitary forces across major cities to prevent a backlash and impose a curfew in the provincial capital, Quetta.^[9] Security arrangements for the Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf have been beefed up to the highest level, and his movement has since been very restricted, fearing a retaliatory attack. Security arrangements have been further enhanced in and around all airports of Pakistan. The media both in Pakistan and outside have severely condemend the killing as the "[m]ilitary’s second biggest blunder after Bhutto’s execution" and calling it a "political nightmare".^[10] Others have likened it to the East Bengal crisis of 1971 where military violence eventually led to the Bangladesh Liberation War.^[11]
On August 27, 2006, some private media broadcast news that Bugti's grandsons, Brahamdagh and Mir Ali, are still alive, but no official confirmation has been made.^{[citation needed]}
On September 1, 2006 Bugti was buried in Dera Bugti with three locks on his coffin, next to the graves of his son and brother. His family, who wanted a public funeral in Quetta, did not attend the burial, they protested against his body being locked in the coffin.^[12]
The Bugti grandson's consist of Brahamdagh Khan Bugti (son of Rehan Khan Bugti), Mir Aali Bugti (son of Salim Bugti), Washane Bugti and Sarang Bugti (Grandsons of Sardar Ahmed Nawaz Bugti). Ahmad Marri and Muhammad Marri (Son's of Humayun Khan Marri), Shazain Bugti, Taleh Bugti and Gohram Bugti (son's of Talal Bugti).

Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry

2011-01-31T20:50:00.000-08:00

Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry (Urdu: افتخار محمّد چودھری) (born 12 December 1948 in Quetta) is the current Chief Justice of Pakistan. He was appointed as Chief Justice by Pakistani President Gen. Pervez Musharraf on May 7, 2005.^[1] He was suspended by President General Musharraf on March 9, 2007, when he refused to oblige Musharraf by refusing to resign. After having been elected as President for second term by the Parliament, Musharraf in November 2007 pre-empted an impending court decision against his re-election and suspended the constitution and declared a state of emergency.^[2] Justice Chaudhry convened a seven-member bench which issued an interim order against this action.^[3]

Early life

Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry was born on 12 December 1948 (age 62) in Quetta, Balochistan Province, Pakistan. Chaudhry belongs to the Ghorewaha clan of Muslim Rajputs. His father migrated to and permanently settled in Quetta, where Chaudhry grew up.

Career in Law

Chaudhry has a Bachelors in Arts and Bachelors in Law (LLB) from Jamshoro-Sindh.^[4] He joined the bar in 1974. Later, he was enrolled as Advocate of the High Court in 1976 and as an Advocate of the Supreme Court in 1985.^[4] In 1989 he was appointed as Advocate General, Balochistan.^[4] He was elevated as Additional Judge, Balochistan High Court on 6 November 1990 until 21 April 1999.^[4] On April 22, 1999 he became Chief Justice of Balochistan High Court. Besides remaining as Judge of High Court, he discharged duties as Banking Judge, Judge Special Court for Speedy Trials, Judge Customs Appellate Courts as well as Company Judge. Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry also remained President of High Court Bar Association, Quetta, and was elected twice as Member of the Bar Council. In 1992 he was appointed as Chairman of Balochistan Local Council Election Authority and thereafter for second term in 1998. He also worked as Chairman, Provincial Review Board for the province of Balochistan and was twice appointed as Chairman of the Pakistan Red Crescent Society, Balochistan.^[4]
On February 4, 2000 he was nominated Justice of Supreme Court of Pakistan. On June 30, 2005 he became the Chief Justice of Pakistan.^[4] At present, Justice Iftikhar is also functioning as Chairman, Enrollment Committee of Pakistan Bar Council and as Chairman, Supreme Court Building Committee.^[4]

Oath taking under PCO 1999

After the proclamation of Provisional Constitutional Order, on January 26, 2000 an order Oath of Office (Judges) Order, 2000 was issued that required that judiciary take oath of office under PCO. Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry and eighty nine (89) other judges in a total of one hundred and two (102) judges of superior judiciary, took oath on PCO while thirteen (13) refused to take oath on PCO.

Suspension and Reinstatement, 2007

Main articles: Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry (suspension) and Lawyers' Movement

On March 9, 2007, Chaudhry was suspended by Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf. Musharraf also filed a Presidential reference against Chaudhry for misconduct.
It was the first time in the 60-year history of the Pakistani Supreme Court that a Chief Justice was suspended. The suspension was made on the grounds of complaints against Chief Justice Chaudhry for violating the norms of judicial propriety, corruption, seeking favours and misbehaving with senior lawyers. He was also accused of interfering in the working of the executive branch.
After his suspension, there was unrest in the country with regard to the validity of the allegations against Chaudhry, as well as doubt as to whether Musharraf technically had the power to suspend the Chief Justice under the circumstances.^[5]
On May 5, 2007, Chaudhry with his counsel and politician friend Atizaz Ahsan, who is also the party member of the PPP, traveled from Islamabad to Lahore to address the Lahore High Court Bar Association. Demonstrations of support along the route slowed his motorcade to the point that it took him 25 hours to reach the dinner the association was holding in his honor.^[6]
On July 20, 2007, Chaudhry was reinstated to his position as Chief Justice in a ruling by the thirteen-member bench of Pakistani Supreme Court headed by Justice Khalil ur Rehman Ramday. He was represented by Aitzaz Ahsan, Shahid Saeed, Gohar Khan and Nadeem Ahmed [PLD 2007 SC 578] against 16 senior lawyers representing the Federation. The ruling combined 25 constitutional petitions filed by various parties, but referred most of the issues raised by the 24 petitions not filed by Chaudhry himself to lower courts for extended adjudication. All thirteen of the sitting justices agreed that Musharraf's action had been illegal, and ten of the thirteen ordered Chaudhry was to be reinstated and that he "shall be deemed to be holding the said office and shall always be deemed to have been so holding the same."

2007 State of Emergency

Main article: 2007 Pakistani state of emergency

On Saturday, Nov 3, 2007, General Pervez Musharraf, who was the President and Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan at the time, declared a state of emergency and suspended the nation's constitution and parliament at the same time. The declaration accused the judges of violating article 209 of the Constitution of 1973.^[7]
On 15 November Geo News reported that Chaudhry had ordered the Islamabad Inspector General of Police to take action against his and his family’s house arrest and their possible relocation to Quetta. According to the channel, Chaudhry held the interior secretary, the commissioner, the deputy commissioner and the assistant commissioner responsible for his house arrest. He said he was still the Chief Justice of Pakistan and the official residence was his by right.^[8]

Reinstatement, 2008-09

Just after general elections in February, on March 24, 2008, on his first day of premiership the Pakistani PM Yousaf Raza Gillani ordered Chaudhry's release from house arrest.^[9]^[10]
In October 2008, Chaudhry visited the Supreme Court building.
The Lawyers' Movement announced a "long march" for the restoration of the judges, especially Chief Justice Iftikhar from 12 to 16 March 2009. The government of Pakistan refused to reinstate the judges and declared section 144 in effect in three of the four provinces of Pakistan thereby forbidding any form of gatherings of the "long march". Arrangements were made to block all roads and other means of transport to prevent the lawyers from reaching the federal capital, Islamabad. Workers of the main political parties in opposition and the lawyers movement as well as other known persons from the civil society were arrested. Despite these efforts, the movement continued and was able to break through the blockade in Lahore en route to Islamabad in the night between 15 and 16 March 2009. A few hours later, on the morning of March 16, 2009, the prime minister of Pakistan restored Chaudhary Iftikahar as chief justice of Pakistan through an executive order.^[11] after which the opposition agreed to stop the "long march".

Important Considered Rulings

Pre 2007-08 Judgements

Pakistan Steel Mills Privatization

Main article: Pakistan Steel Mills

In 2007, the Supreme court ruled against the government, saying that the selling of Pakistan Steel Mills to a group including Arif Habib, former client and friend of PM Shaukat Aziz, was done in "indecent haste".

Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry administers the oath of office to President Pervez Musharraf, upon the beginning of Musharraf's second term.

Other

Some very important cases were heard in the supreme court in the 2007. Decisions have already been taken in some:

The case whether Nawaz Sharif (twice the former PM of Pakistan) could come back to Pakistan. Decision: Sharif can come back.^[12]

Controversies

Dismissal of petition challenging Legal Framework Order (LFO) 2002

Just prior to the holding of the October 2002 General Elections a five member bench the Supreme Court of Pakistan that Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry was a member of dismissed a petition which challenged the promulgation of the Legal Framework Order(LFO)2002 by Chief Executive and President General Pervez Musharraf. Under the LFO General Musharraf announced amendments to the constitution which restored executive powers to the President, including the right to dismiss the National Assembly, appoint Governors and Service Chiefs and created a National Security Council (NSC).^[13]

Judgement on 17th Amendment and President's Uniform Case 2005

On April 13, 2005, in the "Judgment on 17th Amendment and President's Uniform Case", Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry was one of 5 Supreme Court judges who dismissed all petitions challenging President Musharraf's consistitutional amendments. In a wide ranging judgement they declared that the Legal Framework Order (LFO) instituted by General Musharraf after his suspension of the constitution, the 17th amendment which gave this constitutional backing, and the two offices bill which allowed Musharraf to retain his military uniform whilst being President were all legal because the Parliament had approved the amendments.^[14]

Supreme Court justices

On 30 July 2009, a 14 member bench of the Supreme Court of Pakistan ruled that all the judges who had taken an oath under the Provisional Constitution Order (PCO), were removed from office and are now facing the Supreme Judicial Council. Two days later an ordinance signed by President Asif Ali Zardari officially removed all PCO judges from office.

Awards and honors

Elena Kagan, then the Dean of Harvard Law School, delivering the Medal of Freedom to Chief Justice Chaudhry.

In the wake of the imposition of emergency rule in Pakistan, on November 14, 2007, the Harvard Law School^[16] decided to award its highest honour, the Medal of Freedom, to Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry, following the military crackdown the previous week. He becomes the first Pakistani to be presented with such honour.
Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry formally received the Harvard Law School Medal of Freedom during his visit to the United States in November, 2008.^[17]
The National Law Journal picked Chaudhry as the lawyer of the year for 2007.
The Association of the Bar of the City of New York granted Chaudhry an honorary membership in the association on Nov. 17, 2008, recognizing him as a "symbol of the movement for judicial and lawyer independence in Pakistan."

Barack Obama

2011-01-28T23:47:00.000-08:00

Barack Hussein Obama II born August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. Obama previously served as a United States Senator from Illinois, from January 2005 until he resigned after his election to the presidency in November 2008.
A native of Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004.
Obama served three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004. Following an unsuccessful bid against a Democratic incumbent for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 2000, he ran for United States Senate in 2004. Several events brought him to national attention during the campaign, including his victory in the March 2004 Democratic primary and his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in November 2004. His presidential campaign began in February 2007, and after a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Rodham Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 general election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009.
As president, Obama signed economic stimulus legislation in the form of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act in February 2009 and the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 in December 2010. Other domestic policy initiatives include the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010. In foreign policy, Obama gradually withdrew combat troops from Iraq, increased troop levels in Afghanistan, and signed an arms control treaty with Russia. In October 2009, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate.

Early life and career

Main article: Early life and career of Barack Obama

Obama was born on August 4, 1961, at Kapi'olani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital (now called Kapi'olani Medical Center for Women & Children) in Honolulu, Hawaii.^[4] His mother, Stanley Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas.^[5] Of mostly English descent, her family also traces to Germany and Ireland.^[6] His great-great-great grandfather was born in County Offaly.^[7] His father, Barack Obama, Sr., was a Luo from Nyang'oma Kogelo, Nyanza Province, Kenya. Obama is the first President to have been born in Hawaii.^[8] Obama's parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, where his father was a foreign student on scholarship.^[9] ^[10] The couple married on February 2, 1961,^[11] but separated when Obama Sr. went to Harvard University on scholarship, and divorced in 1964.^[9] Obama Sr. remarried and returned to Kenya, visiting Barack in Hawaii only once, in 1971. He died in an automobile accident in 1982.^[12]
After her divorce, Dunham married Indonesian student Lolo Soetoro, who was attending college in Hawaii. When Suharto, a military leader in Soetoro's home country, came to power in 1967, all Indonesian students studying abroad were recalled, and the family moved to the Menteng neighborhood of Jakarta.^[13] From ages six to ten, Obama attended local schools in Jakarta, including Besuki Public School and St. Francis of Assisi School.^[14]
In 1971, Obama returned to Honolulu to live with his maternal grandparents, Madelyn and Stanley Armour Dunham, and attended Punahou School, a private college preparatory school, from the fifth grade until his graduation from high school in 1979.^[15] Obama's mother returned to Hawaii in 1972, remaining there until 1977 when she went back to Indonesia to work as an anthropological field worker. She finally returned to Hawaii in 1994 and lived there for one year, before dying of ovarian cancer.^[11]^[16]

Barack Obama and half-sister Maya Soetoro-Ng, with their mother Ann Dunham and grandfather Stanley Dunham, in Hawaii (early 1970s)

Of his early childhood, Obama recalled, "That my father looked nothing like the people around me—that he was black as pitch, my mother white as milk—barely registered in my mind."^[17] He described his struggles as a young adult to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage.^[18] Reflecting later on his formative years in Honolulu, Obama wrote: "The opportunity that Hawaii offered—to experience a variety of cultures in a climate of mutual respect—became an integral part of my world view, and a basis for the values that I hold most dear."^[19] Obama has also written and talked about using alcohol, marijuana and cocaine during his teenage years to "push questions of who I was out of my mind."^[20] At the 2008 Civil Forum on the Presidency, Obama identified his high-school drug use as a great moral failure.^[21]
Following high school, Obama moved to Los Angeles in 1979 to attend Occidental College.^[22] In February 1981, he made his first public speech, calling for Occidental's divestment from South Africa.^[22] In mid-1981, Obama traveled to Indonesia to visit his mother and sister Maya, and visited the families of college friends in India and Pakistan for three weeks.^[22]
Later in 1981 he transferred to Columbia University in New York City, where he majored in political science with a specialty in international relations^[23] and graduated with a B.A. in 1983. He worked for a year at the Business International Corporation,^[24] then at the New York Public Interest Research Group.^[25]^[26]

Chicago community organizer and Harvard Law School

After four years in New York City, Obama was hired in Chicago as director of the Developing Communities Project (DCP), a church-based community organization originally comprising eight Catholic parishes in Greater Roseland (Roseland, West Pullman and Riverdale) on Chicago's far South Side. He worked there as a community organizer from June 1985 to May 1988.^[26]^[27] During his three years as the DCP's director, its staff grew from one to thirteen and its annual budget grew from US$70,000 ($142,911 in 2011) to US$400,000 ($742,647 in 2011). He helped set up a job training program, a college preparatory tutoring program, and a tenants' rights organization in Altgeld Gardens.^[28] Obama also worked as a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, a community organizing institute.^[29] In mid-1988, he traveled for the first time in Europe for three weeks and then for five weeks in Kenya, where he met many of his paternal relatives for the first time.^[30] He returned in August 2006 for a visit to his father's birthplace, a village near Kisumu in rural western Kenya.^[31]
In late 1988, Obama entered Harvard Law School. He was selected as an editor of the Harvard Law Review at the end of his first year,^[32] and president of the journal in his second year.^[28]^[33] During his summers, he returned to Chicago, where he worked as a summer associate at the law firms of Sidley Austin in 1989 and Hopkins & Sutter in 1990.^[34] After graduating with a Juris Doctor (J.D.) magna cum laude^[35] from Harvard in 1991, he returned to Chicago.^[32] Obama's election as the first black president of the Harvard Law Review gained national media attention^[28]^[33] and led to a publishing contract and advance for a book about race relations,^[36] which evolved into a personal memoir. The manuscript was published in mid-1995 as Dreams from My Father.^[36]

University of Chicago Law School and civil rights attorney

In 1991, Obama accepted a two-year position as Visiting Law and Government Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School to work on his first book.^[36]^[37] He then served as a professor at the University of Chicago Law School for twelve years—as a Lecturer from 1992 to 1996, and as a Senior Lecturer from 1996 to 2004—teaching constitutional law.^[38]
From April to October 1992, Obama directed Illinois's Project Vote, a voter registration drive with ten staffers and seven hundred volunteer registrars; it achieved its goal of registering 150,000 of 400,000 unregistered African Americans in the state, and led to Crain's Chicago Business naming Obama to its 1993 list of "40 under Forty" powers to be.^[39] In 1993 he joined Davis, Miner, Barnhill & Galland, a 13-attorney law firm specializing in civil rights litigation and neighborhood economic development, where he was an associate for three years from 1993 to 1996, then of counsel from 1996 to 2004, with his law license becoming inactive in 2002.^[40]
From 1994 to 2002, Obama served on the boards of directors of the Woods Fund of Chicago, which in 1985 had been the first foundation to fund the Developing Communities Project, and of the Joyce Foundation.^[26] He served on the board of directors of the Chicago Annenberg Challenge from 1995 to 2002, as founding president and chairman of the board of directors from 1995 to 1999.^[26]

Legislative career: 1997–2008

State Senator: 1997–2004

Main article: Illinois Senate career of Barack Obama

Obama was elected to the Illinois Senate in 1996, succeeding State Senator Alice Palmer as Senator from Illinois's 13th District, which at that time spanned Chicago South Side neighborhoods from Hyde Park – Kenwood south to South Shore and west to Chicago Lawn.^[41] Once elected, Obama gained bipartisan support for legislation reforming ethics and health care laws.^[42] He sponsored a law increasing tax credits for low-income workers, negotiated welfare reform, and promoted increased subsidies for childcare.^[43] In 2001, as co-chairman of the bipartisan Joint Committee on Administrative Rules, Obama supported Republican Governor Ryan's payday loan regulations and predatory mortgage lending regulations aimed at averting home foreclosures.^[44]
Obama was reelected to the Illinois Senate in 1998, defeating Republican Yesse Yehudah in the general election, and was reelected again in 2002.^[45] In 2000, he lost a Democratic primary run for the U.S. House of Representatives to four-term incumbent Bobby Rush by a margin of two to one.^[46]
In January 2003, Obama became chairman of the Illinois Senate's Health and Human Services Committee when Democrats, after a decade in the minority, regained a majority.^[47] He sponsored and led unanimous, bipartisan passage of legislation to monitor racial profiling by requiring police to record the race of drivers they detained, and legislation making Illinois the first state to mandate videotaping of homicide interrogations.^[43]^[48] During his 2004 general election campaign for U.S. Senate, police representatives credited Obama for his active engagement with police organizations in enacting death penalty reforms.^[49] Obama resigned from the Illinois Senate in November 2004 following his election to the U.S. Senate.^[50]

U.S. Senate campaign

In May 2002, Obama commissioned a poll to assess his prospects in a 2004 U.S. Senate race; he created a campaign committee, began raising funds and lined up political media consultant David Axelrod by August 2002, and formally announced his candidacy in January 2003.^[51]
Obama was an early opponent of the George W. Bush administration's 2003 invasion of Iraq.^[52] On October 2, 2002, the day President Bush and Congress agreed on the joint resolution authorizing the Iraq War,^[53] Obama addressed the first high-profile Chicago anti-Iraq War rally,^[54] and spoke out against the war.^[55] He addressed another anti-war rally in March 2003 and told the crowd that "it's not too late" to stop the war.^[56]

County results of the 2004 race.

Decisions by Republican incumbent Peter Fitzgerald and his Democratic predecessor Carol Moseley Braun not to contest the race resulted in wide-open Democratic and Republican primary contests involving fifteen candidates.^[57] In the March 2004 primary election, Obama won in an unexpected landslide—which overnight made him a rising star within the national Democratic Party, started speculation about a presidential future, and led to the reissue of his memoir, Dreams from My Father.^[58]
In July 2004, Obama delivered the keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention in Boston, Massachusetts,^[59] and it was seen by 9.1 million viewers. His speech was well received and elevated his status within the Democratic Party.^[60]
Obama's expected opponent in the general election, Republican primary winner Jack Ryan, withdrew from the race in June 2004.^[61] Six weeks later, Alan Keyes accepted the Illinois Republican Party's nomination to replace Ryan.^[62] In the November 2004 general election, Obama won with 70% of the vote.^[63]

U.S. Senator: 2005–2008

Main article: United States Senate career of Barack Obama

Obama delivering a speech at the University of Southern California, on October 28, 2006.

Obama was sworn in as a senator on January 4, 2005,^[64] at which time he became the only Senate member of the Congressional Black Caucus.^[65] CQ Weekly characterized him as a "loyal Democrat" based on analysis of all Senate votes in 2005–2007. The National Journal ranked him among the "most liberal" senators during 2005 through 2007^[66] (the ranking has been criticized by liberal groups such as Media Matters for America^[67]^[68]). He enjoyed high popularity as senator with a 72% approval in Illinois.^[69] Obama announced on November 13, 2008, that he would resign his Senate seat on November 16, 2008, before the start of the lame-duck session, to focus on his transition period for the presidency.^[70]

Legislation

Senate bill sponsors Tom Coburn (R-OK) and Obama discussing the Coburn–Obama Transparency Act^[71]

Obama cosponsored the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act.^[72] He introduced two initiatives bearing his name: Lugar–Obama, which expanded the Nunn–Lugar cooperative threat reduction concept to conventional weapons,^[73] and the Coburn–Obama Transparency Act, which authorized the establishment of USAspending.gov, a web search engine on federal spending.^[74] On June 3, 2008, Senator Obama, along with Senators Tom Carper, Tom Coburn, and John McCain, introduced follow-up legislation: Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008.^[75]
Obama sponsored legislation that would have required nuclear plant owners to notify state and local authorities of radioactive leaks, but the bill failed to pass in the full Senate after being heavily modified in committee.^[76] Regarding tort reform, Obama voted for the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 and the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which grants immunity from civil liability to telecommunications companies complicit with NSA warrantless wiretapping operations.^[77]

Obama and U.S. Sen. Richard Lugar (R-IN) visit a Russian mobile launch missile dismantling facility in August 2005.^[78]

In December 2006, President Bush signed into law the Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief, Security, and Democracy Promotion Act, marking the first federal legislation to be enacted with Obama as its primary sponsor.^[79] In January 2007, Obama and Senator Feingold introduced a corporate jet provision to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, which was signed into law in September 2007.^[80] Obama also introduced Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act, a bill to criminalize deceptive practices in federal elections,^[81] and the Iraq War De-Escalation Act of 2007,^[82] neither of which has been signed into law.
Later in 2007, Obama sponsored an amendment to the Defense Authorization Act adding safeguards for personality disorder military discharges.^[83] This amendment passed the full Senate in the spring of 2008.^[84] He sponsored the Iran Sanctions Enabling Act supporting divestment of state pension funds from Iran's oil and gas industry, which has not passed committee, and co-sponsored legislation to reduce risks of nuclear terrorism.^[85] Obama also sponsored a Senate amendment to the State Children's Health Insurance Program providing one year of job protection for family members caring for soldiers with combat-related injuries.^[86]

Committees

Obama held assignments on the Senate Committees for Foreign Relations, Environment and Public Works and Veterans' Affairs through December 2006.^[87] In January 2007, he left the Environment and Public Works committee and took additional assignments with Health, Education, Labor and Pensions and Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.^[88] He also became Chairman of the Senate's subcommittee on European Affairs.^[89] As a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Obama made official trips to Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and Africa. He met with Mahmoud Abbas before Abbas became President of the Palestinian Authority, and gave a speech at the University of Nairobi condemning corruption within the Kenyan government.^[90]

Presidential campaign: 2008

Main articles: United States presidential election, 2008, Barack Obama presidential primary campaign, 2008, and Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2008

Obama stands on stage with his wife and two daughters just before announcing his presidential candidacy in Springfield, Illinois, Feb. 10, 2007.

On February 10, 2007, Obama announced his candidacy for president of the United States in front of the Old State Capitol building in Springfield, Illinois.^[91]^[92]^[93] The choice of the announcement site was viewed as symbolic^[91]^[94] because it was also where Abraham Lincoln delivered his historic "House Divided" speech in 1858.^[93] Obama emphasized the issues of rapidly ending the Iraq War, increasing energy independence, and providing universal health care,^[95] in a campaign that projected themes of "hope" and "change".^[96]

Obama delivers his presidential election victory speech in Chicago's Grant Park.

A large number of candidates entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries. The field narrowed to a duel between Obama and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton after early contests, with the race remaining close throughout the primary process but with Obama gaining a steady lead in pledged delegates due to better long-range planning, superior fundraising, dominant organizing in caucus states, and better exploitation of delegate allocation rules.^[97] Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed him on June 7, 2008.^[98]
Obama announced on August 23 that he had selected Delaware Senator Joe Biden as his vice presidential running mate,^[99] from a field speculated to include Senator Evan Bayh and Virginia Governor Tim Kaine.^[100] At the Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado, Hillary Clinton called for her delegates and supporters to endorse Obama, and she and Bill Clinton gave convention speeches in support of Obama.^[101] Obama delivered his acceptance speech, not at the convention center where the Democratic National Convention was held,^[102] but at Invesco Field at Mile High to a crowd of over 75,000^[103] and presented his policy goals; the speech was viewed by over 38 million people worldwide.^[104]

President George W. Bush meets with President-Elect Obama in the Oval Office on November 10, 2008.

During both the primary process and the general election, Obama's campaign set numerous fundraising records, particularly in the quantity of small donations.^[105] On June 19, 2008, Obama became the first major-party presidential candidate to turn down public financing in the general election since the system was created in 1976.^[106]
McCain was nominated as the Republican candidate and the two engaged in three presidential debates in September and October 2008.^[107] On November 4, Obama won the presidency by winning 365 electoral votes to 173 received by McCain,^[108] capturing 52.9% of the popular vote to McCain's 45.7%,^[109] to become the first African American^[110] to be elected president. Obama delivered his victory speech before hundreds of thousands of supporters in Chicago's Grant Park.^[111]

Presidency

Main article: Presidency of Barack Obama

First days

The inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th President, and Joe Biden as Vice President, took place on January 20, 2009. In his first few days in office Obama issued executive orders and presidential memoranda directing the U.S. military to develop plans to withdraw troops from Iraq,^[112] and ordered the closing of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp "as soon as practicable and no later than" January 2010.^[113] Obama also reduced the secrecy given to presidential records^[114] and changed procedures to promote disclosure under the Freedom of Information Act.^[115] The president also reversed George W. Bush's ban on federal funding to foreign establishments that allow abortions.^[116]

Domestic policy

Barack Obama takes the oath of office as President of the United States.

The first bill signed into law by Obama was the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, relaxing the statute of limitations for equal-pay lawsuits.^[117] Five days later, he signed the reauthorization of the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) to cover an additional 4 million children currently uninsured.^[118]
In March 2009, Obama reversed a Bush-era policy which had limited funding of embryonic stem cell research. Obama stated that he believed "sound science and moral values...are not inconsistent" and pledged to develop "strict guidelines" on the research.^[119]
Obama appointed two women to serve on the Supreme Court in the first two years of his Presidency. Sonia Sotomayor, nominated by Obama on May 26, 2009, to replace retiring Associate Justice David Souter, was confirmed on August 6, 2009,^[120] becoming the first Hispanic to be a Supreme Court Justice.^[121] Elena Kagan, nominated by Obama on May 10, 2010, to replace retiring Associate Justice John Paul Stevens, was confirmed on August 5, 2010, bringing the number of women sitting simultaneously on the Court to three, for the first time in American history.^[122]
On September 30, 2009, the Obama administration proposed new regulations on power plants, factories and oil refineries in an attempt to limit greenhouse gas emissions and to curb global warming.^[123]^[124]
On October 8, 2009, Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, a measure that expands the 1969 United States federal hate-crime law to include crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability.^[125]^[126]^[127]
On March 30, 2010, Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, a reconciliation bill which ends the process of the federal government giving subsidies to private banks to give out federally insured loans, increases the Pell Grant scholarship award, and makes changes to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.^[128]^[129]^[130]^[131]
In a major space policy speech in April 2010, Obama announced a planned change in direction at NASA, the U.S. space agency. He ended plans for a return of manned spaceflight to the moon and ended development of the Ares I rocket, Ares V rocket and Constellation program. He is focusing funding (which is expected to rise modestly) on Earth science projects and a new rocket type, as well as research and development for an eventual manned mission to Mars. Missions to the International Space Station are expected to continue until 2020.^[132]

Economic policy

On February 17, 2009, Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, a $787 billion economic stimulus package aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening worldwide recession.^[133] The act includes increased federal spending for health care, infrastructure, education, various tax breaks and incentives, and direct assistance to individuals,^[134] which is being distributed over the course of several years.

President Barack Obama signs the ARRA into law on February 17, 2009 in Denver, Colorado. Vice President Joe Biden stands behind him.

In March, Obama's Treasury Secretary, Timothy Geithner, took further steps to manage the financial crisis, including introducing the Public-Private Investment Program for Legacy Assets, which contains provisions for buying up to $2 trillion in depreciated real estate assets.^[135]
Obama intervened in the troubled automotive industry^[136] in March 2009, renewing loans for General Motors and Chrysler to continue operations while reorganizing. Over the following months the White House set terms for both firms' bankruptcies, including the sale of Chrysler to Italian automaker Fiat^[137] and a reorganization of GM giving the U.S. government a temporary 60% equity stake in the company, with the Canadian government shouldering a 12% stake.^[138] In June 2009, dissatisfied with the pace of economic stimulus, Obama called on his cabinet to accelerate the investment.^[139] He signed into law the Car Allowance Rebate System, known colloquially as "Cash for Clunkers", that had mixed results.^[140]^[141]^[142]
Although spending and loan guarantees from the Federal Reserve and the Treasury Department authorized by the Bush and Obama administrations totaled about $11.5 trillion, only $3 trillion had actually been spent by the end of November 2009.^[143] However, Obama and the Congressional Budget Office predict that the 2010 budget deficit will be $1.5 trillion or 10.6% of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) compared to the 2009 deficit of $1.4 trillion or 9.9% of GDP.^[144]^[145] For 2011, the administration predicted the deficit will slightly shrink to $1.34, while the 10-year deficit will increase to $8.53 trillion or 80% of GDP.^[146]
Unemployment numbers rose briefly to as high as 10.1% in October 2009 (the highest since 1983)^[147] before decreasing to 9.5% in June 2010.^[148] In the first quarter of 2010, the U.S. economy expanded at a 2.7% pace^[149] after growing at its fastest rate in six years in the fourth quarter, 5.7%.^[150] In July 2010, the Federal Reserve expressed that although economic activity continued to increase, its pace had slowed and its Chairman, Ben Bernanke, stated that the economic outlook was "unusually uncertain."^[151]
The Congressional Budget Office and a broad range of economists credit Obama's stimulus plan for economic growth.^[152]^[153] The CBO released a report stating that the stimulus bill increased employment by 1–2.1 million,^[153]^[154]^[155]^[156] while conceding that "It is impossible to determine how many of the reported jobs would have existed in the absence of the stimulus package."^[157] Although an April 2010 survey of members of the National Association for Business Economics showed an increase in job creation (over a similar January survey) for the first time in two years, 73% of the 68 respondents believed that the stimulus bill has had no impact on employment.^[158]
Within a month of the 2010 midterm elections, Obama announced a compromise deal with the Congressional Republican leadership that included a temporary, two-year extension of the 2001 and 2003 income tax rates, a one-year payroll tax reduction, continuation of unemployment benefits, and a new rate and exemption amount for estate taxes.^[159] The compromise overcome opposition from some in both parties, and the resulting $858 billion Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 passed with bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress before Obama signed it on December 17, 2010.^[160]

Health care reform

Main article: Health care reform in the United States

Barack Obama signs the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act at the White House, March 23, 2010.

Obama called for Congress to pass legislation reforming health care in the United States, a key campaign promise and a top legislative goal.^[161] He proposed an expansion of health insurance coverage to cover the uninsured, to cap premium increases, and to allow people to retain their coverage when they leave or change jobs. His proposal was to spend $900 billion over 10 years and include a government insurance plan, also known as the public option, to compete with the corporate insurance sector as a main component to lowering costs and improving quality of health care. It would also make it illegal for insurers to drop sick people or deny them coverage for pre-existing conditions, and require every American carry health coverage. The plan also includes medical spending cuts and taxes on insurance companies that offer expensive plans.^[162]^[163]
On July 14, 2009, House Democratic leaders introduced a 1,017-page plan for overhauling the U.S. health care system, which Obama wanted Congress to approve by the end of 2009.^[161] After much public debate during the Congressional summer recess of 2009, Obama delivered a speech to a joint session of Congress on September 9 where he addressed concerns over his administration's proposals.^[164]
On November 7, 2009, a health care bill featuring the public option was passed in the House.^[165]^[166] On December 24, 2009, the Senate passed its own bill—without a public option—on a party-line vote of 60–39.^[167] On March 21, 2010, the health care bill passed by the Senate in December was passed in the House by a vote of 219 to 212.^[168] Obama signed the bill into law on March 23, 2010.^[169]

Gulf of Mexico oil spill

Main article: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

On April 20, 2010, an explosion destroyed an offshore drilling rig at the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico, causing a major sustained oil leak. The well's operator, BP, initiated a containment and cleanup plan, and began drilling two relief wells intended to stop the flow. Obama visited the Gulf on May 2 among visits by members of his cabinet, and again on May 28 and June 4. He began a federal investigation and formed a bipartisan commission to recommend new safety standards, after a review by Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar and concurrent Congressional hearings. On May 27, he announced a 6-month moratorium on new deepwater drilling permits and leases, pending regulatory review.^[170] As multiple efforts by BP failed, some in the media and public expressed confusion and criticism over various aspects of the incident, and stated a desire for more involvement by Obama and the federal government.^[171]^[172]^[173]^[174]^[175]

Foreign and defense policy

President Obama in discussion with Chinese President Hu Jintao at the 2009 Pittsburgh G-20 Summit

Main article: Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration

In February and March, Vice President Joe Biden and Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton made separate overseas trips to announce a "new era" in U.S. foreign relations with Russia and Europe, using the terms "break" and "reset" to signal major changes from the policies of the preceding administration.^[176] Obama's granting of his first television interview as president to an Arabic cable network, Al Arabiya, was seen as an attempt to reach out to Arab leaders.^[177]
On March 19, Obama continued his outreach to the Muslim world, releasing a New Year's video message to the people and government of Iran.^[178] This attempt at outreach was rebuffed by the Iranian leadership.^[179] In April, Obama gave a speech in Ankara, Turkey, which was well received by many Arab governments.^[180] On June 4, 2009, Obama delivered a speech at Cairo University in Egypt calling for "a new beginning" in relations between the Islamic world and the United States and promoting Middle East peace.^[181]

British Prime Minister David Cameron and President Barack Obama, during the 2010 G-20 Toronto summit.

On June 26, 2009, in response to the Iranian government's actions towards protesters following Iran's 2009 presidential election, Obama said: "The violence perpetrated against them is outrageous. We see it and we condemn it."^[182] On July 7, while in Moscow, he responded to a Vice President Biden comment on a possible Israeli military strike on Iran by saying: "We have said directly to the Israelis that it is important to try and resolve this in an international setting in a way that does not create major conflict in the Middle East."^[183]
On September 24, 2009, Obama became the first sitting U.S. president to preside over a meeting of the United Nations Security Council.^[184]
In March 2010, Obama took a public stance against plans by the government of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to continue building Jewish housing projects in predominantly Arab neighborhoods of East Jerusalem.^[185]^[186] During the same month, an agreement was reached with the administration of Russian President Dmitry Medvedev to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty with a new pact reducing the number of long-range nuclear weapons in the arsenals of both countries by about one-third.^[187] The New START treaty was signed by Obama and Medvedev in April 2010, and was ratified by the U.S. Senate in December 2010.^[188]
On December 22, 2010, Obama signed the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, a bill that provides for repeal of the Don't ask, don't tell policy of 1993 that has prevented gay and lesbian people from serving openly in the United States Armed Forces.^[189] Repealing "Don't ask, don't tell" had been a key campaign promise that Obama had made during the 2008 presidential campaign.^[190]^[191]

Iraq war

Obama declares the end of combat operations in Iraq.

Main article: Iraq War

During his presidential transition, President-elect Obama announced that he would retain the incumbent Defense Secretary, Robert Gates, in his Cabinet.^[192]
On February 27, 2009, Obama declared that combat operations would end in Iraq within 18 months. His remarks were made to a group of Marines preparing for deployment to Afghanistan. Obama said, "Let me say this as plainly as I can: By August 31, 2010, our combat mission in Iraq will end."^[193] The Obama administration scheduled the withdrawal of combat troops to be completed by August 2010, decreasing troops levels from 142,000 while leaving a transitional force of 35,000 to 50,000 in Iraq until the end of 2011. On August 19, 2010, the last US combat brigade exited Iraq. The plan is to transition the mission of the remaining troops from combat operations to counter-terrorism and the training, equipping, and advising of Iraqi security forces.^[194]^[195] On August 31, 2010, Obama announced that the U.S. combat mission in Iraq was over.^[196]

War in Afghanistan

Main article: War in Afghanistan (2001–present)

Early in his presidency, Obama moved to bolster U.S. troop strength in Afghanistan.^[197] He announced an increase to U.S. troop levels of 17,000 in February 2009 to "stabilize a deteriorating situation in Afghanistan", an area he said had not received the "strategic attention, direction and resources it urgently requires".^[198] He replaced the military commander in Afghanistan, General David D. McKiernan, with former Special Forces commander Lt. Gen. Stanley A. McChrystal in May 2009, indicating that McChrystal's Special Forces experience would facilitate the use of counterinsurgency tactics in the war.^[199] On December 1, 2009, Obama announced the deployment of an additional 30,000 military personnel to Afghanistan.^[200] He also proposed to begin troop withdrawals 18 months from that date.^[201]^[202] McChrystal was replaced by David Petraeus in June 2010 after McChrystal's staff criticized White House personnel in a magazine article.^[203]

2010 midterm election

Obama called the November 2, 2010 election, where the Democratic Party lost many seats in, and control of, the House of Representatives,^[204] "humbling" and a "shellacking".^[205] He said that the results came because not enough Americans had felt the effects of the economic recovery.^[206]

Cultural and political image

President George W. Bush invited then-President-elect Barack Obama and former Presidents George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Jimmy Carter to a meeting in the Oval Office on January 7, 2009.

Main article: Public image of Barack Obama

Obama's family history, early life and upbringing, and Ivy League education differ markedly from those of African-American politicians who launched their careers in the 1960s through participation in the civil rights movement.^[207] Obama is also not a descendant of American slaves.^[208] Expressing puzzlement over questions about whether he is "black enough", Obama told an August 2007 meeting of the National Association of Black Journalists that "we're still locked in this notion that if you appeal to white folks then there must be something wrong."^[209] Obama acknowledged his youthful image in an October 2007 campaign speech, saying: "I wouldn't be here if, time and again, the torch had not been passed to a new generation."^[210]
Obama is frequently referred to as an exceptional orator.^[211] During his pre-inauguration transition period and continuing into his presidency, Obama has delivered a series of weekly Internet video addresses.^[212]

Obama presents his first weekly address as President of the United States on January 24, 2009, discussing the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.

According to the Pew Research Center, Obama's approval ratings dropped from 64% in February, 2009 to 49% in December, a trend similar to Ronald Reagan's and Bill Clinton's first years.^[213] Polls show strong support for Obama in other countries,^[214] and before being elected President he has met with prominent foreign figures including then-British Prime Minister Tony Blair,^[215] Italy's Democratic Party leader and then Mayor of Rome Walter Veltroni,^[216] and French President Nicolas Sarkozy.^[217]
According to a May 2009 poll conducted by Harris Interactive for France 24 and the International Herald Tribune, Obama was rated as the most popular world leader, as well as the one figure most people would pin their hopes on for pulling the world out of the economic downturn.^[218]
Obama won Best Spoken Word Album Grammy Awards for abridged audiobook versions of Dreams from My Father in February 2006 and for The Audacity of Hope in February 2008.^[219] His concession speech after the New Hampshire primary was set to music by independent artists as the music video "Yes We Can", which was viewed by 10 million people on YouTube in its first month^[220] and received a Daytime Emmy Award.^[221] In December 2008, Time magazine named Barack Obama as its Person of the Year for his historic candidacy and election, which it described as "the steady march of seemingly impossible accomplishments".^[222]
On October 9, 2009, the Norwegian Nobel Committee announced that Obama had won the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize "for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples".^[223] Obama accepted this award in Oslo, Norway on December 10, 2009, with "deep gratitude and great humility."^[224] The award drew a mixture of praise and criticism from world leaders and media figures.^[225]^[226] Obama is the fourth U.S. president to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and the third to become a Nobel laureate while in office.
A 2010 Siena College poll of 238 Presidential scholars found that Obama was ranked 15th out of 43, with high ratings for imagination, communication ability and intelligence and a low rating for background (family, education and experience).^[227]

Family and personal life

Barack Obama together with his family and a costumed Easter Bunny, as they wave from the South Portico of the White House to guests attending the White House Easter Egg Roll.

Main articles: Early life and career of Barack Obama and Family of Barack Obama

In a 2006 interview, Obama highlighted the diversity of his extended family: "It's like a little mini-United Nations", he said. "I've got relatives who look like Bernie Mac, and I've got relatives who look like Margaret Thatcher."^[228] Obama has seven half-siblings from his Kenyan father's family – six of them living – and a half-sister with whom he was raised, Maya Soetoro-Ng, the daughter of his mother and her Indonesian second husband.^[229] Obama's mother was survived by her Kansas-born mother, Madelyn Dunham,^[230] until her death on November 2, 2008,^[231] two days before his election to the Presidency. In Dreams from My Father, Obama ties his mother's family history to possible Native American ancestors and distant relatives of Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.^[232] Obama's great-uncle served in the 89th Division that overran Ohrdruf,^[233] the first of the Nazi concentration camps to be liberated by U.S. troops during World War II.^[234]
Obama was known as "Barry" in his youth, but asked to be addressed with his given name during his college years.^[235] Besides his native English, Obama speaks Indonesian at the conversational level, which he learned during his four childhood years in Jakarta.^[236] He plays basketball, a sport he participated in as a member of his high school's varsity team.^[237]

Obama playing basketball with U.S. military at Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti in 2006^[238]

Obama receiving a Pittsburgh Steelers jersey from Steelers owner Dan Rooney, who campaigned for Obama in 2008^[239]

Obama is a well known supporter of the Chicago White Sox, and threw out the first pitch at the 2005 ALCS when he was still a senator.^[240] In 2009, he threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the all star game while wearing a White Sox jacket.^[241] He is also primarily a Chicago Bears fan in the NFL, but is known to also support the Pittsburgh Steelers, and openly rooted for them ahead of their victory in Super Bowl XLIII 12 days after Obama took office as President.^[239]
In June 1989, Obama met Michelle Robinson when he was employed as a summer associate at the Chicago law firm of Sidley Austin.^[242] Assigned for three months as Obama's adviser at the firm, Robinson joined him at group social functions, but declined his initial requests to date.^[243] They began dating later that summer, became engaged in 1991, and were married on October 3, 1992.^[244] The couple's first daughter, Malia Ann, was born on July 4, 1998,^[245] followed by a second daughter, Natasha ("Sasha"), on June 10, 2001.^[246] The Obama daughters attended the private University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. When they moved to Washington, D.C., in January 2009, the girls started at the private Sidwell Friends School.^[247] The Obamas have a Portuguese Water Dog named Bo, a gift from Senator Ted Kennedy.^[248]
Applying the proceeds of a book deal, the family moved in 2005 from a Hyde Park, Chicago condominium to a $1.6 million house in neighboring Kenwood, Chicago.^[249] The purchase of an adjacent lot and sale of part of it to Obama by the wife of developer, campaign donor and friend Tony Rezko attracted media attention because of Rezko's subsequent indictment and conviction on political corruption charges that were unrelated to Obama.^[250]
In December 2007, Money magazine estimated the Obama family's net worth at $1.3 million.^[251] Their 2009 tax return showed a household income of $5.5 million—up from about $4.2 million in 2007 and $1.6 million in 2005—mostly from sales of his books.^[252]^[253]
Obama tried to quit smoking several times over the years and has used nicotine replacement therapy.^[254]^[255]^[256] However in June 2010, during a congratulatory phone call to president-elect Benigno Aquino of the Philippines, Obama told Aquino that he had quit and would offer advice on how to stop smoking when Aquino was himself ready for that step.^[257]

Religious views

As he described in The Audacity of Hope, Obama is a Christian whose religious views developed in his adult life. He wrote that he "was not raised in a religious household". He described his mother, raised by non-religious parents (whom Obama has specified elsewhere as "non-practicing Methodists and Baptists"), to be detached from religion, yet "in many ways the most spiritually awakened person that I have ever known". He described his father as "raised a Muslim", but a "confirmed atheist" by the time his parents met, and his stepfather as "a man who saw religion as not particularly useful". Obama explained how, through working with black churches as a community organizer while in his twenties, he came to understand "the power of the African-American religious tradition to spur social change".^[258]
On September 27, 2010, Obama released a statement commenting on his religious views saying "I'm a Christian by choice. My family didn't—frankly, they weren't folks who went to church every week. And my mother was one of the most spiritual people I knew, but she didn't raise me in the church. So I came to my Christian faith later in life, and it was because the precepts of Jesus Christ spoke to me in terms of the kind of life that I would want to lead—being my brothers' and sisters' keeper, treating others as they would treat me."^[259]^[260]
Obama was baptized at the Trinity United Church of Christ in 1988 and was an active member there for two decades.^[261] Obama resigned from Trinity during the Presidential campaign after controversial statements made by Rev. Jeremiah Wright became public.^[262] After a prolonged effort to find a church to attend regularly in Washington, Obama announced in June 2009 that his primary place of worship would be the Evergreen Chapel at Camp David.^[263]

King of Brunei

2011-01-27T21:45:00.000-08:00

THIS IS NOT A DREAM ...
THIS IS REALITY ...

3 children are born every second in this world;
10 mobile phones sold on the international level;
auto manufacturers produce a car every 4.5 seconds on average;
and on the level of the human mind = brain cells send 200 directives each second
to perform the various functions of physical and mental health.
The world spends 37 million euros for arms on the international level in one second

And the Sultan of Brunei's wealth increases by 90 euros every second!

No envy please!

This means around 5400 euros per minute, 324000 euros each hour, 7776000 euros a day

Implies about 54432000 euros a week (that's 54 million and 432000 thousand euros)

Brunei's Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah ... President of the richest country in the world
Popular, lavish, ... uses gold in everything
Was born literally eating with spoons made of gold
Clothes worn embroidered with gold and silver

These are some pictures of his palace ...
The largest and most luxurious palace in the world...
Consists of 1788 rooms with some furnished in gold and diamond-encrusted
257 bath inlaid with gold and silver
and a garage to accommodate 110 cars
The palace has 650 suites ... each furnished at not less than 150,000 thousand euros
This requires the visitor to spend 24 hours just to inspect each room for 30 seconds

The Sultan of Brunei's plane

Most luxurious aircraft in the world, inlaid with gold
The Sultan has also a Boeing 747 worth a hundred million dollars,
and then re-designed as a home at a cost of more than one hundred and twenty million dollars.
Featured add-ons such as a whirlpool bath of pure gold
He also has six small aircraft and two helicopters.

One of the cars of theSultan of Brunei

At the special request of the Sultan of Brunei,
theRolls Royce company
combined their car designs with that of Porsche.
This vehicle is currently in London
for use during his stay in Britain

When the Sultan of Brunei's daughter married,
the legendarycelebrations continued for 14 days,
at a cost of about five million dollars,
attended by more than 25 heads of state and family members.

Sultan of Brunei car inlaid with pure gold

The Princess wears a crown of diamonds
and carries a small bouquet of flowers studded with diamonds.
She also wears huge diamonds as earrings, adding sparkle to her face.

Wikipedia says he has
531 Mercedes-Benzes
367 Ferraris
362 Bentleys
185 BMWs
177 Jaguars
160 Porsches
130 Rolls-Royces
And 20 Lamborghinis

Bringing the total number of his cars to 1,932

Have a good day....

Peacock

2011-01-25T23:05:00.000-08:00

Plumage

The male (peacock) Indian Peafowl has iridescent blue-green or green colored plumage. The so-called "tail" of the peacock, also termed the "train," is not the tail quill feathers but highly elongated upper tail coverts. The train feathers have a series of eyes that are best seen when the tail is fanned. Both species have a crest atop the head.
The female (peahen) Indian Peafowl has a mixture of dull green, brown, and grey in her plumage. She lacks the long upper tail coverts of the male but has a crest. The female can also display her plumage to ward off female competition or danger to her young.
The Green Peafowl is different in appearance from the Indian Peafowl. The male has green and gold plumage and has an erect crest. The wings are black with a sheen of blue.
Unlike the Indian Peafowl, the Green Peahen is very similar to the male, only having shorter upper tail coverts and less iridescence. It is very hard to tell a juvenile male from an adult female.
Many of the brilliant colours of the peacock plumage are due to an optical interference phenomenon, Bragg reflection, based on (nearly) periodic nanostructures found in the barbules (fiber-like components) of the feathers.
Different colours correspond to different length scales of the periodic structures. For brown feathers, a mixture of red and blue is required: one colour is created by the periodic structure, and the other is a created by a Fabry–Pérot interference peak from reflections off the outermost and innermost boundaries of the periodic structure. Many colour mutations exist through selective breeding, such as the leucistic White Peafowl and the Black-Shouldered Peafowl.
Such interference-based structural colour is especially important in producing the peacock's iridescent hues (which shimmer and change with viewing angle), since interference effects depend upon the angle of light, unlike chemical pigments.

Behaviour

The peafowl are forest birds that nest on the ground but roost in trees. They are terrestrial feeders.
Both species of Peafowl are believed to be polygamous^[2]. However, it has been suggested that "females" entering a male Green Peafowl's territory are really his own juvenile or sub-adult young (K. B. Woods in lit. 2000) and that Green Peafowl are really monogamous in the wild. The male peacock flares out its feathers when it is trying to get the female's attention.
During the mating season they will often emit a very loud high pitched cry.
They can fly.

Diet

Peafowl are omnivorous and eat most plant parts, flower petals, seed heads, insects and other arthropods, reptiles, and amphibians.
In common with other members of the Galliformes, males possess metatarsal spurs or "thorns" used primarily during intraspecific fights. Two of the Peafowl's favorite delicasies are marshmellows and Pepperjack cheese

Feral populations

Peafowl have left captivity and developed permanent, free-roaming populations in several parts of the world including India.

Cultural significance

In Christianity, the peacock is an ancient symbol of eternal life.^[3]
In 1956, John J. Graham created an abstraction of an eleven-feathered peacock logo to indicate richness in color. This brightly hued peacock was adopted due to the increase in color programming. NBC's first color broadcasts showed only a still frame of the colorful peacock. The emblem made its first on-air appearance on May 22, 1956.^[4] The current NBC logo that debuted in 1986 has six feathers (yellow, orange, red, purple, blue, green). Stylized male peacock with full plumage is used as a logo for Pakistan Television Corporation.
Peacock Feathers have been used for healing for tens of thousands of years in every culture throughout time. They are said to carry Spiritual Healing Energy that can be used to assist people seeking balance and harmony in their lives. With the proper guidelines of use, they allow the individual to connect with the Universal Healing Energy and use this energy to heal people of all of their complaints, imbalances and disease. This tradition is based on this principle.
Peacock symbolism speaks of attributes such as: Glory Vision Royalty Spirituality Awakening Immortality Refinement Incorruptibility
It is a possessor of some of the most admired human characteristics, and is a mbol of integrity and the beauty we can achieve when we endeavor to show our true colors. In history, myth, legend and lore, the Peacock symbolism carries: Nobility Holiness Guidance Protection Watchfulness
In Greco-Roman mythology the Peacock is identified with Hera (Juno) who created the Peacock from Argus whose hundred eyes (seen on the tail feathers of the Peacock) symbolize the vault of heaven and the "eyes" of the stars.
In Hinduism the Peacock is associated with Lakshmi who is a deity representing benevolence, patience, kindness, compassion and good luck.
Similar to Lakshmi, the Peacock is associated with Kwan-yin in Asian spirituality. Kwan-yin (or Quan Yin) is also an emblem of love, compassionate watchfulness, good-will, nurturing, and kind-heartedness. Legend tells us she chose to remain a mortal even though she could be immortal because she wished to stay behind and aid humanity in their spiritual evolution.
In Babylonia and Persia the Peacock is seen as a guardian to royalty, and is often seen in engravings upon the thrones of royalty.
In Christianity the Peacock symbolism represents the "all-seeing" church, along with the holiness and sanctity associated with it. Additionally, the Peacock represents resurrection, renewal and immortality within the spiritual teachings of Christianity. Themes of renewal are also linked to alchemical traditions to, as many schools of thought compare the resurrecting phoenix to the modern-day Peacock.

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

2011-01-23T22:35:00.000-08:00

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (Urdu: ذوالفقار علی بھٹو, Sindhi: ذوالفقار علي ڀُٽو, IPA: [zʊlfɪqɑːɾ ɑli bʱʊʈːoː]; 5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani politician who served as the fourth President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and as the ninth Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977. He was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan. His daughter Benazir Bhutto also served twice as prime minister. She was assassinated on 27 December 2007.
Educated at the University of California, Berkeley, in the United States and University of Oxford in the United Kingdom, Bhutto was noted for his economic initiatives and authoring Pakistan's nuclear programme. He was executed in 1979 after the Supreme Court of Pakistan sentenced him to death for authorising the murder of a political opponent,^[1]^[2] in a move that many believe was done under the directives of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq

Early life

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was born to Khursheed Begum née Lakhi Bai and Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto. He was born in a prominent Sindhi Muslim family.^[5] Bhutto's father was a prominent political figure in the Indian colonial government. Bhutto was born in his parent's residence near Larkana in what later became the province of Sindh. He was their third child — their first one, Sikandar Ali, died from pneumonia at age seven in 1914 and the second child, Imdad Ali, died of cirrhosis at the age of 39 in 1953.^[6] His father was the prime minster of junagadh state, who enjoyed an influential relationship with the officials of the British Raj. As a young boy, Bhutto moved to Worli Seaface in Bombay (now Mumbai) to study at the Cathedral and John Connon School. During this period, he also became a student activist in the League's Pakistan Movement. In 1943, his marriage was arranged with Shireen Amir Begum (died 19 January 2003 in Karachi). He later left her, however, in order to remarry. In 1947, Bhutto was admitted to the University of Southern California.
In 1949, Bhutto transferred to the University of California, Berkeley, where he earned an honours degree in political science. Here he would become interested in the theories of socialism, delivering a series of lectures on the feasibility of socialism in Islamic countries.During this time, Bhutto's father, Sir Shahnawaz, played a controversial role in the affairs of the state of Junagadh (now in Gujarat). Coming to power in a palace coup as the dewan, he secured the accession of the state to Pakistan, which was ultimately negated by Indian intervention in December 1947.^[7] In June 1950 Bhutto travelled to England to study law at Christ Church, Oxford. Upon finishing his studies, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in the year 1953 (the same school at which Muhammad Ali Jinnah studied law) .
Bhutto married his second wife, the Iranian-Kurdish Begum Nusrat Ispahani who was a Shi'a Muslim,^[8] in Karachi on 8 September 1951. Their first child, his daughter Benazir, was born in 1953. She was followed by Murtaza in 1954, a second daughter, Sanam, in 1957, and the youngest child, Shahnawaz Bhutto, in 1958. He accepted the post of lecturer at the Sindh Muslim College, from where he was also awarded an honorary law degree by the then college President, Mr. Hassanally A. Rahman before establishing himself in a legal practice in Karachi. He also took over the management of his family's estate and business interests after his father's death.

[edit] Political career

In 1957, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became the youngest member of Pakistan's delegation to the United Nations. He would address the United Nations Sixth Committee on Aggression on 25 October 1957 and lead Pakistan's deputation to the first United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1958. In the same year, Bhutto became the youngest Pakistani cabinet minister when he was given charge of the energy ministry by President Muhammad Ayub Khan, who had seized power and declared martial law. He was subsequently promoted to head the ministries of commerce, information and industries. Bhutto became a close and trusted advisor to Ayub, rising in influence and power despite his youth and relative inexperience in politics. Bhutto aided Ayub in negotiating the Indus Water Treaty with India in 1960. In 1961, Bhutto negotiated an oil exploration agreement with the Soviet Union, which also agreed to provide economic and technical aid to Pakistan.

[edit] Foreign Minister

Sheikh Abdullah with Ayub Khan and Z.A.Bhutto 1964.

In 1962, he was appointed Pakistan's foreign minister. His swift rise to power also brought him national prominence and popularity.
As foreign minister, Bhutto significantly transformed Pakistan's hitherto pro-Western foreign policy. While maintaining a prominent role for Pakistan within the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization and the Central Treaty Organization, Bhutto began asserting a foreign policy course for Pakistan that was independent of U.S. influence. Bhutto criticised the U.S. for providing military aid to India during and after the Sino-Indian War of 1962, which was seen as an abrogation of Pakistan's alliance with the U.S. Bhutto worked to establish stronger relations with the People's Republic of China.^[9] Bhutto visited Beijing and helped Ayub negotiate trade and military agreements with the Chinese regime, which agreed to help Pakistan in a large number of military and industrial projects. Bhutto also signed the Sino-Pakistan Boundary Agreement on 2 March 1963 that transferred 750 square kilometres of territory from Pakistan-administered Kashmir to Chinese control. Bhutto asserted his belief in non-alignment, making Pakistan an influential member in non-aligned organisations. Believing in pan-Islamic unity, Bhutto developed closer relations with nations such as Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and other Arab states.
Bhutto advocated hardline and confrontational policies against India over the Kashmir conflict and other issues. A 17 day war broke out between Pakistan and India on 6 September 1965 known as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. This war was an aftermath of brief skirmishes that took place between March and August 1965 on the international boundaries in the Rann of Kutch, Kashmir and Punjab. Bhutto joined Ayub in Tashkent to negotiate a peace treaty with the Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri. Ayub and Shastri agreed to exchange prisoners of war and withdraw respective forces to pre-war boundaries. This agreement was deeply unpopular in Pakistan, causing major political unrest against Ayub's regime. Bhutto's criticism of the final agreement caused a major rift between him and Ayub Khan. Initially denying the rumours, Bhutto resigned in June 1966 and expressed strong opposition to Ayub's regime.^[9]

[edit] Pakistan Peoples Party

Further information: Pakistani general election, 1970

Following his resignation, large crowds gathered to listen to Bhutto's speech upon his arrival in Lahore on 21 June 1967. Tapping a wave of anger and opposition against Ayub, Bhutto began travelling across the country to deliver political speeches. In a speech in October 1966 Bhutto declared the PPP's beliefs, "Islam is our faith, democracy is our policy, socialism is our economy. All power to the people."^[10] On 30 November 1967 Bhutto founded the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) in Lahore, establishing a strong base of political support in Punjab, Sindh and amongst the Muhajir communities. Bhutto's party became a part of the pro-democracy movement involving diverse political parties from all across Pakistan. PPP activists staged large protests and strikes in different parts of the country, increasing pressure on Ayub to resign. Bhutto's arrest on 12 November 1968 sparked greater political unrest. After his release, Bhutto attended the Round Table Conference called by Ayub in Rawalpindi, but refused to accept Ayub's continuation in office and the East Pakistani politician Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Six point movement for regional autonomy.
Following Ayub's resignation, the new president Gen. Yahya Khan promised to hold parliamentary elections on 7 December 1970. Bhutto's party won a large number of seats from constituencies in West Pakistan.^[10] However, Sheikh Mujib's Awami League won an outright majority from the constituencies located in East Pakistan. Bhutto refused to accept an Awami League government and famously promised to "break the legs" of any elected PPP member who dared to attend the inaugural session of the National Assembly of Pakistan. Capitalising on West Pakistani fears of East Pakistani separatism, Bhutto demanded that Sheikh Mujib form a coalition with the PPP.^[10] Under substantial pressure from Bhutto and other West Pakistani political parties, Yahya postponed the inaugural session of the National Assembly after talks with Sheikh Mujib failed.^[10] Amidst popular outrage in East Pakistan, Major Ziaur Rahman declared the independence of "Bangladesh" on 26 March 1971 after Mujibur was arrested by the Pakistani Army, which had been ordered by Yahya to suppress political activities. .^[11] While supportive of the army's actions and working to rally international support, Bhutto distanced himself from the Yahya regime. He refused to accept Yahya's scheme to appoint Bengali politician Nurul Amin as prime minister, with Bhutto as deputy prime minister. Indian intervention in East Pakistan led to the very bitter defeat of Pakistani forces, who surrendered on 16 December 1971. Bhutto and others condemned Yahya for failing to protect Pakistan's unity. Isolated, Yahya resigned on 20 December and transferred power to Bhutto, who became the president, army commander-in-chief as well as the first civilian chief martial law administrator.^[10]

[edit] Leader of Pakistan

Bhutto speaking in Simla.

As president, Bhutto addressed the nation via radio and television, saying "My dear countrymen, my dear friends, my dear students, labourers, peasants… those who fought for Pakistan… We are facing the worst crisis in our country's life, a deadly crisis. We have to pick up the pieces, very small pieces, but we will make a new Pakistan, a prosperous and progressive Pakistan." He placed Yahya under house arrest, brokered a ceasefire and ordered the release of Sheikh Mujib, who was held prisoner by the army. To implement this, Bhutto reversed the verdict of Mujib's court trial that had taken place earlier, in which the presiding Brigadier-General Rahimuddin Khan (later 4-star General) had sentenced Mujib to death. Appointing a new cabinet, Bhutto appointed Lieutenant General Gul Hasan as Chief of Army Staff. On 2 January 1972 Bhutto announced the nationalisation of all major industries, including iron and steel, heavy engineering, heavy electricals, petrochemicals, cement and public utilities.^[12] A new labour policy was announced increasing workers rights and the power of trade unions. Although he came from a feudal background himself, Bhutto announced reforms limiting land ownership and a government take-over of over a million acres (4,000 km²) to distribute to landless peasants. More than 2,000 civil servants were dismissed on charges of corruption.^[12] Bhutto also dismissed the military chiefs on 3 March after they refused orders to suppress a major police strike in Punjab. He appointed General Tikka Khan as the new Chief of the Army Staff in March 1972 as he felt the General would not interfere in political matters and would concentrate on rehabilitating the Pakistan Army. Bhutto convened the National Assembly on 14 April, rescinded martial law on 21 April and charged the legislators with writing a new constitution.
Bhutto visited India to meet Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and negotiated a formal peace agreement and the release of 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war. The two leaders signed the Shimla Agreement, which committed both nations to establish a new yet temporary Cease-fire Line in Kashmir and obligated them to resolve disputes peacefully through bilateral talks.^[12]^[13] Bhutto also promised to hold a future summit for the peaceful resolution of the Kashmir dispute and pledged to recognise Bangladesh.^[13] Although he secured the release of Pakistani soldiers held by India, Bhutto was criticised by many in Pakistan for allegedly making too many concessions to India. It is theorised that Bhutto feared his downfall if he could not secure the release of Pakistani soldiers and the return of territory occupied by Indian forces.^[14] Bhutto established an atomic power development programme and inaugurated the first Pakistani atomic reactor, built in collaboration with Canada in Karachi on 28 November. On 30 March, 59 military officers were arrested by army troops for allegedly plotting a coup against Bhutto, who appointed then-Brigadier Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq to head a military tribunal to investigate and try the suspects. The National Assembly approved the new constitution, which Bhutto signed into effect on 12 April. The constitution proclaimed an "Islamic Republic" in Pakistan with a parliamentary form of government.^[15] On 10 August, Bhutto turned over the post of president to Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, assuming the office of prime minister instead.^[12]
Bhutto officially recognised Bangladesh in July. Making an official visit to Bangladesh, Bhutto was criticised in Pakistan for laying flowers at a memorial for Bangladeshi freedom fighters. Bhutto continued to develop closer relations with China as well as Saudi Arabia and other Muslim nations. Bhutto hosted the Second Islamic Summit of Muslim nations in Lahore between 22 February and 24 February in 1974.
Bhutto, however, faced considerable pressure from Islamic religious leaders to declare the Ahmadiya communities as non-Muslims. Failing to restrain sectarian violence and rioting, Bhutto and the National Assembly amended the constitution to that effect. Bhutto intensified his nationalisation programme, extending government control over agricultural processing and consumer industries. Bhutto also, with advice from Admiral S.M. Ahsan, inaugurated Port Qasim, designed to expand harbour facilities near Karachi. However, the performance of the Pakistani economy declined amidst increasing bureaucracy and a decline in private sector confidence. In a surprise move in 1976, Bhutto appointed Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq to replace Gen. Tikka Khan, surpassing five generals senior to Zia.^[16]

[edit] President of Pakistan

Richard Nixon and Bhutto in 1973

A Pakistan International Airlines flight was sent to fetch Bhutto from New York, who at that time was presenting Pakistan's case before the United Nations Security Council on the East Pakistan Crises. Bhutto returned home on 18 December 1971. On 20 December, he was taken to the President House in Rawalpindi where he took over two positions from Yahya Khan, one as President and the other as Chief Martial Law Administrator. Thus he was the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator of the dismembered Pakistan.
The new President inherited a disheartened war-weary nation. In this dark hour, he addressed the nation and promised to fight back. Bhutto's intentions to restore national confidence were in several shapes. He spoke about democracy, a new Constitution, and a modified federal and parliamentary system. He reached out to opposition leaders Abdul Wali Khan and Mufti Mahmud, signing an agreement regarding lifting the emergency and allowing opposition governments to be formed. He took steps to stabilise the situation by successfully negotiating the return of the 93,000 prisoners of war and a peaceful settlement with India. He took steps to ameliorate poverty and to revitalise the economy, industry and agriculture.
He gave the third Constitution to the country and established civilian authority over the armed forces in the political setup. In early 1972, Bhutto nationalised ten categories of major industries and withdrew Pakistan from the Commonwealth of Nations and S.E.A.T.O. On 1 March, he introduced extensive land reforms. On 2 July 1972, he signed the Simla Agreement with India for exchange of the occupied territories and release of Prisoners of War.
After the 1973 Constitution was promulgated, Bhutto was elected by the House to be the Prime Minister, and he was sworn in on 14 August 1973.

[edit] Father of the Nuclear program

Further information: Project-706

Bhutto meeting with Iranian Queen Farah Pahlavi, 1972

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was the founder of Pakistan's nuclear programme. In October 1965, the then-Foreign Minister of Pakistan, Mr. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visited Vienna when Munir Ahmad Khan informed him of the status of India's nuclear program and the options Pakistan had to develop its own nuclear capability. Both agreed on the need for Pakistan to develop a nuclear deterrent to meet India's nuclear capacity.
After India's nuclear test on May 1974. Bhutto sensed a great danger for Pakistan. In a press conference held on May 1974, shortly after India's nuclear test. Prime Minister Bhutto said "even if we have to eat grass, we will make nuclear bombs". On the 20 January of 1972, Prime Minister Bhutto rallied a conference of nuclear scientists and nuclear engineers at Multan. At the Multan Conference, where 283 scientists attended, Prime Minister Bhutto said:" Look, we're going to have the bomb. He asked them "Can you give it to me? And how long will it take it to make a bomb?". The scientists replied: "Oh, yes, yes, You can have it." There was a lively debate on the time needed to make the bomb, and finally one scientist dared to say that maybe it could be done in five years. Prime Minister Bhutto smiled, lifted his hand, and dramatically thrust forward three fingers and said: "Three years, I want it in three years". The atmosphere suddenly became electric. It was then that one of the junior scientist-dr. S.A.Butt (a nuclear chemist), who under Munir Ahmad Khan's guiding hand would come to play a major role in making the bomb possible – jumped to his feet and clamoured for his leader's attention. Dr. S.A Butt Replied: "It can be done in three years". Prime Minister Bhutto was very much amused and he said: "Well, much as I appreciate your enthusiasm, this is a very serious political decision, which Pakistan must make, and perhaps all Third World countries must make one day, because it is coming. So can you do it?" And the scientist replied, "Yes, we can do it, given the resources and given the facilities". ”Bhutto's answer was simple, "I shall find you the resources and I shall find you the facilities".^[17] Despite Pakistan limited financial resources, Bhutto was so enthusiastic about Pakistan nuclear bomb, that he is reported to have said "Pakistanis will eat grass but make a nuclear bomb."^[18]
Its militarisation was initiated in January 1972 and, in its initial years, was implemented by General Tikka Khan. The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant was inaugurated by Bhutto during his role as President of Pakistan at the end of 1972. Long before, as Minister for Fuel, Power and National Resources, he has played a key role in setting up of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Wanting a capable administrator, Bhutto sought Lieutenant General Rahimuddin Khan to chair the commission, which Rahimuddin declined.^[19] Instead Prime Minister Bhutto chose a U.S trained nuclear engineer Mr. Munir Ahmad Khan as chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), Munir Ahmad Khan was a close friend of his. The Kahuta facility was also established by the Bhutto Administration, and brought under nuclear scientist Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan and the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers' Lieutenant General Zahid Ali Akbar Khan.
A book written by Maulana Kausar Niazi, a close confidant of Bhutto, gives a somewhat different perspective. The Atomic Energy commission officials had misguided Bhutto and he sought on a along journey to try to get Nuclear fuel reprocessing plant from France. It was on a later advice of A.Q.Khan that no fuel existed to reprocess, Bhutto tried to show he was still interested in that expensive route and was relieved when Kissinger persuaded the French to cancel the deal. By the time Bhutto was ousted little had been done and Pakistani nukes were actually made under Zia's era, under the watchful eyes of several generals including Ishaq Khan.
It has been speculated recently in the press that Qadeer Khan's uranium enrichment designs were used by the Chinese in exchange for Uranium Hexafluoride and some weapons grade uranium . Later on this weapons grade uranium was offered back to the Chinese as the Pakistanis used their own materials.

[edit] Ordering military operation in Balochistan

Main article: Baloch insurgency and Rahimuddin's stabilization

Following the secession of East Pakistan, calls for the independence of Balochistan by Baloch nationalists grew. Surveying the political instability, Bhutto's central government sacked two provincial governments within six months, arrested the two chief ministers, two governors and forty-four MNAs and MPAs, obtained an order from the Supreme Court banning the National Awami Party on the recommendation of Akbar Bugti, and charged everyone with high treason to be tried by a specially constituted Hyderabad tribunal of handpicked judges. In January 1973, Bhutto ordered the army to suppress a rising insurgency in the province of Balochistan and dismissed the governments in Balochistan and the North-West Frontier Province once more.^[12] Following the alleged discovery of Iraqi arms in Islamabad in February 1973, Bhutto dissolved the Provincial Assembly of Balochistan. The operation, under General Tikka Khan, soon took shape in a five-year conflict with the Baloch separatists. The sporadic fighting between the insurgency and the army started in 1973 with the largest confrontation taking place in September 1974. The Iranian military, fearing a spread of the greater Baloch resistance in Iran, also aided the Pakistani military.^[20] Among Iran's contribution were 30 Huey cobra attack helicopters and $200 million in aid.^[21]

[edit] Prime Minister of Pakistan

After the promulgation of the 1973 Constitution, the elections for the President, Prime Minister, Chairman of Senate, Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly were to be undertaken. The 1973 Constitution had adopted a federal parliamentary system for the country in which the President was only a figurehead and the real power lay with the Prime Minister. Z. A. Bhutto was sworn in as the Prime Minister of the country on August 14, 1973, after he had secured 108 votes in a house of 146 members. Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was elected as the President under the new Constitution. During his period, six amendments were carried out in the 1973 Constitution. The First Amendment led to Pakistan's recognition and diplomatic ties with Bangladesh. The Second Amendment in the constitution declared the Ahmadis as non-Muslims, and defined the term non-Muslim.^[22] The rights of the detained were limited under the Third Amendment while the powers and jurisdiction of the courts for providing relief to political opponents were curtailed under the Fourth Amendment. The Fifth Amendment passed on 15 September 1976, focused on curtailing the power and jurisdiction of the Judiciary. This amendment was highly criticised by lawyers and political leaders. The main provision of the Sixth Amendment extended the term of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court and the High Courts beyond the age of retirement. This Amendment was made in the Constitution to favour the then Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who was supposed to be a friend of Bhutto.
The Bhutto Government carried out a number of reforms in the industrial sector. His reforms were twofold; nationalisation, and the improvement of workers' rights. In the first phase, basic industries like steel, chemical and cement were nationalised. This was done in 1972. The next major step in nationalisation took place on 1 January 1974, when Bhutto nationalised all banks. The last step in the series was the most shocking; it was the nationalisation of all flour, rice and cotton mills throughout the country. This nationalisation process was not as successful as Bhutto expected. Most of the nationalised units were small businesses that could not be described as industrial units, hence making no sense for the step that was taken. Consequently, a considerable number of small businessmen and traders were ruined, displaced or rendered unemployed. In the concluding analysis, nationalisation caused colossal loss not only to the national treasury but also to the people of Pakistan.
During his period as the Prime Minister, a number of land reforms were also introduced. The important land reforms included the reduction of land ceilings and introducing the security of tenancy to tenant farmers. The land ceiling was fixed to 150 acres (0.61 km²) of irrigated land and 300 acres (1.2 km²) of non-irrigated land. Another step that Bhutto took was to democratise Pakistan's Civil Service.
Bhutto introduced socialist economic reforms while working to prevent any further division of the country. Absolute poverty was sharply reduced, with the percentage of the population estimated to be living in absolute poverty falling from 46.50% by the end of military rule to 30.78% by 1979–80. The land reform programme provided increased support to landless tenants, and development spending was substantially, particularly on health and education, in both rural and urban areas, and provided ‘material support’ to rural wage workers, landless peasants, and urban wage workers.^[23]

[edit] Popular unrest and military coup

Main article: Hyderabad tribunal

Further information: Federal Security Force

Bhutto began facing considerable criticism and increasing unpopularity as his term progressed.^[24] Initially targeting leader of the opposition Abdul Wali Khan and his opposition National Awami Party (NAP). Despite the ideological similarity of the two parties the clash of egos both inside and outside the National Assembly became increasingly fierce and started with the Federal governments decision to oust the NAP provincial government in Balochistan for alleged secessionist activities^[25] and culminating in the banning of the party and arrest of much of its leadership after the death of Hayat Khan Sherpao, a close lieutenant of Bhutto, in a bomb blast in the frontier town of Peshawar.
Dissidence also increased within the PPP and the murder of dissident leader Ahmed Raza Kasuri's father led to public outrage and intra-party hostility as Bhutto was accused of masterminding the crime. Powerful PPP leaders such as Ghulam Mustafa Khar openly condemned Bhutto and called for protests against his regime. The political crisis in the NWFP and Balochistan intensified as civil liberties remained suspended and an estimated 100,000 troops deployed there were accused of human rights abuses and killing large numbers of civilians.^[12]
On 8 January 1977 many opposition political parties grouped to form the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA).^[12] Bhutto called fresh elections and the PNA participated in those elections with full force and managed to contest the elections jointly even though they had grave differences in their opinions and views. The PNA faced defeat but did not accept the results, accusing their opponents of rigging the election. They first claimed rigging on 14 seats and finally on 40 seats in the national assembly and boycotted provisional elections turn out in national elections was of highest degree. Provincial elections were held amidst low voter turnout and an opposition boycott, violent PNA declare the newly-elected Bhutto government as illegitimate. Muslim leaders such as Maulana Maududi called for the overthrow of Bhutto's regime.^[24] Intensifying political and civil disorder prompted Bhutto to hold talks with PNA leaders, which culminated in an agreement for the dissolution of the assemblies and fresh elections under a form of government of national unity.^[26] However on 5 July 1977 Bhutto and members of his cabinet were arrested by troops under the order of General Zia.^[12] It is generally believed that the coup took place on the pretext of unrest despite Bhutto having reached an agreement with the opposition.
General Zia announced that martial law had been imposed, the constitution suspended and all assemblies dissolved and promised elections within ninety days. Zia also ordered the arrest of senior PPP and PNA leaders but promised elections in October. Bhutto was released on 29 July and was received by a large crowd of supporters in his hometown of Larkana. He immediately began touring across Pakistan, delivering speeches to very large crowds and planning his political comeback. Bhutto was arrested again on 3 September before being released on bail on 13 September. Fearing yet another arrest, Bhutto named his wife, Nusrat, president of the Pakistan People's Party. Bhutto was imprisoned on 17 September and a large number of PPP leaders and activists arrested and disqualified from contesting in elections.

[edit] Trial of the Prime Minister

Bhutto's trial began on 24 October on charges of "conspiracy to murder" Ahmed Raza Kasuri.^[27] On 5 July 1977 the military, led by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, staged a coup. Zia relieved prime minister Bhutto of power, holding him in detention for a month. Zia pledged that new elections would be held in 90 days. He kept postponing the elections and publicly retorted during successive press conferences that if the elections were held in the presence of Bhutto his party would not return to power again.^[28]
Upon his release, Bhutto travelled the country amid adulatory crowds of PPP supporters. He used to take the train travelling from the south to the north and on the way, would address public meetings at different stations. Several of these trains were late, some by days, in reaching their respective destinations and as a result Bhutto was banned from travelling by train. The last visit he made to the city of Multan in the province of Punjab marked the turning point in Bhutto's political career and ultimately, his life. In spite of the administration's efforts to block the gathering, the crowd was so large that it became disorderly, providing an opportunity for the administration to declare that Bhutto had been taken into custody because the people were against him and it had become necessary to protect him from the masses for his own safety.

[edit] Re-arrest and trial

On 3 September the Army arrested Bhutto again on charges of authorising the murder of a political opponent in March 1974. A 35-year-old politician Ahmed Raza Kasuri tried to run as a PPP candidate in elections, despite having previously left the party. The Pakistan Peoples Party rebuffed him. Three years earlier, Kasuri and his family had been ambushed, leaving Kasuri's father, Nawab Mohammad Ahmad Khan, dead. Kasuri claimed that he was the actual target, accusing Bhutto of being the mastermind. Kasuri later claimed that he had been the victim of 15 assassination attempts.
Bhutto was released 10 days after his arrest due to a judge, Justice KMA Samadani, finding the evidence "contradictory and incomplete." Justice Samadani had to pay for this; he was immediately removed from the court and placed at the disposal of the law ministry. Three days later Zia arrested Bhutto again on the same charges, this time under "martial law." When the PPP organised demonstrations among Bhutto's supporters, Zia cancelled the upcoming elections.
Bhutto was arraigned before the High Court of Lahore instead of in a lower court, thus automatically depriving him of one level of appeal. The judge who had granted him bail was removed. Five new judges were appointed, headed by Chief Justice of Lahore High Court Maulvi Mushtaq Ali, who denied bail. The trial lasted five months, and Bhutto appeared in court in a dock specially built for the trial.
Proceedings began on 24 October 1977. Masood Mahmood, the director general of the Federal Security Force (since renamed the Federal Investigation Agency), testified against Bhutto. Mahmood had been arrested immediately after Zia's coup and had been imprisoned for two months prior to taking the stand. In his testimony, he claimed Bhutto had ordered Kasuri's assassination and that four members of the Federal Security Force had organised the ambush on Bhutto's orders.
The four alleged assassins were arrested and later confessed. They were brought into court as "co-accused" but one of them recanted his testimony, declaring that it had been extracted from him under torture. The following day, the witness was not present in court; the prosecution claimed that he had suddenly "fallen ill".
Bhutto's defence challenged the prosecution with proof from an army logbook the prosecution had submitted. It showed that the jeep allegedly driven during the attack on Kasuri was not even in Lahore at the time. The prosecution had the logbook disregarded as "incorrect." During the defence's cross-examination of witnesses, the bench often interrupted questioning. The 706-page official transcript contained none of the objections or inconsistencies in the evidence pointed out by the defence. Former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark, who attended the trial, wrote:

The prosecution's case was based entirely on several witnesses who were detained until they confessed, who changed and expanded their confessions and testimony with each reiteration, who contradicted themselves and each other, who, except for Masood Mahmood... were relating what others said, whose testimony led to four different theories of what happened, absolutely uncorroborated by an eyewitness, direct evidence, or physical evidence.^{[citation needed]}

When Bhutto began his testimony on 25 January 1978, Chief Justice Maulvi Mustaq closed the courtroom to all observers. Bhutto responded by refusing to say any more. Bhutto demanded a retrial, accusing the Chief Justice of bias, after Mustaq allegedly insulted Bhutto's home province. The court refused his demand.

[edit] Death sentence and appeal

Funeral prayer for Z.A Bhutto

On 18 March 1978, Bhutto wasn't declared guilty of murder but was sentenced to death. Bhutto did not seek an appeal. While he was transferred to a cell in Rawalpindi central jail, his family appealed on his behalf, and a hearing before the Supreme Court commenced in May. Bhutto was given one week to prepare. Bhutto issued a thorough rejoinder to the charges, although Zia blocked its publication. Chief Justice S. Anwarul Haq adjourned the court until the end of July 1978, supposedly because five of the nine appeals court judges were willing to overrule the Lahore verdict. One of the pro-Bhutto judges was due to retire in July.
Chief Justice S. Anwarul Haq presided over the trial, despite being close to Zia, even serving as Acting President when Zia was out of the country. Bhutto's lawyers managed to secure Bhutto the right to conduct his own defence before the Supreme Court. On 18 December 1978, Bhutto made his appearance in public before a packed courtroom in Rawalpindi. By this time he had been on death row for 9 months and had gone without fresh water for the previous 25 days. He addressed the court for four days, speaking without notes.
The appeal was completed on 23 December 1978. On 6 February 1979, the Supreme Court issued a guilty verdict, a decision reached by a bare 4-to-3 majority. The Bhutto family had seven days in which to appeal. The court granted a stay of execution while it studied the petition. By 24 February 1979 when the next court hearing began, appeals for clemency arrived from many heads of state. Zia said that the appeals amounted to "trade union activity" among politicians.
On 24 March 1979 the Supreme Court dismissed the appeal. Zia upheld the death sentence. Bhutto was hanged at Central jail, Rawalpindi, on 4 April 1979,^[29] and is buried in Village Cemetery at Garhi Khuda Baksh.^[30]

[edit] Criticism and legacy

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto remains a controversial figure in Pakistan. While he was hailed for being a nationalist, Bhutto was roundly criticised for opportunism and intimidating his political opponents. He gave Pakistan its third constitution, oversaw Pakistan's nuclear programme, held peace talks with neighbour India and was more of an Internationalist with a secular image.^[12] His socialist policies are blamed for slowing down Pakistan's economic progress owing to poor productivity and high costs. Bhutto is also criticised for human rights abuses perpetrated by the army in Balochistan.^[12] Many in Pakistan's military, notably the former president Gen. Pervez Musharaf condemn Bhutto for having caused the crisis that led to the Bangladesh Liberation War. In spite of all the criticism—and subsequent media trials—Bhutto still remains the most popular leader of the country.^[12]^[31] Bhutto's action against the insurgency in Balochistan is blamed for causing widespread civil dissent and calls for secession.^[32] Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology is named for him; his daughter was chairman of its board of trustees.^[33] His family remained active in politics, with first his wife and then his daughter becoming leader of the PPP political party. His daughter, Benazir Bhutto, was twice prime minister of Pakistan, and was assassinated on 27 December 2007, while campaigning for 2008 elections.

John Jacob (East India Company officer)

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Brigadier-General John Jacob CB (11 January 1812 – 6 December 1858) was an officer of the British East India Company who served in colonial India for the major portion of his career. He is known for the cavalry regiment called 36th Jacob's Horse and for founding the town of Jacobabad.

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He was born at Woolavington, in the county of Somerset, England, where his father the Reverend Stephen Long Jacob was incumbent. His mother was Susanna, daughter of the Reverend James Bond of Ashford, Kent, England. He was schooled by his father until he obtained his cadetship to Addiscombe. He was commissioned into the Bombay Artillery (Bombay Army) on his 16th birthday, and subsequently sailed for India in January 1828, never to set foot in England again.

Afghan War

After seven years employed with his regiment, he was then employed as subordinate to the collector of Gujerat. In 1838 he was ordered to Sind with the Bombay column, to join the army of the Indus at the outbreak of the First Anglo-Afghan War.
He first saw active service in the summer of 1839 as a subaltern of artillery, the force led by Sir John Keane, sent to invade the Upper Sindh. He was given command of the Sind Horse by Sir James Outram in 1841; in 1842 he was additionally placed in political charge of the whole of the Cutchee frontier. He saw his first major action as Brevet Captain at the Battle of Meanee, with the British force sent to conquer Sindh. He was awarded a CB.
He set about to recruit a second regiment of Sind Horse, which Napier announced in a letter dated 28 November 1846 would be called Jacob's Horse. As Irregular Cavalry, each regiment had only three European officers, a system that Jacob argued should be extended to all Indian cavalry regiments. Both regiments were absorbed into the Indian Army in 1860 and ultimately became the 35th Sind Horse and the 36th Jacob's Horse. They saw active service in Northern and Central India, Persia and Afghanistan, and during World War I in France. They were amalgamated in 1921 and became known as the 14th Prince of Wales's Own Scinde Horse.
In 1847 Jacob was placed in political charge of the frontier and established his headquarters at Khangurh, where a flourishing town known as Jacobabad developed.
He wrote many pamphlets which were critical of the Indian Army as it then was, and got him into much trouble with the Government in London. He was a scientist and inventor, developing an exploding bullet, or shell, that fired combustibles up to 6 miles. He believed this would revolutionize the art of war. Two good riflemen could, in his opinion, annihilate the best battery of field artillery in 10 minutes. Further experiments made it possible to fire shells up to a range of 14 miles. More importantly, he designed a four grooved rifle and had various experimental guns manufactured in London by leading gunsmiths, and at his expense.
In April 1855 he was gazetted Lieutenant-Colonel. In 1856, due to Sir Bartle Frere's poor health, he taking leave in England, Jacob was pronounced Acting Commissioner in Sind.

Persian War

Brigadier General John Jacob, CB. Marble bust at Taunton Shire Hall

At the outbreak of the Anglo-Persian War, Jacob was put in charges of the cavalry and departed for Persia. He was raised to the rank of Brigadier-General, and appointed A.D.C. to Queen Victoria. When he arrived at Bushire, General Stalker having suddenly died, Jacob was put in charge of 3000 men. Peace favourable to the British Government having been negotiated, Jacob was left in charge of conducting the evacuation of Bushire.
A month after the end of hostilities with the Persians, the Indian rebellion of 1857 had broken out, Jacob's Horse remained loyal throughout. He was anxious to return to India, as he had been selected for the command of the Central Indian Army. Delayed in Bushire by the insistence of the British minister there, Lord Elphinstone was unable to await his arrival. The command was given to Sir Hugh Rose instead. Jacob returned to Jacobabad where he raised two regiments of infantry. He died of ill health at Jacobabad on 6 December 1858. He was buried in the town where his grave has been well-maintained by the locals for whom he retains a cult status, according to BBC correspondent Mark Tully locals believe he has saintlike status^[1].

Legacy

Jacob was the great-great uncle of Alaric Jacob, journalist and writer who wrote of him in his biographical novel Scenes from a Bourgeois Life. Alaric Jacob contrasted his great-great uncle's selfless devotion to duty and democratic principles with the opportunistic capitalism of his contemporaries in England, and used him as model to support his own conversion to an idealistic form of Marxism. Alaric Jacob reports having found the original portrait on which the print illustrated above was based and caused it to be passed to Field Marshall Jacob. Unfortunately it was destroyed in The Blitz.

Islam In Pakistan

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Islam is the official religion of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, which has a population of about 174,578,558.^[1] The overwhelming majority (95-97%) of the Pakistani people are Muslims while the remaining 3-5% are Christian, Hindu, and others.^[2]^[3] Pakistan has the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia. Sunnis are the majority while the Shias make up between 10-20%^[4]^[3]^[5]^[2] of the total Muslim population of the country. Pakistan has the second largest number of Shias after Iran, which numbers between 17 million to as high as 30 million according to Vali Nasr.

[edit] Umayyad invasion of Sindh and the arrival of Islam

Main article: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent

The Badshahi Masjid, literally the 'Royal Mosque', was built in 1674 by Aurangzeb. It is one of Lahore's best known landmarks, and epitomizes the beauty and grandeur of the Mughal era.

Islam arrived in the area now known as Pakistan in 711 CE, when the Umayyad dynasty sent a Muslim Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim against the ruler of Sindh, Raja Dahir, this was due to the fact that Raja Dahir had given refuge to numerous Zoroastrian Princes who had fled the Islamic conquest of Iran. Mohummad Bin Qasim's army was defeated in his first thee attempts. The Muslim army conquered the northwestern part of Indus Valley from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea. The arrival of the Arab Muslims to the provinces of Sindh and Punjab, along with subsequent Muslim dynasties, set the stage for the religious boundaries of South Asia that would lead to the development of the modern state of Pakistan as well as forming the foundation for Islamic rule which quickly spread across much of South Asia. Following the rule of various Islamic empires, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughals controlled the region from 1526 until 1739. Muslim technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and Sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to Islamic Sultanate and Mughal Empire in South Asia and in the land that became Pakistan.

Islam and the Pakistan Movement

The Muslim poet-philosopher Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal first proposed the idea of a Muslim state in northwestern South Asia in his address to the Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930. His proposal referred to the four provinces of Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and the NorthWest Frontier -- essentially what would became Pakistan. Iqbal's idea gave concrete form to two distinct nations in the South Asia based on religion (Islam and Hinduism) and with different historical backgrounds, social customs, cultures, and social mores.
Islam was thus the basis for the creation and the unification of a separate state. Allama Muhammad Iqbal in 1937, in a letter to Jinnah wrote, After a long and careful study of Islamic Law I have come to the conclusion that if this system of Law is properly understood and applied, at last the right to subsistence is secured to every body. But the enforcement and development of the Shariat of Islam is impossible in this country without a free Muslim state or states. This has been my honest conviction for many years and I still believe this to be the only way to solve the problem of bread for Muslims as well as to secure a peaceful India.^[7] But just three days before the creation of Pakistan, Mohammad Ali Jinnah made a different commitment. A commitment to secularism in Pakistan. In his inaugural address he said, You will find that in the course of time Hindus would cease to be Hindus and Muslims would cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the State. This statement of Jinnah is an object of great controversy since then and this vision of a Pakistan in which Islamic law would not be applied, contrary to Iqbal's perception, was questioned shortly after independence.

[edit] Politicized Islam

Faisal Mosque in Islamabad, which is the largest mosque of Pakistan and is also one of the largest in the world, was built by King Faisal of Saudi Arabia.

From the outset, politics and religion have been intertwined both conceptually and practically in Islam. Because Prophet Muhammad established a government in Medina, precedents of governance and taxation exist. Through the history of Islam, from the Ummayyad (661-750) and Abbasid empires (750-1258) to the Mughals (1526- 1858), Safavis (1501–1722) and the Ottomans (1300-1923), religion and statehood have been treated as one. Indeed, one of the beliefs of Islam is that the purpose of the state is to provide an environment where Muslims can properly practice their religion. If a leader fails in this, the people have a right to depose him.
In March 1949, the first constituent assembly passed Objectives Resolution, which declared that the state of Pakistan will be submitted to the sovereignty of God. In 1950, thirty one Ulema passed a demand draft, called Twenty Two Points of Ulema. This drafted demanded preparation of constitution according to Objectives Resolution. It also demanded changes in the law according to Shariah.
In 1977, the government of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto outlawed alcohol and drugs and changed the weekend from Sunday to Friday, but no substantive Islamic reform program was implemented prior to General Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization program. Starting in February 1979, new penal measures based on Islamic principles of justice went into effect. These carried considerably greater implications for women than for men. A welfare and taxation system based on Zakat and a profit-and-loss banking system were also established in accordance with Islamic prohibitions against usury but were inadequate.

Muslim sects in Pakistan

Further information: Sectarian violence in Pakistan and Shi'a Islam in Pakistan

Data Durbar in Lahore, Pakistan is the tomb of Ali Hajweri, eleventh century Sufi. People come each year to pay their respects, to say prayers and worship. The large complex also includes Jamia Hajweri, or Hajweri Mosque.

According to the CIA World Factbook and Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, 95-97% of the total population of Pakistan is Muslim.^[3] The majority of the Pakistani Muslims are Sunnis, while Shias are estimated 10-20%.^[8] ^[4] ^[3] ^[5] ^[2]
The Muslims belong to different schools which are called Madhahib (singular: Madhhab) i.e., schools of jurisprudence (also 'Maktab-e-Fikr' (School of Thought) in Urdu). The Hanafi school of Sunnis includes the Barelvi and Deobandi schools. Although the vast majority of Pakistani Shi'a Muslims belong to Ithna 'ashariyah school, there are significant minorities: Nizari Ismailis (Agha Khanis) and the smaller Mustaali Dawoodi Bohra and Sulaimani Bohra branches. The Salafi sect is represented by the Ahle Hadith movement in Pakistan. Many people on the Makran coast of Balochistan follow the Zikri sect of Islam.
The two subsects of Sunni Hanafi school, Barelvis and Deobandis, have their own Masjids. The Shi'a Ithna 'ashariyah school has its own Masjids commonly termed as Hussainias (Imambargahs). Mustaali Dawoodi Bohra and Sulaimani Bohra also have their own Masjids, while the Nizari Ismailis pray in Jama'at Khanas.
The Ahmadiyya community, a minority group is also present. Ahmadis have been declared non-Muslims by the Government of Pakistan. In 1974, the government of Pakistan amended Constitution of Pakistan to define a Muslim "as a person who believes in finality of Prophet Muhammad".^[9] For this reason, Ahmadis are persecuted on behalf of their beliefs. Ahmadis believe in Muhammad as the best and the last law bearing prophet and Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as the Christ of Muslims who was prophesied to come in the latter days and unite the Muslims. Consequently they were declared non-Muslims by a tribunal, the records of which have not been released to date. According to the last Pakistan census, Ahmadis made up 0.25% of the population. However the website adherents.com^[10] proposes that the Ahmadiyya Muslim community made up 1.42% of the population; which is likely to be a less biased source. The Economist puts the figure of Ahmadiyya adherents to 4 million. The Ahmadis claim their community is even larger.
Sufism has a strong tradition in Pakistan. The Muslim Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting the millions of native people to Islam. As in other areas where Sufis introduced it, Islam to some extent syncretized with pre-Islamic influences, resulting in a religion with some traditions distinct from those of the Arab world. The Naqshbandiya, Qadiriya, Chishtiya and Suhrawardiyya silsas have a a large following in Pakistan. Sufis whose shrines receive much national attention are Data Ganj Baksh (Ali Hajweri) in Lahore (ca. 11th century), Baha-ud-din Zakariya in Multan and Shahbaz Qalander in Sehwan (ca. 12th century) and Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai in Bhit, Sindh and Rehman Baba in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province.

Laws and customs

There is no law in Pakistan enforcing hijab and wearing of Hijab by Pakistani women is fairly uncommon. However, the practice of wearing Hijab among younger women in urban centers is slowly growing due to media influence from the Middle East and Persian Gulf countries.
The episodes of sectarian violence have significantly decreased in frequency over the years due to the conflictual engagement of the Islamic militant organizations with the state's armed forces and intelligence agencies.

Media and pilgrimages

Media and pilgrimages has influenced Pakistani Muslims to learn more about Islam as a result the local heterodox beliefs and practices are being replaced with orthodox beliefs from Quran and Sunnah. The inexpensive travel, simpler visa rules and direct air travel to Saudi Arabia has resulted in large number Pakistani Muslims going to Medina and Mecca for Haj and Umrah. This has helped to increase Pan-Islamic identity of Pakistani Muslims. The Muslim print media has always existed in Pakistan which included newspapers, books and magazines. The Muslim satellite channels are widely available and are watched by Pakistani population.

Islamic education

The Study of Islam as a subject is compulsory for all Muslim students up to Matriculation or O'levels in all schools in Pakistan. Islamic education to the masses is also propagated mainly by Islamic schools and literature. Islamic schools (or Madrassas) mostly cater to the youth from impoverished social backgrounds and those learning to be Islamic clerics. More casual and even research oriented material is available in the form of books. While the most prominent of these schools are being monitored, the latter are being 'moderated' by both the government and some of the scholars, thereby also removing in the process the various material present in it that is used by Anti-Islam/Anti-Sunni writers. Oldest and universally accepted titles such as the Sahih Bukhari have been revised into 'summarised' editions and some of the old, complete titles, translated to Urdu, the national language, are not available for purchase now. These changes are also a herald to new outbreaks of religious controversy in the region.

Bill Gates

2011-01-17T22:52:00.000-08:00

A Tribute to the Great Legend Bill Gates on his retirement from Microsoft

Bill Gates. Perhaps every one knows this person very well, today. No proper words will describe him, in my dictionary. To me and to most of us, he is a great living legend who perhaps did magical wonders to the software industry and also to the humanity. When sun came down in the west, on July 27, 2008, a page turned over in the history. Gates, as per pre planned, retired from a majestic Microsoft, which he founded along with his friend Paul Allen, which made him perhaps an undisputed king of all times in the history of Computer Science and Engineering. A great dominating era in software industry has come to an end.
Well, from being dropped out of a university, Bill Gates had a dozen of luck, and tougher task ahead of him, which made him an excellent business man and world’s richest man, which he himself was never thought to be, as you know that, it is rather difficult for a man to come up in his career, after being labeled as an drop out. How he achieved it, forms a long fairy tale interesting story. Now, let us start our most majestic journey into the great career of Sir. Bill Gates.

Bill Gates early childhood

William Henry Gates the III was born on October 28, 1955, to a lucky couple, Williams H Gates Sr. and Marry Max Well Gates, in Seattle, Washington. No one predicted that the new born boy baby would be the world’s richest person, one day. His father was a lawyer by profession and mother served in the board of directors for First Interstate BancSystem and in the united way. Gates has got one elder sister named Kristianne and an younger sister named Libby. Earlier in his life, Gates parents had a lawyer career in mind for him. But, that, dream went to side lines, when he was in the 8th grade.

Bill Gates Education

At the age of 13, bill enrolled for Lakeside school, an exclusively preparatory school, which is said to be a turning point. It all began to create a new page in the history, when the mothers club at the school used funds arisen out of profit from sale of some miscellaneous things collected in the club, to purchase an ASR-33 teletype terminal and also a block of General Electric computers for school students. Gates developed a special interest in GE terminal computer and went ahead to learn and develop programs using programming language BASIC. He was excused from attending the Maths classes, while doing so. He developed his first major program on his own, which is an implementation of game called as tic-tac-toe. This is, perhaps the turning point in his career. In fact, Gates was always thinking, how the machine could execute his program perfectly without giving any problems. I think, as a professional programmer, that also one way, helped Gates to understand computer programming better.

Laying first foundation stones, for a great distinguished career

Gates got a chance to work in Computer Center Corporation (CCC), along with three other Lakeside students banned by the same CCC for the summer, after it caught them exploring and misused the bugs found in CCC’s operating system, after the ban was lifted. The four students were, Gates himself, Paul Allen, Ric Weiland and Kent Evans. The four offered to debug CCC’s software in exchange for free computer time. Instead of using the system via teletype, Gates intentionally went personally to CCC’s offices and studied source code for various source code that were kept in their offices, which included Fortran, LISP, and finally the machine language. This arrangement went till 1970, when CCC winded up their business. The next year itself, Information Sciences Inc. hired these four students to write Payroll program in COBOL providing them the computer and royalties. After administrators came to know about the abilities, Gates was made to write the school’s computer program to schedule students in classes. To ones surprise, Gates later on, modified code so that he was placed in classes with most female students!

Coming in contact with Paul Allen…

At age 17, gates formed a team up with Paul Allen, to make traffic counters which was based on Intel 8088 processor, a project called as Traf-O-Data. That year they earned $20,000. The business slowed down because of Gate’s young under age. At age of 18, in 1973, Gates got graduated from Lakeside school, where he scored 1590 out of 1600, in the standardized tests for college admissions across the US.

Harvard student to Microsoft chairman…

In fall of 1973, Gates took admission at the Harvard University. It was he who met his future partner Steve Ballmer, here. He also met many great personalities here, including computer scientists of that time, with whom he worked with various algorithms. But, he had one problem, which in turn produced one of the greatest business man of the world. Gates did not have a definite study plan, which made him go on leave from 1975 on. But, to his grace, processor manufacturer Intel had released Intel 8088 CPU. It was his luck and he realized that it was the first computer chip which could run BASIC and could be affordable to run inside a personal computer. The cost of the chip was around $200 at that time. He realized the advantageous situation he earned at that moment, which many of us drop, fearing heavy losses, and started sharing his plans with his parents and decided to start a company with right spirits with Paul Allen.

Facts about Bill Gates

It was, after reading the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics, Gates got a clear vision of what he is going to do in future. The magazine had demonstrated the Altair 8800 in this issue. Gates contacted the creators of Altair, the MITS, saying that, he and others are working on a BASIC interpreter for the same platform. In reality, Bill Gates and Allen did not prepare anything for the same nor had Altair with them. They were just gauging MITS’s interests. They were surprised, when MITS’s president Ed Roberts agreed to meet them for a demo. They then immediately started working on the project and within a few weeks, they designed and developed Altair emulator that ran on minicomputer and then of course, the BASIC interpreter. The very crucial demonstration of the project was held and it satisfied all including the MITS president, resulted in a deal with MITS to distribute the product as Altair BASIC. It also opened a big door for Bill Gates to become Millionaire of 1990’s and 2000’s. Paul Allen got absorbed into MITS. Bill took leave of absence from University of Harvard, and joined Paul Allen at MITS in Albuquerque during November 1975. They eventually named their partnership as “Micro-Soft” and worked together. One year later, they registered the trade name “Microsoft” (without the hyphen), with the United States Patents and Trademark Office (USPTO). Thus, a new era was born.

Starting five years of Microsoft

Microsoft continued sales of BASIC interpreter, which was popular interpreter of all times at that time. Microsoft continued to develop programming languages, even after it departed ways with MITS. The company shifted its office from Albuquerque to Bellevue, Washington on January 1979 for an expansion. During these days, all employees had responsibility for company’s business strategies. Gates continued to develop coding for various projects and personally reviewed every line of code, which company shipped to its clients and often rewrote the part of the code, which got high magnitude of problems.

From BASIC to Operating System development

Actually, this was another turning point, in Bill Gates history, when Personal Computer manufacturer, IBM contacted Microsoft for making a version of BASIC for it’s upcoming personal computer, the then IBM PC. They were impressed by performance of Microsoft. So, they approached Microsoft for the development of operating system. Upon receiving the offer, Bill Gates put forth the idea of development of 86-DOS (QDOS). Microsoft made a deal with Seattle Computer Products (SCP) to develop the QDOS which was similar to the SCP’s CP/M. After developing and adapting the CP/M operating system, Microsoft delivered it to IBM as PC-DOS in exchange of one time fees of $80,000. Gates kept the copyright of PC-DOS with permission from IBM. Later, Microsoft re-modified the source code of PC-DOS and released MS-DOS which enjoyed great success, than PC-DOS, and MS-DOS development cycle went on till its version 6.22.

Gate opened windows… From MS-DOS to MS-Windows… It’s really amazing..

Gates was really happy to see the success of MS-DOS. He continued releasing its improved versions. I think that, Bill Gates had a vision of GUI OS in his mind and that’s what made him one of the greatest ever billionaire, not only in United States, but, also all over the world. During later part of 1985, gates realized that people wanted new set of easily accessible tools to popularize the use of computers and Microsoft released its first ever retail version of Windows to its users. Subsequently, the company stuck a deal with IBM to develop a separate GUI operating system called OS/2. Although Microsoft started developing the OS/2 project, some creativity differences terminated the partnership.
After that, Microsoft developed and released the newer versions of Windows, among it, 3.1 was great success. Due to this, Microsoft developed a new operating system itself, which was based on MS-DOS platform, the Windows 95. Windows 95 had a attractive Desktop, GUI of that time. People got more attracted to it. Even I too got more attracted to the design of Windows 95. During 1998, Microsoft improved Windows 95, and released Windows 98. He started to be figured in Forbes world’s richest persons, during this period and became number one during 1995, until 2008. Oh… 13 years… It’s really amazing run…
Apart from client sided operating systems, Microsoft has released many versions of server sided operating systems. Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows 2003, Windows 2008 Server, are the server sided operating systems, the company has release so far.

Apart from windows, what?

Apart from Windows operating systems, the company has developed many system and office packages, database, and games programs. Microsoft developed MS-Office, which has grown to Office 2007 now. The relational database management system, SQL Server has been a main competitor to Oracle.

Our beloved Gates… Is it a great fall or just a small glitch that you received? Mr. Gates…

After the release of Windows 98, Windows ME was made available to users. Microsoft was still very popular at this stage. But, the gained name and fame and popularity began to decline, when Microsoft released stronger and stricter operating system, Windows XP, which I think so. Perhaps this operating system brought down the popularity and reputation of company with its so called Genuine Advantage Program, which so many computer specialists believe. Microsoft has been now struggling to sell the less popular the latest Windows version, the Windows Vista, on which many older programs won’t run at all. Some devices won’t get detected at all in it.
I was just wondering… Mr. Gates, just before his retirement, another strong man Warren Buffett, of course, his friend only has conquered his place, and pushed him out to a too bad 3rd position that too in the same financial year, which he had safeguarded till 13 valuable years!!... Is it the beginning of an End? Mr. Gates… Will answer to this question… Please? Or will you leave it to the almighty and the time to answer?

History of Pakistan

2011-01-16T22:59:00.000-08:00

Soanian Culture

An early farming village in Mehrgarh, c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris).

The Soanian is an archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic (ca. 500,000 to 1,250,000 BC), contemporary to the Acheulean. It is named after the Soan Valley in the Sivalik Hills, near modern-day Islamabad/Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The bearers of this culture were Homo erectus. In Adiyala and Khasala, about 16 kilometers (10 miles) from Rawalpindi, on the bend of the Soan River hundreds of edged pebble tools were discovered. No human skeletons of this age have yet been found. In the Soan River Gorge many fossil bearing rocks are exposed on the surface. The 14 million year old fossils of gazelle, rhinoceros, crocodile, giraffe and rodents have been found there. Some of these fossils are on display at the Natural History Museum in Islamabad.

[edit] Mehrgarh

Main article: Mehrgarh

Mehrgarh, (7000-5500 BCE), on the Kachi Plain of Balochistan, is an important Neolithic site discovered in 1974, with early evidence of farming and herding,^[12] and dentistry.^[1] Early residents lived in mud brick houses, stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools with copper ore, cultivated barley, wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. As the civilization progressed (5500-2600 BCE) residents began to engage in crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metalworking. The site was occupied continuously until 2600 BCE,^[13] when climatic changes began to occur. Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more arid and Mehrgarh was abandoned in favour of the Indus Valley,^[14] where a new civilization was in the early stages of development.^[15]

[edit] Indus Valley Civilization

Main article: Indus Valley Civilization

Tablets with Indus Script

The Indus Valley Civilization developed between 3300-1700 BCE on the banks of the Indus River. At its peak, the civilisation hosted a population of approximately 5 million in hundreds of settlements extending as far as the Arabian Sea, present-day southern and eastern Afghanistan, southeastern Iran and the Himalayas.^[16] Major urban centers were at Dholavira, Kalibangan, Harappa, Lothal, Mohenjo-daro, and Rakhigarhi, as well as an offshoot called the Kulli culture (2500-2000 BCE) in southern Balochistan, which had similar settlements, pottery and other artifacts. The civilization collapsed abruptly around 1700 BCE.

[edit] Vedic Civilization

Main articles: Indo-Aryans and Vedic period

The geographical horizon of the early Rigvedic Aryans, the extent of their Swat and Cemetery H cultures in the Hindu Kush to Punjab and the upper Gangetic plain regions and Rigvedic river names.

In the early part of the second millennium BCE, the Indian branch of Indo-Iranians migrated into the region,^[17] and settled in the between Sapta Sindhu and the Ganges-Yamuna rivers.^[18]
During the early Vedic Period (c. 1700-1400 BCE), the hymns of the Rigveda were composed and the foundations of Vedic liturgy were laid. The city of Taxila, now in northern Pakistan, became important to Vedic religion (and later in Buddhism). Hindu traditions believe that the Mahābhārata epic was first recited at Taxila at the snake sacrifice Yagna of King Janamejaya, one of the heroes of the story.^[19] Classical Sanskrit was defined in the 4th century BCE by the grammarian Pāṇini in his grammar Ashtadhyayi, who hailed from a place near the ancient city of Pushkalavati in the Gandhara region.

[edit] Early history

[edit] Achaemenid Empire

Much of modern-day Pakistan was under the Achaemenid Empire. Taxila became a satrapy during the reign of Darius the Great.

Main articles: Achaemenid Empire and Taxila (satrapy)

The Indus plains formed the most populous and richest satrapy of the Persian Achaemenid Empire for almost two centuries, starting from the reign of Darius the Great (522-485 BCE).^[20] Its heritage influenced the region, e.g., adoption of Aramaic script, which the Achaemenids used for the Persian language; but after the end of Achaemenid rule, other scripts became more popular, such as Kharoṣṭhī (derived from Aramaic) and Greek.

[edit] Alexander the Great

Map showing the route of Alexander the Great

Main article: Alexander the Great

Crushing the Persian Achaemenid empire, Alexander eventually invaded the region of modern Pakistan and conquered much of the Punjab region. After defeating King Porus in the fierce Battle of the Hydaspes (modern day Jhelum), his battle weary troops refused to advance further into India^[21] to engage the formidable army of Nanda Dynasty and its vanguard of trampling elephants, new monstorities to the invaders. Therefore, Alexander proceeded southwest along the Indus valley.^[22] Along the way, he engaged in several battles with smaller kingdoms before marching his army westward across the Makran desert towards modern Iran. Alexander founded several new Macedonian and Greek settlements in Gandhara, Punjab and Sindh. During that time, many Greeks settled all over in Pakistan, initiating interaction between the culture of Hellenistic Greece and the region's prevalent Vedic, Zoroastrian and Buddhist cultures.

[edit] Greek kingdoms

Main article: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

After Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC, his Diadochi (generals) divided the empire among themselves, with the Macedonian warlord Seleucus setting up the Seleucid Kingdom, which included the Indus plain.^[23] Around 250 BCE, the eastern part of the Seleucid Kingdom broke away to form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.

[edit] Mauryan Empire

Mauryan Empire under Ashoka the Great

Main article: Mauryan Empire

Modern day Pakistan was conquered by the Maurya Empire, which was led by Chandragupta Maurya from Magadha(modern day Bihar in India). They were Indians who practiced Hinduism and Buddhism and were focusing on taking over Central Asia. Seleucus is said to have reach a peace treaty with Chandragupta by given control of the territory south of the Hindu Kush to the Mauryas upon intermarriage and 500 elephants.

Alexander took these away from the Indo-Aryans and established settlements of his own, but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange 500 elephants.^[24]
—Strabo, 64 BC–24 AD

Some time after, as he was going to war with the generals of Alexander, a wild elephant of great bulk presented itself before him of its own accord, and, as if tamed down to gentleness, took him on its back, and became his guide in the war, and conspicuous in fields of battle. Sandrocottus, having thus acquired a throne, was in possession of India, when Seleucus was laying the foundations of his future greatness; who, after making a league with him, and settling his affairs in the east, proceeded to join in the war against Antigonus. As soon as the forces, therefore, of all the confederates were united, a battle was fought, in which Antigonus was slain, and his son Demetrius put to flight.^[25]
—Junianus Justinus

Having consolidated power in the northwest, Chandragupta pushed east towards the Nanda Empire. Afghanistan’s significant ancient tangible and intangible Buddhist heritage is recorded through wide-ranging archeological finds, including religious and artistic remnants. Buddhist doctrines are reported to have reached as far as Balkh even during the life of the Buddha (563 BCE to 483 BCE), as recorded by Husang Tsang.

“

In this context a legend recorded by Husang Tsang refers to the first two lay disciples of Buddha, Trapusa and Bhallika responsible for introducing Buddhism in that country. Originally these two were merchants of the kingdom of Balhika, as the name Bhalluka or Bhallika probably suggests the association of one with that country. They had gone to India for trade and had happened to be at Bodhgaya when the Buddha had just attained enlightenment.^[26]

”

[edit] Gandhara culture

Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st-2nd century CE. Buner, Swat, Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum.

Main article: Gandhara

Greco-Buddhism (or Græco-Buddhism) was the syncretism between the culture of Classical Greece and Buddhism in the then Gandhara region of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan, between the 4th century BCE and the 5th century CE.^[27] It influenced the artistic development of Buddhism, and in particular Mahayana Buddhism, before it spread to central and eastern Asia, from the 1st century CE onward. Demetrius (son of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus) invaded northern India in 180 BCE as far as Pataliputra and established an Indo-Greek kingdom. To the south, the Greeks captured Sindh and nearby coastal areas, completing the invasion by 175 BCE and confining the borders of Sunga's (Magadha Empire) to the east. Meanwhile, in Bactria, the usurper Eucratides killed Demetrius in a battle. Although the Indo-Greeks lost part of the Gangetic plain, their kingdom lasted nearly two centuries.

[edit] Indo-Greeks

A coin of Menander I, who ruled the eastern dominions of the divided Greek empire of Bactria and the modern Pakistani provinces of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh.

Main article: Indo-Greek Kingdoms

The Indo-Greek Menander I (reigned 155-130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush, becoming a king shortly after his victory. His territories covered Panjshir and Kapisa in modern Afghanistan and extended to the Punjab region, with many tributaries to the south and east, possibly as far as Mathura. The capital Sagala (modern Sialkot) prospered greatly under Menander's rule and Menander is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors.^[28] The classical Buddhist text Milinda Pañha praises Menander, saying there was "none equal to Milinda in all India".^[29] His empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, Strato II, disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles, son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River. Various petty kings ruled into the early 1st century CE, until the conquests by the Scythians, Parthians and the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan dynasty. The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Theodamas, from the Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st century CE signet ring, bearing the Kharoṣṭhī inscription "Su Theodamasa" ("Su" was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan royal title "Shau" ("Shah" or "King")).

[edit] Indo-Scythians

Main article: Indo-Scythians

The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia to pakistan and Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura and Scythian tribes spread further into present day Pakistan region and the Iranian plateau.

[edit] Indo-Parthians, Romans and Christianity

Main articles: Indo-Parthian Kingdom and Thomas_the_Apostle

The Parni, a nomadic Central Asian tribe, invaded Parthia in the middle of the 3rd century BCE, drove away its Greek satraps — who had just then proclaimed independence from the Seleucids — and annexed much of the Indus region, thus founding an Arsacids dynasty of Sythian or Bactrian origin. Following the decline of the central Parthian authority after clashes with the Roman Empire, a local Parthian leader, Gondophares established the Indo-Parthian Kingdom in the 1st century CE. The kingdom was ruled from Taxila and covered much of modern southeast Afghanistan and Pakistan.^[30] Christian writings claim that the Apostle Saint Thomas - an architect and skilled carpenter - had a long sojourn in the court of king Gondophares, had built a palace for the king at Taxila and had also ordained leaders for the Church before leaving for Indus Valley in a chariot, for sailing out to eventually reach Malabar coast.

[edit] Kushan Empire

Main article: Kushan Empire

The Kushan kingdom was founded by King Heraios, and greatly expanded by his successor, Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises' son, Vima Takto conquered territory now in India, but lost much of the west of the kingdom to the Parthians. The fourth Kushan emperor, Kanishka I, (c. 127 CE) had a winter capital at Purushapura (Peshawar) and a summer capital at Kapisa (Bagram). The kingdom linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley. At its height, the empire extended from the Aral Sea to northern India, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. Kanishka convened a great Buddhist council in Taxila , marking the start of the pantheistic Mahayana Buddhism and its scission with Nikaya Buddhism. The art and culture of Gandhara — the best known expressions of the interaction of Greek and Buddhist cultures — also continued over several centuries, until the 5th century CE White Hun invasions of the Scythia. The travelogues of Chinese pilgrims Fa Xian (337-ca.422CE) and Huen Tsang (602/603-664CE) describe the famed Buddhist seminary at Taxila and the status of Buddhism in the region of Pakistan in this period.

[edit] Gupta Empire

Gupta Empire at its maximum extent (grey), including its vassals (green).

Main article: Gupta Empire

Gupta empire was an Ancient empire which existed approximately from 320 to 550 CE and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent including Pakistan.^[31] Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization.^[32] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors.^[33] This period is called the Golden Age of India^[34] and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.^[35] Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty.^[36]
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architectures, sculptures and paintings.^[37] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, Vatsyayana and Prashastapada who made great advancements in many academic fields.^[38]^[39] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.^[40] Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Malay Archipelago and Indochina.^[41]
The earliest available Puranas are also thought to have been written around this period. The empire gradually declined because of many factors like the substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories and the invasion by the Hunas from Central Asia.^[42] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king Harsha, who established an empire in the first half of the 7th century.

[edit] Indo-Sassanid culture

Main article: Sassanid Empire

Over the next few centuries, while the Indo-Parthians and Kushans shared control of the Indus plain until the arrival of the White Huns, the Persian Sassanid Empire dominated the south and southwest. The mingling of Indian and Persian cultures in the region gave rise to the Indo-Sassanid culture, which flourished in Balochistan and western Punjab.

[edit] The White Huns

Main article: White Huns

The White Huns, who seem to have been part of the predominantly Buddhist Hephthalite group, established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at Bamiyan. Over-running the northern region of Pakistan.

[edit] Rai dynasty

Main article: Rai Dynasty

According to Arab chroniclers, the Rai Rajput Dynasty of Sindh (c.489-632), established a great kingdom with Ror (modern Sukkur) as its capital and, at its zenith, under Rai Diwaji (Devadittya), ruled over the Sindh region and beyond. Devadittya was a great patron of Buddhism, which flourished.

[edit] Harshavardhan- Bais Rajputs and Pāla Rajput Empire


Pala Empire under Dharmapala		Pala Empire under Devapala

Main article: Palas

Further information: Rajput clans and Battle of Rajasthan

The Pāla's were a Buddhist and Vaishnav Hindu Bengali dynasty of India, which lasted for four centuries (750-1120 AD). The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala to cover much of South Asia and beyond up to Kamboja (modern day Afghanistan), shattering the pride of many a ruler, including the Huna.^{[citation needed]} Followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism, they were responsible for the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, Myanmar and the Malay archipelago, creation of temples and works of art and patronage of great universities formerly patronised by the Hindu king Harsha Vardhana.^[43] The Palas had extensive trade as well as influence in south-east Asia. The Pala Empire eventually disintegrated in the 12th century under the attack of the Sena dynasty.

[edit] Arab period and Muslim Empires

The expansion of the Caliphate.

Expansion under Muhammad, 622-632

Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661

Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

[edit] Arab Invasion

Main articles: Rashidun Caliphate and Umayyad Empire

Although - soon after conquering the Middle East from the long-established Byzantine empire - Arab Muslim forces had reached the present western regions of Pakistan during the period of Rashidun caliphacy, it was in 712 CE that a young Arab Muslim general called Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad empire, to be made the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh. But the instability of the empire resulted in effective control only over Sindh and southern Punjab. There was gradual conversion to Islam in the south, especially amongst the native Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Buddhists, Hindus and other non-Muslim groups remained numerous.^[44] By the end of 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Arab and Shahi kings who would be subdued by the Ghaznavids.

[edit] Ghaznavid Dynasty

Main article: Ghaznavid Empire

In 997 CE, Mahmud of Ghazni of the Ghaznavid dynasty from the city of Ghazni (now in Afghanistan)conquered the bulk of Khorasan, marched on Peshawar against the Shahis in 1005, and followed it by the conquests of Punjab (1007), deposed the Shia Ismaili rulers of Multan, who captured the city in 965 CE.^[45] Abdul Fateh Daud , Balochistan ruled by a Hindu Sewa Dynasty fell into the hands of Sabuktagin ^[46] (1011), Kashmir (1015) and Qanoch (1017). By the end of his reign in 1030, Mahmud's empire extended from Kurdistan in the west to the Yamuna river in the east, and the Ghaznavid dynasty lasted until 1187. Contemporary historians such as Abolfazl Beyhaqi and Ferdowsi described extensive building work in Lahore, as well as Mahmud's support and patronage of learning, literature and the arts.

[edit] Delhi Sultanate

Main articles: Muhammad Ghori, Delhi Sultanate, and Timurid Dynasty

In 1160, Muhammad Ghori conquered Ghazni from the Ghaznavids and became its governor in 1173. He for the first time named Sindh Tambade Gatar roughly translated as the red passage. He marched eastwards into the remaining Ghaznavid territory and Gujarat in the 1180s, but was rebuffed by Gujarat's Solanki rulers. In 1186-87, he conquered Lahore, bringing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control and ending the Ghaznavid empire. Muhammad Ghori returned to Lahore after 1200 to deal with a revolt of the Rajput Ghakkar tribe in the Punjab. He suppressed the revolt, but was killed during a Ghakkar raid on his camp on the Jhelum River in 1206. Muhammad Ghori's successors established the first Indo-Islamic dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate. The Mamluk Dynasty, (mamluk means "owned" and referred to the Turkic youths bought and trained as soldiers who became rulers throughout the Islamic world), seized the throne of the Sultanate in 1211. Several Turko-Afghan dynasties ruled their empires from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211–90), the Khalji (1290–1320), the Tughlaq (1320–1413), the Sayyid (1414–51) and the Lodhi (1451–1526). Although some kingdoms remained independent of Delhi - in Gujarat, Malwa (central India), Bengal and Deccan - almost all of the Indus plain came under the rule of these large Indo-Islamic sultanates.
The sultans (emperors) of Delhi enjoyed cordial relations with Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance. While the sultans ruled from urban centers, their military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for many towns that sprang up in the countryside. Close interaction with local populations led to cultural exchange and the resulting "Indo-Islamic" fusion has left a lasting imprint and legacy in South Asian architecture, music, literature, life style and religious customs. In addition, the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period, as a result of the mingling of speakers of Prakrits, Persian, Turkish and Arabic languages.
Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Sultanate was its temporary success in insulating South Asia from the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the 13th century; nonetheless the sultans eventually lost Afghanistan and western Pakistan to the Mongols (see the Ilkhanate Dynasty). The Sultanate declined after the invasion of Emperor Timur - who founded the Timurid Dynasty - and was eventually conquered in 1526 by the Mughal king Babar.

[edit] Guru Nanak Dev and the Sikhs

Main articles: Guru Nanak and Sikhism

Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the saintly founder of a modern monothiestic order in Sufi tradition and first of the ten divine Gurus of Sikh Religion, was born in the village of Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī, now called Nankana, near Sial in modern-day Pakistan. At the age of 70, he had a miraculous death in Cartarpur, Punjab of modern-day Pakistan. Sikhism was created and would continue to grow. His followers, the Sikhs, would play a historic role later.

[edit] Mughal Empire

Main article: Mughal Empire

Mughal Empire at its peak

In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley(modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, covering modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.^[47] The Mughals were descended from Persianized Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol admixture). However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and the Hindu king Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, who had won 22 battles from Punjab to Bengal and had established a secular Hindu Raj, ruled North India from Delhi till 1556, when Akbar's forces defeated and killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556.
The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857 War of Independence. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.^[48]
Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in the dynasty's downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population, which often inflamed the majority Hindu population. The third emperor, Akbar the Great, was both a capable ruler and an early proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favored an early form of multiculturalism. For a short time in the late 16th century, Lahore was the capital of the empire. The architectural legacy of the Mughals in Lahore includes the Shalimar Gardens built by the fifth emperor, Shahjahan, and the Badshahi Mosque built by the sixth emperor, Aurangzeb, after whose demise different regions of modern Pakistan began asserting independence from a declining Mughal empire.

[edit] Durrani Kingdom, Sikh Confederacy and the European Powers

Main articles: Durrani Empire and Sikh Confederacy

In 1739, the Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded India, defeated the Mughal Emperor Mohammed Shah, and occupied most of Balochistan and the Indus plain. After Nadir Shah's death, the Durrani kingdom was established in 1747 by one of his Afghan generals, Ahmad Shah Abdali, and included Balochistan, Peshawar, Daman, Multan, Sind and Punjab. In the south, a succession of autonomous dynasties (the Daudpotas, Kalhoras and Talpurs) had asserted the independence of Sind, from the end of Aurangzeb's reign. Marathas, who invaded the Punjab region up to Attock, were decisively repelled by Ahmed Shah Abdali. Most of Balochistan came under the influence of the Khan of Kalat, apart from some coastal areas such as Gwadar, which were controlled by mutually competing and armed Portuguese, French and Dutch trading companies.
The Sikh Confederacy (1748–1799) was a group of small sikh states in the Punjab which emerged in a political and religious vacuum created by the rivalry against the Durrani Afghans and the Mughals.^[49] The Sikh Confederacy drove out the Mughals and in 1764 captured Lahore. The Sikh's took control and reigned supreme and the Sikh Empire continued to grow. However, the Confederacy suffered instability as disputes and rivalries emerged.^[50]

[edit] Sikh Empire

Main article: Sikh Empire

Samadhi of Ranjit Singh in Lahore.

The Sikh Empire (1799–1849) was formed on the foundations of the Punjabi Army by Maharaja Ranjit Singh who was proclaimed "Sarkar-i-Wala", and was referred to as the "Maharaja of Lahore".^[49] It consisted of a collection of autonomous Punjabi Misls, which were governed by Misldars,^[51] mainly in the Punjab region. The empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Multan in the south. The main geographical footprint of the empire was the Punjab region. The religious demography of the Sikh Empire was Muslim (80%), Sikh (10%), Hindu (10%),.^[52]
The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during the time of the Punjabi Army, could be defined as early as 1707, starting from the death of Aurangzeb and the downfall of the Mughal Empire. The fall of the Mughal Empire provided opportunities for the Sikh Punjabi army to lead expeditions against the Mughals and Pashtuns. This led to a growth of the army, which was split into different Punjabi armies and then semi-independent "misls". Each of these component armies were known as a misl, each controlling different areas and cities. However, in the period from 1762–1799, Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the disbandment of the Punjab Army by the time of coronation of Ranjit Singh in 1801, creating a unified political state. All the misl leaders who were affiliated with the Army were nobility with usually long and prestigious family histories in Punjab's history.^[51]^[53]

[edit] British rule

The entire territory of modern Pakistan was occupied by the British East India Company and its successor, the British Empire, through a series of wars - main being the Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh, the grueling Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849) and the First, Second, and Third Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839–1919) - to remain a part of British Indian Empire until the freedom in 1947. The physical presence of the British was not very significant; they employed Imperial rule ("Divide and Rule" political strategy) to rule. In his historical survey Constantine's Sword, James P. Carroll writes: "Certainly that was the story of the British Empire's success, and its legacy of nurtured local hatreds can be seen wherever the Union Flag flew." .^[54]

[edit] Freedom Movement

Main articles: All-India Muslim League, Pakistan Movement, and Lahore Resolution

[edit] Early nationalism period

In 1877, Syed Ameer Ali had formed the Central National Muhammadan Association to work towards the political advancement of the Muslims, who had suffered grievously in 1857, in the aftermath of the failed Sepoy Mutiny against the British East India Company; the British were seen as foreign invaders. But the organization declined towards the end of the 19th century.
In 1885, the Indian National Congress was founded as a forum, which later became a party, to promote a nationalist cause.^[55] Although the Congress attempted to include the Muslim community in the struggle for independence from the British rule - and some Muslims were very active in the Congress - the majority of Muslim leaders did not trust the party, viewing it as a "Hindu-dominated" organization.^{[citation needed]} Some Muslims felt that an independent united India would inevitably be "ruled by Hindus",^{[citation needed]} and that there was a need to address the issue of the Muslim identity within India.^{[citation needed]} A turning point in Muslim-Hindu amity came in 1900, when the British administration in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh acceded to Hindu demands and made Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, the official language. The proslytisation conducted in the region by the activists of a new Hindu reformist movement also stirred Muslim's concerns about their faith. Eventually, the Muslims feared that the Hindu majority would seek to suppress Muslim culture and religion in the region of an independent Hindustan.

[edit] The Muslim League

The All-India Muslim League was founded on 30 December 1906, on the sidelines of the annual All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Shahbagh, Dhaka.^[56] The meeting was attended by three thousand delegates and presided over by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk. It addressed the issue of safeguarding interests of Muslims and finalised a programme. A resolution, moved by Nawab Salimullah and seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan. Nawab Viqar-ul-Milk, declared:

The Musalmans are only a fifth in number as compared with the total population of the country, and it is manifest that if at any remote period the British government ceases to exist in India, then the rule of India would pass into the hands of that community which is nearly four times as large as ourselves ...our life, our property, our honour, and our faith will all be in great danger, when even now that a powerful British administration is protecting its subjects, we the Musalmans have to face most serious difficulties in safe-guarding our interests from the grasping hands of our neighbors.^[57]

Choudhary Rahmat Ali

The constitution and principles of the League were contained in the Green Book, written by Maulana Mohammad Ali. Its goals at this stage did not include establishing an independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on protecting Muslim liberties and rights, promoting understanding between the Muslim community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian community at large on the actions of the government, and discouraging violence. However, several factors over the next thirty years, including sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of the League's aims.^[58]^[59] Among those Muslims in the Congress who did not initially join the League was Muhammed Ali Jinnah, a prominent statesman and barrister in Bombay. This was because the first article of the League's platform was "To promote among the Mussalmans (Muslims) of India, feelings of loyalty to the British Government".
In 1907, a vocal group of Hindu hard-liners within the Indian National Congress movement separated from it and started to pursue a pro-Hindu movement openly. This group was spearheaded by the famous trio of Lal-Bal-Pal - Lala Lajpat Rai , Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal of Punjab, Bombay and Bengal provinces respectively. Their influence spread rapidly among other like minded Hindus - they called it Hindu nationalism - and it became a cause of serious concern for Muslims. However, Jinnah did not join the League until 1913, when the party changed its platform to one of Indian independence, as a reaction against the British decision to reverse the 1905 Partition of Bengal, which the League regarded it as a betrayal of the Bengali Muslims.^[60] After vociferous protests of the Hindu population and violence engineered by secret groups, such as Anushilan Samiti and its offshoot Jugantar of Aurobindo and his brother etc., the British had decided to reunite Bengal again. Till this stage, Jinnah believed in Mutual co-operation to achieve an independent, united 'India', although he argued that Muslims should be guaranteed one-third of the seats in any Indian Parliament.

Allama Sir Muhammad Iqbal

The League gradually became the leading representative body of Indian Muslims. Jinnah became its president in 1916, and negotiated the Lucknow Pact with the Congress leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by which Congress conceded the principle of separate electorates and weighted representation for the Muslim community.^[61] However, Jinnah broke with the Congress in 1920 when the Congress leader, Mohandas Gandhi, launched a law violating Non-Cooperation Movement against the British, which a temperamentally law abiding barrister Jinnah disapproved of. Jinnah also became convinced that the Congress would renounce its support for separate electorates for Muslims, which indeed it did in 1928. In 1927, the British proposed a constitution for India as recommended by the Simon Commission, but they failed to reconcile all parties. The British then turned the matter over to the League and the Congress, and in 1928 an All-Parties Congress was convened in Delhi. The attempt failed, but two more conferences were held, and at the Bombay conference in May, it was agreed that a small committee should work on the constitution. The prominent Congress leader Motilal Nehru headed the committee, which included two Muslims, Syed Ali Imam and Shoaib Quereshi; Motilal's son, Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, was its secretary. The League, however, rejected the committee's report, the so called Nehru Report, arguing that its proposals gave too little representation (one quarter) to Muslims – the League had demanded at least one-third representation in the legislature. Jinnah announced a "parting of the ways" after reading the report, and relations between the Congress and the League began to sour.

[edit] Muslim homeland - "Now or Never"

The election of Ramsay MacDonald's Labour government in 1929 in Britain, already weakened by World War I, fuelled new hopes for progress towards self-government in British-India. Gandhi travelled to London, claiming to represent all Indians and criticising the League as sectarian and divisive. Round-table talks were held, but these achieved little, since Gandhi and the League were unable reach a compromise. The fall of the Labour government in 1931 ended this period of optimism. By 1930 Jinnah had despaired of Indian politics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the Congress to be sensitive to minority priorities. A fresh call for a separate state was then made by the famous writer, poet and philosopher Allama Muhammad Iqbal, who in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia.^[6]^[62] The name was coined by Cambridge student and Muslim nationalist Choudhary Rahmat Ali,^[63] and was published on 28 January 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never.^[64] After naming the country, he noticed that there is an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in northwest India — "P" for Punjab, "A" for the Afghan areas of the region, "K" for Kashmir, "S" for Sindh and "tan" for Balochistan, thus forming "Pakstan".^{[citation needed]} An "i" was later added to the English rendition of the name to ease pronunciation, producing "Pakistan". In Urdu and Persian the name encapsulates the concept of pak ("pure") and stan ("land") and hence a "Pure Land".^[65] In the 1935, the British administration proposed to hand over substantial power to elected Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in 1937. After the elections the League took office in Bengal and Punjab, but the Congress won office in most of the other provinces, and refused to share power with the League in provinces with large Muslim minorities.^{[citation needed]}
Meanwhile, Muslim ideologues for separatism also felt vindicated by the presidential address of V.D. Savarkar at the 19th session of the famous Hindu nationalist party Hindu Mahasabha in 1937. In it, this legendary revolutionary - popularly called Veer Savarkar and known as the iconic father of the Hindutva ideology - propounded the seminal ideas of his Two Nation Theory or Hindu-Muslim exclusivism, which influenced Jinnah profoundly.^{[citation needed]}

Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman seconding the Resolution with Jinnah presiding the session

In 1940, Jinnah called a general session of the Muslim League in Lahore to discuss the situation that had arisen due to the outbreak of the Second World War and the Government of India joining the war without consulting Indian leaders. The meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of 1937 in the Muslim majority provinces. In his speech, Jinnah criticized the Indian National Congress and the nationalist Muslims, and espoused the Two-Nation Theory and the reasons for the demand for separate Muslim homelands.^[66] Sikandar Hayat Khan, the Chief Minister of Punjab, drafted the original resolution, but disavowed the final version,^[67] that had emerged after protracted redrafting by the Subject Committee of the Muslim League. The final text unambiguously rejected the concept of a United India because of increasing inter-religious violence^[68] and recommended the creation of independent Muslim states.^[69] The resolution was moved in the general session by Shere-Bangla A. K. Fazlul Huq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, supported by Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and other Muslim leaders and was adopted on 23 March 1940.^[7] The Resolution read as follows:

No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.... That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights of the minorities, with their consultation. Arrangements thus should be made for the security of Muslims where they were in a minority.^[70]

The Working Committee of the Muslim League in Lahore (1940)

In 1941 it became part of the Muslim League's constitution.^[71] However, in early 1941, Sikandar explained to the Punjab Assembly that he did not support the final version of the resolution.^[72] The sudden death of Sikandar in 1942 paved the way over the next few years for Jinnah to emerge as the recognised leader of the Indian Muslims.^[60] In 1943, the Sind Assembly passed a resolution demanding the establishment of a Muslim homeland.^[73] Talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944 in Bombay failed to achieve agreement and there were no more attempts to reach a single-state solution.
World War II had broken the back of both Britain and France and disintegration of their colonial empires was expected soon.^{[citation needed]} Rebellions and protest against the British had increased. With the election of another sympathetic Labour government in Britain in 1945, Indians were seeing independence within reach. But, Gandhi and Nehru were not receptive to Jinnah's proposal and were also adamantly opposed to dividing India, since they knew that the Hindus, who saw India as one indivisible entity, would never agree to such a thing.^[60] In the Constituent Assembly elections of 1946, the League won 425 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (and about 89.2% of Muslim votes) on a policy of creating an independent state of Pakistan, and with an implied threat of secession if this was not granted.^[60] By 1946 the British had neither the will, nor the financial resources or military power, to hold India any longer. Political deadlock ensued in the Constituent Assembly, and the British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, sent a cabinet mission to India to mediate the situation. When the talks broke down, Attlee appointed Louis Mountbatten as India's last viceroy, to negotiate the independence of Pakistan and India and immediate British withdrawal. Mountbatten, of imperial blood and a world war admiral, handled the problem as a campaign. Ignorant of the complex ground realities in British India,^{[citation needed]} he brought forward the date of transfer of power and told Gandhi and Nehru that if they did not accept division there would be civil war in his opinion^[60] and he would rather consider handing over power to individual provinces and the rulers of princely states. This forced the hands of Congress leaders and the "Independence of India Act 1947" provided for the two dominions of Pakistan and India to become independent on the 14 and 15 August 1947 respectively. This result was despite the calls for a third Osmanistan in the early 1940s.

[edit] Independence of Pakistan

Muhammad Ali Jinnah (right) taking oath from Justice Sir Mian Abdul Rashid (left) as Governor-General of Pakistan on 14 August 1947

Main article: Partition of India

On the 14th and 15 August 1947, British India gave way to two new independent states, the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India, both dominions which joined the British Commonwealth. However, the decision to divide Punjab and Bengal, two of the biggest provinces, between India and Pakistan had disastrous consequences. This division created inter-religious violence of such magnitude that exchange of population along religious lines became a necessity in these provinces. More than two million people migrated across the new borders and more than one hundred thousand died in the spate of communal violence, that spread even beyond these provinces. The independence also resulted in tensions over Kashmir leading to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. The post-independence political history of Pakistan has been characterised by several periods of authoritarian military rule and continuing territorial disputes with India over the status of Kashmir.

[edit] Modern day Pakistan

[edit] First democratic era (1947-1958)

The two wings of Pakistan from 1947 to 1970; East Pakistan became independent in 1971 as Bangladesh.

Between 1947 and 1971, Pakistan consisted of two geographically separate regions, West Pakistan and East Pakistan. Within one year of democratic rule, differences between the two wings of Pakistan surfaced: When Jinnah declared in 1948 that Urdu would be the only state language of Pakistan, it sparked protests in East Bengal (later East Pakistan), where Bengali was spoken by most of the population. The Bengali Language Movement reached its peak on 21 February 1952, when the police and soldiers opened fire on students near the Dhaka Medical College protesting for Bengali to receive equal status with Urdu. Several protesters were killed, and the movement gained further support throughout East Pakistan. Later, the Government agreed to provide equal status to Bengali as a state language of Pakistan, a right later codified in the 1956 constitution.
In 1953 at the instigation of religious parties, anti-Ahmadiyya riots erupted, killing scores of Ahmadis and destroying their properties.^[74] The riots were investigated by a two-member court of inquiry in 1954,^[75] which was criticised by the Jamaat-e-Islami, one of the parties accused of inciting the riots.^[76] This event led to the first instance of martial law in the country and began the inroad of military intervention in the politics and civilian affairs of the country, something that remains to this day.^[77]

[edit] First military era (1958-1971)

Main articles: Ayub Khan, Yahya Khan, and Bangladesh Liberation War

Muhammad Ayub Khan.

The Dominion was dissolved on 23 March 1956 and replaced by the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, with the last Governor-General, Iskandar Mirza, as the first president.^[78] Just two years later the military took control of the nation.^[79] Field Marshal Ayub Khan became president and began a new system of government called Basic Democracy with a new constitution,^[80] by which an electoral college of 80,000 would select the President. Ayub Khan almost lost the controversial 1965 presidential elections to Fatima Jinnah.^[81] During Ayub's rule, relations with the United States and the West grew stronger. Pakistan joined two formal military alliances — the Baghdad Pact (later known as the Central Treaty Organization or CENTO) which included Iran, Iraq, and Turkey to defend the Middle East and Persian Gulf against the Soviet Union;^[82] and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) which covered South-East Asia.^[83] However, the United States dismayed Pakistan by adopting a policy of denying military aid to both India and Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir and the Rann of Kutch.^[84] A positive gain of the treaties was the re-srengthening of Pakistan's close historical bonds with its western neighbours.
During the 1960s, amidst the allegations that economic development and hiring for government jobs favoured West Pakistan, there was a rise in Bengali nationalism and an independence movement in East Pakistan began to gather ground. After a nationwide uprising in 1969, General Ayub Khan stepped down from office, handing power to General Yahya Khan, who promised to hold general elections at the end of 1970. On the eve of the elections, a cyclone struck East Pakistan killing approximately 500,000 people. Despite the tragedy and the additional difficulty experienced by affected citizens in reaching the voting sites, the elections were held and the results showed a clear division between East and West Pakistan. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a majority with 167 of the 169 East Pakistani seats, but with no seats in West Pakistan, where the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won 85 seats, none in East Pakistan. However, Yahya Khan and Bhutto refused to hand over power to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
Meanwhile, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman initiated a civil disobedience movement, which was strongly supported by the general population of East Pakistan, including most government workers. A round-table conference between Yahya, Bhutto, and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was convened in Dhaka, which, however, ended without a solution. Soon thereafter, the West Pakistani Army commenced Operation Searchlight, an organized crackdown on the East Pakistani army, police, politicians, civilians, and students in Dhaka. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and many other Awami League leaders were arrested, while others fled to neighbouring India. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was taken to West Pakistan. The crackdown widened and escalated into a guerrilla warfare between the Pakistani Army and the Mukti Bahini (Bengali "freedom fighters").^[8] In March 1971, India's Prime Minister announced support for the Liberation War, providing military assistance. Ultimately 300,000 to 3,000,000 died in the war^[85] and millions Hindus and Bengali fled to India.^[86] On 27 March 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman, a Bengali war-veteran of the East Bengal Regiment of the Pakistan Army, declared the independence of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh on behalf of Mujib.
Following a period of covert and overt intervention by Indian forces in the conflict, open hostilities broke out between India and Pakistan on 3 December 1971. In Bangladesh, the Pakistani Army led by General A. A. K. Niazi, had already been weakened and exhausted by the Mukti Bahini's guerrilla warfare. Outflanked and overwhelmed, the Pakistani army in the eastern theatre surrendered on 16 December 1971, with nearly 90,000 soldiers taken as prisoners of war. The result was the defacto emergence of the new nation of Bangladesh,^[9] thus ending 24 years of turbulent union of the two wings. The figures of the Bengali civilian death toll from the entire civil war vary greatly, depending on the sources. Although the killing of Bengalis was unsupported by the people of West Pakistan, it continued for 9 months. Pakistan's official report, by the Hamood-ur-Rahman Commission, placed the figure at only 26,000, while estimates range up to 3 million.
Discredited by the defeat, General Yahya Khan resigned and Bhutto was inaugurated as president and chief martial law administrator on 20 December 1971.

[edit] Second democratic era (1971-1977)

Main article: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

Civilian rule returned after the war, when General Yahya Khan handed over power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. In 1972, Pakistani intelligence learned that India was close to developing a nuclear bomb, and in response, Bhutto formed a group of engineers and scientists, headed by nuclear scientist Abdus Salam — who later won the Nobel Prize for physics — to develop nuclear devices. In 1973, Parliament approved a new constitution. Pakistan was alarmed by the Indian nuclear test of 1974, and Bhutto promised that Pakistan would also have a nuclear device "even if we have to eat grass and leaves."
During Bhutto's rule, a serious rebellion also took place in Balochistan province and led to harsh suppression of Baloch rebels with the Shah of Iran purportedly assisting with air support in order to prevent the conflict from spilling over into Iranian Balochistan. The conflict ended later after an amnesty and subsequent stabilization by the provincial military ruler Rahimuddin Khan. In 1974, Bhutto succumbed to increasing pressure from religious parties and helped Parliament to declare the Ahmadiyya adherents as non-Muslims. Elections were held in 1977, with the Peoples Party won but this was challenged by the opposition, which accused Bhutto of rigging the election process. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq took power in a bloodless coup and Bhutto was later executed, after being convicted of authorizing the murder of a political opponent, in a controversial 4-3 split decision by the Supreme Court.

[edit] Second military era (1977-1988)

Main articles: Baghdad Pact, Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization, and Baloch Insurgency and Rahimuddin's Stabilization

Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq.

Pakistan had been a US ally for much of the Cold War, from the 1950s and as a member of CENTO and SEATO. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan renewed and deepened the US-Pakistan alliance. The Reagan administration in the United States helped supply and finance an anti-Soviet insurgency in Afghanistan, using Pakistan as a conduit. In retaliation, the Afghan secret police, KHAD, carried out a large number of terrorist operations against Pakistan, which also suffered from an influx of illegal weapons and drugs from Afghanistan. In the 1980s, as the front-line state in the anti-Soviet struggle, Pakistan received substantial aid from the United States as it took in millions of Afghan (mostly Pashtun) refugees fleeing the Soviet occupation. The influx of so many refugees - the largest refugee population in the world^[87] - had a heavy impact on Pakistan and its effects continue to this day. General Zia's martial-law administration gradually reversed the socialist policies of the previous government, and also introduced strict Islamic law in 1978, often cited as the contributing factor in the present climate of sectarianism and religious fundamentalism in Pakistan. Ordinance XX was introduced to limit the freedom of the Ahmadis to call themselves Muslims in Pakistan. Further, in his time, secessionist uprisings in Balochistan were put down violently but successfully by the provincial governor, General Rahimuddin Khan.
General Zia lifted martial law in 1985, holding non-partisan elections and handpicking Muhammad Khan Junejo to be the new Prime Minister, who readily extended Zia's term as Chief of Army Staff until 1990. Junejo however gradually fell out with Zia as his administrative independence grew; for example, Junejo signed the Geneva Accord, which Zia greatly frowned upon. After a large-scale blast at a munitions dump in Ojhri, Junejo vowed to bring to justice those responsible for the significant damage caused, implicating several senior generals. Zia dismissed the Junejo government on several charges in May 1988 and called for elections in November 1988. However, General Zia died in a plane crash on 17 August 1988.

Benazir Bhutto, late leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party

[edit] Third democratic era (1988-1999)

Main articles: Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif

From 1988 to 1999, Pakistan was ruled by civilian governments, alternately headed by Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif, who were each elected twice and removed from office on charges of corruption. During the late 1990s, Pakistan was one of three countries which recognized the Taliban government and Mullah Mohammed Omar as the legitimate ruler of Afghanistan.^[88] Allegations have been made of Pakistan and other countries providing economic and military aid to the group from 1994 as a part of supporting the anti-Soviet alliance. It is alleged that some post-invasion Taliban fighters were recruits drawn from Pakistan's madrassahs. Economic growth declined towards the end of this period, hurt by the Asian financial crisis, and economic sanctions imposed on Pakistan after its first tests of nuclear devices in 1998. The Pakistani testing came shortly after India tested nuclear devices and increased fears of a nuclear arms race in South Asia. The next year, Kargil attack by Pakistan backed Kashmiri militants threatened to escalate to a full-scale war.^[10]
In the 1997 election that returned Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister, his party received a heavy majority of the vote, obtaining enough seats in parliament to change the constitution, which Sharif amended to eliminate the formal checks and balances that restrained the Prime Minister's power. Institutional challenges to his authority led by the civilian President Farooq Leghari, military chief Jehangir Karamat and Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah were put down and all three were forced to resign - Shah doing so after the Supreme Court was stormed by Sharif partisans.^[89]

[edit] Third military era (1999 - 2007)

Main articles: 1999 Pakistani coup d'état and Pervez Musharraf

Former Prime Minister, Nawaz Sharif

On 12 October 1999, Sharif attempted to dismiss army chief Pervez Musharraf and install Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) director Ziauddin Butt in his place, but senior generals refused to accept the decision.^[90] Musharraf, who was out of the country, boarded a commercial airliner to return to Pakistan. Sharif ordered the Jinnah International Airport to prevent the landing of the airliner, which then circled the skies over Karachi. In a coup, the generals ousted Sharif's administration and took over the airport.^[11] The plane landed with only a few minutes of fuel to spare, and General Musharraf assumed control of the government. He arrested Sharif and those members of his cabinet who took part in this conspiracy. American President Bill Clinton had felt that his pressure to force Sharif to withdraw Pakistani forces from Kargil, in Indian-controlled Kashmir, was one of the main reasons for disagreements between Sharif and the Pakistani army. Clinton and King Fahd then pressured Musharraf to spare Sharif and, instead, exile him to Saudi Arabia, guaranteeing that he would not be involved in politics for ten years. Sharif lived in Saudi Arabia for more than six years before moving to London in 2005.

General Pervez Musharraf.

On 12 May 2000 the Supreme Court of Pakistan ordered the Government to hold general elections by 12 October 2002. In an attempt to legitimize his presidency^[91] and assure its continuance after the impending elections, Musharraf held a controversial national referendum on 30 April 2002,^[92] which extended his presidential term to a period ending five years after the October elections.^[93] Musharraf strengthened his position by issuing a Legal Framework Order in August 2001 which established the constitutional basis for his continuance in office.^[94] The general elections were held in October 2002 and the centrist, pro-Musharraf Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q) won a majority of the seats in Parliament. However, parties opposed to the Legal Framework Order effectively paralysed the National Assembly for over a year. The deadlock ended in December 2003, when Musharraf and some of his parliamentary opponents agreed upon a compromise, and pro-Musharraf legislators were able to muster the two-thirds majority required to pass the Seventeenth Amendment, which retroactively legitimized Musharraf's 1999 coup and many of his subsequent decrees. In a vote of confidence on 1 January 2004, Musharraf won 658 out of 1,170 votes in the Electoral College of Pakistan, and according to Article 41(8) of the Constitution of Pakistan, was elected to the office of President.^[95]
While economic reforms undertaken during his regime yielded positive results, proposed social reforms were met with resistance. Musharraf faced opposition from religious groups who were angered by his post-9/11 political alliance with the United States and his military support to the American led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. He survived several assassination attempts by groups believed to be part of Al-Qaeda, including at least two instances where they had inside information from a member of his military security. citation needed
Pakistan continues to be involved in a dispute over Kashmir, with allegations of support of separatist Kashmiri militants being leveled against Pakistan by India - which treats them as terror-groups - while Pakistan charges that the Indian government abuses human rights in its excessive use of military force in the disputed region. What makes this dispute a source of special concern for the world community is that both India and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons. It had led to a nuclear standoff in 2002, when Kashmiri-militants, allegedly backed by the ISI, attacked the Indian parliament. In reaction to this, serious diplomatic tensions developed and India and Pakistan deployed 500,000 and 120,000 troops to the border respectively.^[96] While the Indo-Pakistani peace process has since made progress, it is sometimes stalled by infrequent insurgent activity in India, such as the 26/11 Mumbai attacks. Pakistan also has been accused of contributing to nuclear proliferation; its leading nuclear scientist, Abdul Qadeer Khan, admitted to selling nuclear secrets, though he denied government knowledge of his activities.
After the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan, the Pakistani government, as an ally, sent thousands of troops into the mountainous region of Waziristan in 2002, in search of bin-Laden (who claims responsibility for master-minding the 11 September attacks in 2001) and other heavily armed al-Qaeda members, who had taken refuge there. In March 2004, heavy fighting broke out at Azam Warsak (near the South Waziristan town of Wana), between Pakistani troops and these militants (estimated to be 400 in number), who were entrenched in several fortified settlements. It was speculated that bin Laden's deputy Ayman al-Zawahiri was among those trapped by the Pakistani Army. On 5 September 2006 a truce was signed with the militants and their local rebel supporters, (who called themselves the Islamic Emirate of Waziristan), in which the rebels were to cease supporting the militants in cross-border attacks on Afghanistan in return for a ceasefire and general amnesty and a hand-over of border-patrolling and check-point responsibilities, till then handled by the Pakistan Army.
Former prime minister Nawaz Sharif attempted to return from exile on 10 September 2007 but was arrested on corruption charges after landing at Islamabad International Airport. Sharif was then put on a plane bound for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, whilst outside the airport there were violent confrontations between Sharif's supporters and the police.^[97] This did not deter another former prime minister, Benazir Bhutto, from returning on 18 October 2007 after an eight year exile in Dubai and London, to prepare for the parliamentary elections to be held in 2008.^[98]^[99] However, on the same day, two suicide bombers attempted to kill Bhutto as she travelled towards a rally in Karachi. Bhutto escaped unharmed but there were 136 casualties and at least 450 people were injured.^[100]
On 3 November 2007, General Musharraf proclaimed a state of emergency and sacked the Chief Justice of Pakistan, Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Choudhry along with other 14 judges of the Supreme Court.^[101]^[102] Lawyers launched a protest against this action but they were arrested. All private media channels were banned including foreign channels. Musharraf declared that the state of emergency would end on 16 December 2007.^[103] On 28 November 2007, General Musharraf retired from the Army and the following day was sworn in for a second presidential term.^[104]^[105]
On 25 November 2007, Nawaz Sharif made a second attempt to return from exile, this time accompanied by his brother, the former Punjab chief minister, Shahbaz Sharif. Hundreds of their supporters, including a few leaders of the party were detained before the pair arrived at Lahore International Airport.^[106]^[107] The following day, Nawaz Sharif filed his nomination papers for two seats in the forthcoming elections whilst Benazir Bhutto filed for three seats including one of the reserved seats for women.^[108]
On 27 December 2007, Benazir Bhutto was leaving an election rally in Rawalpindi when she was assassinated by a gunman who shot her in the neck and set off a bomb,^[109]^[110] killing 20 other people and injuring several more.^[111] The exact sequence of the events and cause of death became points of political debate and controversy, because, although early reports indicated that Bhutto was hit by shrapnel or the gunshots,^[112] the Pakistani Interior Ministry stated that she died from a skull fracture sustained when the explosion threw Bhutto against the sunroof of her vehicle.^[113] Bhutto's aides rejected this claim and insisted that she suffered two gunshots prior to the bomb detonation.^[114] The Interior Ministry subsequently backtracked from its previous claim.^[115] However, a subsequent investigation, aided by the Scotland Yard of U.K., supported the "hitting the sun-roof"" as the cause of her death. The Election Commission, after a meeting in Islamabad, announced that, due to the assassination of Benazir Bhutto,^[116] the elections, which had been scheduled for 8 January 2008, would take place on 18 February.^[117]
A general election was held in Pakistan, according to the revised schedule, on 18 February 2008,).^[118]^[119] Pakistan's two big and main opposition parties, the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPPP) and the Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML (N)), won majority of seats in the election and formed a government. Although, the Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML (Q)) actually was second in the popular vote, the PPP and PML (N) have formed the new coalition-government.
On 7 August, the deadlock between ruling parties ended when the coalition government of Pakistan decided to move for the impeachment of the President before heading for the restoration of the deposed judiciary. Moreover, they decided that Pervez Musharraf should face charges of weakening Pakistan's federal structure, violating its constitution and creating economic impasse.^[120]
After that, President Pervez Musharraf began consultations with his allies, and with his legal team, on the implications of the impeachment; he said that he was ready to reply to the charges levied upon him and seek the vote of confidence from the senate and the parliament, as required by the coalition parties. However, on 18 August 2008, President Pervez Musharraf announced in a televised address to the nation that he had decided to resign after nine years in office.^[121]

[edit] Fourth democratic era (2008- present)

In the presidential election that followed President Pervez Musharraf's resignation, Asif Ali Zardari of the PPP was elected President of Pakistan. Zardari's government is facing the formidable challenges of an International warfare next door, a never ending territorial dispute and ever present internal political bickerings.
Pakistan, under Zardari's administration, is heading toward a major transition from the existing semi-presidential system to parliamentary rule: The Parliament of Pakistan has passed the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan - a bill which, inter alia, is to remove the power of the President of Pakistan to dissolve the parliament unilaterally. This constitutional amendment is considered a major step toward the parliamentary democracy in the country; it reverses many amendments to the constitution carried out since 1973, turns the President into a ceremonial head of state and transfers the authoritarian and executive powers to the Prime Minister .[122

Benazir Bhutto Biography ( 1953 – 2007 )

2011-01-13T22:47:00.000-08:00

Benazir Bhutto was born June 21, 1953, in Karachi, SE Pakistan, the eldest child of former premier Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. He founded the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) and was prime minister from 1971 to 1977. After completing her early education in Pakistan, she pursued her higher education in the United States. From 1969 to 1973, she attended Radcliffe College, and then Harvard University, where she graduated with a B.A. degree in comparative government. It was then onto the United Kingdom to study at Oxford from 1973 to 1977. There, she completed a course in International Law and Diplomacy.
Bhutto returned to Pakistan in 1977, and was placed under house arrest after the military coup led by General Mohammad Zia ul-Haq overthrew her father's government. One year after Zia ul-Haq became president in 1978, the elder Bhutto was hanged after his conviction on charges of authorizing the murder of an opponent. She inherited her father's leadership of the PPP.
There was more family tragedy in 1980 when Bhutto's brother Shahnawaz was killed in his apartment on the Riviera in 1980. The family insisted he was poisoned, but no charges were brought. Another brother, Murtaza, died in 1996 (while his sister was in power) in a gun battle with police in Karachi.
She moved to England in 1984, becoming the joint leader in exile of the PPP, then returned to Pakistan on April 10, 1986, to launch a nationwide campaign for 'open elections.
She married a wealthy landowner, Asif Ali Zardari, in Karachi on December 18, 1987. The couple had three children: son Bilawal and two daughters, Bakhtawar and Aseefa.
Zia ul-Haq's dictatorship ended when he was killed in a plane crash in 1988. And Bhutto was elected prime minister barely three months after giving birth to her first child. She became the first ever female prime minister of a Muslim nation on December 1, 1988. Bhutto was defeated in the 1990 election, and found herself in court defending herself against several charges of misconduct while in office. Bhutto continued to be a prominent focus of opposition discontent, and won a further election in 1993, but was replaced in 1996.
While in self-imposed exile in Britain and Dubai, she was convicted in 1999 of corruption and sentenced to three years in prison. She continued to direct her party from abroad, being re-affirmed as PPP leader in 2002.
Bhutto returned to Pakistan on October 18, 2007, after President Musharraf granted her amnesty on all corruption charges, opening the way for her return and a possible power-sharing agreement.
Bhutto's homecoming rally after eight years in exile was hit by a suicide attack, killing 136 people. She only survived after ducking down at the moment of impact behind her armored vehicle. Bhutto said it was Pakistan's "blackest day" when Musharraf imposed a state of emergency Nov. 3 and threatened to bring her supporters on to the streets in mass demonstrations. She was placed under house arrest Nov. 9. Bhutto called for his resignation four days later. Emergency rule was lifted Dec. 15.

Bhutto was killed when an assassin fired shots and then blew himself up after an election campaign rally in Rawalpindi on December 27, 2007. The attack also killed 28 others and wounded at least another 100. The attacker struck just minutes after Bhutto addressed a rally of thousands of supporters in the garrison city of Rawalpindi, 8 miles south of Islamabad. She died after hitting her head on part of her vehicle's sunroof -- not as a result of bullets or shrapnel, a spokesman for Pakistan's Interior Ministry said. President Musharraf said he had asked a team of investigators from Britain's Scotland Yard to assist in the investigation into Bhutto's killing. Hundreds of thousands of mourners paid last respects to former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto on December 28, 2007 as she was buried at her family's mausoleum in Garhi Khuda Bakhsh, the southern province of Sindh. Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf announced three days of mourning. Bhutto's husband, Asif Ali Zardari, her three children and her sister Sanam attended the burial. Bhutto was buried alongside her father Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan's first popularly elected prime minister who was later on executed by hanging.
The shooting and bombing attack on the charismatic former prime minister plunged Pakistan into turmoil. Pakistan is armed with nuclear weapons and is a key U.S. ally in the war on terrorism. Furious supporters rampaged through several cities, torching cars, trains and stores in violence that left at least 23 dead. Pakistan's election commission announced January 2, 2008 that parliamentary elections would be postponed until February 18, a delay of six weeks. Bhutto reportedly had been planning to give two visiting American lawmakers a 160-page report accusing the Musharraf government of taking steps to rig the Jan. 8 vote.
"The United States strongly condemns this cowardly act by murderous extremists who are trying to undermine Pakistan's democracy," President Bush said from his ranch near Crawford, "Those who committed this crime must be brought to justice."
Pakistan's Interior Ministry also revealed that it had ''irrefutable evidence'' showing that al Qaeda was behind Bhutto's assassination. Brigadier Javed Iqbal Cheema said the government had recorded an "intelligence intercept" in which “al Qaeda leader” Baitullah Mehsud "congratulated his people for carrying out this cowardly act." Mehsud is regarded as the commander of pro-Taliban forces in the lawless Pakistani tribal region South Waziristan, where al-Qaida fighters are also active. Mehsud has denied involvement.

History of Sindhi Topi (Cap) (سنڌي ٽوپي جي تاريخ)

2011-01-12T21:18:00.000-08:00

If we march along the course of history due to opulence and generosity of Sindh different communities of the world has been moved here, the majority among out comers were Persian, Greek, Arab, Aryans, Turkhan, Mongols, Dutch, French, English etc: this cruel course of history is continue even today, because the advent of nomadic nations and gipsy communities from different parts of the earth and outside provinces or bordering countries toward Sindh is never stopped. Sindhi people not only welcomed the wandering visitors used to come here from different regions of the world through ages but also impressed them with loving behavior and warm hospitality on such scale that mainstream among the infiltrators preferred to live here rather than to go back their respective homelands. Every traveling family, ethnic group or nation which moved around here, carried their ways of life, like traditions, values, rites, rituals, culture, folklore, dwelling systems, ideologies, beliefs, philosophies etc: along with them, the inhabitants of Sindh patronized those all cordially, while among the guests who went back to their respective native soils sponsored communal values, spiritual stuffs and cultural principles of Sindh amid them. Arab traders accustomed sugar candy in Sindh and took horns of rhinoceros from here to sell in China . Al-Mehlib (the Arabian tribe) transported Hens and Buffaloes of Sindh toward Iraq and China , Arabs also carried prey dogs from Sindhi soldiers as a tribute. These people furthermore carried betel leaf from here and harvested in Oman whereas they brought seeds of taramid tree from Basra . People of Sindh learned honey making process, agriculture of dot tree and making of sweet meal with dot palms from Arabs. The Persians brought perfume, olive and water lily from Khurasan, pomegranate is also Persian gift and they in addition gave us seeds of bringal. Grapes have been planted here during the era of Abbasid dynasty, British carried kernel of orange from here
In divine book “Touret” is written that “Suleman brought Peacock, musk, gold and rhinoceros from Sindh”. In 808 AD a doctor named Manik has been called upon for treatment of incurable disease of Abbasi Caliph Haroon Rasheed, after completing successful treatment, Sultan appointed him chief supervisor of the royal hospital at Baghdad .
During the era of Yehya Bermki a Sindhi physician named Ibn-e-Dhanna had been appointed an administrative officer at the hospital of Baghdad, this man introduced there Sindhi method of treatment. During invasion of Alexander the great on Sindh the king of Alor gifted him medicine of snake bite whereas a pair of yellow pigeons was presented him by a monarch.
During this era Greek learned the treatment of poisons and herbal knowledge from Sindhi doctors. They also carried Sindhi cotton (cloth) from here of which they praised in their books as “Sindhin”, whereas method of teaching and art left by Greeks is part of Sindhi culture even today.
In this way due to exchange (which extracted through the ages) of different customs, traditions, things, assets, national and religious values of guest companies Sindh became lodging of complex civilization and ideologies. Though such happenings smashed up the original characteristics of Sindhi culture but also became beneficial with the exchange of rich cultural heritages of the different nations of the world.
Such changes and exchanges were not bound only with overseas or distant populations but were usual with bordering nations, among such other civilizing interactions a beautiful piece of cultural art is Sindhi Cap which was introduced among Sindhi natives from neighboring Baloch people.
A reason regarding the convey of Balochi cap among Sindhi people was that northern areas of Sindh is bordered with Baluchistan, for that basis the replacement of every aspect of life was order of the day.
That time Balochi people used to wear turban upon the cap, copying them Sindhi people also patronized the method, though this has been ended now but in few remote regions of the both provinces same style is still prevailing, whereas in some areas cap has been taken away from turban and on some vicinities load of turban has been suspended. Unfortunately by and large both nations has now thrown away turban and cap from the head thinking these unreasonable weight or out of fashion thing what were once sign of respect, personality and pride.
During the eighteen and nineteenth century AD, covering head with turban, cap or cloth was considered as a sigh of soberness among the people of Sindh and Balochistan, while uncovered head was measured as social indulgence, therefore according to their status people always keep their heads covered. In most few areas of both provinces the men with uncovered skull had been prosecuted, fined or socially boycotted, even today in many regions around Pakistan the concept of head covering is respectfully accustomed.
During its early phase two type of caps has been used to cover heads, one made by sewing two folds of white cloth, its four sides had been circular with which complete forehead could be covered, pious and religious people like to wear that. Second kind of cap was prepared by silk and golden fibers (threads), curved with beautiful embellishment and ornamented with pieces of glasses to extend its sober attire. This cap has been incised from forehead in the way (like half moon) that both curving corners touches right and left mandible.
By the time many changes has been commenced into style plus crafts of cap, hardness and softness of cloth etc:, keeping the seasons of the year in view numerous alterations has also been brought in, like some times increasing pearls with glasses and some times decreasing those.
Transaction of cap from Baloch to Sindhi people also seen several innovations seemingly correlated with Sindhi culture and the time came this cap has merged with particular Sindhi dress, sober structure, walking style etc: and called “Sindhi Cap. In any part of the Pakistan if you see some one worn Sindhi cap he must be thought Sindhi or resident of Sindh.
Making of Sindhi cap is like constructing a building where there is base, walls, floor, roof, color, plaster etc: plus the periods of polish and shining also. There are five styles of cap, round (circular), four cornered, fancy, betel leaf shaped and the cap having different designs. Prevailing style of cap has been passed from three different phases of its evaluation.
Silky Era
Before the partition of sub-continent best kind of silk had been imported from Kashmir with which Sindhi cap makers designs the cap and decorated ornamentation of different things as pieces of plastic, pearls, glasses etc: to create fine-looking caps. Such caps have been mostly worn under the turban in such style that cap peeps out of the turban like hump of bullock or camel. That was not similar to the rounded cap prevailed today but was cut from forehead like half moon, this kind of cap has almost been outdated.
Phase of Collyrium
The cap of this period was different than that of silky one because collyrium has been used instead of glittering golden threads or pieces of glasses. Cap producers create such beautiful lines, decoration and flowering designs with collyrium on cloth (mostly silk) of different color that having seen their art heart filled in high spirits. Lines of collyrium glittered in the light of sun as strips of phosphorus written behind the vehicles, reflects back the beams when head light of other vehicles thrown on those during dark. Top (roof) of the cap had been decorated with interesting geometrical figures like, half, circular, rectangular, four-cornered, oblique, moon, sun, and stars etc.
These caps were not very durable because after became dirty if washed, the grayish color and shining went away, in this way after three or four time cleaning no where to found its beauty.
Phase of Golden threads
Two or three folds of cloth have been used in this kind of cap which was made inflexible by using hard cloth between the folds. The cap had been incised in orchid shape at its opening, in a way that complete head covered whereas the forehead remained open.
With the passage of time keeping in view the disposition of wearer plus needs of modern world, new styles and designs has been introduced, as some times striking with national movements designing the map of Sindh, national slogans plus flag, figures of national heroes, axes, mosques, tombs, old and new geometrical shapes, Ajrak (Sindhi shawl) etc: has been designed. Though many changes have been introduced in the industry of cap making but not much difference can be found between old and new Sindhi cap.
like other cultural heritages of Sindh nothing has been done for the development and maturity of Sindhi cap or its makers, neither any step has been taken by government missionaries nor private institutions or social organizations did anything, rather they has been denied and distorted by the authorities.
Forgetting the cultured character of our cap in sociology, history and literature we bounded its use only on special occasions or gatherings like marriage. In spite of this state of rejection regarding this art, cottage industry of Sindhi cap making is with us winning all interferences in the travel of times, present life and conservation of this skill goes to the genuine struggle of Sindhi and Baloch women whose are more effective and active than male artists. Nonetheless, due to introduction of modern technology manual work has effected on great scale even though a class among new generation of cap lovers mostly like to wear the cap made of hand.
Wherever is education around the globe, the nations of world are busy to save their national and cultural heritages, whether it is in form of archaeology, history, dress, language, literature, land etc: but among us where rays of education reached, our cultural and traditional heritages has been ignored and destroyed there. Thus the tradition of cap wearing has mostly remained only in less educated and northern districts of Sindh like Larkana, Jacobabad, Dadu, Shikarpur and Nawabshah, but the percentage of its use has been decreasing day by day.
Though the past of Sindhi nation is excellent but present is alarmingly worse, its current generation has became prey of Europe like other nations of the Pakistan . Due to infiltration of borrowed schooling syllabus and conquest of foreign media and being victim of downfall against foreign civilizations we are destroying our national heritages and cultural legacies with our own hands Sindhi cap is also among those.
In this connection we should have to be grateful the poor and amateurish section of our society who has protected this cultural heritage because they think it sin to uncover their heads, in this state of affairs the cultured legacy of Sindhi cap can be claimed by this group because they are not only makers of the cap but also protectors of expertise and exercise.

Mongol to Mughal era

2011-01-12T21:10:00.001-08:00

Shortly afterwards Balochistan fell to Nasir-ud-din Sabuktagin, Sabuktagin's son Mahmud of Ghazni was able to conquer Sindh due to his possession of Khuzdar. After the Ghaznivids the area passed to the Ghurids and a little later became part of the dominion of Sultan Muhammad Khan of Khwazrizm (Khiva) in 1219.^[10] However around 1223 a Mongol expedition under Chagatai, the son of Genghis Khan, penetrated as far as Makran. A few years later, southern Baluchistan briefly came under the rule of Sultan Altamsh of Delhi but soon came back under Mongol rule. The raids organised by the Mongols have left a lasting mark on history of Baluchistan, from Makran to Gomal the Mongol (known to the people as Mughal) and the atrocities they caused are still well known.^[10]
Afterwards the history of Balochistan centres around Kandahar and is was in this area in 1398 that Pir Muhammad, the grandson of Timur, fought the Afghans in the Sulaiman mountains. According to local tradition Timur himself passed through Marri country during one of his Indian expeditions.^[10]
The succeeding century is one of great historical interest. The Baloch extended their power to Kalat, Kachhi, and the Punjab, and the wars took place between Mir Chakar the Rind and Gwahram Lashari which are so celebrated in Baloch verse. In these wars a prominent part was played by Mir Zunnun Beg, Arghun, who was governor of north-eastern Baluchistan under Sultan Husain Mirza of Herat about 1470. At the same time the Brahuis had been gradually gaining strength, and their little principality at this time extended through the Jhalawan country to Wadh.^[17]
The Arghuns shortly afterwards gave way before Babar. From 1556 to 1595 the country was under the Safavid dynasty. Then it fell into the hands of the Mughals of Delhi until 1638, when it was again transferred to Persia. We have an interesting account of Baluchistan in the Ain-i-Akbari. In 1590 the upper highlands were included in the sarkdr of Kandahar, while Kachhi was part of the Bhakkar sarkdr of the Multan Subah. Makrdn alone remained independent under the Maliks, Buledais, and Gichkis, until Nasir Khan I of Kalat brought it within his power during the 18th century.^[17]
From the middle of the 17th century Baluchistan remained under the Safavids till the rise of the Ghilzai power in I708. The latter in its turn gave way before Nadir Shah, who, during the first part of the 18th century, made several expeditions to or through Baluchistan. Ahmad Shah Durrani followed; and thenceforth the north-eastern part of the country, including almost all the areas now under direct administration, remained under the more or less nominal suzerainty of the Sadozais and Barakzais till I879, when Pishin, Duki, and Sibi passed into British hands by the Treaty of Gandamak. Meanwhile the whole of Western Baluchistan had been consolidated into an organized state under the Ahmadzai Khans of Kalat. All tradition asserts that the former rulers of Kalat were Hindus, Sewa by name.^[17]
As Muslim dynasties held Baluchistan from about the 7th century, we must look to an earlier period for the date of the Sewas; and it is not improbable that they were connected with the Rai dynasty of Sind, whose genealogical table includes two rulers named Sihras. The Mirwaris, from whom the Ahmadzais are descended, claim Arab origin. In their earlier legends we find them living at Surab near Kalat, and extending their power thence in wars with the Jats or Jadgals. They then fell under the power of the Mongols; but one of their chiefs, Mir Hasan, regained the capital from the Mongol governor, and he and his successors held Kalat for twelve generations till the rise of Mir Ahmad in 1666-7. It is from Mir Ahmad that the eponym Ahmadzai is derived.

Arab conquest of Balochistan

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In the 7th century the current Balochistan province of Pakistan was divided into two main regions, its south western parts were part of Karman province of Persian Empire and north eastern region was part of the Persian province Sistan. The southern region was included in Makran, prior to the Islamic era - the suzerainty over the petty rulers of Baluchistan alternative between east and west. In the 14th year of the Hijra, 636-6CE, Rai Chach marched from Sindh and conquered Makran, however in 643 the Arabs reached Makran.^[10] In early 644 CE, Caliph Umar sent Suhail ibn Adi from Busra to conquer the Karman region of Iran; he was made governor of Karman. From Karman he entered the western Baluchistan and conquered the region near to Persian frontiers.^[11] South Western Balochistan was conquered during the campaign in Sistan the same year. During Caliph Uthman's reign in 652, Balochistan was re-conquered during the campaign against the revolt in Karman, under the command of Majasha ibn Masood, it was first time when western Baluchistan came directly under the Laws of Caliphate and gave tribute on agriculture.^[12] In those days western Baluchistan was included in the dominion of Karman. In 654 Abdulrehman ibn Samrah was made governor of Sistan, an Islamic army was sent under him to crush the revolt in Zarang, which is now in southern Afghanistan. Conquering Zarang a column moved north ward to conquer areas up to Kabul and Ghazni in Hindu Kush Mountains, while another column moved towards North western Baluchistan and conquered area up to the ancient city of Dawar and Qandabil (Bolan),^[13] by 654 the whole of what is now Baluchistan province of Pakistan was under the rule of Rashidun Caliphate except for the well defended mountain town of QaiQan' (now called Kalat), which was conquered during Caliph Ali's reign.^[14] Abdulrehman ibn Samrah made Zaranj his provincial capital and remained governor of these conquered areas from 654 to 656, until Uthman was murdered.
During the Caliphate of Ali, the areas of Balochistan, Makran again broke into revolt. Due to civil war in the Islamic empire Ali was unable to take notice of these areas, at last in the year 660 he sent a large force under the command of Haris ibn Marah Abdi towards Makran, Baluchistan and Sindh. Haris ibn Marah Abdi arrived in Makran and conquered it by force then moved north ward to northeastern Balochistan and re-conquered Qandabil (Bolan), then again moving south finally conquered Kalat after a fierce battle.^[15] In 663 CE, during the reign of Umayyad Caliph Muawiyah I, Muslims lost control of northeastern Balochistan and Kalat when Haris ibn Marah and large part of his army died on the battle field suppressing a revolt in Kalat.^[16] Muslim forces latter re-gained the control of the area during Umayyads' reign. It also remained part of Abbasid Caliphate's empire.
Arab rule in Balochistan lasted until the end of the 10th century, the parts of Balochistan best known to them were, Turan (the Jhalawan country) with its capital at Khuzdar, and Nudha or Budha (Kachhi). Around 976 Ibn Haukal, during second visit to India, found an Arab governor residing in Kaikanan (probably the modern Nal) and governing Khuzdar

History of Balochistan

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Balochistan is known to be the largest province and one of the four provinces of today's Pakistan.^[1] The British Empire on October 1, as paramount power in the region reached a security agreement with the princely state of Kalat which was ruled by the Khan of Kalat 1887^[2] but the kingdom retained its sovereignty in all other respects.In 1947, when Pakistan became independent, Pakistan signed a standstill agreement with the state of Kalat (a land-locked state surrounded by Pakistani territory and covering 23% of the territory of the current province of Balochistan) which recognized its autonomy and sovereignty, subject to future negotiation of the relationship.^[3] However, both houses of the Kalat parliament had asserted independence in 1947 and the Khan subsequently acknowledged that he had no right to accede to Pakistan's demand for annexation which he said he had only done under the threat of military force.^[3] Since then, a number of separatist groups in the province have engaged in an armed struggle against the Pakistani government; the first was led by Prince Karim Khan in 1948, and later by Nawab Nowroz Khan in 1968. These tribal uprisings were limited in scope, a more serious insurgency was led by the Marri and Mengal tribes between 1973 and 1977. All these groups fought for the existence of a "Greater Balochistan" — a single independent state ruled under tribal jirgas (a tribal system of government) and comprising the historical Balochistan region,found within Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. In 2005 there was another struggle to achieve these aims, in 2006, the Pakistan army killed Nawab Akbar Bugti,^[4] the man they blamed for the violence.^[5] Although Bugti had been proclaimed an offender by former president Pervez Musharraf he has become a hero for separatists.However,he is accused of devouring federal funds for the development of the province,as well as gas royalties,and was also accused of operating unauthorized jails and dungeons in his territory.