Sociology of Pakistan

What is Social Organization?

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Ø Social Organization

“An organization means technical arrangement of parts. Social organization means social relationship among groups. Individuals and groups interrelated together create social organization.” JJ Macionis

Formal Organization

“Formal Organization or secondary groups that are organized to achieve their goals efficiently.” JJ Macionis

Types of Formal Organization

1. Normative Organization/ Voluntary associations

2. Coercive Organization

3. Utilitarian Organization

Origins of Formal Organizations

Bureaucracy (Weber’s Rational Social Organization)

Characteristics of Bureaucracy

1. Specialization

2. Hierarchy of offices

3. Rules and regulations

4. Technical Competence

5. Impersonality

6. Formal, written communication

The informal side of Bureaucracy

Problems of Bureaucracy

1. Bureaucratic Alienation

2. Bureaucratic Inefficiency and Ritualism

3. Bureaucratic Inertia

4. Oligarchy

What is Community?

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Ø Community

“Community is a social group with some degree of “we feeling” and living in a given area.” Bargardus

“The smallest testimonial group that can embrace all aspect of social life called sommunity.” Kingsley Davis

Nature and Characteristics of Community

1. A group of people living together in an area fulfilling their needs by mutual cooperation.

2. A group of people having a sense of belonging to place of residence create a sentiment of community.

3. Community is a group of people having a common culture

Types of Communities

1. Rural Community

Characteristics of Rural Community

I. Small population

II. Lack in administrative organization

III. Lack of modern facilities

IV. Absence of big social institutions

V. Agrarian in nature

VI. Scattered housing pattern

VII. Equal division of labor

VIII. Informal interaction

IX. Slow interaction and social change

X. Celebration of events

XI. Homogeneity

XII. Traditional recreations

XIII. Endogamy

2. Urban Community

Characteristics of Urban community

I. Large population with administrative organization

II. Presence of modern facilities

III. Modern recreation

IV. Expanding Social institutions

V. Division of labor and specialization

VI. Heterogeneity

VII. Fast interaction

VIII. Changing behavior pattern

IX. Rapid social change

X. Frequent social mobility

XI. Least importance of caste

XII. Religious belief as a part of social life

XIII. Anonymity

XIV. Exogamy

Difference between Rural and Urban Communities

I. Division of labor

II. Density of population

III. Nature of relations

IV. Environment

V. Social Mobility

VI. Social Stratification

VII. Size of population

VIII. Social differentiation

IX. Social interaction

X. Solidarity

What is Social Groups?

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Ø Social Groups (Social Interaction is the basic condition)

“A Social Group is two or more people who identify and interact with one another.” J.J Macionis

A.W Green “An Aggregate of individuals which persists in time, which has one or more interests or activities in common and which is organized.”

Basis of Social Group

Importance of Social Groups

It is basic factor in all social functions, social structures, and social institution, system and organizations.

Important in human life and must for the continuity of human race.

Need fulfillments

Group life among Animals

Types of Social Group

1. Primary Group

2. Secondary group

3. In-group and out-group (W.G Sumner.)

4. Formal and Informal Group

5. Reference Group(serve as a point of comparison)

6. Ethnic Group

7. Caste

8. Pressure Group

9. Vested Interest Group

10. Club

11. Voluntary Associations

1. Primary Group

Charles Horton Cooley, “A primary group is a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships.

Characteristics of Primary Group

I. Face-to-face interaction

II. Intimacy

III. Mutual Aid and help

IV. Consciousness of kind

V. We-Feeling

VI. Small in size

VII. Physical proximity or nearness

VIII. Frequent interaction

IX. Personal relation

X. Similarity of background

2. Secondary Group

“Secondary groups is large and impersonal group whose members pursue a specific goral or activity.”

Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy can be called secondary group.”

Characteristic of Secondary Group

I. Large in size

II. Less physical proximity

III. Impersonal or secondary relation

IV. Membership

V. Specific ends or interests

VI. Indirect communication

VII. Social Control

What is Social Interaction? What is Social Status? What is Social Role?

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Ø Social Interaction

Social Interaction is defined as “it is a process by which men inter-penetrate the mind of each other.” – Dawson and Gettyes

Merrill; “Social interaction is the general process whereby two or more persons are in a meaningful contact, as a result of which their behavior is modified however slightly.”

Corkiness; “Social interaction is such a process which influences the overt behavior or state of mind of the individuals.”

“Social interaction is the process by which people act and react in relation to others. – J.J Macionis

Elements of Social Interaction

1. Two or more than two persons.

2. Reciprocal relationship among them.

3. Influence on the event, behavior, brain of the persons.

These three conditions interrelate the people among themselves and convert them into social groups.

Types of Social Interaction (Young and Mack)

1. Direct or Physical Interaction

2. Symbolic Interaction

Forms of Social Interaction

1. Between individual and individual

2. Between Individual and Group

3. Between Group and Group

4. Between Individual and Culture

Measurement of Social Interaction

1. Frequency

2. Duration

3. Intensity

4. Focus

Difference between Social Action and Social Interaction

Ø Social Status

Horton and Hunt: Status is defined as “the rank or position of a person in a group, or of a group in relation to other groups.”

“Status is a social position a person holds.” JJ Macionis

In everyday use the word status generally means “prestige” as when we say that a collage president has a more “status” than a newly hired assistant professor. But sociologically speaking, both “president” and “professor” are statuses within collegiate organization.

Status is part of our social identity and helps define our relationship to others. As George Simmel (1950, org.1902), one of the founders of sociology, once pointed out, before we can deal with anyone, we need to know who the person is.

v Status Set: “Each of us holds many statuses at once. The term status set refers to all the statuses a person holds at a given time.”

v Master Status: “Some statuses matter more than others. A master status is a status that has special importance for social identity, often shaping persons entire life.”

Types of Status (classification on how people attain status)

v Ascribed Status (we have little or no choice)

“An Ascribed status is a social position a person receives at birth or takes on voluntarily later in life.”

Determinants of Ascribed Status

a) Ancestry

b) Sex

c) Caste

d) Age

v Achieved Status

“An achieved status refers to a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort.”

Determinants of Achieved Status

a) Economic Resources

b) Occupation

c) Education

d) Power

Ø Social Role

“A role is the function of a status.” Young and Mack

“A social role is the expected behaviour associated with a social position.”

A second important social structure is social role, behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status. A person holds a status and performs a role.

v Role Set: “Robert Merton (1968) introduced the term role set to identify a number of roles attached to a single status.”

Status: Professor; Roles: the Teacher role , colleague role

v Role Conflict: as a conflict among the roles connected to two or more statuses.

v Role Strain: refers to tension among the roles connected to a single status.

v Role Exit: The process by which people disengage from important social roles. Ex-president, ex-captain etc…

v Ascribed and Achieved Roles

v Relationship of Status and Role

v Social Action, Status and Role

v Social System and Role-Status

One strategy for minimizing role conflict is separating parts of our lives so that we perform roles for one status at one time and place and carry out roles connected to another status in a completely different setting.

Role Conflict

Causes of Role Conflict

1. Extra busy life

2. Incomplete or Weak Socialization

3. New Social Values

4. Material Desire

5. Violation of religious values

Consequences of Role Conflict

1. Tension and worry

2. Poor decision performance

3. Sleeplessness

4. Short temperament

5. Health

6. Neurosis

7. Social Problems

Solution of Role Conflict

1. Simple life

2. Socialization

3. Training of role performance

4. Division of Labor

5. Social Planning

What is Social Mobility?

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Ø Social Mobility

According to Fairchild, “Social Mobility is a movement from one condition to another.”

Bredemeyer and Stephensen say “Social mobility is moving of an individual or group of people from one status to another.”

Horon and Hunt “Social mobility may be defined as the act of moving from one social class to another.”

Types of Social Mobility

1. Territorial Mobility(residence from one place to another)

2. Vertical Mobility(Exchange mobility)

a) Upward Mobility

b) Downward Mobility

3. Horizontal Mobility(From peon to Gardner)

4. Inter-generational Mobility(takes place between generations)

5. Intra-generational Mobility(takes place in same generation)

6. Structural Mobility

Individual and Group Mobility

Direction of Social Mobility

Causes of Social Mobility(From Taga)

1. Dissatisfaction from Previous Condition

2. Adoption of new Condition

3. Industrial and Technological Development

4. Education

5. Urbanization

6. Means of Communication and Transportation

If desirable social statuses are actually available to all who make an effort to reach them, there will probably be little agitation for absolute social inquilty.

Mobility Determinants(From H.Hunt)

1. Structural Factors

I. Occupational Structure

II. Differential Fertility

III. Dual Economy

IV. Mobility Aids and barriers

2. Individual Factors

I. Ability Differences

II. Mobility Oriented behavior

a) Education

b) Work Habits

c) Deferred-Gratification Pattern

d) Mobility “Game Playing”

e) The value –stretch Hypothesis

III. The luck factor

What about Povety?

Overcoming Handicaps

Transfer Payments

Mobility or Equality

What is Social Stratification?

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Ø What is Social Stratification?

A system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy; it is based on four principles:

1. Social stratification is trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences

2. Social stratification carries over from generation to generation

3. Social stratification is universal but variable

4. Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well

Determinants of Social Stratification

1. Economic Resource

2. Occupations

3. Prestige

4. Power

5. Caste

6. Education

Ø Caste and Class Systems

I. Closed Systems(Allow little change in social Position) Caste system

II. Open Systems(Much more mobility) Class system is more open

Ø The Caste System

A caste system is social stratification based on ascription, or birth.

§ Pure caste system is closed

§ Birth alone determines a person’s entire future

§ People live in rigid categories without any possibility of change

§ Mostly in agrarian societies

§ An illustration of India: Four Castes in Hindu culture

§ Exception to farming families in each caste performs one type of work i.e., priests, soldiers, carpenter etc.

§ Caste system demands that people marry others of the same ranking. Endogamous marriages.

§ Caste guides everyday life by keeping people in the company of “their own kind.”

§ Caste system rest on powerful cultural beliefs.

§ South Africa: Apartheid

Ø The Class System

Social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement.

§ Class system are more open than caste system(Universal)

§ Schooling and skills for Mobility

§ As a result, class distinctions become blurred, even blood relative may have different social standings

§ Classification on the basis of color, sex and race seen as wrong in modern societies

§ Work is no longer fixed at birth but involves some personal choice (achieved status based)

§ Meritocracy: Social stratification based on personal merit. Equality of opportunity. Inequality of rewards based on individual performance. In a pure meritocracy, social position would depend entirely on a person’s ability and effort. Caste societies define “merit” in terms of loyalty to the system. Caste systems waste human potential but they are very orderly.

Status Consistency: is the degree of consistency in person’s social standing across various dimensions of social inequality. Status consistency in caste system is high but social mobility results in low status consistency in class system.

What is Socialization and Personality?

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Ø Socialization and Personality

“Socialization is the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture.” JJ Macionis

“Social experience is also the foundation of personality, a person’s fairly consistent patterns of acting, thinking and feeling.”

Peter woesely “Process of transmission of culture, the process whereby men learn the rules and practices of social groups.”

Horton and Hunt “ Socialization is the process whereby one internalizes the norms of the groups among whom one lives so that a unique “self” emerges.”

Types of Socialization

1. Primary Socialization

2. Anticipatory Socialization(learning out group in anticipation)

3. Developmental Socialization

4. Re-Socialization

Methods of Socialization

1. Cultural Conditioning(Learining of cultural norms, by repetition)

2. Personal-Social Learning/Learning by reason

Individual as a Social Product

Sources/Agencies of Socialization

1. The Family

2. Peer or Age mates

3. Social institutions

4. Literature and Mass Media of Communication

5. The Community

Socialization and the life course

1. Childhood

2. Adolescence

3. Adulthood

Early Adulthood and Middle Adulthood

4. Old Age

5. Death and Dying

Functions of Socialization

I. Socialization converts human from biological being to social being

II. It contributes in personality development

III. It helps to become disciplined

IV. It helps to perform different roles

V. It establishes knowledge and skills

VI. It contributes in the stability of social order

VII. It transmits culture from one generation to other.

VIII. It creates right aspirations in social life

Human Development: Nature and Nurture

Charles Darwin: The Role of Nature

Naturalists during the mid 19th century, applying Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, claimed that all human behaviour was instinctive. Although this is no longer a dominant view the thinking is still with us as people, for example, talk about "born criminals."

The Social Sciences: The Role of Nurture

Social scientists reject much of the biological argument and see human nature itself as shaped by cultural context.

Psychologist John Watson challenged the naturalistic perspective and developed an approach called behaviourism, claiming that all human behaviour was learned within particular social environments. The work of anthropologists illustrating the great cultural variation existing around the world supports Watson's view.

Contemporary social scientists do not argue that biology plays no role in shaping human behaviour. At the very least, human physical traits are linked to heredity. Also, certain characteristics such as intelligence, potential to excel in music and art, and personality characteristics seem to be influenced by heredity. The current position on this issue is that nature and nurture are not so much in opposition as they are inseparable.

Social Isolation

For obvious ethical reasons research on the effects of social isolation has been limited to the study of animals. A few rare cases, like Anna's, of human isolation have been investigated.

Effects of Social Isolation on Nonhuman Primates

Classic research by Harry and Margaret Harlow using rhesus monkeys has illustrated the importance of social interaction for other primates besides humans. Using various experimental situations with artificial "mothers" for infant monkeys they determined that while physical development occurred within normal limits, emotional and social growth failed to occur. One important discovery was that monkeys deprived of mother-infant contact, if surrounded by other infant monkeys, did not suffer adversely. This suggested the importance of social interaction in general rather than specifically a maternal bond. A second conclusion was that monkeys who experienced short-term isolation (3 months or less) recovered to normal emotional levels after rejoining other monkeys. Long-term separation appears to have irreversible negative consequences.

Effects of Social Isolation on Children

The cases of Anna, Isabelle, and Genie, all of whom suffered through years of isolation and neglect as young children are reviewed. Each case suggests that while humans are resilient

creatures, extreme social isolation results in irreversible damage to normal personality development.

UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIALIZATION PROCESS

Sigmund Freud: The Elements of Personality

While trained as a physician, Freud's most important contribution was the development of psychoanalysis and the study of personality development.

Basic Human Needs

Freud saw biological factors having a significant influence on personality, though he rejected the argument that human behaviour reflected simple biological instinct. He conceived instincts as general urges and drives. He claimed humans had two basic needs or drives; eros, a need for bonding and thanatos, which related to a drive for death.

Freud's Model of Personality

Freud's perspective combined both these basic needs and the influence of society into a unique model of personality. He argued the personality is comprised of three parts. One is the id, rooted in biology and representing the human being's basic needs, which are unconscious and demand immediate satisfaction. Another, representing the conscious attempt to balance innate pleasure-seeking drives of the human organism and the demands of society, he labelled the ego. Finally, the human personality develops a superego which is the operation of culture within the individual which ultimately defines, for the individual, moral limits.

Personality Development

There is basic conflict between the id and the superego which the ego must continually try to manage. If the conflict is not adequately resolved personality disorders result. The controlling influence on drives by society is referred to as repression. Often a compromise between society and the individual is struck, where fundamentally selfish drives are redirected into socially acceptable objectives. This process is called sublimation.

Id-centred children feel good only in a physical sense but after three or four years, with the gradual development of the superego they can begin to evaluate their behaviour by cultural standards.

While being controversial, Freud's work highlights the internalization of social norms and the importance of childhood experiences in the socialization process and the development of personality.

Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development

A prominent psychologist of the 20th century, Piaget's work centred on human cognition, or how people think and understand. He was concerned with not just what a person knew, but how the person knows something. He identified four major stages of cognitive development which he believed were tied to biological maturation as well as social experience.

The Sensorimotor Stage

The sensorimotor stage is described as the level of human development in which the world is experienced only through sensory contact. This stage lasts for about the first two years of life. The understanding of symbols does not exist during this period. The child experiences the world only in terms of direct physical contact.

The Preoperational Stage

The preoperational stage was described by Piaget as the level of human development in which language and other symbols are first used. This stage extends from the age of two to the age of six. Children continue to be very egocentric during this time, having little ability to generalize concepts.

The Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage in Piaget's model is called the concrete operational stage and is described as the level of human development characterized by the use of logic to understand objects or events. This period typically covers the ages of seven to eleven. Cause and effect relationships begin to be understood during this period. The ability to take the perspective of other people also emerges.

The Formal Operational Stage

The fourth stage is the formal operational stage and is described as the level of human development characterized by highly abstract and critical thought. This stage begins about age twelve. The ability to think in hypothetical terms is also developed.

Some critics suggest that the model may not fit traditional societies and that, even in our own society, as many as a third of adults do not reach the final stage.

Laurence Kohlberg: Moral Development

Kohlberg used Piaget's theory as a springboard for a study on moral reasoning. He suggests a preconventional stage based on pain and pleasure, a conventional stage (in the teenage years) where right and wrong is understood within cultural norms and a postconventional stage where abstract critique of the social order is possible.

Kohlberg's theory may not apply equally well in all societies and it would appear that many North Americans do not reach the final stage of moral development. As well his research subjects were all boys.

Carol Gilligan: Bringing in Gender

Gilligan, as a response to the gender limited work of Kohlberg, concludes that males and females make moral judgements in different ways. Males use a justice perspective; it's wrong if the rules define it that way. Females use a care and responsibility perspective; it's wrong if it damages relationships. Her recent research on self-esteem demonstrates that female self-esteem begins to slip during adolescence, as they encounter more authority figures who are men.

The Applying Sociology Box (p. 114) suggests that men and women may not be very different with respect to the expression of violence.

George Herbert Mead: The Social Self

Our understanding of socialization owes much to the work of Mead. His analysis is often referred to as social behaviourism where he focuses on mental processes.

The Self

Mead understood the basis of humanity to be the self, a dimension of personality composed of an individual's self- conception. For Mead, the self was a totally social phenomenon, inseparable from society. The connection between the two was explained in a series of steps, the emergence of the self through social experience, based on the exchange of symbolic intentions, and occurring within a context in which people take the role of the other, or take their point of view into account during social interaction.

The Looking-Glass Self

The process of taking the role of the other can be understood using Charles Horton Cooley's concept of the looking-glass self. This term focuses on the ideas that a person's self-conception is based on the response of others, perhaps explaining Gilligan's observations on the loss of self-esteem of young women.

The I and The Me

The capacity to see oneself has two components, namely: (1) the self as subject by which we initiate social action and (2) the self as object, concerning how we perceive ourselves from the perspective of others. The subjective part of the self Mead labelled the "I". The objective aspect Mead called the "Me". All social interaction is seen as the continuous interplay of these two aspects of the self.

Development of the Self

Mead minimized the importance of biology in personality development. Mead saw infants as responding to others only in terms of imitation. As the use of symbols emerges the child enters a play stage, in which role-taking occurs. Initially, the roles are modelled after significant others, especially parents. Through further social experience children enter the game stage where the simultaneous playing of many roles is possible. The final stage involves the development of a generalized other, or widespread cultural norms and values used as a reference in evaluating ourselves.

Figure 5-1 (p. 116) illustrates the development of the self as a process of gaining social experience. Although Mead's work is criticized as being radically social he helps us to understand the importance of symbolic interaction to the development of self.

Erik H. Erikson: Eight Stages of Development

Erikson offers a broader view of socialization, suggesting that personality continues to change throughout life. His eight stages begin in infancy and end in old age.

Some are critical of the apparent rigidity of the model but it does force us to examine the influence of agencies of socialization other than the family.

Personality and Socialization

The meaning of Personality

“One’s personality includes all of one’s behaviour characteristics.”

“Personality is the totality of behaviour of an individual with a given tendency system interacting with a sequence of situations.”

According to Park and Burgess “The personality is the sum and organization of those traits which determine the role of individual in group. Here the traits of an individual organized together and used in performing his role is called his personality.”

Factors in the development of Personality

1. Biological Inheritance and Personality

2. Physical Environment and Personality

3. Culture

4. Group Experience

5. Unique Experience

Importance of Self-Image

What is Culture?

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Ø Culture

Herskovits defined culture as “man-made part of environment.”

Linton “The culture is social heredity which is transmitted from, one generation to other with the accumulation of individual experiences.”

“Culture is the values, beliefs, behaviour, and material objects that together forms a people’s way of life.” JJ Macionis “Culture is both our link to the past and our guide to the future.”

Psychological point of view hold “learned portion of human behaviour” is culture.

“From their life experiences, people develop a set of rules and procedures for meeting their needs. The set of rules ad procedures, together with a supporting set of ideas and values, is called a Culture.”

“Culture is everything which is socially learned and shared by the members of a society.”

Culture Shock: Personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life.

Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture is learnt

2. Culture is social

3. Culture is Shared

4. Culture is Transmissive

5. Culture is Continuous and Cumulative

6. Culture is Consistent and Integrated

7. Culture is Dynamic and Adaptive

8. Culture is Gratifying

9. Culture varies from Society to Society

10. Culture is Superorganic and Ideational

Elements of Culture(Symbols, language, norms, values, and beliefs)

1. Norms

According to Young and Mack “Norms refer to the group shared expectations.”

“Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behaviour of its members.” JJ Macionis

Characteristics of Social Norms

1. Social Norms are universal

2. Norms are related to the factual order

3. Norms incorporate value judgments

4. Norms are relative to situations and groups

5. Norms are not always obeyed by all

6. Norms vary with sanctions

7. Norms are normally internalized by the people

Aspects of Norms

1. Cultural Norms (are ideally expected manners of behaviour.)

2. Social Norms (Social norms are the socially approved ways of behaviour)

Functions of Social Norms

1. Control Behaviour

2. Making behaviour systematic and patterned

3. Safeguard of our values

4. Norms maintains social order of society

5. Social norms create social cohesions and social solidarity

6. Social norms helps in self-control

7. Social norms assists society for its survival

Types of Social Norms

1. Folkways

Sumner holds “the folkways are not creation of human purpose and will. They are products of natural forces which men unconsciously set in operation.”

Gillin and Gillin say that “Folkways are behaviour patterns of everyday life which generally arise unconsciously in a group.”

Nature of Folkways

I. Social in nature

II. Repetitive in Character

III. Unplanned Origin

IV. Informal Enforcement

V. Folkways Differ a lot

VI. Folkways are Numerous

VII. Folkways are subject to change

Violation of folkways

2. Mores

According to R.M Maclver and C.H. Page, “When the folkways have added to them conceptions of group welfare, standards of right and wrong, they are converted into mores.”

Types of Mores

I. Positive mores

II. Negative mores

Nature and Characteristics of Mores

I. Mores are the regulators of our social life

II. Mores are relatively more persistent

III. Mores vary from group to group

IV. Mores are backed by Values and Religion

Violation of Mores

3. Law

Law is an engine of social control. It is the formal social norm.

Violation of Law

2. Values

“Values are general standards and may be regarded as higher order norms.” – H.M Johnson

M.Haralambos “A value is a belief that something is good and worthwhile. It defines what is worth having and worth striving for.”

Functions of Values

Values and Norms

Types of Values

1. Cultural Values

2. Social Values

3. Beliefs

“Specific statements that people hold to be true.”

Types of Culture

1. Real Culture

2. Ideal Culture

3. Material Culture

4. Non-Material Culture

5. High Culture(A cultural pattern that distinguish society’s elite)

6. Popular Culture(Patterns that are widely spread among population)

Functions of Culture

1. Culture is the Treasury of Knowledge

2. Culture defines Situations

3. Culture Defines Attitudes, Values and Goals

4. Culture decides our career

5. Culture provides bahaviour patter

6. Culture Moulds personality

Organization of Culture

1. Cultural Pattern

2. Cultural Trait

3. Cultural Complex

4. Cultural Area

Other related concepts

1. Cultural Universals

2. Cultural Specialties

3. Cultural Alternatives

4. Core Culture

Sub-Culture(regional, rural, urban, ethnic subcultures)

Cultural Uniformities

1. Family Life

2. Marriage

3. Inheritance

4. Language

5. Housing

6. Clothes and Utensils

7. Education

8. Economic System

9. Profession

10. Political System

11. Religious Beliefs and Practices

12. Normative Order

Cultural Variabilities

1. Types of family

2. Types of Marriage

3. Customs of Marriage

4. Cultural Values

5. Religious Attitudes

6. Different Political Systems

7. Law of Inheritance

8. Settlement

9. Types of Language

10. Styles of Dress

11. Modes of Cultivation

12. Systems of Education

Causes of Cultural Variabilities and Similarities

Some Cultural Relationships

1. Culture and Physical Environment

2. Cultural Relativism

3. Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism and Personality

Positive Effects of Ethnocentrism

1. Encourages Social Solidarity

2. Creates sense of security within group(protection of members)

3. Promotes Nationalism and Patriotism

4. Promotes Caste and Biradri relations

5. Group Conformity

Negative Effects of Ethnocentrism

1. Creates Prejudices within societies

2. Hampers cooperation

3. Discourage change and curbs individual freedom

4. National development is slowed down

4. Technology and Culture

5. Language and Culture

6. Society and Culture

7. The Marginal Man

8. Cultural Refuge

9. Cultural Lag

Cultural Integration (The close relationship among various elements of a cultural system.)

His Excellency Mr. Asif Ali Zardari

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Asif Ali Zardari was born on 26 July 1955 to a Baloch family from Sindh province.
Mr. Zardari received his secondary education at Cadet College Petaro. He further pursued his education in London where he studied Business.
He was married to Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto in 1987 who was Prime Minister of Pakistan twice (1988-90 and 1993-96). Ms. Bhutto was assassinated in an attack in Rawalpindi on 27 December 2007. They have three children, Bilawal, Bakhtawar, and Asifa.
Mr. Zardari's political career spans two decades. He served as a Member of the National Assembly twice (1990-1993 and 1993-1996), as Federal Minister for Environment (1993-1996), and as Federal Minister for Investment (1995-1996). In 1997, he was elected Senator and served in that capacity until the dissolution of the Senate in 1999.

During this period, he helped formulate policies that expanded media freedom and access, revolutionized telecommunications, and opened Pakistan for foreign direct investment.

During Ms. Bhutto's first term in office, Mr. Zardari initiated broadcasting rights to CNN and BBC in Pakistan and introduced mobile telephone services nationwide. During her second term, Mr. Zardari was a principal architect in efforts to transform Pakistans power sector by encouraging major investment through independent power producers (IPPs). He was also a key initiator of the Iran-Pakistan natural gas pipeline project besides encouraging the introduction of FM radio in the private sector.

Following the 1990 elections, Mr. Zardari was wrongly implicated on a request by the then Government of Pakistan made under Mutual Assistance. In 2008, the case was closed after citing there was no evidence to bring Mr. Zardari to trial. In 1996, after a change of government, Mr. Zardari was again arrested. From 1997 to 2004, Mr. Zardari was unjustly imprisoned on various corruption charges for 11 years without any charges proven against him.

After the assassination of Shaheed Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto, Mr. Zardari was asked by the Central Executive Committee of the PPP to serve as Chairman of the Party. Although he was elected unopposed, he nominated his son Bilawal Bhutto Zardari for that role and volunteered to serve the Party as its Co-Chairman.

In 2008, Mr. Zardari was elected President of Pakistan. Under President Zardari, the PPP's candidate Syed Yousaf Raza Gillani was unanimously elected Prime Minister of Pakistan.

Mr. Zardari also spearheaded the election of Dr. Fehmida Mirza as the first female Speaker of Pakistan's National Assembly and continues to support the empowerment of women and minorities in all government policy making.

political Party he leads (the PPP) has formed coalition governments at the centre, three out of four federating units and in Gilgit-Baltistan.

http://www.presidentofpakistan.gov.pk/index.php?lang=en&opc=2&sel=2

Pakistani Politicians

2011-07-20T22:42:00.000-07:00

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was born on January 5, 1928. He was the only son of Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto completed his early education from Bombay's Cathedral High School. In 1947, he joined the University of Southern California, and later the University of California at Berkeley in June 1949. After completing his degree with honors in Political Science at Berkeley in June 1950, he was admitted to Oxford.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto married Nusrat Isphahani on September 8, 1951. He was called to Bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1953, and the same year his first child, Benazir Bhutto, was born on June 21. On his return to Pakistan, Bhutto started practicing Law at Dingomal's.

In 1958, he joined President Iskander Mirza's Cabinet as Commerce Minister. He was the youngest Minister in Ayub Khans Cabinet. In 1963, he took over the post of Foreign Minister from Muhammad Ali Bogra.

His first major achievement was to conclude the Sino-Pakistan boundary agreement on March 2, 1963. In mid 1964, Bhutto helped convince Ayub of the wisdom of establishing closer economic and diplomatic links with Turkey and Iran. The trio later on formed the R. C. D. In June 1966, Bhutto left Ayub's Cabinet over differences concerning the Tashkent Agreement.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto launched Pakistan Peoples Party after leaving Ayub's Cabinet. In the general elections held in December 1970, P. P. P. won a large majority in West Pakistan but failed to reach an agreement with Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman, the majority winner from East Pakistan. Following the 1971 War and the separation of East Pakistan, Yahya Khan resigned and Bhutto took over as President and Chief Martial Law Administrator on December 20, 1971.

In early 1972, Bhutto nationalized ten categories of major industries, and withdrew Pakistan from the Commonwealth of Nations and S. E. A. T. O. when Britain and other western countries recognized the new state of Bangladesh. On March 1, he introduced land reforms, and on July 2, 1972, signed the Simla Agreement with India, which paved the way for the return of occupied lands and the release of Pakistani prisoners captured in East Pakistan in the 1971 war.

After the National Assembly passed the 1973 Constitution, Bhutto was sworn-in as the Prime Minister of the country.

On December 30, 1973, Bhutto laid the foundation of Pakistan's first steel mill at Pipri, near Karachi. On January 1, 1974, Bhutto nationalized all banks. On February 22, 1974, the second Islamic Summit was inaugurated in Lahore. Heads of States of most of the 38 Islamic countries attended the Summit.

Following a political crisis in the country, Bhutto was imprisoned by General Zia-ul-Haq, who imposed Martial Law on July 5, 1977.

On April 4, 1979, the former Prime Minister was hanged, after the Supreme Court upheld the death sentence passed by the Lahore High Court. The High Court had given him the death sentence on charges of murder of the father of a dissident P. P. P. politician.

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was buried in his ancestral village at Garhi Khuda Baksh, next to his father's grave

Local-Bodies or Local Biradari System: An Analysis of the Role of Biradaries in the Local Bodies System of the Punjab by Dr. Mughees Ahmed

2011-07-06T19:58:00.000-07:00

Local-Bodies or Local Biradari System: An Analysis of the Role of Biradaries in the Local Bodies System of the Punjab by Dr. Mughees Ahmed

Abstract:

The local government is the drill of democracy at the lower level, and this is the source of political education. In developing countries like Pakistan these institutions work as a power show of local groups/biradaries (clans, fraternity). Here an attempt is made to present a general view of such elements which resist change in local bodies system, with appropriate examples from different districts of Punjab and biradari influence on this system. Such a study can provide a preliminary base to extend the boundaries of local government’s politics and a diminutive detail on the role of biradaries in local bodies system. Historical, analytical and comparative approach is adopted in this discourse. The study of voting behaviour has been observed under Behavioural Approach.

Contextual Analysis

According to U.N.O., local government is such an organization that is set up through proper channels. It has an authority of levying taxes and so on, and this organization in set up with the local-bodies election. De Tocqueville, French scholar, observes the local assemblies of citizens which constitute the strength of free nation. A nation may establish a system of free government, but without the spirit of municipal institution it cannot have the spirit of liberty. Laski says, “we cannot realize the full benefit of democratic government unless we begin by the admission that all problems are not central problems, and that the results of problems; not central in their incidence, require decision at the place and by the persons, where and by whom the incidence is most deeply felt.” It is commonly argued that ‘primordial’ group identities such as family, kinship and caste, or membership in a village faction, play a more important role in determining voting behaviour in the sub-continent, than individual political preferences. The offspring of one grand parent belongs to the same caste and the collection of castes is called “biradari” (literally ‘brotherhood’). Historical Background Like other countries, the local government had been set up in the sub-continent by the central government. It began in sub-continent in the English era. But, this was present in the shape of Panchayet in the era of Vedas (1000 B.C.). Panchayat is an old institution in the sub-continent comprising on a body of supreme authority (elder men) of villagers, those were responsible for collection of revenues, adjudication of all disputes, and maintenance of law and order in the community. Later in the Mughal era Panchayat was also institution for cases concerning financial matters, religious affairs and other general cases, the Panchayat, would make the ruling. This system is the ancient shape of democracy. The district administration has derived in character from Muslim’s Revenue Administration of India established by Sher Shah Suri (1529-45). He divided his empire into 47 divisions or Sarkars. In districts there were four officials in Mughal era, namely the Faujadar, the Amal Guzar, the Bitikchi and the Khazandar. Districts were further divided into the perganans there were further officials namely the Shikdar, the Munsif or Amil, the Fotadar, and the Qanungo. Under the British, local system was introduced in Lahore in 1850. In 1882, the system of Lord Ripon in which he said that the councils would prove as the school of democracy, it began stronger properly. The local bodies system remained stronger on round basis. After the creation of Pakistan, Ayub introduced a comprehensive scheme of local self-government popularly known as Basic Democracies. Local institutions are sub-units at the public level to which the government gives some authority so that, they may be able to solve local problems with local resources. The scheme was enforced through a detailed law known as Basic Democracies Order, 1959 with effect from 27th October, 1959 in Pakistan in the shape of basic democracy. In the election of 1959, 1962 and 1965, the National Assembly was chosen by the members of basic democracy. The leader of District council was Deputy Commissioner at that time. In 1979, 1983, 1987 and 1991 chairman district council was head of local government. Local Bodies were not encouraged during Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s era (1973 to 1977) The proposed elections to be held under the People’s Local Government Ordinance of 1975 promulgated by Pakistan’s first democratically elected government and which meant to elect town and municipal committees (as well as councils in the rural area), were never held.

District Nazims have been working as head of district government and Naib Nazim (deputy) as speaker of district assemblies since 2001. In Pakistan, local groups in the shape of biradaries take part in local bodies’ elections and are more active than political parties. The reason is that local bodies’ elections are held on non-party basis. In 1985, general elections were held on non-party basis and the majority of the members of Provincial Assembly were from local bodies.

An Appraisal of Local Bodies in the Punjab

The dominating ideology in a society has always been an important determinant in determining the nature of the political system at national as well as at local levels.12 Local Bodies had been hijacked by local biradaries and Nazims linked to majority biradaries. These ties became very important during general elections and influenced the results of contests at local level. Andrew Wilder opines on local bodies and its role: The 1985 National and Provincial Assemblies elections demonstrated that local body politics had become the entry point into provincial and national politics. According to one press account 124 of the 240 members elected to the Punjab Provincial Assembly were sitting members of local body. This had two important consequences. First, it meant that provincial and national politics began to resemble local body politics. Patronage politics became the order of the day, and representing personal and constituent interests became much more important for legislators than representing national interests. The second important consequence was that this put the PPP, which had not actively participated in local body politics, at a severe disadvantage.13 The social system of the Punjab is characterized by a dominant caste system or biradarism. It impacts the political system at national as well as local levels. Zia’s policies made it stronger. One of General Zia’s most durable political legacies, and perhaps the one that has been the most harmful to the political parties, was the ‘localization of politics’. This shifted political attention away from national politics. Local identities and local issues became the substance of the Punjab politics. Political loyalties were increasingly determined by family, faction, and biradari ties, and political power was determined by the amount of patronage at one’s disposal. A class system of ‘machine politics’ developed where politics consisted not of formulating and implementing public policies or concerning oneself with the national interest, but in assisting constituents with thana, katcheri (police station and court house) problems, introducing local community development schemes, and in doling out patronage in the form of government jobs, welfare funds, contracts, licenses, loans, and land. Zia’s strategy of diverting political energy from national to local issues had the intended effect.14 In Pakistan political parties except Muslim League (N or Q) have not been taking interest in local bodies’ election but in 2002 elections they contested in groups with different names. (Jamat Islami (Ihtsaab group), PML-N (Quaid-i-Azam group), PML-HK (Istehkam-e-Pakistan group), Pakistan Awami Tehreek (Awam group), Tehreek-Insaf (Insaf group), Millat Party (Sher Dad group) and more than 80 % local candidates male and female belonged directly to the political parties and their identity on local basis was related to their political party. This is why the government could not get success in keeping the political factors away from the local bodies. The local biradaries are the real power than the political parties. In a real sense the local biradaries have absorbed the political parties. There are different points of view about formation of local bodies. According to Andrew Heywood, a public body is staffed by appointees rather than politicians or civil servants15. Ian Mclean writes that ‘In United States, a mayor is most frequently separately elected as the political leader of a council. In smaller US cities the mayor is a figurehead and the city is run by an unelected ‘city manager’. In Britain, councilors are commonly members of a party group. The majority party’s leader became the chair of the council.16 Local groups became active and participated as a representative of political parties during general elections and local dominating biradaries’ groups are remarkable in those groups. In the US, the situation is similar but National or the State intervention is minimal and local groups are not sectional groups. These interest groups play role in interest articulation and local politics as well. One of the reasons behind this is the presence of dominant interest groups which dilute the hostility between the two parties. These groups are more active and effective than the political parties.17 International Crisis Group comments in its report on Musharraf’s Devolution of Power Plan and role of caste/ tribal (Biradari) in these words: Under the Devolution of Power Plan announced in August 2000, local governments were to be elected on a non-party basis … The reforms, far from enhancing democracy, have strengthened military rule and may actually raise the risks of internal conflict … Musharraf’s scheme ostensibly aimed at establishing the foundations of genuine local democracy. However, the main rationale for devolution was and remains regime legitimacy and survival. Aside from the widespread allegations of rigging and manipulation that have shadowed them, the non-partisan nature of the local elections has exacerbated ethnic, caste and tribal divisions and undermined the organisational coherence of political parties.18 The Provincial governments also interfered in the elections of District Nazims. These seats of Nazims are distributed between major biradaries on the basis of their majority in the district. In some instances, candidate nominated/supported by provincial government gained success with the help of major biradaries. The District Nazims are local politicians and some times they preferred to become district head than the members of national/provincial assemblies.19 These are mostly current or former members of National assembly/Provincial assembly. Candidates cannot come out of the biradari sphere from the catalogue of candidates to the victory. The hustle and bustle is enhanced in biradari dwellings with the election results. A common man begins to take interest in the counting of biradaries votes, after the commencement of the battle of vote counting. The personality or ideologies are snubbed because of relationship with biradari; and the members of every biradari gather instantaneously or somewhat latter, in the tent of their biradari’s head. Whether the candidate is of district chairman Faisalabad or Toba Tek Singh, biradari majority is shown to the common lot and the newspapers. The election alliances are made among the major and the minor biradaries. The central point of the election campaign seems biradarism. Candidates contest in groups and panel. If the candidate of District Nazim belongs to major biradari the Naib Nazim will be from second largest biradari and this tendency fluctuates district to district. Though these alliances have no ideological base but nevertheless succeed. The loss or victory in the elections is considered the loss or victory of biradari. The victory or defeat of biradari is made the topic for discussion in the government and semi-government institutions of the region; and the discussion is to be continued on the hidden realities of the election campaign for months. The defeat or victory in the election is considered the action and behaviour of biradari, instead, of action and behaviour of an individual. Some or the other biradari is claimed as the cause of defeat. In the matter of success of the alien group, instead of giving thanks to the allied biradari, to call their success as a blessing of God; to create the cause of maintaining biradari conflict and to give the concept of thanklessness is often seen. The deep-rooted impacts of biradarism are seen in the headship of institutions, new recruitments and appointment in important offices. The greetings from biradaries and feasts in the pleasure of success become usual. Biradari ties encircled the successful candidate, so even if he wanted to get out of this circle, he cannot do so. The recruitments, promotion or transfer of local officials are counted in the positive aspect of his own biradari and in the negative aspect of the rival biradari. As though, every administrative decision is analyzed in the light of biradarism. Those elected with support of an ethnic group and a Biradari will consider employment, construct roads, streets and schools for their own group.20 The role of idle fellows is very prominent in this case. They pretended to be busy and secure their interests on the basis of biradrism in Pakistan in general. This affects the Standard of recruitment. That is why, these impacts are seen obviously. Statement showing Biradari positions in last two local bodies’ elections Table 1 District Nazim 2001 Biradari Nazim 2005 Biradari Lahore Amer Mehmood Arain Amer Mehmood Arain Sheikhopura Tawaqualullah Virk Jat Jaleel Sharaqpuri Arain Qasoor Rana Imtiaz Rajput Rana Imtiaz Rajput Okarra Sajjad Haider Kirmani Syed Asad Ali Ghilani Syed Gujranwala Fiaz Chattha Jat Fiaz Chattha Jat Gujrat Ch.Shafaat Husain Jat Ch.Shafaat Husain Jat Sialkot Naeem Javaed Arain Akmal Cheema Jat Mandi Bahauddin Nazar M Gondal Jat Riaz Asghar Jat Hafizabad Ali Ahmed Awan Awan Mubashar Bhatti Rajput Narowal Javed Safdar KahlonJat Dr.Naimatullah Javed Gujjar Rawalpindi Tariq Kiani Rajput Raja Javed Akhlas Rajput Attock Tahir Sadiq Rajput Tahir Sadiq Rajput Chakwal Ghulam Abbas Rajput Ghulam Abbas Rajput Sargodha Amjad Noon Rajput Inamul Haq Sheikh Khushab Ahsaanullah TawanaRajput Ghulam Muhammed Rajput Mianwali Umer Hayat Pathan Umer Hayat Pathan Bhakkar Hamid Akbar Nawani Baloch Hamid Akbar Nawani Baloch Faisalabad Ch. Zahid Nazir Arain Rana Zahid Tousif Rajput T.T. Singh Ch. Ashfaq Arain Ch. Abdul Sattar Arain Jhang Hamid Sultan Awan Hamid Sultan Awan Multan Riaz Qureshi Syed Faisal Mukhtar Sheikh Khanewal Ahmed Yar Hiraj J/ R Ahmed Yar Hiraj J/R * Pakpattan Amjad Joya J/R Rao Naseem Hashim Rajput Lodharan Abdulrahman Kanjo J/R Abdulrahman J/R Sahiwal Rai Hassan Nawaz Rajput Rai Hassan Nawaz Rajput Vehari Mumtaz Khan Khichi J/R Syed Shahid MehdiSyed Bahawalpur Tariq Bashir CheemaJat Tariq Bashir Cheema Jat Bahawalnagar Ali Akbar Vainse Jat Mian Mumtaz Matiana Rajput Rahimyar Khan Ahmed Mehmood Syed Rafiq Laghari Baloch Jhelum Ch. Farrukh Altaf Jat Ch. Farrukh Altaf Jat Layyah Shahadatdin Sehr Rajput Ghulam Haider Thind Jat D.G. Khan Jamal Khan Laghari Baloch Maqsud Ahmed Laghari Baloch Rajanpur Hafeez Rahman Darashik Baloch Raza Khan Darashik Baloch Muzafargarrah Sultan Hinjra Jat Abdul Qayyum Jatoi Baloch Source. Daily Jang, 16th September 2005 * J/R indicates Jatt and Rajput. These biradaries are found both in Jatts and Rajputs. Table-1 is showing the strength and dominating appearance of biradaries. In Northern Punjab, Rajput biradari looks dominant. Jatts are in majority in Central Punjab and also sharing in southern Punjab. Arains are sharing in Central Punjab while Balochs are dominating in southern Punjab. The local bodies’ elections are held primarily on biradari basis, so, local biradaries decide the candidate, then the election campaign begins and collective efforts become the cause of success. After the local bodies’ election, the real contest is for the Chairman District Council (District Nazim) and the provincial government is also indulged in it; this is why, the common man knows already who will succeed. But, occasionally, the result is taken out quite opposite. The local bodies’ institutions highlight the influences of biradarism. Ch. Ashfaq District Nazim (2004) Toba Tek Sing said in his interview that the impacts of biradarism were also present in the election of District Nazim and the pressure of which remained on the latter matters21. Muhammad Azam Chaudhary’s (1994) result, with the reference of Loshen Wolf’s book “The Life of Rippon” is that “the election of municipal administrator added fuel to fire to the racial prejudices”22 is true now-a-days. During the Martial Law regimes, it was felt necessary to introduce local government institutions in the country. Local bodies schemes are introduced to rural development programme.23 The military intervention weakened the political system at national and at local level as well. Local bodies are regarded as the backbone of a democratic order. Zia, who was averse to elections otherwise, relied heavily on local bodies elections to introduce a new cadre of leadership throughout Pakistan and succeeded largely in this attempt”.24 Members of Parliament also interfere in the elections of District Nazims. They support their relatives even if it is against the policy of their political party. The ruling party supports the candidates openly but opposition is checked. Manzoor Chandio writes, “District Nazims were removed on the plea that they would use their influence in the election but the opposition alleges that government resources are being used in the election campaign by ministers, advisers and leaders of the parties in the ruling coalition.”25 Punjabi politics can be divided into urban and rural politics. Trend of people in cities is different from rural areas. Messon draws a picture about this trend in these words, “People in the countryside think in terms of Biradaries (tribes and clans); those in urban areas stick to sectarian and ethnic identities. There are also people who view the world divided on religious lines. The problem arises when the state fails to strike a balance and plays a role in imposing value system of the one on the other.”26 After the result of the contest the common member of succeeded biradari is congratulated, though he was not the integral part of the election campaign, but he takes part in the role of biradari in the routine matters. Voters cast their vote to their own biradari. They involve themselves totally in election campaign and they play their role even as candidate. They contest for victory of their biradari not for individual. Tahsil Nazim Chak Jhumra (Faisalabad) Fawad Ahmad Cheema (2006) told in this context that the candidates took the help of biradari, because they wanted to succeed. He used every method for gaining success and the weapon of biradari is also used for success and on the other hand, the voters or councilors cast their votes voluntarily to their own biradari.27 Rootless democracy promoted clans politics and local bodies system made it stronger. If sectarianism and ethnocentric politics are a legacy of General Zia, the era of General Musharraf will be remembered for elections without contest.28 Conclusion and Recommendations: The focal concern of this study has been the rationalization of the role of biradari in local bodies’ politics in Punjab. It is concluded that local bodies’ politics in actual fact is biradari politics and with the process of local bodies system it is playing vital role. The voting has caused grave rifts within civil society by stiring up the tribal feuds and biradarism. People are already thinking of how to push forward their families and clans in the next election. For a person to win, he better belong to a dominant ‘biradari’. Every political party had nominated candidates belonging to larger clans, is very near to the result of this study. It is human nature to exercise ethnic preference for their own group in the form of aggression against others. Some advantages are also found in the study. Biradarism assumes the status of the central character in the local bodies’ elections. It fills the gap of political parties. It is a type of contest which is essential feature of democracy. In Pakistan the biradari system provides security and power for millions of its members. It gives them an identity because biradari is not just a matter of being a Jatt or a Rajput, it is also a kinship system. The system provides a wider support group than a family: a group which has a social life in which all its members participate. This tendency should be prevalent with in the boundaries of social system rather than political system. In short Ayub’s basic democracy, Zia’s rootless democracy promoted biradarism and by holding party-less local body elections, politics based on ethnicity and Biradarism has been given chance. The local body policies of the Ayub’s regime which was basic democracies, like wise Zia’s ‘rootless democracy’ and Musharraf’s ‘devolution plan’ has not been practiced with factual sagacity except the promotion of biradarism. Political awareness should be necessitated by the ruling regimes in the social fabric of the society. The study has engendered multifaceted proposals to stamp out unconstructive role of biradarism from the social fabric of the Pakistani society. The local governments, which solve the problems of the public on the local level and their system, can be checked. The constructive role of biradaries can be experienced through transparent and accountable national party politics. Elections of District Nazims must be held on party basis, the District Nazim should be nominated by political parties and his candidature must be announced before the elections, so that the candidates run the election campaign in the shape of ideological group not in biradari base. In this way an opportunity will be given to several biradaries to reach at the top, and biradarism will be discouraged to some extent and its advantage will be for the common lot not for the particular class. The people think that the District Nazim can solve their little problems like minor job, access to the higher authorities and if the Nazim is of their own biradari, the task will become easy to solve, but it will be the hindrance in the way of opponent biradari. There is a great need to wipe out such doubts and apprehensions. Political parties must allow participating in local bodies’ elections. Chairman should be a local political leader belonging to any political party. Political participation at local level can promote grass root politics. This tendency will help to fill the political leadership gap. Thus there is a need to bridge the fissure of political leadership. The role of political parties in rural area is very crucial to promote democratic values in the country. Political education policy is required to initiate from grass root level which is lacking in the Pakistani society. The political awareness will ultimately lead to the prevalence of transparent and accountable local bodies system.

Pakistani social life revolves around family and kin

2011-07-06T19:48:00.000-07:00

Pakistani social life revolves around family and kin. Even among members of the most Westernized elite, family retains its overarching significance. The family is the basis of social organization, providing its members with both identity and protection. Rarely does an individual live apart from relatives; even male urban migrants usually live with relatives or friends of kin. Children live with their parents until marriage, and sons often stay with their parents after marriage, forming a joint family.

The household is the primary kinship unit. In its ideal, or extended, form, it includes a married couple, their sons, their sons' wives and children, and unmarried offspring. Sons establish separate households upon their father's death. Whether or not an extended household endures depends on the preferences of the individuals involved. Quarrels and divisiveness, particularly among the women (mother-in-law and daughters-in-law), can lead to the premature dissolution of a joint household.

Descent is reckoned patrilineally, so only those related through male ancestors are considered relatives. The biradari, or group of male kin (the patrilineage), plays a significant role in social relations. Its members neither hold movable property in common nor share earnings, but the honor or shame of individual members affects the general standing of the biradari within the community. A common proverb expresses this view: "One does not share the bread, but one shares the shame."

In theory, members of a biradari are coresidents of a single village. In some areas, however, land fragmentation and generations of out-migration have led to the dispersal of many members of the biradari among various villages, regions, and cities. Patrilineal kin continue to maintain ties with their natal village and enjoy the legal right of first refusal in any biradari land sale.

Members of a biradari celebrate the major life events together. Patrilineal kin are expected to contribute food and to help with guests in the ceremonies accompanying birth, marriage, death, and major religious holidays. The biradari has traditionally served as a combined mutual aid society and welfare agency, arranging loans to members, assisting in finding employment, and contributing to the dowries of poorer families.

There is considerable pressure for patrilineal kin to maintain good relations with one another. Biradari members who quarrel will try to resolve their differences before major social occasions so that the patrilineage can present a united front to the village. People with sons and daughters of marriageable age keenly feel the necessity to maintain good relations because a person whose family is at odds with his or her biradari is considered a poor marriage prospect.

Although descent is reckoned patrilineally, women maintain relations with their natal families throughout life. The degree of involvement with maternal kin varies among ethnic groups and among regions of the country. The tie between brother and sister is typically strong and affectionate; a woman looks to her brothers for support in case of divorce or widowhood early in her marriage. In those regions where families maintain considerable contact with maternal kin, children, even though they are members of their father's patrilineage, are indulged by their mother s kin. Just as a family's relations with its biradari are considered in evaluating a potential spouse, so in these regions may the mother's kin be assessed.

Marriage is a means of allying two extended families; romantic attachments have little role to play. The husband and wife are primarily representatives of their respective families in a contractual arrangement, which is typically negotiated between two male heads of household. It is fundamentally the parents' responsibility to arrange marriages for their children, but older siblings may be actively involved if the parents die early or if they have been particularly successful in business or politics. The terms are worked out in detail and are noted, by law, at the local marriage registry.

Marriage is a process of acquiring new relatives or reinforcing the ties one has with others. To participate fully in society, a person must be married and have children, preferably sons, because social ties are defined by giving away daughters in marriage and receiving daughters-in-law. Marriage with one's father's brother's child is preferred, in part because property exchanged at marriage then stays within the patrilineage. The relationship between in-laws extends beyond the couple and well past the marriage event. Families related by marriage exchange gifts on important occasions in each others lives. If a marriage is successful, it will be followed by others between the two families. The links thus formed persist and are reinforced through the generations. The pattern of continued intermarriage coupled with the occasional marriage of nonrelatives creates a convoluted web of interlocking ties of descent and marriage.

A woman's life is difficult during the early years of marriage. A young bride has very little status in her husband s household; she is subservient to her mother-in-law and must negotiate relations with her sisters-in-law. Her situation is made easier if she has married a cousin and her mother-in-law is also her aunt. The proper performance of all the elaborate marriage ceremonies and the accompanying exchange of gifts also serve to enhance the new bride's status. Likewise, a rich dowry serves as a trousseau; the household goods, clothing, jewelry, and furniture included remain the property of the bride after she has married.

A wife gains status and power as she bears sons. Sons will bring wives for her to supervise and provide for her in her old age. Daughters are a liability, to be given away in an expensive marriage with their virginity intact. Therefore, mothers favor their sons. In later life, the relationship between a mother and her son remains intimate, in all likelihood with the mother retaining far more influence over her son than his wife has.

People in Pakistan

2011-03-13T15:12:00.000-07:00

People in Pakistan

The people of Pakistan are diverse ethnically. This diversity in Pakistan is the result of history and its geographic location. Historically region which Pakistan comprises was invaded many times during different periods by different rulers having different identities. Sometime Aryans and sometimes Muslims and sometimes Mongols. After independence in 1947 in Pakistan some other ethnic identities penetrated into Pakistan i.e Urdu speaking Mohajirs in 1947 and Afghan refugees during 1980's afghan wars, which dramatically changed the demographic situation of certain areas of Pakistan. The People of Pakistan belongs to the ethnic groups such as Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Greek, Scythian, Hun, Arab, Mongol, Persian, and Afghan. Religion in Pakistan always supercede ethnicity. It is because of Pakistan's History and policies of leaders later on after independence. People speak many languages and perform many different cultural rituals.

Population of Pakistan: 153,705,278 (2004)
Growth rate: 2% per year (2004)
Urban: 34% (2004)
Rural: 64% (2004)