Simple Expressions

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Fri, 22 May 2009 16:02:00 +0000

COMING SOON....
The sleuth to identify your most elusive plants!

I will soon be launching my other site which will be dedicated to identification of Flowering plants.

As soon as this new site is up and running, I will provide a link on this page for you all to follow.

Tip of the Day

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Thu, 07 May 2009 17:27:00 +0000

To avoid cut Gerberas from drooping, never lay them horizontal.

Abelia

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Wed, 24 Sep 2008 12:36:00 +0000

Today I will talk about the genus Abelia.

With 30 species, this genus comprises of deciduous and evergreen shrubs from eastern Asia and Mexico. According to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, this genus is placed under order Dipsacales and family which also include the genera Dipelta, Kolkwitzia (beautybush), and Linnaea (twin flower).

Abelia flowers are borne in inflorecence (cyme) or reduced cymes. Flowers are bell shaped, bisexual and asymmetrical with 4-5 sepals and petals. Four stamens are fused to the petals and occur alternate with the corolla lobes. Ovary is inferior, meaning that it is found at the very base of all the other parts of the flower. If you cut open the ovary and look under a magnifying glass, you will find that it has 3-4 chambers, of which 1-2 may carry single fertile ovule and the others may carry several sterile ovules. The style on the ovary is long and the stigma where the pollen lands, is capitate. Fruit is an achene, with persistant sepals.

Abelias display elegant growth with dark green, sometimes variegated foliage and abundant small tubular or trumpet shaped flowers. Some species are frost hardy and easy to grow. They prefer sun or light shade with well drained soil and regular watering in summer. They can be easily propagted from cuttings and can withstand heavy pruning and are frequently used as hedge plants. Commonly grown Abelias include Abelia chinensis (zones 8-10), Abelia floribunda (zones 9-11), Abelia schumannii (zones 7-10)and a hybrid Abelia X grandiflora (Abelia chinensis X Abelia uniflora; zones 7-10).

Abelias, with their rich foliage and profuse flowering are mostly used as ornamental plants. Abelia chinensis is a good addition to a butterfly garden.

Seed Dispersal

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Thu, 03 Apr 2008 15:06:00 +0000

How do plants, rooted to one place, ascertain a far and wide spread of their seeds?

Plants do not move, so they use everything that moves as their seed dispersal agents, be it wind, water or animals. The seeds are structurally modified for each agent to ensure efficient dispersal.

Wind borne seeds are winged or plumed like those of dandelion or milkweed. Water disseminated seeds like those of coconut, yellow eyed cerbera and pond iris, rely on buoyancy to float. Seeds spread by animals and birds are either attach to mobile agents or are ingested and later passed out without any adverse effect on their viability. Some fruits/seeds such as burdock, sandbur, and cocklebur have beards, spines, hooks or barbs that stick to the hair of animals and are carried away to different locations. Many of us have unwittingly served as the agents of a sandbur or a cockelbur while hiking. Many fruits from trees such as hazelnuts, oaks, elders etc are collected by squirrels, nuthatches, jays in winter for consumption. The seeds of leftovers or the dropped fruits may germinate in right conditions. Man, of course, is one of the most efficient dispersal agent. The practice of agriculture allows the most widespread and organized seed dissemination of cultivated plants. However, weeds are quite wily and sometime hitch hike a ride as adulterants with the crop seeds.

Then, there are the explosive spreaders; plants in which the fruits explode at maturity and shoot the seeds several feet away from the mother plant. Witch hazel can shoot out its seeds as far as 40 feet. Jewelweed or touch-me-not, okra, wild vetch, birdsfoot trefoil are all seed shooters.

With so many various methods for dispersal at their disposal one would think that plants are on top of their 'offspring dispersal' program. But where is the fun? You read the article and think 'Ok, I knew that, and so what?' Plants are using their tried and tested methods of furthering their generation and that is that. But wait! Knowing that these very methods have evolved over many, many years, in itself, is awe inspiring. But what is even more breathtaking is the fact that plants can master and evolve to survive in the most difficult conditions. Its a harsh reality that many are unable to keep up with urban sprawls taking over their habitats and are becoming rare or extinct. But there are fighters, like Crepis sancta, that evolve rapidly to survive. Crepis sancta belongs to the family Asteraceae and like other members of this family, produces both lighter, wind dispersed seeds and heavier seeds that drop on the patches near the mother plant. In urban setting, with more concrete than soil patches, the chances of germination and survival of heavier seeds that fall on the patches near the mother plant are better than the lighter, wind borne seeds that may be lost as they fall on concrete. The study conducted by French scientists also shows that compared to plants picked from countryside, the urban plants produced greater percentage of heavier seeds when grown in similar conditions in labs. Using genetic models, the scientists estimate a time period of about 12 years for the occurrence of this kind of change, which is relatively quite rapid.

This is one of the real good examples of how plants are struggling against the forces of nature and human atrocities to survive and making a real good job of it. Man may think he is the master but mother nature knows best.

Wintry Chicago Botanic Gardens, Ikebana, Protea and Banksia

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Wed, 19 Mar 2008 14:25:00 +0000

We went to Chicago Botanic Gardens (CBG) past two weekends with Srini and Brindhaa to explore the wintry gardens and to enjoy an Ikebana show. The gardens were all snowed in yet it was an exhilarating experience to walk though the gardens. The hope that all this white canvas will soon be transformed into a fiesta of colors by the multicolored spring palette is uplifting. There is much to enjoy at CBG even when the gardens are snowed in. The three greenhouses filled with tropical, semi-tropical and desert plants can transport you to a warm, flowery locale. There are orchids, plantains, hibiscuses, jasmines, amaryllis, huge cacti and several fruiting plants in these greenhouses. Beautiful to look at and very refreshing! The collage below is that of the greenhouses. Soon, the whole garden will fill up with as much color and fragrance.

The garden was also holding an Ikebana flower show when we visited.

Ikebana is the Japanese art of flower arrangement. There are different schools of Ikebana and when we visited, the Sogetsu school was displaying their artform. Ikebana has three main schools at present: Ikenobo (classic), Ohara and Sogetsu. The Sogetsu style promotes Ikebana as a modern art form which encourages free and creative expressions. There were two different arrangements in the show that had flowers that I had never seen upfront. A Protea and a Banksia. Although I wasn't much impressed with the looks of the protea flower, what amazed me was its size. It was huge. Banksia flower was small but unique. Both flowers were unlike any I had seen before and I was curious to find more about these flowers.

Both Protea And Banksia belong to family Proteaceae and are generally evergreen shrubs and small trees . The genus Protea has 115 species. The King Protea (Protea cynariodes) has huge flowerheads (upto 12 inches wide) with widely spaced, pointed, downy pink bracts which cover a central dome of pink flowers. It is the national flower of South Africa. The genus Banksia, on the other hand, consists of only about 76 known species that are found widely in Australia. Many species in both genera are facing extinction or are considered endangered. Protea and Banksia species are quite popular in the exotic cut flowers industry.

The wintry gardens of CBG are a treat, but with spring soon approaching I am waiting with bated breath for the gardens to turn into a flowery haven.

The Technicolor Green Google

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Sat, 12 Jan 2008 13:01:00 +0000

I saw this interesting blog post by Dan Perry who is giving away a cool Google refrigerator to anyone who can come up with the most creative way to use it. I find the idea for this give-away by a blogger very innovative. Just look at the traffic he is getting at his site:-)

That said, let me join the race to illustrate why a Google refrigerator should be given to a plant lover. A refrigerator that size is ideal to keep cut flowers in summer. Remove all the racks and it will accommodate a good sized bouquet. A new bunch of flowers can be stored in this little refrigerator while the old bunch is still spreading its charms. No need to clear the clutter in the "food fridge" to accommodate the lovelies. It can also be a great storage space for all those tulip and other bulbs that need cold treatment before they can be put int to the ground. An excellent place for storing all the seed stocks where they can maintain their vigor.

I am not sure if the 'incubator' function has a user controlled temperature setting, but warmer temperatures in this refrigerator provide a good place to germinate the more reluctant seeds in a controlled fashion. Oh! this little one can be of much use to a plant lover.

And then, the question why a Google refrigerator? I ask, why not Google? Google has become such an integral part of all our lives, why not use it in a Green way? I know that I depend heavily on Google for all the research for my blogs. This blog is run by Google. When I look at the colorful Google logo, I see blue, red, and yellow Gerberas.

(Click on the image for the Gerberas)

Say it with flowers

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Thu, 10 Jan 2008 18:23:00 +0000

Following up on my earlier article, I would like to present a list of flowers with their meanings. In Victorian times, various flowers had a meaning assigned to them and what could not be conveyed by speech, could easily be conveyed by a bouquet of carefully chosen flowers. So be prepared to learn the language of flowers and convey it with a bouquet!

The time to say it with roses is soon approaching. Come Valentine's day, one will have the opportunity to express all the love one feels for that special person. Roses are the ambassadors of this universal emotion. Legend has it that in Roman empire an exquisitely beautiful woman called Rhodanthe was pursued by many suitors. To get away from them, she went into the Temple of Diana. Breaking the gates of the temple, her persistent suitors followed her into the temple. This angered the deity, who turned Rhodanthe into a lovely rose and her suitors into thorns. From this legend, rose has been accepted as the symbol of love and beauty. A red rose, though a cliche, is still the best expression of love. A red rosebud conveys the giver's admiration for the receiver's 'purity and loveliness'. A white rose is indicative of purity and innocence. In the romantic world, it conveys the emotion 'I am worthy of you' and a white rosebud is a symbol of virginal purity. A white and red rose symbolizes 'unity'. In between the passionate red rose and the innocent white rose lies the pink rose that speaks of gentle love, perfect happiness, grace and, sweetness. The purple rose has been associated with impermanence and for romantics this rose conveys 'enchantment' and 'love at first sight'. To convey all the burning passion one holds for the loved one, an orange rose fits the bill perfectly. These flame colored flowers are indicative of passion, energy and enthusiasm. The Victorians were not very pleased with the color yellow, as they associated yellow with unhappiness. Not surprisingly then, a yellow rose indicated such negative emotions as jealousy, infidelity and decrease in one's love. People in 21st century have been more liberal towards this sunshine color and the yellow rose today is better associated with friendship and a congratulatory note. For a more detailed information on roses and their meanings and some very beautiful free rose clipart visit the Pierre-Joseph Redouté site.

If you feel roses have been done to death and want a fresh way to say it this Valentine, try some of these flowers. Red Chrysanthemums say- "I love", Coreopsis conveys "love at first sight", lilac says "first emotion of love" and Heliotrope says "eternal love" to the receiver. A yellow Iris conveys "passion of love", whereas a double red pink (Dianthus), also known as carnation, says "pure and ardent love". A single red carnation conveys "pure love" and a red tulip is a "declaration of love". The nervousness of a giver may also accompany this declaration of love. A Christmas rose pleads by saying " relieve my anxiety" and a red columbine says "anxious and trembling".

Just as the giver seeks to convey the difficult thoughts through flowers, the receiver may also use flowers to convey the acceptance or refusal with a flair. A single aster conveys "I will think of it", a garden daisy conveys "I share your sentiment", pansies indicate "you occupy my thoughts", red salvias say "forever thine", ambrosia says "love returned", Shepherd's purse says "I offer you my all", pasque flowers say "you have no claims", and a striped carnation says "Sorry! Not interested".

Flowers offer cryptic one liners, ideal for mild flirtations too. A cowslip says "You are my angel", an ice plant says "your looks freeze me", lady's slipper says "win me and wear me", a migonette says "your qualities surpass your charms", peach blossoms convey "I am your captive", ranunculus says " you are radiant with charms", an Austrian rose says "thou art all that is lovely" and a blue salvia conveys "I think of you". Praise the 'beautiful eyes' of your sweetheart by giving her striped tulips and her 'innocence' with daisies; tell her she is 'charming' by giving a cluster of Musk roses. Convey your 'fascination' by giving fern plant

Of course, flowers were not just used to convey the emotion of love. Gratitude was expressed by the use of campanula, agrimony and small white bellflowers. This mother's day, try to put together a bunch of cinquefoil flowers which are representative of maternal love due to the fact that when it rains, the leaves of this plant bend over the flower to protect it, just as a mother would. Star of Bethlehem is a symbol of purity and the water lily represents 'purity of heart'. Snowdrops represent 'consolations' and 'hope' and scarlet geraniums convey 'comfort'. The lesser emotions such as shame, anger, deceit, envy, pretensions can also be expressed using peonies, whin, Venus's trap/apocynum, crowsbill/bramble and spiked willow herb, respectively. Only one may not want to use such obtuse methods for these emotions. Shouting one's head off when angry is an easier and a much more satisfying vent.

I must warn you against one pitfall in use of this novel method of communicating. You must realize that not everybody is aware of this secret language. So to make sure that the person you intend to send your message gets what you are trying to say, you must forward this article and the links herein. Otherwise it will be like sending a sweet to a diabetic. Do leave a comment here if you are successful in your endeavors.

Language of flowers-Florigraphy

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Tue, 08 Jan 2008 23:01:00 +0000

My previous article on floral signs got me thinking about how often we use flowers and other plant parts to convey an emotion or feeling. An olive branch conveys peace and a rose means love/beauty. Furthermore, different colors of roses also signify different things. I decided to look into the history of flower language or florigraphy.

At present, we may occasionally know what a particular flower signifies but it was during the Victorian era that florigraphy was at its peak. Victorians used bouquets as letters. I found the book: Forget-me-not- A floral treasury- by Pamela Todd quite informative. Todd reveals that not only the chosen flowers but also their positioning and presentation in Victorian era conveyed a specific message. A rose bud without any thorns conveyed "There is everything to hope for", but one without any leaves said "There is everything to fear". The language of flowers used in this era was heavily influenced by a mixture of folklore, religion, literature, mythology and the plant characteristics. In addition to these influences, associations of flowers with various ancient symbols in different cultures such as Middle-Eastern, Japanese, Roman and Chinese, also affected the Victorian era florigraphy.

The Language of Flowers' by Kate Greenaway was first published in 1884 and is one book on this topic being published to date. It is a quaint book with lovely drawings of flowers and fruits accompanied by appropriate poetry from such great masters as Wordsworth, Shakespeare and Shelley. I encourage anyone interested in going through the entire list of flower language to follow the above link to get a free access to the digital copy.

Today, we generally go by the visual appeal of a bouquet or perhaps by the long-established norms of presenting certain flowers on specific occasions. But imagine a bouquet in Victorian times. Each flower had something to say; how it was placed in the bouquet conveyed a sentiment.

The above bouquet is a representative of Emily Dickinson's likes, sorrow and love affair. The Magnolia flower in the center of the bouquet, represents her love of nature and her love for poetry is signified by the two sweet briars or eglantines. Her failed love affair is represented by the yellow tulips and scabious; the red carnations voice the lament "Alas for my poor heart!" She had cultivated an intellectual friendship with her heartthrob and this is represented in the bouquet by acacia leaves. The dog roses testify the pleasure and pain that this scenario must have caused her. Isn't it neat? Wouldn't it be cool if there was this universal code of flower language and one could convey those tormenting thoughts one wanted to say but wasn't sure how to? Imagine someone who wants to send a message to his/her first love? A bouquet of coreopsis, red columbine and Christmas rose conveys 'love at first sight', 'anxious and trembling' and 'relieve my anxiety', respectively. Guess what a bouquet of striped carnations conveys? "I am sorry, but no dice"!

I am so fascinated by florigraphy that I plan to put up a list of flower meanings for commonly used cut flowers in my next post.

The genus ALKANNA

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Thu, 03 Jan 2008 22:38:00 +0000

I am really, really tickled!! Call it the the height of conceit, but when I found that there is a plant genus called Alkanna I could not resist the temptation to holler about it. And to avoid any banter, I would like to clarify here itself that I am excited because it is concerned with plants (believe me, the Alka-seltzer pun has run its course!!).

This genus contains about 50 species that are annual or evergreen perennials and belong to the family Boraginaceae. With only a few cultivated species, plants in this genus are spread from southern Europe and northwest Africa to Iran. Plants are extremely tolerant of dry as well as frosty conditions and grow well in dry, sunny locations, even in poor soil. They are herbaceous with leafy stems and funnel shaped, usually blue but sometimes white and yellow flowers.

Not much to look at, eh? But guess what? The plants are economically important and have medicinal properties as well. Alkanna tinctoria, also known as Dyer's Bugloss or Spanish Bugloss, is cultivated in Central and Southern Europe for its red colored dye. The dye, obtained from the roots is used to add color to perfumes, stain wood and marbles and is even used in thermometers. The dye is also used to make Litmus. The active component, alkanin is soluble in alcohol, ether or benzene. White paper saturated in alcohol solution of alkanine turns red and when this paper is dipped in alkalis, it turns blue. The root is known to have antibacterial, antipruritic (anti-itching) and vulnerary (wound-healing) properties although clinical accuracy of these properties have not been checked as yet.

Alkanna tinctora is a good candidate for an herb garden where it attracts bees in plenty. It grows well in well-drained sandy or loamy soil in sun or partial shade and thrives in alkaline soils. Acidic soil, however, impedes growth. It can be propagated through seeds, basal cuttings or root cuttings.

It is indeed good to know that among the list of the well known genera such as Rosa, Dahlia and Darwinia, there is also a genus called Alkanna.

Scent of a flower

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Fri, 21 Dec 2007 17:27:00 +0000

The magic of spring lies not only in the colorful, vibrant blooms but also in the sweet, intoxicating smell of these flowers. I wish I could capture a bottle full of that heady, floral smell to last me the whole year that would enable me to take a waft every now and then. The fragrance industry thrives on this very desire that makes people want to smell good and surround themselves with pleasant smells. Essential oils lie at the very heart of this industry.

Essential oils have been called so after a Latin word essentia, which means a liquid that can easily change into a gaseous essence. They are chiefly obtained from plants, although synthesis from petroleum and other sources is also common. Depending on the source, essential oils derived from plants are grouped as floral, herbal, leaf, spice, root, wood, citrus and gum and balsam oils.

But flowers distilled, though they with winter meet,
Leese but their show, their substance still lives sweet.

-William Shakespeare

The flower topping the list of floral oils is, of course, the rose. The two most widely used and recognized rose types in fragrance industry are the rose bulgare or damask (Rosa damascena) and rose de mai (Rosa centifolia). The damask rose has a deep and intense roseate note whereas rose de mai has a sweet floral smell that is somewhat lighter than damask. They belong to family-Rosaceae. Bulgaria and turkey are the two major damask rose oil producing regions. Rose de mai is produced largely in Morocco. Rose oil is extremely expensive since the plant requires careful cultivation and maintenance. On top of that, the yield in oil is very low; for every 4000 kilograms of flowers, only one kilogram of oil is obtained.

Second on the list is the jasmine with its white, teeny-tiny flowers that have a king-size fragrance. Both European jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum) and the Arabian jasmine (Jasminum sambac) are known for their incredibly powerful, sweet smell. Whereas the smell from grandiflora oil is described as softer, more feminine, that of the sambac is described as heavy, sweet and complex with the king size quality. They belong to the family Oleaceae. Grasse, known as "the perfume capital of the world", is a small town in France which, produces little but the finest French jasmine; Italy is also known for producing high quality absolute of jasmine. Egypt holds a prominent place in the production of jasmine oil and India and China are regarded as the rising rivals for the Egyptian jasmine oil industry. About 900 kilograms of flowers produce 450 grams of jasmine oil. But the oil is extremely potent and no great perfume is made sans jasmine.

Tuberose (Polianthus tuberosa), a plant that has nothing in common with rose is a native to Mexico where it is commonly known as "omixochitl" or the bone flower because of the bone-white blooms. In India the plant is known as "Rajnigandha" or "night-fragrance". The tuberose has a sweet and heavy, camphor-like smell. It belongs to the family Agavaceae. Both tuberose and jasmine are unique in their capability of producing fragrance even after being picked. About 1600 kilograms of blossoms produce 450 grams of absolute oil. Added to that is the difficulty in extraction, leading to exorbitant prices of up to $2000 per pound for the oil. The major producers for tuberose include Morocco, India, China, Hawaii, the Comores Islands and South Africa

Another favorite of the perfume industry is Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) which belongs to the family Annonacaea. Native to Indonesia and Philippines, this tropical plant is commercially cultivated off the coast of the Madagascar islands in two very small African countries, namely, the Reunion and the Comoro Islands, with the Comoro Island leading in world production of ylang-ylang essence. The flowers yield two grades of oils; the finer, sweet smelling floral oil that is called the ylang-ylang oil and cananga, which is slightly coarser. Ylang ylang trees can grow as much as eighty feet and cultivated trees produce about 20-100 kilograms of flowers each year. About 34 kilograms of flowers produce around 450 grams of oil.

Many other floral essential oils important to the fragrance industry are obtained from members of various families. The Amaryllidaceae includes jonquil (Narcissus jonquilla). Carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus) from family caryophyllaceae produces a heavy, sweet, honey like oil that resembles the smell of clove due to the common component, eugenol. Hyacinth oil has a floral and a green tone to it and is obtained from Hyacinthus orientalis, from the family Liliaceae. The common black currant (Ribes nigrum) flower bud extract known as cassis has a strong fruity fragrance and an intense flavor. Black currant is a member of family Grossulariaceae. Boronia oil (Boronia megastigma) has a fresh, rich smell with delightful violet notes from betaionone. It belongs to the family Rutaceae and is amongst one of the most expensive floral native to Australia. Champac (Michelia champaca) has a heavy, velvety yet powerful smell that blends well with rose, carnations and sandalwood. Belongs to family Magnoliaceae. And the list will not be complete without a mention of the classical Lavender. Earlier known as Lavendula officinalis, it is now called Lavendula angustifolia. Hybrid lavandin (L. hybrida) has been obtained by crosses between angustifolia and latifolia and lavandin oil is produced in much larger quantities than the true lavander oil. The lavender smell is fresh with floral-herbal tones and balsamic undertones. Lavender smell is a standard for masculine smells.

The sweet smelling flowers are delightfully, numerous with wonderful smells. Not all flowers are fragrant due to essential oils and therefore cannot be used in the fragrance industry. However, these flowers add immense value to a garden and make it enticing not only for the bees and the beetles but also for man, who joy and serenity in these wondrous smells!

Know your Flower Sign.

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Thu, 20 Dec 2007 00:54:00 +0000

I came across this interesting attempt to predict human personalities based on flower power in a book titled- Florascope: Discover Your Flower Sign by Helen Brown Gentry. An interesting blend! Haven't read this one so far, but I really find the idea intriguing. Well, the planets and the stars have been used to death for predicting our destinies and the Chinese horoscope, with its animal signs, has gone somewhat stale. What's wrong in looking at the floral world to predict what makes us unique:-)

I had also read this other book called Plant Personalities by Carol Kline and Jonathon Buckley. That was a really nice book. Using the habitation, blooming characters and other flower traits and absolutely beautiful pictures, the authors have grouped plants into different fun personalities like Cinderella plants or shooting stars. They have developed a fun and entertaining way to impart information about plant features.

Coming back to the fun Florascope holds; the authors have combined the floral characters and astrology (since I have not read the book, I am not sure how that is done) and come up with this unique way to describe the zodiac signs with flower traits.

Tiger Lily: 21 March - 19 April (Aries)

A natural leader, Tiger Lily is born to leave a mark, whether it’s from sticky pollen stamens or dazzling achievements in the theatrical world.

Magnolia: 20 April – 20 May (Taurus)

One species of magnolia can take 10 years to bloom. Likewise, the Magnolia personality is willing to wait for the best.

Passion Flower: 21 May – 20 June (Gemini)

Restless Passion Flower rambles over the garden of life, dazzling others with easy charm and wit.

Lotus: 21 June – 22 July (Cancer)

Sensitive lotus flourishes in a calm, deep pond. A tranquil home environment is important to this complex and exquisite bloom.

Sunflower: 23 July – 22 August (Leo)

Friendly Sunflower beams kindness and loyalty across the plant kingdom. Revelling in stardom, this dramatic bloom adores centre stage.

Tulip: 23 August – 22 September (Virgo)

Gentle and refined, Tulip cares for others at the deepest level.

Rose: 23 September – 22 October (Libra)

Refined and romantic Rose adores soft candlelight and lingering gazes over dinner. Nobody glows and blushes like Rose in love.

Cactus Flower: 23 October – 21 November (Scorpio)

From the harshest desert, Cactus Flower bursts forth with magnetic beauty. Likewise, the Cactus Flower personality is capable of mastering the miracle of transformation.

Bird of Paradise: 22 November – 21 December (Sagittarius)

When life seems like a packet of weedkiller, happy-go-lucky Bird of Paradise has a delightful way of brightening even the dullest corner of the garden.

Chrysanthemum: 22 December – 19 January (Capricorn)

Noble Chrysanthemum endures long after others have drooped and faded. This intelligent realist is supported by a woody stem of practical know-how and ability to make long term plans.

Orchid: 20 January – 18 February (Aquarius)

Flourishing in a hothouse of ideas, Orchid cares deeply for humanity and is capable of inspiring others to great heights.

Poppy: 19 February – 20 March (Pisces)

This compassionate bloom is famed for offering sympathy and understanding…even to undeserving caterpillars.

Want more fun with flowers. Read the book: Florascope

Is lotus different from water-lily?

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Fri, 14 Dec 2007 22:12:00 +0000

Who hasn't seen a pond filled with water lilies or lotuses and sighed with content? These beautiful aquatic nymphs with their graceful forms, can fill anyone with serenity. But do you know that a lotus is very different from a water lily? Looking at a flower or a plant in a pond, can you tell which one is a lotus and which one, a lily? In fact, the differences between the two are more than what one would imagine.

Water lily is a common name for a group of aquatic flowering plants belonging to family Nympheaceae whereas Lotus, scientifically known as Nelumbo belongs to the family Nelumbonaceae. The genus Nelumbo contains only two species, namely, Nelumbo lutea and Nelumbo nucifera. On the other hand, water lilies, placed in the genus Nymphaea include about 70 species.

The most striking difference between lotus (Nelumbo) and a water-lily (Nymphaea) is in the female part (carpel) of the two. The lotus flower shows a barrel shaped carpel (ascidiate) that is embedded in an expanded receptacle. If you look closely at the cross section of the lotus, you can also see an androecial ring (a ring formed by the stamens at the base) which is a distinguishing feature for lotus; also tamens of lotus are filamentous unlike the leaf-like (laminar) stamens of the water-lily. Of course, the most commonly cited difference and the one which will help you decide which plant it is from a distance, lies in the leaves of the two plants. The leaves of lotus are emergent, meaning that they rise above the water level whereas the leaves of water-lily are found floating on the water surface. Same is true for their respective flowers; lotus flowers are emergent and water-lily flowers are floating.

Figure 1

For a long time, there was a confusion amongst taxonomists regarding the relationship of lotus (Nelumbo) and water-lily (Nymphaea). No wonder!! When the experts don't agree on it, how is a layperson to decide? But using DNA evidence along with other taxonomic studies, researchers now agree that lotus and water-lily belong to two different families. In fact, studies have shown that whereas lotus is a member of the more evolved group of plants known as the 'Eudicots', water-lily is a member of a primitive group (Nympheales) that occurred as early as the cretaceous period. The lotus plant is more closely related to Platanus or the sycamore also known as the plane tree and the members of the family Proteaceae!! A closer look by botanists reveled many similar features in the floral and vegetative morphologies between the members of lotus, sycamore and proteas.

Figure 2: Sycamore, Lotus

The water-lilies are now considered to provide the critical missing link in the evolution of flowering plants. Fossil records and molecular studies have shown water lilies to be amongst the earliest flowering plants. Studies on the development of endosperm in Nuphar polysepalum (pond lily) have shown that this group of plants lies between the gymnosperms (non-flowering plants) and the angiosperms (flowering plants).

Victoria amazonica is one of the most amazing waterlilies known. It impresses not only by the size of its gigantic leaves which grow up to as much as six feet or the beautiful flowers which may be as large as a foot, but also by the contrivances one observes during pollination.

Figure 3: Leaves, Flower

The flower is pollinated by scarab beetles. As can be seen in the first figure, the pistil of the water-lily lies at the base of a hollow chamber like structure surrounded by the stamens. This hollow chamber hides the reward for the beetles in form of sugar and starches. The flower buds develops under water and when ready to open, they emerge above the water surface between the surrounding leaf pads during day time. However, the buds open only as the sun sets and the white petaled, fragrant flowers draw the beetles. The beetles have to crawl into the inner chamber to get their bounty. As midnight approaches, the flowers start closing in, thereby trapping the insects feasting on them. The closed petals start changing their color from white to pink. Next day, the flowers reopen with a purplish hue, still entrapping the insects from the night before as the tunnel to the inner chamber remains constricted. With sunset, this constriction is removed and the beetles are able to scramble out of the chamber. But as they move through the anther lined tunnel, the pollen from the now open anthers stick to the sugar covered beetles. The beetles carrying pollen from these flowers will fly out to visit the freshly opened, white colored flowers bringing about their cross-pollination. To witness this saga of sweet entrapment, watch a very informative and beautifully shot, short documentary by David Attenborough.

Water lilies and lotuses make beautiful addition to any water garden. I will write more about the gardening aspects of these plants in my next article.

Flowers-Its all about sex, baby!

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Fri, 19 Oct 2007 14:07:00 +0000

A flower's fragrance declares to all the world that it is fertile, available, and desirable, its sex organs oozing with nectar. Its smell reminds us in vestigial ways of fertility, vigor, life-force, all the optimism, expectancy, and passionate bloom of youth. We inhale its ardent aroma and, no matter what our ages, we feel young and nubile in a world aflame with desire.- Diane Ackerman, A Natural History of the Senses, 1990, p. 13

Now, after pouring out a few articles on some popular flowers, it may seem like a wee bit late to broach the question: what are flowers and what purpose do they serve? But then information/ knowledge, how-so-ever hind sighted it may appear, is never too late:-)

It is surprising that many a times what experts in a particular field take as a matter of routine or a very basic piece of information, is a source of amazement to others. And flowers, besides evoking joy and wonder by their varied forms and colors, can be a constant source of amazement to people who did not pay attention in their biology classes:-) and even more to those who sat attentively and took notes.

So, what is a flower? It is a plant's tool to make more plants. In most flowers, the bright colors and beautiful forms of the flower that attract us serve that very purpose----attract---although their target is very different. The color and the fragrance in a flower attracts insects, which help in pollination of the flowers leading to fertilization and fruit and seed set. Flowers that solely rely on wind for pollination (anemophilous) are generally not very showy. Whichever be the case, flowers serve as the reception area for head quarters of the seed manufacturing factory.

But let me start at the beginning. A typical flower that we might encounter on an ornamental plant, starting at the base, stands on a stalk or a pedicel. There is a whorl of green colored sheath or petal like structures which are called the sepals. Sepals cover and protect the floral structure as the flower develops. A whorl of brightly colored (not necessarily though) petals follow the sepals. Next comes a whorl of stamens standing in attention, that form the male part of the flower. Stamens comprise of long filaments topped by anthers which are generally bi-lobed sac like structures. Inside these anther sacs is the pollen, dreaded by many as the instigator of hay fever. Each anther sac contains millions of pollen grains. If you shake or just pat the inside of a mature flower, you will observe a yellowish powder sticking to your hand. This is the pollen which germinates and carries the sperm cell inside the female part. The central part, like in any good story, is occupied by pistil/carpel or the female flower part. The pistil can be divided into three parts: the uppermost part called the stigma forms the lodging center where the pollen is deposited and sticks; the stigma sits on top of a style, a tubular structure that is traversed by a germinating pollen grain carrying the sperm cell. The style ends in the ovary which carries the ovules. Depending on the flower, there may be single or a number of ovules inside the ovary. The egg cell is present inside the ovule and after the fertilization by the sperm cell (from a germinated pollen grain) takes place, the ovule develops into a seed, ensconcing the embryo for a future plant.

Picture Source: Stuttgart Public school

Having served its purpose, the flower folds its office; the petals and sepals wither and fall off and the place is taken by fruit, bearing the seeds. But the flower has numerous stories to tell, many secrets to share and I will dwell on these stories and secrets of the flower.

Unlike animals, plants and therefore flowers are rooted to a place. So they have to make sure that their reproductive paraphernalia is sophisticated and at the same time simple enough to achieve the end result. A large proportion of the flowering plants (about 70%) are bisexual, meaning that both the male and female parts are present in the same flower. What could be more convenient? You have the anthers churning out the pollen, you have the prim pistil taking the center stage and Viola!!! the plant is ready to produce seeds in huge numbers. These flowers, in botanical world, are the monoclinous or perfect flowers and what better to exemplify this class than the rose. Lilies and viburnums are also perfect flowers.

If there are perfect flowers, there have to be imperfect flowers. These are the unisexual flowers that have either the male or female organs. The botanists choose to call these flowers as imperfect or incomplete. Unisexual, imperfect and incomplete-how well this descriptions fits most of us! Many a non-botanists have planted the seeds for papaya and waited endlessly for it to fruit without realizing that the plant is producing only male flower and will never bear fruit. What is more damning for survival as a species than to be rooted to one place and have no female company! But nature is wily and the process of evolution very, very adamant. So there are plants that may bear unisexual flowers......but then they bear both sexes on different branches. Such plants are called monoecious. Better to have some company than none!! Corn, birches, pines are examples of monoecious plants. The pollination amongst these flowers is aided by insects and wind.

One would imagine that the species in which the unisexual flowers occur on different plants altogether would be the most confounded. These plants are called dioecious and include such plants as hollies and papayas. With cultivated/ornamental dioecious plants, one has to make sure that the male and female flower bearing plants are in close vicinity to allow wind/insect pollination in order to set the fruit and seed.

So, there are perfect and imperfect flowers and amongst imperfect there are monoecious and dioecious flowers. It seems that there is a high chance of inbreeding in the perfect flowers , what with the reproductive organs lying in close proximity. Inbreeding, as we all know, is bad news as it limits the variability in the genepool and weakens the chances of survival for a species. Since the time of Darwin, the importance of genetic variability has been reiterated. So, what happens in the plant world at the level of evolution to ensure that self-fertilization remains in check and the plants undergo cross fertilization?

The unisexual flowers, of course, allow the mix and match of the pollen and stigmas to enhance the variability in the gene pool. This method poses some constraints like the necessity of closer proximity but is by and large an effective solution. An easier way to ensure cross fertilization is found in plants in which the male and female parts mature at different times. In protandrous flowers, the male organs mature first and shed the pollen before the pistils mature; example Alstroemeria aurea. On the other hand, there are protogynous flowers in which the female organs mature first and they have to be cross fertilized. e. g. Magnolia.

Structural modifications that limit the access of pollens to the stigma of the same flower are also effective in curbing self fertilization. Two lipped tubular flowers from families such as Bignoniaceae and Orchidaceae show bilateral symmetry in which the stigma is positioned right at the entry of the flower causing nectar seeking insects carrying pollen from other flower to affect cross-pollination.

The most sophisticated systems for cross pollination, though, involves a biochemical reaction wherein a chain of reactions ensues after the pollen from the same flower lands on the stigma. The reactions not only recognize that the pollen is from the same flower, but also prevent its further development. Its almost like fingerprinting and arresting the terrorist right at the airport but much more efficient!!

So, the flowers at one level or the other, truly are the charmers that they set out to be. Not all of them are as flamboyant as some of the orchids or as appeasing as the lilies, but they do achieve the end-goal, the purpose for which they are set-forth, i.e. to make more like their own! But all coins have two sides; the beautiful flowers, too, have their counterparts that are neither beautiful nor fragrant. I shall tell their stories next time.

Tulips

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Thu, 20 Sep 2007 22:19:00 +0000

Tulips, the ephemeral flowers of spring, belong to the family Liliaceae. The same family also includes onions (Allium cepa). Quite a contrast, isn't it? Thinking tulip, by association, brings to mind the long, colorful rows of the flowers and windmills in Holland. The Dutch had evidently gained mastery over growing these beautiful flowers long ago. However, in Hortus Nitidissmiss, a florilegia from 1700s, Christoph Jacob Trew traces the origin of this flower to Turkey. He points out the resemblance of tulips to the Turkish hats, their local name aptly being 'Tulipant' and 'Turbant'. Tulips were popular flowers in the city gardens of Sultan Suleyman I the Magnificient, who came to throne of Ottoman empire in 1520. The plant was introduced to Europe in the 16th century. Although Trew ackowledges that it was Conrad Gesner (1516-65) who reported a red tulip growing in a garden of Johannis Heinrich Herwart in Augsburg, Bavaria (1557), he believes that tulips were known in Germany before Gesner's time. His records show that the Flemish ambassador Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq (1520-1592), who represented the Hasburg emperor, Ferdinand I and was also an avid herbalist, sent Turkish tulips to Carolus Clusius (1526-1609) who later laid the foundation for the Dutch tulip industry.

Like orchids, tulips too came to command high prices and became a status symbol for aristocacy. In fact, the craze for tulip trade came to such heights in Holland that future markets developed and prior payments were made in installments during the time the bulbs would be lifted in summer and planted in mid autumn. In the meantime, speculaters 'bought and sold' the bulbs. The trade flourished to an extent that in 1636 tulips were traded on the London exchange. The growing trade bubble attracted people from all levels of society to participate. The prices soared so high that a single bulb of the covetted variety 'Viceroy' was said to have fetched about 3500 guilders/florins. For a point of reference, consider this: at the time average annual income was 150 florins and a top-notch house costed 5000 florins. In February 1637, this bubble finally burst and many people went broke. It took a number of years for people to recover from this event. This was such a remarkable phenomenon that a term 'Tulipomania' was coined for any such large economic bubble.

There are about 100 species of the genus Tulipa and more than 4000 varieties. The plants grow well in temperate Europe, the Middle East and particularly Central Asia. The plants are categorised based on the time of their bloom. There are 15 such divisions. Division 1 or the Single Early group comprises of single cup shaped flowers that bloom in early to mid spring and include varieites-'Apricot Beauty' and 'Yokohama'. Division 2/ Double Early Group has double, bowl shaped flowers with margins or flecks of a different colors. These varieties are - 'Abba', 'Kareol', 'Monte Carlo', 'Oranje Nassau' and 'Peach Blossom'. Division 3/ Triumph Group includes flowers that are single, cup shaped and blossom from mid- to late spring. The varieties are: 'Attila', 'Golden Melody', 'Lustige Witwe', 'Negrita', 'New Design', 'Prinses Irene', 'Shirley' and 'Striped Bellona'. Division 4 / Darwin Hybrid Group are tall stemmed, single, oval flowered plants that are well suited as cut flowers. The varieties for this division include: 'Apledoorn', 'Apeldoorn Elite', 'Beauty of Appledoorn, 'Gordon Cooper' and 'Yellow Apeldoorn.

Division 5/ Single Late Group include cup or goblet shaped flowers that bloom in late spring and sometimes may be more than one per stem. Varieties include 'Esther', 'Ile de France', 'Paul Scherer', 'Queen of Night' and 'Swan wings'. Division 6/Lily-Flowered Group includes flowers with ponted and backwards curved petals. The plants flower late. The varieties include: 'Ballerina', 'Mona Lisa', 'Pieter de Leur', 'West Point' and 'White Triumphator'. Division 7/ Fringer Group include cup shaped flowers with fringed petal margins. Varieties are: ' Blue Heron' and 'Hamilton'. Division 8 / Viridiflora Group includes flowers that have a variable amounts green color and include the variety 'Spring Green'.

Division 9 / Rembrandt Group flowers late in spring and is conspicuous because the white, yellow or red flowers show black, brown, bronze or purple stripes. These feathered or fringed tulips, called as the Broken Tulips ('broken' as there was a break in the color) are considered the major impetus for Tulipomania. First described by Carolus Clusius, this break in the color is known to be caused by a viral infection (pathogen is a potyvirus) which ultimately damage the bulbs. Because these are diseased plants, the original Rembrandt varieties are no longer grown commercially. Incidentally, Rembrandt who was staying in Holland at the time of Tulipomania and after whom the varieties were named is not known to have painted these flowers although many other Dutch masters did paint these doomed flowers. The popularity of the Rembrendt group resulted in development of virus-free varieties that mimic the Rembrandt group flowers.

Division 10/ Parrot Group include flamboyant cup shaped flowers with twisted and irregularly cut and varioulsy striped petals. These are late spring flowers and the varieties included are: 'Apricot Parrot', 'Black Parrot', 'Blue Parrot' and 'Fantasy'.

Division 11/ Double Late Group include fully double, bowl shaped flowers whose petals show additional colors on the margins. Varieties include: 'Angelique', Montreux', 'Peaches and Cream', 'Tacoma' and 'Wirosa'. Division 12/Kaufmanniana Group include T. kaufamanniana and its hybrids. The plants are native to Central Asia and flower in early or mid spring. The flowers often are bicolored and sometimes show spotting in brown or bronze. The varieties include 'Chopin', 'Heart's delight', 'Shakespeare' and 'Stresa'.

Division 13/ Fosteriana Group includes the species T. fosteriana and its hybrids (crosses with species T. kaufmanniana or T. greigii). Varieties include: 'Concerto', 'Madam Lefeber' and 'Orange Emperor'. Division 14/ Greigii Group includes the species T. greigii and its hybrids. The single bowl shaped flowers bloom in early to mid spring and the varieties included are: 'Cape Cod', 'Pinocchio', 'Plaisir', 'Quebec, 'Red Riding Hood', and 'Toronto'. Divsion 15/Miscellaneous group, of course includes those Tulips that could not be place in the already mentioned 14 divisions. These include: ' clusiana', 'Lady jane', 'Honky Tonk', T. humilis/ Violoacea group, T. kolpakowskiana, 'linifolia', T. linifolia/ Batalinii group 'Bright Gem', 'Little Princess', T. saxatilis, T. saxatilis/ Bakeri group 'Lilac Wonder', T. sylvestris, T. Tarda, 'Tinka', T. turkestanica and T. urumiensis.

Whew!! That was a long list of tulips. The details on growing and maintaining these tulips can be found in "The Gardener's Guide To Bulbs" by Kathy Brown. And as always I will close this post with beautiful words strung together by Ernestine Northover to describe these evanescent flowers.

Tossing turban style contours, with an aloofness as one passes by,

Utilizing every charm it possesses, under a lupin blue cloudless sky,

Like a guardsman, gallantly standing, holding up his noble head high,

In rainbow colours, brilliant and stately, a vision to surely yield a sigh,

Ponder thus upon the regal tulip, it has pure beauty, you cannot deny.

Ernestine Northover

Orchids

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Tue, 18 Sep 2007 17:24:00 +0000

Amongst all flowers, I find Orchids to be the most bewitching. A red rose evokes a sense of romance, a lotus flower evokes a sense of serenity but the beautiful form and the vibrant colors of Orchids evoke a feeling of mystique. No wonder the earliest introduction of Orchids to Europe resulted in a frenzy amongst the high society to own the largest and rarest collection of these flowers. As the story goes, William Cattley (1788-1835) imported some tropical plants from Brazil. Amongst the packaging material he found some bulbs which he rescued and nurtured in his greenhouse to see if something interesting developed. The breathtaking flowers that bloomed came to be known as the "Queen of flowers" and captured the fancy of rich people who entered in a race to amass orchids. John Paxton, the head gardener for the duke of Devonshire, trained men and organized many trips to collect Orchids from far off lands. There are many stories of early Orchid hunting. Eric Hansen's book Orchid Fever: A horticultural tale of love, lust and lunacy tells the story of modern day orchid hunting.

Coming to the name, Orchid originates from the Greek word Orchis which means testicles. I wonder why Theophrastus ignored the striking flower and named the plant after the appearance of its paired root. At least, later, William Cattley was rewarded for rescuing this wonderful plant when John Lindley, the father of modern orchidology, named the flower Cattleya labiata, after him and the striking labium of the flower. John Lindley has Phragmipedium lindleyanum named after him. Benedict Roezl, a plant hunter and an adventurer collected some 800 new orchids and has the honor of having around 40 plants named after him!

At present the Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew list 880 genera and 22,000 species. In fact, 8% of all flowering plants are Orchids!! However, the academic world is still struggling to arrive at a consensus for classification of this largest family of flowering plants. Their job is further complicated by the constant development of new hybrids and cultivars. Members of Orchid family show a large range of flower size with the smallest flower being Bulbophyllum minutissimum and the largest being Grammatophyllum speciosum. The plants in the family Orchidaceae are grouped in five subfamilies. The subfamily Apostasioideae includes only two but most primitive genera: Neuwiedia and Apostasia which include 16 species. The subfamily Cypripedioideae includes five genera. These genera, namely, Cypripedium, Mexipedium, Paphiopedilum, Phragmipedium and Selenipedium are distinguished by their modified labellums which appear like slipper-shaped pouches and are therefore commonly known as Lady's slipper. The pouches serve in insect assisted pollination. The wonderful vanilla flavor in cakes and ice-creams that we all love is obtained from the member of subfamily Vanilloideae. This subfamily has 16 genera and 200 species. Vanilla fragrans belongs to subtribe Vanilleae. The family Orchidoideae includes about 208 genera and 3630 species. The type genus for this subfamily is Ophrys or the bee orchid. The last subfamily, Epidendroideae, is the largest group and includes more than 500 genera and about 20000 species. This subfamily includes the the most showy tropical genera such as Cattleya, Oncidium, Phalaenopsis and Vanda.

Orchids are not just enticing in appearance. These plants fascinate biologists for many reasons. Classification of Orchids is not very well understood because of lacking fossil evidence. Earlier, floral morphology overshadowed many other characteristics. At present research with DNA sequences is revealing many new facts that can help resolve the taxonomy of Orchids. Unlike other flowers that are radially symmetrical, Orchids are bilaterally symmetrical and their stamens and style are fused to form a complex structure called the gynostemium. This unique floral morphology allows researchers to study floral evolution using this plant system. Pollination in orchids is highly specialized and unique. It so fascinated Charles Darwin that he wrote a treatise titled: On Various Contrivances By Which British And Foreign Orchids are Fertilized By Insects And On The Good Effects Of Intercrosssing. Orchids provide a rare system where scientists can study floral evolution and mimicry.

For a long time Orchids have been uprooted from their natural habitat. Despite the fact that Orchids are cosmopolitan, they survive in very specific environmental conditions. Unscrupulous orchid collection, deforestation for farming, industrialization and human settlement are factors contributing to the endangerment of many wild orchid species. It is essential to conserve these wondrous plants which evoke a sense of beauty and mystery amongst all. I think this poem by Helen M. Fleet says it beautifully:

Wild Orchid

"The flower that walks", the Indian; said,
And walking spreads its crown-like roots
Through forest glades and upland dales.
Moccasin flower or Lady's Slipper,
It matters not the name
Or if it be fair white or rose or tiny yellow kind
Tis ever rare and wondrous there
This woodland beauty
Bequeathed us from another age.
A Heritage to guard with care
And cherish for posterity
That other eyes in future years
May see this Orchid walk the trails
As did our native Indian braves
And shy eyed maidens of the tribe.
-HELEN M. FLEET

Passion Flowers

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Tue, 20 Feb 2007 23:27:00 +0000

In my last post I misplaced the Passion in the passionflower. I also mentioned that the botanists gave the Passion flower its name. I stand corrected. According to Muriel Fisch (1975) the name was given by Spanish Catholic missionaries who saw in the flower the symbolism of the “Passion of the Christ”. Passus means suffering , Flos means flower.

This is how the symbolism goes:
1, 2 and 3 are the knobbed stigmas that represent the three nails/Christ and the two thieves.
4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 are stamens that represent the five wounds or the hammers used to drive the nails.
9, 10, 11, 12, 13 are the petals and 5 sepals (14, 15, 16, 17, one sepal missing here) represent the 10 apostles (with Peter who denied the Lord and Judas who betrayed him, missing).
Corona(or the frill) represent the crown of thorns/ halo. (The 72 filaments in the corolla represent the number of thorns that in the crown).

The three bracts (not seen in the photo) symbolize the trinity.The lobed leaves symbolized the hands of accusers. Some also think of the trilobed leaves to represent the spear that pierced Christ’s side.

The reed-like stem of passionflower vine is associated with the passage “Christ was given Vinegar on reed.

The axillary coiling tendrils represent the cords or whips used by the persecutors. The 30 round marks found on the lower side of some leaves are representative of the 30 pieces of silver which tempted Judas to betray Christ. The white in the flower represents the emblem of purity — the blue, the heaven. The three days the flower remains wide open before it fades away, denote the death, burial and resurrection of Christ. So there is a lot in the name of THIS flower. The religious zeal and the fertile human mind does work wonders!

Coming to the taxonomic and economic aspects of the plant, Passiflora belongs to the family Passifloraceae. This family belongs to the order Violales and contains about 20 genera and 600 species. The plants in this family range from herbaceous or woody vines to shrubs and trees.The plants grow in tropical climate. There are more than 400 known species of the genus Passiflora of which 50-60 bear edible, fragrant fruits. The centre of diversity for this plant is

Brazil

. Economically important Passiflora species include P. edulis f. flavicarpa (yellow passion fruit), P. edulis Sims (purple passion fruit) and P. alata Dryand (sweet passion fruit). The fruit is commercially harvested for the acidic juice. The yellow passion fruit has somewhat less ascorbic acid than the purple but is richer in total acid (mainly citric) and in carotene content. It is an excellent source of niacin and a good source of riboflavin. Free amino acids in purple passion fruit juice include arginine, aspartic acid, glycine, leucine, lysine, proline, threonine, tyrosine and valine. Some species also display medicinal properties. The leaves of some of the species are used for their sedative and pain relieving properties by natives in South America. In Europe, the U.S and Canada, the leaves have been used to tranquilize and settle edgy nerves. It is also used for colic, diarrhea, dysentery, menstrual difficulties, insomnia, neuralgia, eye disorders, epilepsy and convulsions, and muscle spasms and pain.

With such diverse medicinal uses the plant definitely holds an important place. Its not just a pretty flower, it is a flower with a punch!

Roses :The Flowers of Romance

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Wed, 14 Feb 2007 01:09:00 +0000

“What’s in a name? That which we call a rose; by any other name would smell as sweet”
-William Shakespeare.

Flowers speak a language of their own and we use them at various occasions to convey our feelings. A bouquet of red roses oozes love and romance and on Valentine’s Day, the official romantic day of the year, I could not resist but write about this world famous symbol of romance.

Fossil records have shown roses to be around 35 million years old!! This in relation to our own evolution seems quite early. Ancestors of Homo sapiens appeared around 15 million years ago. Cultivation of roses began probably in Chinese gardens around 5000 years ago. Roses gained popularity early on and have been participants in many aspects of our culture and religion. Roses have been found in wreaths of Egyptian tombs, Frescoes of the Minoan culture and in the age old mythological stories of Hindu religion. The Roman Empire was so much taken in by the beauty and fragrance of roses that the peasants were forced to cultivate roses instead of food crops. In the 15^th century, rose was used as a symbol by factions fighting to control England. The White rose represented the Yorks and the red rose symbolized the Lancaster. The conflict fittingly came to be known as the “War of Rose”. What a contrast to the present day symbolism of this beautiful flower. Napoleon's wife Josephine was also known for her love of roses. She even established an extensive collection at Chateau de Malmaison which had more than 250 rose varieties. Cultivated roses were introduced to Europe in the late 18^th century.

Based on geography, roses are placed in two groups: the European/Mediterranean group with their hybrids and the Oriental groups and their hybrids. The Gallicas, Albas, Damasks, Damask Perpetuals, Centifolias and Mosses are the European roses. The popular Oriental roses include the Chinas and the tea. These along with a few others comprise the roses of the old world. Unlike their European relatives, Oriental roses flowered repeatedly. This gave the hybridizers in Europe a great opportunity to come up with new varieties of roses. Today, we have more than 30, 000 different varieties of roses. The Modern day garden roses comprise a large group and many of these have been developed from the old garden roses. The popular modern day roses include Hybrid Tea, Polyantha, Floribunda, Grandiflora, Miniature, Climbing or rambling, English/David Austin and many landscape roses.

Till the 19^th century, European roses were pink and white. The romantic red rose was brought in from China around 1800s. The credit for developing a yellow rose goes to a French rose breeder by the name of Joseph Permet-Ducher who discovered a yellow mutant after 20 years of rose breeding. Now we have a transgenic blue rose producing plant obtained after researchers transferred the delphinidin producing gene from petunias to roses in 2004.

Roses have not only been valued for their beauty but also for their fragrance. Rose perfumes are made from rose oil or attar which is a mixture of essential oils obtained from distillation of crushed rose petals. Mostly the old world roses such as Damask and Centifolia are used by the Perfume industry. The main production of perfumes is in the Rose Valley near Kazanluk in Bulgaria. Highly pure Rose perfumes are generally expensive since very large numbers of rose flowers (around 2000 flowers for a gram of rose oil) are needed to produce the perfume.

Rose belongs to the family Rosaceae which also includes the popular fruits likepears, peaches and apples. Robert Frost has so nicely put this piece of information and his bafflement in these lines:

The rose is a rose

And always was a rose.

But now the theory goes

That the apple’s a rose,

And the pear is, and so’s,

The Plum, I suppose.

The dear only knows

What will next prove a rose?

You, of course, are a rose—

But were always a rose

The botanical Passion flowers (Passiflora) look like this:

Taxonomy: Why we need it?

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Sun, 11 Feb 2007 13:54:00 +0000

In my last post, I had commented on why plants are important to us and why we need to know more about plants. Carrying on with that line of thought, I thought it fit to touch the topic of Taxonomy. The number of plant species on earth is estimated to be in excess of 400,000 and there is a whole discipline that deals with the naming and cataloging of these plant species. This is the Plant Taxonomy field which started in a systematic, scientific manner with Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), who is known as the father of taxonomy. He gave us the binomial system of classification, grouping organisms with similarities in a hierarchical fashion. Though much has changed in this field since the times of Linnaeus, the binomial nomenclature using the genus and species name in Latin is still used.

Why do we need Taxonomy? One would think that for as long as the human race has been on the planet, one would know most of the co-habitants. And then there is the question as to WHY do we need to know the names of the plants around us? After all, we don’t even know what our next door neighbor’s name might be, so why bother learning the names of the plants. Well, sometimes it is good to know the name for practical reasons, for example knowing what a poison ivy looks like or identifying a plant as poison ivy may save us from unwanted miseries. But, on a more academic level, identifying and cataloging plants gives us better insights about the plant. It may add to our knowledge of the evolution of plants. Once identified as a member of any given family, we can deduce a lot of information from prior knowledge of that family. For instance it may fall into a family with a lot of plants having medicinal properties. One may then wonder and test if this plant may also have such properties. It allows designing proper methods for caring for the plants. Of course, going by the fact that diversity is an integral part in improving our stocks, we must diligently protect and preserve the flora and fauna of earth.

Despite over 250 years of cataloging, we are still oblivious to the full extent of floral diversity that surrounds us. And then there is the added confusion of how what we know is interconnected from an evolutionary point of view. Many a times, the plants are incorrectly classified under a family or a genus due to their ambiguous morphological features. However, with the power of DNA fingerprinting and other molecular tools along with the many classification techniques, such taxonomical puzzles can be successfully resolved. For example, just recently, the world’s largest flower sporting plant, Rafflesia, which has mystified scientist for over 200 years about its taxonomical position, was shown to be actually related to members of family Euphorbiaceae which have very small flowers.

Many new species and genus are being discovered with time and many still remain hidden from the human race. In 2001 scientist found a new conifer Xanthocyparis vietnamensis which provides a missing link to the true and false cypresses. Unfortunately, this plant was already on the verge of extinction when it was discovered.It is listed as an endangered species. This was the second conifer to be discovered in recent years, after 1948. Wollemi nobilis, popularly but incorrectly known as Wollemi pine (because it is not a pine, but is related to members of Araucariaceae) was discovered in 1994 and is a living fossil. In 2002 Kress and Larsen discovered a new genus of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae) called Smithatris. These are but a few examples of how taxonomists are discovering, identifying and preserving the flora of earth.

So What About Plants?

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Thu, 08 Feb 2007 22:18:00 +0000

My friend's youngest daughter was making a huge fuss as she wanted to eat mangoes in winter. I tried to explain to her that Mango trees do not set fruits in winter and so we cannot get them at that time of the year. She shot back without batting an eyelid "What have trees got to do with it, we can buy mangoes at the store!!" I was speechless. I realized that the younger generation especially the kids growing up in cities are quite oblivious about the role plants play in our everyday life. I was in for a greater surprise when one of my friends confessed that she had never seen a rice plant.

With the increasing trend of bagged and canned food finding its way to the dinner tables, iPods, computers and flat-screen TVs occupying our spare time and more and more artificial plants improving the decor of our houses and offices, it is no surprise that we are raising a generation that believes everything comes from the store.

Plants have played an important role in the development and progress of mankind. Starting right at the basic level of food, shelter and clothing, plants have soothed and inspired the aesthetic sense. How we all long with bated breaths for spring to come around after a long winter when nature unfolds its beauty in all its splendor. Who has not read the lines "And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils" from Wordsworth's timeless poem and whole-heartedly agreed with it.

Plants are largely divided as non-flowering and flowering types. In the evolutionary tree, the flowering plants are at the top. The flowering plants are further divide into monocotyledons and dicotyledons, one of the distinguishing features among many, being the single and double cotyledons found in the embryo, respectively.

The group of plant that provide us our daily bread are called cereals and include Rice, Wheat, Corn, Barley, Sorghum, Oats, Millets, Rye, Buckwheat, Fonio and Quinoa. The last two are not very common and are grown in Africa and Andes. Botanically, cereals belong to the grass family also known as Poaceae or Gramineae, an economically important group of the monocotyledons. Monocotyledons also include the breathtaking floral group of orchids, the economically important bamboos and members of Arecaceae or the palm family.

Vegetables, the source of every child's nightmare and a good source of minerals and fiber, come from various group of plants as well as various parts of the plants. On one hand, leaves of spinach, lettuce, parsley, rosemary or thyme serve as a chef's inspiration for mouth-watering cuisine and on the other hand, potatoes, carrots and radishes, the buried stems and storage units of plants serve as a source of French fries or finger food for the fast-food eating generation. The popular (or not) floral parts comprising the vegetable group include cauliflower and broccoli. Fruits of plants like tomato, eggplants, chilies, cucurbits (pumpkins, opo), jackfruits etc. provide a vast array of vegetables to choose from.

The food fit for Gods and the food that humans have for long ignored to include in their daily diets are the delicious fruits with all the goodness of mouth watering deserts and yet low calorific value and numerous phytonutrients. Today, most researchers agree to the overall benefits of fruit consumption so much so that they recommend including five to nine servings of fruits and vegetables to the daily diet. Healthy eating habits require inculcating the consumption of fruits and vegetables at an early age.

Despite all care, humans are prone to fall sick some time or the other. Viola!! the plants have a role to play in this aspect of human existence too. Numerous plants with medicinal properties are known to provide cures for various ailments. Starting with ginger which is known to help a sore throat, plant extracts from Digitalis, Cinchona and Periwinkle are known to be curative for heart ailments, malaria, and cancers respectively. Numerous plants are used in Western medicine as well as in the traditional and herbal remedies.

How can we ignore the importance of fashion in human lives? It is the bread and better for a large mass which caters to the whims of a fashion conscious, hip and trendy larger mass. Cotton, the cool fabric that keeps coming back in vogue grows in the pods of the plant called Gossypium as a protective fiber around the seeds. Burlap, a fiber made from jute is actually a shiny vegetable fiber obtained plants in the genus Corchorus. This fabric has been used in clothing, making gunny bags, ropes etc.

The timber from various trees is used in construction of houses. In many islands, bamboo is the material of choice for house construction. Leaves of coconut are used to thatch the roofs of huts in many rural areas of India. Woods from trees such as oak, ash, mahogany are valued for making furniture. Plant parts are also used for making paper.

I have very superficially touched on the various ways in which plants touch our lives. There are numerous plants affecting numerous aspects of our everyday living. The best homage that we can pay to these silent servers is to acknowledge their contributions in our lives and to inform ourselves about them and most importantly protect and preserve them.

Survival of the domesticated

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Wed, 06 Sep 2006 17:55:00 +0000

“....the all-important part which selection by man has played, it becomes at once obvious, how it is that our domestic races show adaptation in their structure or in their habits to man's wants or fancies."
Charles Darwin (Origin of species)

Rice is one of the oldest cereals domesticated by man. Over centuries, rice varieties have been selected for increased yield, improved fertility, better adaptability of flowering time to local areas, and for having traits such as loss of seed color and loss of seed shattering. These constant selections have indeed resulted in varieties far superior to the ancestral stocks. But the ever inquisitive human mind likes to dissect what lies under these visible traits that brings about these changes that we aim for and are able to achieve.

In rice, seed shattering has a visible impact on the yield. A group of scientists have recently unraveled the molecular basis of this trait. Working with a hybrid population of a shattering type and a non shattering type cultivars of rice, Konishi et al (Science. 2006. 312: 1392-1396), identified 5 such regions on 5 different chromosomes of rice which contributed to decrease in seed shattering. These stretches of DNA which are associated with a particular trait are called Quantitative Trait Loci, or simply QTLs. QTLs are not necessarily genes but are a good start point to look for genes affecting a trait.

In this case, scientists identified one particular QTL which they called qSH1 (QTL of seed shattering in chromosome 1) of the non-shattering type rice cultivar as having the maximum affect on the reduction of seed shattering trait of rice. Near Isogenic Lines (NILs) are manipulated breeding lines such that they have a uniform genetic background of one parent, in this case the non-shattering rice cultivar, except that a given stretch of DNA which one is examining is from the other parent, that is the shattering rice cultivar in this case. In such NILs where the qSH1 was replaced by a stretch of DNA from the shattering type rice cultivars, scientists observed the formation of complete abscission layer between the seed and the pedicle of the rice grain. However the non-shattering lines with qSH1 showed complete lack of abscission layer formation, thus indicating that a mutation in qSH1 gene resulted in the loss of seed shattering in rice.

A Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (or difference), or SNP, at a specific position in qSH1 was the distinguishing feature between the shattering (had a ‘guanine’) and the non-shattering type (had a ‘ thyamine’) rice cultivars. Interestingly, qSH1 showed sequence similarity to a gene called REPLUMLESS (RPL) from Arabidopsis; a gene that has been shown to cause dehiscence in the fruit of this plant. This indicated an evolutionary conservation of this gene and in fact, the scientists did conclude by further experimentations that the RPL ortholog is indeed the qSH1 gene. The SNP between the shattering and the non-shattering rice cultivars seems to control the spatial mRNA expression of the qSH1at the abscission layer. The scientists believe that this gene may have other functions in the developmental process of rice.

Thus the loss of seed shattering observed in the selected cultivars of rice is caused by a mutation in the gene whose spatial control during development results in the observed trait. It is in such cases where a mutation which can cause serious defects in the development process of a species and wipe it off, that human intervention has played important role. Whereas low or no seed shattering would result in decreased propagation ultimately swiping away the species, from human standpoint it is a desirable trait as it would contribute to increased yield. The power of observation and selection has had its advantages and some disadvantages, which in this study was apparent when the scientists tried to obtain shattering related mutants. They realized that most rice cultivars have somehow lost the seed shattering habit. Scientist being what they are, found a way around this hurdle and carried on with their studies. But it does leave us with a thought that whereas selection has served us well over years, conservation of our natural wealth will keep us safe and prepared for the years to come.

“A high degree of variability is obviously favorable, as freely giving the materials for selection to work on………….But as variations manifestly useful or pleasing to man appear only occasionally, the chance of their appearance will be much increased by a large number of individuals being kept; and hence this comes to be of the highest importance to success.

Charles Darwin (Origin of species)

To be a male sex cell or not to be, that is the question

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Tue, 29 Aug 2006 14:35:00 +0000

What decides the fate of a plant cell? What will it be, a male germ-line cell or a somatic cell? Unlike animals, where the male germ-line is set aside during early development, in plants the male germ-line cell arises from a previous cell of somatic lineage.

So what happens in the mundane life cycle of this ever growing and dividing somatic cell that causes a switch to the stud that it will become? Haerizadeh et al. (Science. 2006. 313: 496) have shed light on the molecular processes that result in the determination of the male germ-line cells.

In an earlier work by Xu and colleagues (PNAS. 1999.96: 2554) a LILY GENERATIVE CELL SPECIFIC-1 (LGC-1) gene has been identified to be a male-gamete specific gene from Lily. This male-gamete specific LGC-1 gene has a silencer region in its promoter which can direct the expression of a reporter gene in the male germline cells of a transgenic plant. A promoter is a specific region in a gene where the code transfer from the gene to the transcript (called a messenger RNA or mRNA) initiates. Like all headquarters, it has different control points. A silencer region is one such regulatory point comprising a DNA stretch where certain transcription factors (proteins) can bind and prevent the gene to produce a transcript.

It is the regulation of this silencer region in the LGC-1 gene which seems to control the fate of a somatic cell. In the non-male germline cells, such as the leaf and petal tissues, the researchers found a novel 24kD protein called the Germline Restrictive Silencing factor (GRSF) which could bind to the silencer region in the LGC-1 gene and prevent its expression. Interestingly, moderate levels of GRSF proteins are found in the uninucleate microspores but are absent from the generative cell.

I will briefly refresh the pollen development sequence in order to better appreciate this last observation. The development of male gametes in flowering plants involves meiosis of the microspore mother cells located along the inner edge of the anther sac. The microspores or the pollen grains thus produced comprise of a two layered wall (exine which is sometimes intricately sculptured and an intine). Inside the pollen grain, the nucleus divides by mitosis and one of the nuclei develops a cell membrane around it. This forms the generative cell that further undergoes mitosis to give rise to two sperm cells. The other cell inside the pollen grain, called the pollen tube cell, grows by the extension of the intine after pollination in flowering plants and carries the generative cell that divides to form the two sperm cells one of which fertilizes the egg cell and the other fuses with the polar nuclei which form the endosperm.

It is the generative cell which lacks any trace of the GRSF whereas the tube cell shows moderate levels of GRSF protein. The absence of GRSF in addition to the activation of male-germline specific transcription in the generative cells suggests that the release from GRSF imposed repression is the decisive event in the sperm cell developmental process of the flowering plants. GRSF may function as a key regulatory element in the network of regulatory controls for gamete development. The study also highlights the evolutionary conservation of this repressor system and suggests it to be a key process in the regulation of the male germline development in flowering plants.

The authors have also compared this repressor system to that of a neuron restrictive silencing factor (known as REST). REST is also evolutionarily conserved and is shown to repress transcription from numerous neuron specific genes in neural precursors and non-neuronal cells. The silencing activity of the neural specific cells is mediated via the recruitment of a co-repressor (COREST). This parallel from animal kingdom has prompted the authors to question if the GRSF induced silencing of the male germline specific genes in plants also mediated by a co-repressor.

The presence of the GRSF in ovary tissues has also been observed and raises questions for their purpose in this tissue. Along with this line of investigation, further investigations towards nature of silencing mechanisms for long term repression would make an interesting study.

:-)

noreply@blogger.com (Alka Srivastava) — Mon, 31 Jul 2006 19:32:00 +0000

“Women and cats will do as they please, and men and dogs should relax and get used to the idea.”
Robert A. Heinlein (American science-fiction Writer, 1907-1988)