SHIJUSWORLDOFCHEMISTRY

simple chemistry used in films

2012-04-13T02:44:00.000-07:00

when ferric chlorate was sprayed in ur hand and a knife dipped in pottasium ferrocyanate is introduced in ur hand...u can see ur hand turns red like blood oozes out through ur hands.....chek it out

simple techniques in chemistry leads to big inventions

2012-04-13T02:41:00.000-07:00

Meissner Effect
When a superconductor is cooled to below its transitional temperature, it becomes diamagnetic: this is when something is repulsed from a magnetic field rather than drawn in to it. This discovery by Meissner has lead to the concept of frictionless transportation, as an object could be “floated” along a track rather than “attached” to it by wheels. — the principle behind metro train.......

chemistryy of water

2012-04-08T19:30:00.000-07:00

The color of water is a subject of both scientific study and popular misconception. While relatively small quantities of water are observed by humans to be colorless, pure water has a slight blue tint that becomes a deeper blue as the thickness of the observed sample increases. The blue hue of water is an intrinsic property and is caused by selective absorptionand scattering of white light. Impurities dissolved or suspended in water may give water different colored appearances.

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[edit]Intrinsic color

For more details on this topic, see Electromagnetic absorption by water.

The intrinsic natural color of liquid water may be demonstrated by looking at a white light source through a long pipe, filled with purified water, that is closed at both ends with a transparent window. The light turquoise blue color is caused by weak absorption in the red part of the visible spectrum.^[1]

For most substances, absorptions in the visible spectrum are usually attributed to excitations of electronic energy states. However, water is a simple 3-atom molecule, H₂O, and all its electronic absorptions occur in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum and are therefore not responsible for the color of water in the visible region of the spectrum.^{[citation needed]}

The water molecule has three fundamental modes of vibration, including two stretching vibrations of the O-H bonds which occur at v₁ = 3650 cm⁻¹ and v₃ = 3755 cm⁻¹. Absorption due to these vibrations occurs in the infrared region of the spectrum. The absorption in the visible spectrum is due mainly to the harmonic v₁ + 3v₃ = 14,318 cm⁻¹, which is equivalent to a wavelength of 698 nm.^[1]

Absorption intensity decreases markedly with each successive overtone, resulting in very weak absorption for the third overtone. For this reason, the pipe needs to have a length of a metre or more and the water must be purified by microfiltration to remove any particles that could produce Rayleigh scattering.^{[citation needed]}

[edit]Color of lakes and oceans

Large bodies of water such as oceans manifest water's inherent slightly blue color.

It is a common misconception that in large bodies, such as the oceans, the water's color is blue due to the reflections from the sky on its surface.

The opportunity to visibly observe the blue color of water from land or airplanes is provided by the optical scattering of unabsorbed light from water molecules, from white sandy ocean bottoms, as well as from suspended particles in the water. The back-scattering from water molecules alone is very small and only observable in highly purified water.^{[citation needed]}

Some constituents of sea water can influence the shade of blue of the ocean. This is why it can look greener or bluer in different areas. Water in swimming pools (which may also contain various chemicals) with white-painted sides and bottom will appear as a turquoise blue.^{[citation needed]}

An indoor swimming pool appears blue from above, as light reflecting from the bottom of the pool travels through enough water that its red component is absorbed. The same water in a smaller bucket looks only slightly blue^[2]

Clean water appears blue in white-tiled swimming pools as well as in indoor pools where there is no blue sky to be reflected. The deeper the pool, the bluer the water.^[3]

Scattering from suspended particles also plays an important role in the color of lakes and oceans. A few tens of meters of water will absorb all light, so without scattering, all bodies of water would appear black. Because most lakes and oceans contain suspended living matter and mineral particles, known as colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) light from above is reflected upwards. Scattering from suspended particles would normally give a white color, as with snow, but because the light first passes through many meters of blue-colored liquid, the scattered light appears blue. In extremely pure water—as is found in mountain lakes, where scattering from white-colored particles is missing—the scattering from water molecules themselves also contributes a blue color.^{[citation needed]}

The hue of the reflected sky also contributes to the perceived color of water.

Another phenomenon that occurs is Rayleigh scattering in the atmosphere along one's line of sight: the horizon is typically 4–5 km distant and the air (being just above sea level in the case of the ocean) is at its densest. This mechanism would add a blue tinge to any distant object (not just the sea) because blue light would be scattered into one's line of sight.^{[citation needed]}

The surfaces of seas and lakes often reflect blue skylight, making them appear bluer. The relative contribution of reflected skylight and the light scattered back from the depths is strongly dependent on observation angle.^{[citation needed]}

[edit]Color of glaciers

Main article: Blue ice (glacial)

Glaciers are large bodies of ice and snow formed during very cold climates by processes involving the compaction of fallen snow. While snowy glaciers appear white from a distance, up close and when shielded from direct ambient light, glaciers usually appear a deep blue due to the long path lengths of the internal reflected light.^{[citation needed]}

[edit]Color of water samples

High concentrations of dissolved limegive the water of Havasu Falls a turquoise color.

Dissolved and particulate material in water can cause discoloration. Slight discoloration is measured in Hazen units (HU).^[4] Impurities can be deeply colored as well, for instance dissolved organic compounds called tannins can result in dark brown colors, or algae floating in the water (particles) can impart a green color.

The color of a water sample can be reported as:

Apparent color is the color of the whole water sample, and consists of color from both dissolved and suspended components.

True color is measured after filtering the water sample to remove all suspended material.

Testing for color can be a quick and easy test which often reflects the amount of organic material in the water, although certain inorganic components like iron or manganese can also impart color.^{[citation needed]}

Water color can reveal physical, chemical and bacteriological conditions that give them the colors. In public and domestic drinking water they can be as such: Green can represent copper leaching from copper plumbing and can also represent algae growth. Blue can represent copper also and can represent a syphoning of industrial cleaners in the tank of commodes, commonly known as backflowing. Reds can be both signs of rust from iron pipes and airborne bacteria from lakes, etc. Black water can indicate sulfur reducing bacteria growth inside of a hot water tank set at less than 120 degrees Fahrenheit. This is normally present with a strong sulfur or rotten egg odor and is easily corrected by draining the water heater and increasing the temperature to 120 or higher. Caution should be given if children or the elderly will be using the hot water. The presence of a rotten egg odor will always be in the hot water side if sulfate reducing bacteria is the cause and never in the cold water side. The color spectrum with water indicators is wide and, if learned, can make solving cosmetic, bacteriological and chemical problems easier to identify.^{[citation needed]}

[edit]Water quality and color

Glacial rock flour makes New Zealand'sLake Pukaki a lighter turquoise than its neighbors.

The presence of color in water does not necessarily indicate that the water is not potable. Color-causing substances such as tannins may be harmless.^{[citation needed]}

Color is not removed by typical water filters; however, slow sand filters can remove color, and the use of coagulants may also succeed in trapping the color-causing compounds within the resulting precipitate.^{[citation needed]}

Other factors can affect the color we see:

Particles and solutes can absorb light, as in tea or coffee. Green algae in rivers and streams often lend a blue-green color. The Red Sea has occasional blooms of red Trichodesmium erythraeum algae.^{[citation needed]}
Particles in water can scatter light. The Colorado River is often muddy red because of suspended reddish silt in the water. Some mountain lakes and streams with finely ground rock, such as glacial flour, are turquoise. Light scattering by suspended matter is required in order that the blue light produced by water's absorption can return to the surface and be observed. Such scattering can also shift the spectrum of the emerging photons toward the green, a color often seen when water laden with suspended particles is observed

human as chemical compination

2012-03-04T00:32:00.000-08:00

The composition of the human body can be looked at from several different points of view.

By mass, human cells consist of 65–90% water (H₂O). Oxygen therefore contributes a majority of a human body's mass. Almost 99% of the mass of the human body is made up of the six elements oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus.

About 0.85% is composed of only five elements: potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium. All are necessary to life. The remaining elements are trace elements, of which more than a dozen are thought to be necessary for life, or play an active role in health (e.g., fluorine, which hardens dental enamel but seems to have no other function).

Note that not all elements which are found in the human body in trace quantities play a role in life. Some of these elements are thought to be simple bystander contaminants without function (examples: caesium, titanium), while many others are thought to be active toxins, depending on amount (cadmium, mercury, radioactives). The possible utility and toxicity of a few elements at levels normally found in the body (aluminum) is debated. Trace amounts of cadmium and lead have had functions suggested, but are almost certainly toxic in amounts normally found in the body. There is evidence that one element normally thought a toxin (arsenic) is essential in ultratrace quantities, even in mammals. Some elements that are clearly used in lower organisms and plants (arsenic, silicon, boron, nickel, vanadium) are probably needed by mammals also, but in far smaller doses. Two halogens used abundantly by lower organisms (fluorine and bromine) are presently known to be used by mammals only opportunistically. However, a general rule is that elements found in active biochemical use in lower organisms are often eventually found to be used in some way by higher organisms.^{[citation needed]}

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[edit]Elemental composition

Main article: Dietary mineral

The average 70 kg adult human body contains approximately 6.7 x 10²⁷ atoms and is "composed of" 60 chemical elements. In this sense, "composed of" means that a trace of the element has been identified in the body. However, at the finest resolution, most objects on Earth (including the human body) contain measureable contaminating amounts of all of the 88 chemical elements which are detectable in nearly any soil on Earth. The number of elements thought to play an active positive role in life and augmentation of health in humans and other mammals, is about 24 or 25.^[1]

The relative amounts of each element vary by individual. The numbers in the table are averages of different numbers reported by different references.

The human body is ~70% water, and water is ~11% hydrogen by mass but ~67% hydrogen by atomic percent.

Atomic number	Element	Percent of Mass^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]	Mass (kg)^[6]	Atomic percent	Positive health role in mammals^[7]	Group
8	Oxygen	65	43	24	Yes (water, electron acceptor) /No (Reactive Oxygen Species)	16
6	Carbon	18	16	12	Yes (organic compounds are hydrocarbon derivatives)	14
1	Hydrogen	10	7	63	Yes (e.g. water)	1
7	Nitrogen	3	1.8	0.58	Yes (e.g. DNA and amino acids)	15
20	Calcium	1.4	1.0	0.24	Yes (e.g. Calmodulin and Hydroxylapatite in bones)	2
15	Phosphorus	1.1	0.78	0.14	Yes (e.g. DNA and phosphorylation)	15
19	Potassium	0.25	0.14	0.033	Yes (e.g. Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase)	1
16	Sulfur	0.25	0.14	0.038	Yes (e.g. Cysteine and Methionine)	16
11	Sodium	0.15	0.10	0.037	Yes (e.g. Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase)	1
17	Chlorine	0.15	0.095	0.024	Yes (e.g. Cl-transporting ATPase)	17
12	Magnesium	0.05	0.019	0.0070	Yes (e.g. binding to ATP)	2
26	Iron*	0.006	0.0042	0.00067	Yes (e.g. Hemoglobin)	8
9	Fluorine	0.0037	0.0026	0.0012	Yes/No (topically hardens teeth; toxic in higher amounts)	17
30	Zinc	0.0032	0.0023	0.00031	Yes (e.g. Zinc finger proteins)	12
14	Silicon	0.002	0.0010	0.0058	Yes (probable)	14
37	Rubidium	0.00046	0.00068	0.000033	No (?)	1
38	Strontium	0.00046	0.00032	0.000033	No (?)	2
35	Bromine	0.00029	0.00026	0.000030	No (?)	17
82	Lead	0.00017	0.00012	0.0000045	No (?) (toxic in higher amounts)	14
29	Copper	0.0001	0.000072	0.0000104	Yes (e.g. copper proteins)	11
13	Aluminium	0.000087	0.000060	0.000015	No(?) (toxic?)	13
48	Cadmium	0.000072	0.000050	0.0000045	No(?) (toxic in higher amounts)	12
58	Cerium	0.000057	0.000040		No
56	Barium	0.000031	0.000022	0.0000012	No (toxic?)	2
50	Tin	0.000024	0.000020	6.0e-7	No(?)	14
53	Iodine	0.000016	0.000020	7.5e-7	Yes (e.g. Thyroxine)	17
22	Titanium	0.000013	0.000020		No	4
5	Boron	0.000069	0.000018	0.0000030	Yes (probable)	13
34	Selenium	0.000019	0.000015	4.5e-8	Yes/No (toxic in higher amounts)	16
28	Nickel	0.000014	0.000015	0.0000015	Yes(e.g. urease)	10
24	Chromium	0.0000024	0.000014	8.9e-8	Yes (not confirmed)	6
25	Manganese	0.000017	0.000012	0.0000015	Yes (e.g. Mn-SOD)	7
33	Arsenic	0.000026	0.000007	8.9e-8	Yes (not confirmed). Toxic in higher amounts	15
3	Lithium	0.0000031	0.000007	0.0000015	Yes (not confirmed). Toxic in high amounts. Useful medically (mood stabilizer).	1
80	Mercury	0.000019	0.000006	8.9e-8	No (toxic)	12
55	Caesium	0.0000021	0.000006	1.0e-7	No	1
42	Molybdenum	0.000013	0.000005	4.5e-8	Yes (e.g. the molybdenum oxotransferases Xanthine oxidase and Sulfite oxidase	6
32	Germanium		0.000005		No (?)	14
27	Cobalt	0.0000021	0.000003	3.0e-7	Yes (e.g. vitamin B₁₂)	9
51	Antimony	0.000011	0.000002		No	15
47	Silver	0.000001	0.000002		No (toxic)	11
41	Niobium	0.00016	0.0000015		No	5
40	Zirconium	0.0006	0.000001	3.0e-7	No	4
57	Lanthanum	0.000137	8e-7		No
52	Tellurium	0.000012	7e-7		No	16
31	Gallium		7e-7		No	13
39	Yttrium		6e-7		No	3
83	Bismuth		5e-7		No	15
81	Thallium		5e-7		No (toxic)	13
49	Indium		4e-7		No	13
79	Gold	0.000014	2e-7	3.0e-7	No	11
21	Scandium		2e-7		No	3
73	Tantalum		2e-7		No	5
23	Vanadium	0.000026	1.1e-7	1.2e-8	Yes (not confirmed)	5
90	Thorium		1e-7		No (toxic)
92	Uranium	1.3e-7	1e-7	3.0e-9	No (toxic)
62	Samarium		5.0e-8		No
74	Tungsten		2.0e-8		No	6
4	Beryllium	5e-9	3.6e-8	4.5e-8	No (toxic)	2
88	Radium	1e-17	3e-14	1e-17%	No (toxic)	2

*Iron = ~3 g in men, ~2.3 g in women

The elements needed for life are relatively common in the Earth's crust, and conversely most of the common elements are necessary for life. An exception is aluminium, which is the third most common element in the Earth's crust (after oxygen and silicon), but seems to serve no function in living cells. Rather, it is harmful in large amounts.^{[citation needed]} Transferrins can bind aluminium.^[8]

Periodic table highlighting dietary elements^[9]

H																		He
Li	Be												B	C	N	O	F	Ne
Na	Mg												Al	Si	P	S	Cl	Ar
K	Ca	Sc		Ti	V	Cr	Mn	Fe	Co	Ni	Cu	Zn	Ga	Ge	As	Se	Br	Kr
Rb	Sr	Y		Zr	Nb	Mo	Tc	Ru	Rh	Pd	Ag	Cd	In	Sn	Sb	Te	I	Xe
Cs	Ba	La	*	Hf	Ta	W	Re	Os	Ir	Pt	Au	Hg	Tl	Pb	Bi	Po	At	Rn
Fr	Ra	Ac	**	Rf	Db	Sg	Bh	Hs	Mt	Ds	Rg	Cn	Uut	Uuq	Uup	Uuh	Uus	Uuo

		*	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu
		**	Th	Pa	U	Np	Pu	Am	Cm	Bk	Cf	Es	Fm	Md	No	Lr

The four organic basic elements

Quantity elements

Essential trace elements

Function suggested from biochemistry and handling, but no specific identified biological function in humans

[edit]Composition by molecule type

The composition can also be expressed in terms of chemicals, such as:

Water
Proteins – including those of hair, connective tissue, etc.
Fats (or lipids)
Apatite in bones
Carbohydrates such as glycogen and glucose
DNA
Dissolved inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate
Gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methanethiol. These may be dissolved or present in the gases in the lungs or intestines. Ethane and pentaneare produced by oxygen free radicals.^[10]
Many other small molecules, such as amino acids, fatty acids, nucleobases, nucleosides, nucleotides, vitamins, cofactors.
Free radicals such as superoxide, hydroxyl, and hydroperoxyl.

The composition of the human body can be viewed on an atomic and molecular scale as shown in this article.

The estimated gross molecular contents of a typical 20-micrometre human cell is as follows:^[11]

Molecule	Percent of Mass	Mol.Weight (daltons)	Molecules	Percent of Molecules
Water	65*	18*	1.74e14*	98.73*
Other Inorganics	1.5	N/A	1.31e12	0.74
Lipids	12	N/A	8.4e11	0.475
Other Organics	0.4	N/A	7.7e10	0.044
Protein	20	N/A	1.9e10	0.011
RNA	1.0	N/A	5e7	3e-5
DNA	0.1	1e11	46*	3e-11

Water: Obviously the amount of water is highly dependent on the level of hydration. DNA: A human cell also contains mitochondrial DNA. Sperm cells contain less mitochondrial DNA than other cells. A mammalian red blood cell contains no nucleus and thus no DNA.

[edit]Materials and tissues

Body composition can also be expressed in terms of various types of material, such as:

Muscle
Fat
Bone and teeth
Brain and nerves
Connective tissue
Blood – 7% of body weight.
Lymph
Contents of digestive tract, including intestinal gas
Urine
Air in lungs

[edit]Composition by cell type

There are many species of bacteria and other microorganisms that live on or inside the healthy human body. In fact, 90% of the cells in (or on) a human body are microbes, by number^[12]^[13] (much less by mass or volume). Some of these symbionts are necessary for our health. Those that neither help nor harm us are called commensal organisms.

[edit]See also

[edit

CHEMISTRY IS NOTHING BUT...........

2012-03-04T00:26:00.001-08:00

The science of matter; The study of elements and their laws of combination, behavior and reactions. EASY TO LEARN ...

chembook

2012-03-03T23:57:00.000-08:00

chemistry is not a tough subject. everybody loves facebook juz try to love chembook then its very east to understand chemistry.

nobel prize winners from 1901 to 2011

2012-03-03T19:11:00.000-08:00

2011The prize was awarded to:
DANIEL SHECHTMAN for the discovery of quasicrystals.

2010The prize was awarded jointly to:
RICHARD F. HECK, EI-ICHI NEGISHI, and AKIRA SUZUKI for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic synthesis.

2009The prize goes to:
VENKATRAMAN RAMAKRISHNAN, THOMAS A. STEITZ, and ADA E. YONATH for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome.

2008The prize goes to:
OSAMU SHIMOMURA, MARTIN CHALFIE, and ROGER Y TSIEN for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP.

2007The prize goes to:
GERHARD ERTL for his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces.

2006The prize goes to:
ROGER D. KORNBERG for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription.

2005The prize is being awarded jointly to:
YVES CHAUVIN, ROBERT H. GRUBBS , and RICHARD R. SCHROCK for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis.

2004The prize is being awarded jointly to:
AARON CIECHANOVER, AVRAM HERSHKO , and IRWIN ROSE for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation

2003The prize is being awarded
for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes
with one half of the prize to:
PETER AGRE, for the discovery of water channels
and the other half of the prize to:
RODERICK MACKINNON for structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels.

2002The prize is being awarded
for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules
with one half jointly to:
JOHN B. FENN, and KOICHI TANAKA, for their development of soft desorption ionisation methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological macromolecules
and the other half to:
KURT WÜTHRICH for his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution.

2001The prize is being awarded with one half jointly to:
WILLIAM S. KNOWLES, and RYOJI NOYORI, for their work on chirally catalysed hydrogenation reactions
and the other half to:
K. BARRY SHARPLESS for his work on chirally catalysed oxidation reactions.

2000The prize is being awarded with one half jointly to:
ALAN J. HEEGER, ALAN G. MACDIARMID, and HIDEKI SHIRAKAWA for the discovery and development of conductive polymers.

1999AHMED ZEWAIL for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy.

1998The prize was awarded for pioneering contributions in developing methods that can be used for theoretical studies of the properties of molecules and the chemical processes in which they are involved. The prize was divided equally between:
WALTER KOHN for his development of the density-functional theory
and
JOHN A. POPLE for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry.

1997The prize was divided, one half being awarded jointly to:
PAUL D. BOYER and JOHN E. WALKER for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
and with one half to:
JENS C. SKOU for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase.

1996The prize was awarded jointly to:
ROBERT F. CURL, Jr. , SIR HAROLD W. KROTO , and RICHARD E. SMALLEY for their discovery of fullerenes.

1995The prize was awarded jointly to:
PAUL CRUTZEN , MARIO MOLINA , and F. SHERWOOD ROWLAND for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone.

1994GEORGE A. OLAH for his contribution to carbocation chemistry.

1993The prize was awarded for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry equally between:
KARY B. MULLIS for his invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method.
and
MICHAEL SMITH for his fundamental contributions to the establishment of oligonucleotide-based, site-directed mutagenesis and its development for protein studies.

1992RUDOLPH A. MARCUS for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems.

1991RICHARD R. ERNST for his contributions to the development of the methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.

1990ELIAS JAMES COREY for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis.

1989The prize was awarded jointly to:
SIDNEY ALTMAN and THOMAS R. CECH for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA.

1988The prize was awarded jointly to:
JOHANN DEISENHOFER , ROBERT HUBER and HARTMUT MICHEL for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre.

1987The prize was awarded jointly to:
DONALD J. CRAM , JEAN-MARIE LEHN and CHARLES J. PEDERSEN
for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity.

1986The prize was awarded jointly to:
DUDLEY R. HERSCHBACH , YUAN T. LEE and JOHN C. POLANYI for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes.

1985The prize was awarded jointly to:
HERBERT A. HAUPTMAN and JEROME KARLE for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures.

1984ROBERT BRUCE MERRIFIELD for his development of methodology for chemical synthesis on a solid matrix.

1983HENRY TAUBE for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions, especially in metal complexes.

1982SIR AARON KLUG for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nuclei acid-protein complexes.

1981The prize was awarded jointly to:
KENICHI FUKUI and ROALD HOFFMANN for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions.

1980The prize was divided, one half being awarded to:
PAUL BERG for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA
and the other half jointly to:
WALTER GILBERT and FREDERICK SANGER for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids.

1979The prize was divided equally between:
HERBERT C. BROWN and GEORG WITTIG for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into important reagents in organic synthesis.

1978PETER D. MITCHELL for his contribution to the understanding of biological energy transfer through the formulation of the chemiosmotic theory.

1977ILYA PRIGOGINE for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures.

1976WILLIAM N.. LIPSCOMB for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding.

1975The prize was divided equally between:
SIR JOHN WARCUP CORNFORTH for his work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions
and
VLADIMIR PRELOG for his research into the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reactions.

1974PAUL J. FLORY for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of the macromolecules.

1973The prize was divided equally between:
ERNST OTTO FISCHER and SIR GEOFFREY WILKINSON for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds.

1972The prize was divided, one half being awarded to:
CHRISTIAN B. ANFINSEN for his work on ribonuclease, especially concerning the connection between the amino acid sequence and the biologically active confirmation
and the other half jointly to:
STANFORD MOORE and WILLIAM H. STEIN for their contribution to the understanding of the connection between chemical structure and catalytic activity of the active centre of the ribonuclease molecule.

1971GERHARD HERZBERG for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic stucture and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals.

1970LUIS F. LELOIR for his discovery of sugar nucleotides and their role in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates.

1969The prize was divided equally between:
SIR DEREK H. R. BARTON and ODD HASSEL for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry.

1968LARS ONSAGER for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes.

1967The prize was divided, one half being awarded to:
MANFRED EIGEN
and the other half jointly to:
RONALD GEORGE WREYFORD NORRISH and LORD GEORGE PORTER for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equlibrium by means of very short pulses of energy.

1966ROBERT S. MULLIKEN for his fundamental work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method.

1965ROBERT BURNS WOODWARD for his outstanding achievements in the art of organic synthesis.

1964DOROTHY CROWFOOT HODGKIN for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances.

1963The prize was divided equally between:
KARL ZIEGLER and GIULIO NATTA for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers.

1962The prize was divided equally between:
MAX FERDINAND PERUTZ and SIR JOHN COWDERY KENDREW for their studies of the structures of globular proteins.

1961MELVIN CALVIN for his research on the carbon dioxide assimilation in plants.

1960WILLARD FRANK LIBBY for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science.

1959JAROSLAV HEYROVSKY for his discovery and development of the polarographic methods of analysis.

1958FREDERICK SANGER for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin.

1957LORD ALEXANDER R. TODD for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes.

1956The prize was awarded jointly to:
SIR CYRIL NORMAN HINSHELWOOD and NIKOLAY NIKOLAEVICH SEMENOV for their researches into the mechanism of chemical reactions.

1955VINCENT DU VIGNEAUD for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone.

1954LINUS CARL PAULING for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances.

1953HERMANN STAUDINGER for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry.

1952The prize was awarded jointly to:
ARCHER JOHN PORTER MARTIN and RICHARD LAURENCE MILLINGTON SYNGE for their invention of partition chromatography.

1951The prize was awarded jointly to:
EDWIN MATTISON MC MILLAN and GLENN THEODORE SEABORG for their discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements.

1950The prize was awarded jointly to:
OTTO PAUL HERMANN DIELS and KURT ALDER for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis.

1949WILLIAM FRANCIS GIAUQUE for his contributions in the field of chemical thermodynamics, particularly concerning the behaviour of substances at extremely low temperatures.

1948ARNE WILHELM KAURIN TISELIUS for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis, especially for his discoveries concerning the complex nature of the serum proteins.

1947SIR ROBERT ROBINSON for his investigations on plant products of biological importance, especially the alkaloids.

1946The prize was divided, one half being awarded to:
JAMES BATCHELLER SUMNER for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized.
the other half jointly to
JOHN HOWARD NORTHROP and WENDELL MEREDITH STANLEY for their preparation of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure form.

1945ARTTURI ILMARI VIRTANEN for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method.

1944OTTO HAHN for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei.

1943GEORGE DE HEVESY for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes.

1942-1940

The prize money was allocated to the Main Fund (1/3) and to the Special Fund (2/3) of this prize section.

1939ADOLF FRIEDRICH JOHANN BUTENANDT for his work on sex hormones. (Caused by the authorities of his country to decline the award but later received the diploma and the medal).
and
LEOPOLD RUZICKA for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes.

1938RICHARD KUHN for his work on carotenoids and vitamins. (Caused by the authorities of his country to decline the award but later received the diploma and the medal.)

1937The prize was divided equally between:
SIR WALTER NORMAN HAWORTH for his investigations on carbohydrates and vitamin C.
and
PAUL KARRER for his investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2.

1936PETRUS (PETER) JOSEPHUS WILHELMUS DEBYE for his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases.

1935The prize was awarded jointly to:
FRÉDÉRIC JOLIOT and IRÈNE JOLIOT-CURIE in recognition of their synthesis of new radioactive elements.

1934HAROLD CLAYTON UREY for his discovery of heavy hydrogen.

1933The prize money was allocated to the Main Fund (1/3) and to the Special Fund (2/3) of this prize section.

1932IRVING LANGMUIR for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry.

1931The prize was awarded jointly to:
CARL BOSCH and FRIEDRICH BERGIUS in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods.

1930HANS FISCHER for his researches into the constitution of haemin and chlorophyll and especially for his synthesis of haemin.

1929The prize was divided equally between:
SIR ARTHUR HARDEN and HANS KARL AUGUST SIMON VON EULER-CHELPIN for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes.

1928ADOLF OTTO REINHOLD WINDAUS for the services rendered through his research into the constitution of the sterols and their connection with the vitamins.

1927HEINRICH OTTO WIELAND for his investigations of the constitution of the bile acids and related substances.

1926THE (THEODOR) SVEDBERG for his work on disperse systems.

1925RICHARD ADOLF ZSIGMONDY for his demonstration of the heterogenous nature of colloid solutions and for the methods he used, which have since become fundamental in modern colloid chemistry.

1924The prize money for 1924 was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1923FRITZ PREGL for his invention of the method of micro-analysis of organic substances.

1922FRANCIS WILLIAM ASTON for his discovery, by means of his mass spectrograph, of isotopes, in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole-number rule.

1921FREDERICK SODDY , for his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes.

1920WALTHER HERMANN NERNST in recognition of his work in thermochemistry.

1919The prize money for 1919 was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1918FRITZ HABER for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements.

1917-1916

The prize money for 1917-1916 was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1915RICHARD MARTIN WILLSTÄTTER for his researches on plant pigments, especially chlorophyll.

1914THEODORE WILLIAM RICHARDS , in recognition of his accurate determinations of the atomic weight of a large number of chemical elements.

1913ALFRED WERNER in recognition of his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules by which he has thrown new light on earlier investigations and opened up new fields of research especially in inorganic chemistry.

1912The prize was divided equally between:
VICTOR GRIGNARD for the discovery of the so-called Grignard reagent, which in recent years has greatly advanced the progress of organic chemistry
and
PAUL SABATIER for his method of hydrogenating organic compounds in the presence of finely disintegrated metals whereby the progress of organic chemistry has been greatly advanced in recent years.

1911MARIE CURIE, née Marie Sklodowska, in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element.

1910OTTO WALLACH in recognition of his services to organic chemistry and the chemical industry by his pioneer work in the field of alicyclic compounds.

1909WILHELM OSTWALD in recognition of his work on catalysis and for his investigations into the fundamental principles governing chemical equilibria and rates of reaction.

1908LORD ERNEST RUTHERFORD for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances.

1907EDUARD BUCHNER for his biochemical researches and his discovery of cellfree fermentation.

1906HENRI MOISSAN in recognition of the great services rendered by him in his investigation and isolation of the element fluorine, and for the adoption in the service of science of the electric furnace called after him.

1905JOHANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM ADOLF VON BAEYER in recognition of his services in the advancement of organic chemistry and the chemical industry, through his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds.

1904SIR WILLIAM RAMSAY in recognition of his services in the discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air, and his determination of their place in the periodic system.

1903SVANTE AUGUST ARRHENIUS in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation.

1902HERMANN EMIL FISCHER in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his work on sugar and purine syntheses.

1901JACOBUS HENRICUS VAN'T HOFF in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions.

periodic table

2012-03-03T07:57:00.001-08:00

chemist should know all the elements

cordination basics

2012-03-03T07:53:00.002-08:00

9. Coordination Compounds Coordination compounds are complex compounds in which transition metal atoms are bound to a number of anions or neutral molecules. Postulates of Werner’s theory of coordination compounds: In coordination compounds, there are two types of linkages (valences) – primary and secondary. The primary valences are ionisable and are satisfied by negative ions. The secondary valences are non-ionisable and are satisfied by negative ions or neutral molecules. The secondary valence is equal to the coordination number of a metal and remains fixed for a metal. Different coordination numbers have characteristic spatial arrangement of the ions or groups bound by the secondary linkages. Difference between a double salt and a complex: In water, a double salt dissociates completely to give simpler ions. Examples of double salt: carnallite (KCl. MgCl2. 6H2O), Mohr’s salt [FeSO4. (NH4)2 SO4. 6H2O] Complex ions do not dissociate further to give simpler ions. For example, [Fe(CN)6] –4 , [Fe(C2O4)3] 3– Ligands: Ions or molecules bound to the central metal atom or ion in the coordination entity Didentate – 2 222224 HNCHCHNHCO Ethane1,2diamineOxalate Polydentate – Ambidentate – (Can bind through two different atoms) Coordination number: Number of ligand donor atoms bonded directly to the metal Coordination polyhedral: Homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes: Homoleptic complexes: In which metal is bound to only one kind of donor groups, e.g., [Co(NH3)6] 3+ Heteroleptic complexes: In which metal is bound to more than one kind of donor groups, e.g., [Co(NH3)4Cl2] + Naming of mononuclear coordination compounds: The cation is named first in both physically and negatively charged coordination entities. The ligands are named in alphabetical order, before the name of the central atom/ion. Names of the anionic ligands end in –o. [Exceptions: aqua (H2O), ammine (NH3), carbonyl (CO), nitroryl (NO)] To indicate the number of the individual ligands, the prefixes mono–, di–, tri–, etc., are used. If these prefixes are present in the names of ligands, then the terms bis–, tris–, tetrakis–, etc., are used. Oxidation state of the metal is indicated in Roman numerals, in parentheses. If the complex ion is cation, then the metal is named as the element. If the complex ion is anion, then the metal is named with ‘–ate’ ending. The neutral complex molecule is named as the complex cation. Isomerism in coordination compounds: Stereoisomerism –  Geometrical isomerism:  Optical isomerism: Optical isomers (enantiomers) are mirror images which cannot be superimposed on one another.  The molecules or ions which cannot be superimposed are called chiral. Structural isomerism –  Linkage isomerism: Arises due to the presence of ambidentate ligand  Coordination isomerism: Arises due to the interchange of ligands between cationic and anionic entities of different metal ions 33 6666 CoNHCrCNandCrNHCoCN  Ionisation isomerism: Arises due to the interchange of ligands between the inside and the outside of the coordination sphere 3434 55 CoNHSOBrandCoNHBrSO  Solvate isomerism (Hydrate isomerism when solvent is water): Arises depending upon whether a solvent molecule is directly bonded to the metal ion or is present as a free solvent molecule. 263222 5 CrHOCl and CrHOClClHO violet(greygreen) Valence bond theory: Coordination number Type of hybridisation Distribution of hybrid orbitals in space 4 sp3 Tetrahedral 4 5 6 6 dsp2 sp3 d sp3 d2 d2 sp3 Square planar Trigonal bipyramidal Octahedral Octahedral Inner-orbital or low spin or spin-paired complexes: Complexes that use inner d– orbitals in hybridisation, e.g., [Co(NH3)6] 3+ Outer-orbital or high spin or spin-free complexes: Complexes that use outer d– orbitals in hybridisation, e.g., [CoF6] 3– Limitations of valence bond theory: A number of assumptions are involved. Quantitative interpretation of magnetic data is not given. The exhibition of colour by coordination compounds is not explained. The thermodynamic or kinetic stabilities of coordination compounds are not quantitatively interpreted. Whether a complex of coordination number 4 is tetrahedral or square planar cannot be exactly predicted. Weak and strong ligands cannot be distinguished. Crystal-field theory: [Crystal-field splitting is the splitting of the degenerate energy levels due to the presence of ligands.] Crystal-field splitting in octahedral coordination entities:  Spectrochemical series: 22 24 4 23 IBrSCNClSFOHCO HONCSEDTANHenCNCO  Ligands for which 0 (crystal-field splitting) < P (pairing energy) are called weak-field ligands, and form high-spin complexes.  Ligands for which o (crystal-field splitting) > P (pairing energy), are called strong-field ligands, and form low-spin complexes. Crystal-field splitting in tetrahedral coordination entities: t = (4/9) 0 Colour in coordination compounds: The colour of the coordination compounds is attributed to d–d transition of electrons. Limitations of the crystal-field theory: Anionic ligands are assumed to exert the greatest splitting effect. But the anionic ligands are found at the lower end of the spectrochemical series. Crystal-field theory does not take into account the covalent character of bonding between ligand and the central metal atom. Bonding in metal carbonyls: Synergic bonding – Stability of coordination compounds: n = K1 × K2 × K3 × K4…Kn Where, → Overall stability constant K → Stepwise stability constant Applications of coordination compounds: EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning. Cis–platin is used in the treatment of cancer.		draft		07:15:00	by shijus world of chemistry	Delete
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words by great personalities

2012-03-03T06:35:00.000-08:00

anyone who is not shocked by quantum theory whom cant understand it.......

words of great personalities

2012-03-03T06:28:00.001-08:00

I dont like it, iam sorry, i ever had anything to do with it
the great scientist schrodinger words while he derriving his works in quantum chemistry

2012-03-03T00:45:00.002-08:00

Jabir Ibn Haiyan.
http://www.famousmuslims.com/Jabir%20Ibn%20Haiyan.htm

Seems there are many "Fathers of Chemistry," Robert Boyle being another.

Antoine Lavoisier is known as the "Father of Modern Chemistry," but you didn't ask that.

Dec 22 04, 12:19 AM

vvvchem

Chemistry is a vast subject with a very wide scope of new discoveries and inventions. It has developed with equal contributions in all sectors of chemistry, so it is hard to name one person as the father of chemistry. However, for each field we have different people who got the title.

Father of early chemistry - Geber

Father(s) of modern chemistry:
Antoine Lavoisier
Robert Boyle
Jöns Berzelius
John Dalton

Periodic table - Dmitri Mendeleev

Physical chemistry:
Hermann von Helmholtz
Willard Gibbs

2012-03-02T20:05:00.001-08:00

Water is the most common substance known to man, as well as the most important. In vapor, liquid or solid form, water covers more than seventy percent of the Earth's surface, and is a major component of the atmosphere. Water is also an essential requirement for all forms of life. Most living things are largely made up of water. Human beings, for example, consist of about two-thirds water.

Pure water is a clear, colorless, and odorless liquid that is made up of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. The chemical formula of the water molecule, H₂0, was defined in 1860 by the Italian scientist Stanislao Cannizzarro. Water is a very powerful substance that acts as a medium for many reactions, which is why it is often referred to as the "universal solvent." Although pure water is a poor conductor of electricity, impurities that occur naturally in water transform it into a relatively good conductor. Water has unusually high boiling (100° C/212° F) and freezing (0° C/32° F) points. It also shows unusual volume changes with temperature. As water cools, it contracts to a maximum density of 1 grain per cubic centimeter at 4° C (39° F). Further cooling actually causes it to expand, especially when it reaches the freezing point . The fact that water is denser in the liquid form than the solid form explains why an ice cube floats in a beverage, or why a body of water freezes from the top down. While the density property of water is of little importance to the beverage example, it has a tremendous impact on the survival of aquatic life inhabiting a body of water.

H																		He
Li	Be												B	C	N	O	F	Ne
Na	Mg												Al	Si	P	S	Cl	Ar
K	Ca	Sc		Ti	V	Cr	Mn	Fe	Co	Ni	Cu	Zn	Ga	Ge	As	Se	Br	Kr
Rb	Sr	Y		Zr	Nb	Mo	Tc	Ru	Rh	Pd	Ag	Cd	In	Sn	Sb	Te	I	Xe
Cs	Ba	La	*	Hf	Ta	W	Re	Os	Ir	Pt	Au	Hg	Tl	Pb	Bi	Po	At	Rn
Fr	Ra	Ac	**	Rf	Db	Sg	Bh	Hs	Mt	Ds	Rg	Cn	Uut	Uuq	Uup	Uuh	Uus	Uuo

		*	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu
		**	Th	Pa	U	Np	Pu	Am	Cm	Bk	Cf	Es	Fm	Md	No	Lr

H																		He
Li	Be												B	C	N	O	F	Ne
Na	Mg												Al	Si	P	S	Cl	Ar
K	Ca	Sc		Ti	V	Cr	Mn	Fe	Co	Ni	Cu	Zn	Ga	Ge	As	Se	Br	Kr
Rb	Sr	Y		Zr	Nb	Mo	Tc	Ru	Rh	Pd	Ag	Cd	In	Sn	Sb	Te	I	Xe
Cs	Ba	La	*	Hf	Ta	W	Re	Os	Ir	Pt	Au	Hg	Tl	Pb	Bi	Po	At	Rn
Fr	Ra	Ac	**	Rf	Db	Sg	Bh	Hs	Mt	Ds	Rg	Cn	Uut	Uuq	Uup	Uuh	Uus	Uuo

		*	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu
		**	Th	Pa	U	Np	Pu	Am	Cm	Bk	Cf	Es	Fm	Md	No	Lr