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Infections: Your comprehensive guide

2022-01-06T11:00:00.002-08:00

Infections may be a major cause of recovery, and may be the cause of some chronic diseases, so we offer you everything related to infections in this article.

Infections help repair a wound or fight disease, but if the immune cells start to work excessively, that inflammation can go against us, causing many diseases and serious complications. Here is the most important information related to infections:

Infections: definition

Inflammation is a natural and protective reaction of the body to infectious organisms, such as: bacteria , or viruses, but if this inflammation does not stop in time, then immediate medical intervention is required.

Characteristic signs of inflammation

There are several symptoms that tell you that you suffer from infections, which are the following:

· Inflamed areas are warm.

· Pain in the joints .

· Swelling and redness of the affected area.

· fever and feeling cold

· Fatigue and loss of energy.

· Headache and loss of appetite.

Causes of infections

The following are the main reasons why the body is exposed to infections:

· Microbial infection, whether bacteria or various viruses.

· Exposure to trauma, such as: cuts, scrapes, or some burns.

· Tumors of all kinds.

· A significant increase in temperature or a sharp decrease in temperature.

Types of infections

There are two main types of infections, know them:

· Acute inflammation

· It is a series of processes that start with excess blood flowing to the site of the injury, causing inflammation, such as: gingivitis .

· Chronic inflammation

· It occurs when the immune system is affected by a defect or disturbance in the performance of its main function, as white blood cells begin to attack healthy tissues and organs in the body, causing autoimmune diseases.

Negative effects of inflammation

There are ways in which inflammation affects our health, and they are as follows:

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1. Arthritis

2. It is a chronic inflammation that often leads to rheumatoid arthritis, as it causes joint swelling, which in turn negatively affects the cartilage and bones.

3. High risk of cancer

4. Many scientific studies have linked recurrent infections with lung cancer, esophageal cancer, cervical cancer, and gastrointestinal cancer , because recurrent infection leads to a deterioration in immune regulation, and creates an optimal environment for the growth of cancer cells.

5. Heart disease

6. Viral infection usually causes myocarditis, which reduces its ability to pump oxygenated blood to the various parts of the body, and causes an overall disorder of the heart system.

7. Encephalitis

8. It is an inflammation of the brain tissue and there are many causes, but the most common cause is a viral infection, and encephalitis causes confusion in thinking, and problems with the senses and movement.

9. Inflammation in the lungs

10. Inflammation in the lung can cause fluid to collect and narrow the airway, making breathing difficult.

11. Inflammation may be the direct cause of many diseases related to the respiratory system, such as: asthma and bronchitis.

12. Inflammation of the intestine

13. It is a chronic disease that causes inflammation in various parts of the digestive system, and its symptoms include abdominal pain, fatigue, rectal bleeding, night sweats, and decreased appetite.

14. Hepatitis C virus

15. It is a virus in the blood that infects liver cells, and may eventually lead to serious liver damage, liver failure, or liver cancer.

16. Vaginal infections in women

17. It is an inflammation of the vagina that may lead to discharge, itching and pain, usually due to a change in the normal balance of vaginal bacteria or infection.

18. Vasculitis

19. It is an inflammatory condition of the blood vessels that occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks a blood vessel, damaging the lining of the vessel, reducing or stopping blood flow altogether.

Infection treatment

Infections are treated with:

1. Medication treatment

When the inflammation is caused by a microbial infection, the inflammation is treated by antibiotics, and non-microbial infections are treated by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as: ibuprofen and Paracetamol, which prevent white blood cells from destroying healthy tissue in the body.

2. Food therapy

Inflammation can be reduced by eating certain foods, such as:

Nuts: Nuts contain elements that calm inflammation and protect body cells.

Raisins: Raisins contain antioxidants that help calm inflammation.
Ginger: Ginger contains anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, which help protect the cells of the body from infections.
Fruits and vegetables: These are foods rich in antioxidants.
Garlic: Garlic contains powerful antioxidants that fight microbes, and garlic strengthens the immune system that protects the body from infections.
Thyme oil: It has various nutritional and health benefits, including treating some respiratory infections, and ridding the body of viruses and parasites that attack the body.

Nice Girl

2015-12-28T16:56:00.001-08:00

Nice Girl

fashion class night lace top

2012-09-22T12:46:00.000-07:00

Do you struggle with transforming your outfits from day to night? Don’t worry, CF is here to help turn that daily annoyance into a fun challenge. This column focuses on one piece per week, and aims to help you take your look from study sessions in the library to dancing the night away.
Here at CF, we are firmly of the opinion that lace is not just for little girls, grannies, and vampires. These days, lace as so versatile it might as well be considered a neutral fabric. A touch of lace can take your look anywhere from ultra-feminine, to retro-glam, or even dark and edgy.
This week, I’ll be showing you how to style a basic cream lace top for both a cute-but-casual day of class, and a glamorous evening out. Read on for more!

Lace Top: Class

Top, Jeans, Scarf, Brogues, Bag, Earrings

For a girly daytime look, pair your lace top with your favorite pair of pastel colored jeans – wear them now before you put them away for winter. (I’m a huge fan of this salmon colored pair.) Add vintage flair with a pair of tan lace-up brogues and a graphic print scarf. Keep the rest of your accessories classic but cute by trying out a cream leather tote and a pair of glitzy fuchsia studs.

Lace Top: Night Out

Top, Skirt, Pumps, Bag, Necklace, Ring

Get dolled up for night by pairing your lace top with a glamorous magenta peplum skirt – so on trend for fall! Add a touch of edge with a pair of black gladiator-style pumps and a gold cluster statement necklace. For your finishing touches, sport a black quilted cross-body bag and a “quilted,” heart-shaped cocktail ring.

Hair Care and charming look for girls

2012-09-20T17:21:00.000-07:00

Step 1- Start with clean dry hair. For fine hair, use a root lifter like Oribe Volumista Mist.

Step 2- Separate the hair into 4 sections – sides, hair at the nape of neck and hair at the crown.

Step 3- With a curling iron (a ½ inch or 1 inch barrel works best), take 1 inch sections of hair and wrap down the barrel, curling away from face. Repeat.

Step 3 1/2- Use a light hair spray like Oribe Superfine Hairspray to set each curl.

Step 4- Finish the look by using a wide tooth bone comb to lightly comb out curls which creates that amazing natural look. For more volume, back comb the section at the crown. For a more polished look, work some Moroccan oil in to the ends.

Step 5- One final spray all over and you are READY TO GO!

BONUS TIP: If you don’t have a curling iron, the same look can be created with a set of steam rollers!

Jess’ Style

2012-09-20T17:15:00.000-07:00

Jess’ Style 101

Rainbow Bright. No neutrals for this girl! Jess’ wardrobe is all about rich, saturated colors. She never shies away from bright hues, which makes her outfits just as bubbly and cheerful as her personality.
Pattern-palooza. Along with lots of bold colors, Jess is all about wearing unique patterns. Whether she wears a patterned blouse, skirt or dress, she knows how to blend each piece seamlessly with other colorful items and never lets a print overpower the rest of her look.
Short story. Jess is all about wearing flouncy, short skirts and dresses. This length not only creates a fun, youthful and flirty look, but showcases Jess’ great legs and fab shoes.
Flat Stanley. Speaking of shoes, no Jess-inspired ensemble would be complete without her footwear staple: ballet flats. Jess seems to own a pair of cute and comfy flats in every color imaginable, which she uses to mix and match with all her outfits.

3 Jess-Inspired Outfits

Now that you know a little bit more about her personal style, check out these three outfits, which each capture a different element of Jess’ one-of-a-kind look:

Outfit #1: The Little Red Dress

Dress, Headband, Earrings, Flats

While some girls swear by a good LBD, Jess’ go-to frock is a Little Red Dress. She’s worn several LRDs so far in the series and always mixes them up with different shoes and accessories to keep her look fresh and fun.
For the first look, I decided to dress up this clean-cut and absolutely adorable LRD for the upcoming holiday season. Some black, glitter-encrusted flats add just the right amount of sparkle, while these drop earrings are both elegant and whimsical. Add a glam headband (and opaque tights if it’s cold) and voilà, a simple LRD looks festive and holiday party-ready.

Outfit #2: Mix and Match

Skirt, Necklace, Top, Flats

Jess definitely knows how wear prints like a pro, but I especially love the way she mixes two pieces with the same type of pattern. For example, in the photo above, Jess is wearing two different polka dotted pieces to create an eccentric, yet stylish outfit.
To create a similar look to Jess’, I chose to mix two striped pieces, and while both pieces look different, the similar coloring keeps the look chic and not over-the-top. Also, the wider stripes on the skirt help to balance the more narrow ones on the shirt. The ballet flats are the same pink shade as the belt, which helps to keep the outfit from looking too busy. For a finishing touch, add a delicate piece of jewelry, like this horseshoe-shaped necklace.

Outfit #3: Contrasting Colored Shoes

Cardigan, Earrings, Dress, Flats

Jess is always pairing her outfits with deliberately mismatched shoes. No, I’m not talking Helena Bonahm Carter-level mismatching, but instead Jess wears colorful shoes that don’t necessarily ”match” her outfit in the traditional sense, as shown in the photo above. The key to this look is to pair the outfit with shoes in a contrasting shade (i.e. not a color that’s complimentary or analogous), which will create a fun and eye-catching look.
To get this look, pair a blue patterned dress with a navy cardigan. The two blue pieces complement each other and create a monochromatic look. Add some pretty green flats for a contrasting shade, then accessorize with some quirky-cute mustache earrings.

Jess’ Beauty Routine

While her outfits are undoubtedly fabulous, Jess’ hair and makeup routine is definitely the finishing touch. Check out some Jess-inspired beauty picks below:

Curling Iron, Hairspray, Curl Enhancer, NARS The Multiple, Mascara, Eyeshadow Palette, Eyeliner

Jess’ makeup is fresh-faced and low key, so start by applying a very light amount of your favorite foundation or tinted moisturizer. Next, apply some subtle, neutral-colored eyeshadow and lightly line the top and bottom of your eyes with a brown or black eyeliner. Jess is all about the ginormous lashes, so plump yours up by applying two to three coats of a volumizing mascara. Finally, use a pink-based all-in-one makeup product (like NARS The Multiple), then apply it to the apples of your cheeks for a rosy glow and to your lips for some subtle color.
As far as hair goes, Jess rocks some romantic, soft and totally gorgeous waves. To get her look, start by adding some curl enhancer to damp hair to create waves. Once it dries, start defining the waves by wrapping small sections of hair around a curling iron, then add a spritz of hairspray to each section for extra hold. Need a more detailed step-by-step guide? Lucky for us, the website HelloGiggles (which Zooey helped co-found) has done just that! Check out the official how-to here.

History of fashion design 1826 - 2011 Images Fashion Style hair styles young girls and stylesh

2011-08-24T13:44:00.000-07:00

History of fashion

Couture beginnings

The first fashion designer who was not merely a dressmaker was Charles Frederick Worth (1826–1895). Before the former draper set up his maison de couture(fashion house) in Paris, clothing design and creation was handled by largely anonymous seamstresses, and high fashion descended from styles worn at royal courts. Worth's success was such that he was able to dictate to his customers what they should wear, instead of following their lead as earlier dressmakers had done.

It was during this period that many design houses began to hire artists to sketch or paint designs for garments. The images alone could be presented to clients much more cheaply than by producing an actual sample garment in the workroom. If the client liked the design, they ordered it and the resulting garment made money for the house. Thus, the tradition of designers sketching out garment designs instead of presenting completed garments on models to customers began as an economy.

Early twentieth century

Throughout the early 20th century, practically all high fashion originated in Paris and to a lesser extent London. Fashion magazines from other countries sent editors to the Paris fashion shows. Department stores sent buyers to the Paris shows, where they purchased garments to copy (and openly stole the style lines and trim details of others). Both made-to-measure salons and ready-to-wear departments featured the latest Paris trends, adapted to the stores' assumptions about the lifestyles and pocket books of their targeted customers.

At this time in fashion history the division between haute couture and ready-to-wear was not sharply defined. The two separate modes of production were still far from being competitors, and, indeed, they often co-existed in houses where the seamstresses moved freely between made-to-measure and ready-made.

Around the start of the 20th century fashion style magazines began to include photographs and became even more influential than in the future. In cities throughout the world these magazines were greatly sought-after and had a profound effect on public taste. Talented illustrators - among them Paul Iribe, Georges Lepape, Erté, and George Barbier - drew exquisite fashion plates for these publications, which covered the most recent developments in fashion and beauty. Perhaps the most famous of these magazines was La Gazette du bon ton which was founded in 1912 by Lucien Vogel and regularly published until 1925 (with the exception of the war years).

1900s

The outfits worn by the fashionable women of the 'Belle Époque' (as this era was called by the French) were strikingly similar to those worn in the heyday of the fashion pioneer Charles Worth. By the end of the 19th-century, the horizons of the fashion industry had generally broadened, partly due to the more stable and independent lifestyle many well-off women were beginning to adopt and the practical clothes they demanded. However, the fashions of the La Belle Époque still retained the elaborate, upholstered, hourglass-shaped style of the 19th century. As of yet, no fashionable lady could (or would) dress or undress herself without the assistance of a third party. The constant need for radical change, which is now essential for the survival of fashion within the present system, was still literally unthinkable. The use of different trimmings were all that distinguished one season from the other.

Conspicuous waste and conspicuous consumption defined the fashions of the decade and the outfits of the couturiers of the time were incredibly extravagant, elaborate, ornate, and painstakingly made. The curvaceous S-Bend silhouette dominated fashion up until around 1908. The S~Bend corset was very tightly laced at the waist which forced the hips back and the drooping mono bosom was thrust forward in a pouter pigeon effect creating an S shape. Toward the end of the decade the fashionable silhouette gradually became somewhat more straight and slim, partly due to Paul Poiret's high-waisted, shorter-skirted Directoire line of clothes.

The Maison Redfern was the first fashion house to offer women a tailored suit based directly on its male counterpart and the extremely practical and soberly elegant garment soon became an indispensable part of the wardrobe of any well-dressed woman. Another indispensable part of the outfit of the well-dressed woman was the designer hat. Fashionable hats at the time were either tiny little confections that perched on top of the head, or large and wide brimmed, trimmed with ribbons, flowers, and even feathers. Caroline Reboux, Legroux, and E. Lewis were the most sought-after names of the time. Parasols were still used as decorative accessories and in the summer they dripped with lace and added to the overall elaborate prettiness.

1910s

During the early years of the 1910s the fashionable silhouette became much more lithe, fluid and soft than in the 20th century. When the Ballets Russes performed Scheherazade in Paris in 1910, a craze for Orientalism ensued. The couturier Paul Poiret was one of the first designers to translate this vogue into the fashion world. Poiret's clients were at once transformed into harem girls in flowing pantaloons, turbans, and vivid colors and geishas in exotic kimono. Paul Poiret also devised the first outfit which women could put on without the help of a maid. The Art Deco movement began to emerge at this time and its influence was evident in the designs of many couturiers of the time. Simple felt hats, turbans, and clouds of tulle replaced the styles of headgear popular in the 20th century. It is also notable that the first real fashion shows were organized during this period in time, by the first female couturier, Jeanne Paquin, who was also the first Parisian couturier to open foreign branches in London, Buenos Aires, and Madrid.

Two of the most influential fashion designers of the time were Jacques Doucet and Mariano Fortuny. The French designer Jacques Doucet excelled in superimposing pastel colors and his elaborate gossamery dresses suggested the Impressionist shimmers of reflected light. His distinguished customers never lost a taste for his fluid lines and flimsy, diaphanous materials. While obeying imperatives that left little to the imagination of the couturier, Doucet was nonetheless a designer of immense taste and discrimination, a role many have tried since, but rarely with Doucet's level of success.

The Venice-based designer Mariano Fortuny y Madrazo was a curious figure, with very few parallels in any age. For his dress designs he conceived a special pleating process and new dyeing techniques. He gave the name Delphos to his long clinging sheath dresses that undulated with color. Each garment was made of a single piece of the finest silk, its unique color acquired by repeated immersions in dyes whose shades were suggestive of moonlight or of the watery reflections of the Venetian lagoon. Breton straw, Mexican cochineal, and indigo from the Far East were among the ingredients that Fortuny used. Among his many devotees were Eleanora Duse, Isadora Duncan, Cleo de Merode, the Marchesa Casati, Emilienne d'Alençon, and Liane de Pougy.

Changes in dress during World War I were dictated more by necessity than fashion. As more and more women were forced to work, they demanded clothes that were better suited to their new activities. Social events had to be postponed in favor of more pressing engagements and the need to mourn the increasing numbers of dead, visits to the wounded, and the general gravity of the time meant that darker colors became the norm. A new monochrome look emerged that was unfamiliar to young women in comfortable circumstances. By 1915 fashionable skirts had risen above the ankle and then later to mid-calf.

Between the Wars

The period between the two World Wars, often considered to be the Golden Age of French fashion, was one of great change and reformation. Carriages were replaced by cars, princes and princesses lost their crowns, and haute couture found new clients in the ranks of film actresses, American heiresses, and the wives and daughters of wealthy industrialists.

1920s

Soon after the First World War, a radical change came about in fashion. Bouffant coiffures gave way to short bobs, dresses with long trains gave way to above-the-knee pinafores. Corsets were abandoned and women borrowed their clothes from the male wardrobe and chose to dress like boys. Although, at first, many couturiers were reluctant to adopt the new androgynous style, they embraced them wholeheartedly from around 1925. A bustless, waistless silhouette emerged and aggressive dressing-down was mitigated by feather boas, embroidery, and showy accessories. The flapper style (known to the French as the 'garçonne' look) became very popular among young women. The cloche hat was widely-worn and sportswear became popular with both men and women during the decade, with designers like Jean Patou and Coco Chanel popularizing the sporty and athletic look.

The great couturière Coco Chanel was a major figure in fashion at the time, as much for her magnetic personality as for her chic and progressive designs. Chanel helped popularize the bob hairstyle, the little black dress, and the use of jersey knit for women's clothing and also elevated the status of both costume jewelry and knitwear.

Two other prominent French designers of the 1920s were Jeanne Lanvin and Jean Patou. Jeanne Lanvin, who began her career in fashion as a milliner, made such beautiful outfits for her young daughter Marguerite that people started to ask for copies, and Lanvin was soon making dresses for their mothers. Lanvin's name appears in the fashion yearbook from about 1901 onwards. However, it was in the 1920s that she reached the peak of her popularity and success. The Lanvin style embraced the look of the time, with its skillful use of complex trimmings, dazzling embroideries, and beaded decorations in light, clear, floral colors that eventually became a Lanvin trademark. By 1925 Lanvin produced many different products, including sportswear, furs, lingerie, men's fashion, and interior designs. Her global approach to fashion foreshadowed the schemes that all the large contemporary fashion houses would later adopt in their efforts to diversify.

The style of Jean Patou was never mainstream, but full of originality and characterized by a studied simplicity which was to win him fame, particularly in the American markets. Many of his garments, with their clean lines, geometric and Cubist motifs, and mixture of luxury and practicality, were designed to satisfy the new vogue for the outdoor life, and bore a remarkable similarity to modern sportswear. The most famous advocate of his style was Suzanne Lenglen, the legendary tennis champion.

In menswear there was a growing mood of informality, among the Americans especially, which was mirrored in fashions that emphasized youthfulness and relaxation. In the past, there was a special outfit for every event in the well-dressed gentleman's day, but young men in the 1920s, no longer afraid to show their youthfulness, began to wear the same soft wool suit all day long. Short suit jackets replaced the old long jackets of the past which were now only worn for formal occasions. Men had a variety of sport clothes available to them, including sweaters and short pants, commonly known as knickers. For evening wear a short tuxedo was more fashionable than the tail-coat, which was now seen as somewhat old-fashioned. The London cut, with its slim lines, loose-fitting sleeves, and padded shoulders, perfected by the English tailor Scholte, was very popular.

Fair Isle patterns became very popular for both sexes. Heels, at the time, were often over two inches high and helped popularize the two-tone shoe its one of her trademarks. Salvatore Ferragamo and André Perugia were two of the most influential and respected designers in footwear. Many stars of the [silent film]s had a significant impact on fashion during the 1920s, perhaps most notably Louise Brooks, Gloria Swanson, and Colleen Moore. The lighthearted, forward-looking fashions of the 1920s gradually came to halt after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and succumbed to a more conservative style. While the flapper look persisted into 1930, it quickly disappeared afterwards, although bell-shaped hats lasted through 1933.

1930s

In the 1930s, as the public began to feel the effects of the Great Depression, many designers found that crises are not the time for experimentation. Fashion became more compromising, aspiring to preserve feminism's victories while rediscovering a subtle and reassuring elegance and sophistication. Overall, 1930s clothing was somber and modest, reflecting the difficult social and economic situation of the decade. Women's fashions moved away from the brash, daring style of the 1920s towards a more romantic, feminine silhouette. The waist was restored to its proper position, hemlines dropped, there was renewed appreciation of the bust, and backless evening gowns and soft, slim-fitting day dresses became popular. The female body was remodeled to a more neo-classical shape and slim, toned, and athletic bodies came into vogue. The fashion for outdoor activities stimulated couturiers to manufacture what would nowadays be called sportswear. The term 'ready-to-wear' was not yet widely used, but the boutiques already described such clothes as being 'for sport'.

Two of the most prominent and influential fashion designers of the 1930s were Elsa Schiaparelli and Madeleine Vionnet. Elsa Schiaparelli showed her first collection in 1929 and was immediately hailed by the press as 'one of the rare innovators' of the day. With her exciting and inventive designs, Schiaparelli did not so much revolutionize fashion as shatter its foundations. The first pullover she displayed in her windows created a sensation: it was knitted in black with a trompe-l'oeil white bow. She consistently turned out breathtaking collections thereafter. Schiaparelli was a close friend of Christian Berard, Jean Cocteau, and Salvador Dalí, who designed embroidery motifs for her and supplied inspiration for models like the desk suit with drawers for pockets, the shoe-shaped hat, and the silk dress painted with flies and the one bearing a picture of a large lobster. All of Paris thronged to her salon at 21 Place Vendôme as collection succeeded collection.

Madeleine Vionnet found her inspiration in ancient statues, creating timeless and beautiful gowns that would not look out of place on a Greek frieze. Queen of the bias cut (cutting diagonally across the fabric's lengthwise threads), she produced evening dresses that fitted the body without excessive elaboration or dissimulation, employing a flowing and elegant line. Her perfect draping of chiffon, silk, and Moroccan crepe created a marvelously poised and sensual effect. The unparalleled success of Vionnet's cuts guaranteed her reputation right up until her retirement in 1939.

Mainbocher, the first American designer to live and work in Paris, was also influential, with his plain yet supremely elegant designs, often employing the bias cut pioneered by Vionnet. The luxury goods manufacturer Hermès started selling handmade printed silk square scarves in early 1930s, and also popularized the zip and many other practical innovations. Toward the end of the decade, women's fashions took on a somewhat more imposing and broad-shouldered silhouette, possibly influenced by Elsa Schiaparelli. Men's fashions continued the informal, practical trend that had dominated since the end of the First World War.

Mid-twentieth century

The Second World War created many radical changes in the fashion industry. After the War, Paris's reputation as the global center of fashion began to crumble and off-the-peg and mass-manufactured fashions became increasingly popular. A new youth style emerged in the 1950s, changing the focus of fashion forever. As the installation of central heating became more widespread the age of minimum-care garments began and lighter textiles and, eventually, synthetics, were introduced.

In the West, the traditional divide that had always existed between high society and workers came to be considered simply unjustifiable. In particular, a new young generation wanted to reap the benefits of a booming consumer society. Privilege became less blatantly advertised than in the past and differences were more glossed over. As the ancient European hierarchies were overturned, the external marks of distinction faded with them. By the time the first rockets were launched into space, Europe was more than ready to adopt a quality ready-to-wear garment on American lines, something to occupy the middle ground between off-the-peg and couture. The need was all the more pressing because increases in overheads and raw material costs were beginning to relegate handmade fashion to the sidelines. Meanwhile, rapidly developing new technologies made it easier and easier to manufacture an ever-improving high-quality product.

Faced with the threat of a factory-made fashion-based product, Parisian haute couture mounted its defenses, but to little effect. It could not stop fashion leaking out onto the streets. In these years when the old world was taking its final bow, the changes in fashion were one of the most visible manifestations of the general shake-up in society. Before long, whole categories of women hitherto restricted to inferior substitutes to haute couture would enjoy a greatly enlarged freedom of choice. Dealing in far larger quantities, production cycles were longer than those of couture workshops, which meant that stylists planning their lines for the twice-yearly collections had to try to guess more than a year in advance what their customers would want. A new power was afoot, that of the street, constituting a further threat to the dictatorship of the masters of couture.

1940s

Many fashion houses closed during occupation of Paris during World War II, including the Maison Vionnet and the Maison Chanel. Several designers, including Mainbocher, permanently relocated to New York. In the enormous moral and intellectual re-education program undertaken by the French state couture was not spared. In contrast to the stylish, liberated Parisienne, the Vichy regime promoted the model of the wife and mother, the robust, athletic young woman, a figure who was much more in line with the new political criteria. Germany, meanwhile, was taking possession of over half of what France produced, including high fashion, and was also considering relocating French haute couture to the cities of Berlin and Vienna, neither of which had any significant tradition of fashion. The archives of the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture were seized, most consequentially the client list. The point of all this was to break up a monopoly that supposedly threatened the dominance of the Third Reich.

Due to the difficult times, the number of models in shows was limited to seventy-five, evening wear was shortened and day wear was much skimpier, made using substitute materials whenever possible. From 1940 onward, no more than four meters (thirteen feet) of cloth was permitted to be used for a coat and a little over one meter (three feet) was all that allowed for a blouse. No belt could be over 3 centimetres (one and a half inches) wide. Despite this, haute couture tried to keep its flag flying. Humor and frivolity became a way of defying the occupying powers and couture somehow survived. Although some have argued that the reason it endured was because of the patronage of the wives of rich Nazis, in actuality, records reveal that, aside from the usual wealthy Parisiennes, it was the wives of foreign ambassadors, clients from the black market, and a whole eclectic mix of people who continued to frequent the salons, among whom German women were but a minority.

In spite of the fact that so many fashion houses closed down or moved away during the war, several new houses remained open, including Jacques Fath, Maggy Rouff, Marcel Rochas, Jeanne Lafaurie, Nina Ricci, and Madeleine Vramant. During the Occupation, the only true way for a woman to flaunt her extravagance and add color to a drab outfit was to wear a hat. In this period, hats were often made of scraps of material that would have otherwise been thrown away, sometimes incorporating bits of paper, and wood shavings. Among the most innovative milliners of the time were Pauline Adam, Simone Naudet, Rose Valois, and Le Monnier.

Paris's isolated situation in the 1940s enabled the Americans to exploit the ingenuity and creativity of their own designers. During the Second World War, Vera Maxwell presented co-ordinates in plain, simply cut outfits and also introduced innovations to men's work clothes. Bonnie Cashin transformed boots into a major fashion accessory, and, in 1944, started to produce original and imaginative sportswear. Claire McCardell, Anne Klein, and formed a remarkable trio of women who were to lay the foundations of American sportswear, ensuring that ready-to-wear was not simply thought of as second best, but as an elegant and comfortable way for modern women to dress.

Among young men in the War Years the zoot suit (and in France the zazou suit) became popular. Many actresses of the time, including Rita Hayworth, Katharine Hepburn, and Marlene Dietrich, had a significant impact on popular fashion.

The couturier Christian Dior created a tidal wave with his first collection in February 1947. The collection contained dresses with tiny waists, majestic busts, and full skirts swelling out beneath small bodices, in a manner very similar to the style of the Belle Époque. The extravagant use of fabric and the feminine elegance of the designs appealed greatly to a post-war clientele and ensured Dior's meteoric rise to fame. The sheer sophistication of the style incited the all-powerful editor of the American Harper's Bazaar, Carmel Snow, to exclaim 'This is a new look!'.

1950s

Flying in the face of continuity, logic, and erudite sociological predictions, fashion in the 1950s, far from being revolutionary and progressive, used more from the previous decade. A whole society which, in the 1920s and 1930s, had greatly believed in progress, was now much more circumspect. Despite the fact that women had the right to vote, to work, and to drive their own cars, they chose to wear dresses made of opulent materials, with corseted waists and swirling skirts to mid-calf. As fashion looked to the past, haute couture experienced something of a revival and spawned a myriad of star designers who profited hugely from the rapid growth of the media.

Throughout the 1950s, although it would be for the last time, women around the world continued to submit to the trends of Parisian haute couture. Three of the most prominent of the Parisian couturiers of the time were Cristobal Balenciaga, Hubert de Givenchy, and Pierre Balmain. The frugal prince of luxury, Cristobal Balenciaga Esagri made his fashion debut in the late 1930s. However, it was not until the post-war years that the full scale of the inventiveness of this highly original designer became evident. In 1951, he totally transformed the silhouette, broadening the shoulders and removing the waist. In 1955, he designed the tunic dress, which later developed into the chemise dress of 1957. And eventually, in 1959, his work culminated in the Empire line, with high-waisted dresses and coats cut like kimonos. His mastery of fabric design and creation defied belief. Balenciaga is also notable as one of the few couturiers in fashion history who could use their own hands to design, cut, and sew the models which symbolized the height of his artistry.

Hubert de Givenchy opened his first couture house in 1952 and created a sensation with his separates, which could be mixed and matched at will. Most renowned was his Bettina blouse made from shirting, which was named after his top model. Soon, boutiques were opened in Rome, Zurich, and Buenos Aires. A man of immense taste and discrimination, he was, perhaps more than any other designer of the period, an integral part of the world whose understated elegance he helped to define.

Pierre Balmain opened his own salon in 1945. It was in a series of collections named 'Jolie Madame' that he experienced his greatest success, from 1952 onwards. Balmain's vision of the elegantly-dressed woman was particularly Parisian and was typified by the tailored glamour of the "New Look", with its ample bust, narrow waist, and full skirts, by mastery of cut and imaginative assemblies of fabrics in subtle color combinations. His sophisticated clientele was equally at home with luxurious elegance, simple tailoring, and a more natural look. Along with his haute couture work, the talented businessman pioneered a ready-to-wear range called Florilege and also launched a number of highly successful perfumes.

Also notable is the return of Coco Chanel (who detested the "New Look") to the fashion world. Following the closure of her salons in the war years, in 1954, aged over seventy, she staged a comeback and on February 5 she presented a collection which contained a whole range of ideas that would be adopted and copied by women all over the world: her famous little braided suit with gold chains, shiny costume jewelry, silk blouses in colors that matched the suit linings, sleek tweeds, monogrammed buttons, flat black silk bows, boaters, quilted bags on chains, and evening dresses and furs that were marvels of simplicity.

Despite being a high fashion designer, American born Mainbocher also designed military and civilian service uniforms. In 1952, he redesigned the Women Marines service uniform combining femininity with functionality. Previous redesigns include uniforms for the WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) in 1942, and uniform designs for the Girl Scouts of America and the American Red Cross in 1948.

Dior's "New Look" (that premiered in 1947) revived the popularity of girdles and the all-in-one corselettes. In the early 1950s, many couture houses used the interest in "foundationwear" to launch their own lines, soon after many lingerie manufacturers began to build their own brands. In 1957, Jane Russell wore the "Cantilever" bra that was scientifically designed by Howard Hughes to maximize a voluptuous look. The invention of Lycra (originally called "Fibre K") in 1959 revolutionized the underwear industry and was quickly incorporated into every aspect of lingerie.

After the war, the American look (which consisted of broad shoulders, floral ties, straight-legged pants, and shirts with long pointed collars, often worn hanging out rather than tucked in) became very popular among men in Europe. Certain London manufacturers ushered in a revival of Edwardian elegance in men's fashion, adopting a tight-fitting retro style that was intended to appeal to traditionalists. This look, originally aimed at the respectable young man about town, was translated into popular fashion as the Teddy boy style. The Italian look, popularized by Caraceni, Brioni, and Cifonelli, was taken up by an entire generation of elegant young lovers, on both sides of the Atlantic. Plaid was very common in 1950s men's fashion, both for shirts and suits, along with the "ducktail" haircut, which was often viewed as a symbol of rebellion and banned in schools.

The designers of Hollywood created a particular type of glamour for the stars of American film, and outfits worn by the likes of Marilyn Monroe, Lauren Bacall, or Grace Kelly were widely copied. Quantitatively speaking, a costume worn by an actress in a Hollywood movie would have a much bigger audience than the photograph of a dress designed by a couturier illustrated in a magazine read by no more than a few thousand people. Without even trying to keep track of all the Paris styles, its costume designers focused on their own version of classicism, which was meant to be timeless, flattering, and photogenic. Using apparently luxurious materials, such as sequins, chiffon, and fur, the clothes were very simply cut, often including some memorable detail, such as a low-cut back to a dress which was only revealed when the actress turned her back from the camera or some particularly stunning accessory. The most influential and respected designers of Hollywood from the 1930s to the 1950s were Edith Head, Orry-Kelly, William Travilla, Jean Louis, Travis Banton, and Gilbert Adrian. Everyday women's clothing during the decade consisted of long coats, hats with small veils, and leather gloves. Knee-length dresses combined with pearl necklaces, which were made instantly popular by First Lady Mamie Eisenhower. Short, permed hair was the standard women's hairstyle of the period.

By the end of the decade mass-manufactured, off-the-peg clothing had become much more popular than in the past, granting the general public unprecedented access to fashionable styles.

1960s

Until the 1960s, Paris was considered to be the center of fashion throughout the world. However, between 1960 and 1969 a radical shake-up occurred in the fundamental structure of fashion. From the 1960s onward, there would never be just one single, prevailing trend or fashion but a great plethora of possibilities, indivisibly linked to all the various influences in other areas of people's lives. Young people, with a power and culture that was all their own, now at an age to speak out, were a force to be reckoned with and had a powerful impact on the fashion industry. For perhaps the first time in history, there was an independent youth fashion that was not based on the conventions of an older age group. In the 1960s fashion became just as much a statement of personal freedom.

In stark contrast to their mature, ultra-feminine mothers, the women of the 1960s adopted a girlish, childlike style, with short skirts and straightened curves, reminiscent of the look of the 1920s. At the start of the decade skirts were knee-length, but steadily became shorter and shorter until the mini-skirt emerged in 1965. By the end of the decade they had shot well above the stocking top, making the transition to tights inevitable.

Many of the radical changes in fashion developed in the streets of London, with such gifted designers as Mary Quant (known for launching the mini skirt) and Barbara Hulanicki (the founder of the legendary boutique Biba). Paris also had its share of new and revolutionary designers, including Pierre Cardin (known for his visionary and skillfully-cut designs), André Courrèges (known for his futuristic outfits and for launching the mini skirt along with Mary Quant), Yves Saint Laurent (known for his revolutionary yet elegant fashions), and Emanuel Ungaro (known for his imaginative use of color and bold baroque contrasts). In the United States, Rudi Gernreich (known for his avant-garde and futuristic designs) and James Galanos (known for his luxurious read-to-wear) were also reaching a young audience. The main outlets for these new young fashion designers were small boutiques, selling outfits that were not exactly 'one-offs', but were made in small quantities in a limited range of sizes and colors. However, not all designers took well to the new style and mood. In 1965, Coco Chanel mounted a rearguard action against the exposure of the knee and Balenciaga resolutely continued to produce feminine and conservative designs.

The basic shape and style of the time was simple, neat, clean cut, and young. Synthetic fabrics were very widely-used during the 1960s. They took dyes easily and well, giving rise to colors that were both clear and bright, very much mirroring the mood of the period. Hats suffered a great decline and by the end of the decade they were relegated to special occasions only. Lower kitten heels were a pretty substitute to stilettos. Pointed toes gave way to chisel shaped toes in 1961 and to an almond toe in 1963. Flat boots also became popular with very short dresses in 1965 and eventually they rose up the leg and reached the knee.

Two notable and influential designers in the 1960s were Emilio Pucci and Paco Rabanne. Emilio Pucci's sportswear designs and prints inspired by Op art, psychedelia, and medieval heraldic banners earned him a reputation that extended far beyond the circles of high society. His sleek shift dresses, tunics, and beachwear, created a 'Puccimania' that was all part of a movement to liberate the female form and his designs are today synonymous with the 1960s. Francisco Rabaneda Cuervo (later Paco Rabanne) opened his first couture house in 1966 and, from the start, produced resolutely modern designs. Rather than using conventional dress materials, he created garments from aluminum, Rhodoid, and pieces of scrap metal. His designs, as well as being experimental, were also closely in tune with what modern adventurous young women wanted to wear. Among his innovations are the seamless dress made, after much experiment, by spraying vinyl chloride on to a mold, and the low-budget disposable dress made of paper and nylon thread. Rabanne was also the first fashion designer to use black models, which very nearly resulted in his dismissal from the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne. The success of his perfume Calandre helped support the less profitable areas of his work, while his utopianism assured him a unique position in the conservative world of haute couture.

The principal change in menswear in the 1960s was in the weight of the fabric used. The choice of materials and the method of manufacture produced a suit that, because it was lighter in weight, had a totally different look, with a line that was closer to the natural shape of the body, causing men to look at their figures more critically. The spread of jeans served to accelerate a radical change in the male wardrobe. Young men grew their hair down to their collars and added a touch of color, and even floral motifs, to their shirts. The polo neck never succeeded in replacing the tie, but the adoption of the workman's jacket in rough corduroy, and especially the Mao jacket proved to be more than simply a political statement. A few futuristic rumblings were set off by Pierre Cardin and Andre Courrèges, but the three-piece suit still survived intact.

In the early 1960s there were influential 'partnerships' of celebrities and high-fashion designers, most famously Audrey Hepburn with Givenchy, and Jackie Kennedy with Oleg Cassini. Also, many models had a very profound effect on fashion, most notably Twiggy, Veruschka, Jean Shrimpton. Early in the decade, culottes were in style and the bikini finally came into fashion in 1963. The hippie and psychedelic movements late in the decade also had a strong influence on clothing styles, including bell-bottom jeans (designed by the English tailor Tommy Nutter, from his Savoy store), tie-dye and batik fabrics, as well as paisley prints.

1970s

Nicknamed the 'me' decade; 'please yourself' was the catchphrase of the 1970s. Some saw it as the end of good taste. The decade began with a continuation of the hippie look of the late 1960s, with afghans, Indian scarves, and floral-print tunics. Jeans remained frayed and bell-bottomed, tie dye was still popular, and the fashion for unisex mushroomed. An immense movement claiming civil rights for blacks combined with the influence of soul music from the USA created a nostalgia for Africa and African culture. A radical chic emerged, influenced by the likes of James Brown, Diana Ross, Angela Davis, and the Black Panthers, in everything from afro hairstyles to platform soles. During the 1970s brands greatly increased their share of the international market. Hems began dropping in 1974 to below the knee, until finally reaching the lower mid calf in 1977 and shoulderlines were dropped.

Perhaps the two most innovative fashion designers in 1970s France were Kenzo Takada and Sonia Rykiel. The undisputed star of Parisian fashion in the 1970s, Kenzo drew his inspiration from all over the world, mixing Western and Oriental folk influences with a fantastic joie de vivre and an instinctive understanding of what his young customers wanted. With his fluid lines, unusual prints, clever accessories, and finery that was hitherto unprecedented in ready-to-wear, he very much turned the fashion world upside down. The queen of figure-hugging knits, in 1974, Sonia Rykiel designed her first pullovers with reversed seams. However, more than that, she created a whole range of clothes that were extremely individual and yet could be worn almost anywhere. The Rykiel style, dominated by fluid knitted garments, dark blacks, rhinestones, long boa-like scarves, and little crocheted hats, conquered the American market, and even to this day Rykiel is considered by many Americans as the true successor of Chanel.

Because of punk, London retained a considerable degree of influence over fashion, most significantly in the boutiques of the King's Road, where Vivienne Westwood's boutique, SEX, which opened in 1971, blew with the prevailing wind. This temple of British iconoclasm centered on fetishistic accessories and ranges of clothing in which black rubber and steel studs were the external signs of an underlying sadism. Postmodernist and iconoclastic in essence the punk movement was a direct reaction to the economic situation during the economic depression of the period, the vehicle for a hatred that was more visceral than political. Punk had at its heart a manifesto of creation through disorder. With their ripped T-shirts, Red Indian hairstyles, Doc Martens, bondage trousers, and chains, the punks exported an overall feeling of disgust around the globe.

Another popular British style the was the resolutely unmodern, feminine, countrified style of clothing popularized by Laura Ashley, which consisted of long flounced skirts and high-necked blouses in traditional floral prints, worn with crocheted shawls. Laura Ashley started out running a small business in Wales in the mid-1960s and the company continued to expand until the accidental death of its owner in 1985. Laura Ashley was not the only designer to look nostalgically to the past. Fashions based on the 1920s, 30s, 40s, and 50s were popular throughout much of the decade, with Hollywood films like The Godfather and The Great Gatsby, and numerous exhibitions on costume history at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York increasing their popularity. In Japan, the boutiques of Tokyo's fashionable Harajuku district sold many reworked versions of traditional British and American looks.

In the United States, the general trend in fashion was towards simplification and longer skirts, although many women reacted negatively to the midi-length, which they felt to be aging. Pants, on the other hand, earned unanimous approval. Jeans profited most from becoming an accepted part of the American fashion scene in the 1970s, their new-found respectability deriving from their inclusion in collections under the heading of sportswear. The new stars of American ready-to-wear adapted the best of what they learned from Europe to the massive American clothing industry. Calvin Klein and Ralph Lauren rose from anonymity more or less simultaneously to tackle the question of designing clothes for the men and women of a new world. Two opposing movements dominated fashion in the U.S.A. during the 1970s. On one hand, there was the tailored, unisex look; on the other hand, a fluid, unstructured style with a strong feeling of 1930s glamor. The most influential American designer of the time, Roy Halston Frowick (known simply as Halston), belonged to the latter category. Acquiring celebrity status on the New York scene, his particular talent was in reconciling the made-to-measure garment for the special occasion with concepts of comfort, naturalness, and relaxation. With his kaftans, shirtwaisters, djellabas, ultra-lightweight shift dresses, and tunics worn over shorts and wide-legged pants, he was an icon of the era, and a regular visitor at the VIP room of the Studio 54 after its opening in 1977.

Geoffrey Beene, praised for his elegant and sophisticated cuts and his use of black and white, was at his most successful in the radically simplified designs at which he excelled. His smart little dresses and well-cut suits in jersey, flannel, and wool were instrumental in discouraging American women from over-accessorizing. Bill Blass, who launched his own range in 1962, developed the habit of traveling all over the United States in order to hear for himself what his customers desired. One of the most popular designers of the time, he was almost too successful in fulfilling his customers wishes. His disciplined style and workmanship was particularly favored by businesswomen and the wives of senior executives. Betsey Johnson started out designing for the boutique Paraphernalia. Using vinyl and metallic fabrics and putting emphasis on wit, imagination, and independence, she brought an unprecedented spirit of irreverence to New York in the 1970s.

In popular fashion the glam rock style of clothing, worn by such rock performers as David Bowie and Marc Bolan, was very influential, particularly in the United Kingdom. The designer Elio Fiorucci had a very similar look. His boutique in Milan sold such things as brightly colored rubber boots, plastic daisy sandals, fake fur, and Pop Art-inspired jackets.

During the 1970s a new generation of menswear boutiques sprang up, aiming to change the decor, rituals, and customer base of a traditionally 'difficult' trade. To sell fashionable clothes to a young man at the end of the 1960s was still, in many circles, tantamount to questioning his masculinity. Men's appearance changed more in the 1970s than it had done in a whole century. Many of the fashion designers who revolutionized the male look owed a lot of their innovations to Pierre Cardin: narrow shoulders, tight-fitting lines, no tie, no interfacing, zip-up boiler suits, waisted jackets or tunics, sometimes no shirt. Work clothes supplied inspiration for a less formal style, encouraging designers to look beyond the traditional suit and, for example, adopt a unisex look or investigate the massive supply of second-hand clothes. Sometimes this kind of male dressing-down, often denounced as 'hippie', gained formal recognition as a deliberate look. At certain other times, as part of a retro movement, designers introduced a revival of 1930s elegance. The unearthing of old military clothing, preferably khaki and from the United States; English-style shoes; Oxford shirts; immaculate T-shirts; tweed jackets with padded shoulders; brightly-colored V-neck sweaters; cashmere-printed scarves draped around the neck all imposed a certain uniformity on the casual beatnik look of the male wardrobe at the end of the 1970s.

Also significant are the developments in Italian fashion that happened during the period. In the course of the 1970s, as a result of its ready-to-wear industry, Milan confirmed its status as second only to Paris as a center of international fashion. The 'alta moda' preferred Rome, the base of the couturiers Valentino, Capucci, and Schön. Capitalizing on the dominant trend of anti-fashion Italy offered a glamor that had nothing to do with the dictates of Parisian haute couture. While profiting from a clearly defined style, Italian fashion was luxurious and easy to wear. The two most influential Italian fashion designers of the time were probably Giorgio Armani and Nino Cerruti. Giorgio Armani produced his first collection for women in 1975. From the outset, the line was dynamic, urban, and understated, androgynous in inspiration. Armani offered a restrained style that greatly appealed to the increasing population of women who now had access to the world of work and occupied progressively more senior positions within it. This was only the beginning of a tremendous career, which came to fruition in 1981 when Emporio Armani was launched. In 1957 Nino Cerruti opened the menswear boutique Hitman in Milan. A man of taste and discernment, in 1976 he presented his first collection for women. Two years later, he launched his first perfume. In linking the career of a successful industrialist with that of a high-quality designer, Cerruti occupied a unique position in Italian ready-to-wear.

Late twentieth century

During the late 20th century, fashions began to criss-cross international boundaries with rapidity. Popular Western styles were adopted all over the world, and many designers from outside of the West had a profound impact on fashion. Synthetic materials such as Lycra, Spandex, and viscose became widely-used, and fashion, after two decades of looking to the future, once again turned to the past for inspiration.

1980s

The society of the 1980s no longer criticized itself as consumerist, but was, instead, interested in 'the spectacle'. The self-conscious image of the decade was very good for the fashion industry, which had never been quite so à la mode. Fashion shows were transfigured into media-saturated spectaculars and frequently televised, taking high priority in the social calendar. Appearance was related to performance, which was of supreme importance to a whole generation of young urban professionals, whose desire to look the part related to a craving for power. The way in which men and women associated with the latest styles was no more a matter of passive submission but Disco music rapidly fell out of favor as the decade began, along with its associated clothing styles. By 1982, the last traces of 1970s fashion were gone.

The two French fashion designers who best defined the look of the period were Thierry Mugler and Azzedine Alaia. Strongly influenced by his early career in the theater, Thierry Mugler produced fashion designs that combined Hollywood retro and futurism, with rounded hips, sharply accentuated shoulders, and a slight hint of the galactic heroine. Mugler's glamorous dresses were a remarkable success, and signified the complete end of the hippy era and its unstructured silhouette. Known for his awe-inspiring combinations, Azzedine Alaia greatly influenced the silhouette of the woman of the 1980s. The master of all kinds of techniques that had previously been known only to haute couture, he experimented with many new and underused materials, such as Lycra and viscose. The finish, simplicity, and sheer sexiness of Alaia's look made women of every generation identify with his seductive style, and during the 1980s he achieved a certain glory and was held in high regard by members of his own profession.

Also creating designs very typical of the era were Claude Montana, whose imposing, broad-shouldered designs, often made of leather, would not have looked out of place in the futuristic universe of Thierry Mugler, and Christian Lacroix, who sent shock waves through the world of haute couture, with his flounced skirts, embroidered corselets, bustles, and polka-dotted crinolines which evoked the rhythms of flamenco.

A number of promising newcomers entered the fashion scene in the 1980s. Angelo Tarlazzi, an extraordinary technician who once worked for Patou, bewitched both the press and his customers with his 'handkerchief' dresses. Made of squares of fabric, they transpired, when you came to put them on, to be far more complicated than at first appeared. Many a Parisian soirée of the 1980s was enlivened by his dresses, all in a fluid and original style, in which cutting and sewing were kept to a minimum. Chantal Thomas, the queen of sexy stockings and lace, won a devoted following for her seductive underwear and for evening gowns that looked like nightdresses and vice versa. Guy Paulin was one of the first designers to promote a severe, plain, and uncluttered look. His garments were classical in their proportions and made for comfort and simplicity, with their harmonious lines reinforced by a subtle palette of colors and fine materials. Under his own name, Joseph designed luxurious knitwear along classic lines, creating loose, sexy garments in neutral colors. Carolina Herrera, long regarded as one of the most elegant members of the jet set, in 1981 launched a series of collections aimed at women like herself, featuring impeccably cut clothes of high quality and attractive evening dresses.

Japanese designers such as Rei Kawakubo and Yohji Yamamoto offered a look which marked a total break with the prevailing fashion image of the time. Flat shoes, no make-up, reserve, modesty, and secrecy were the hallmarks of this modern look. Eventually, it began to include details from the fashions of the past, as Europe's ancient sites were revisited by these anarchists of fashion, whose influence on shape of clothes, at the end of the 20th-century, became legendary.

In American fashion the seductive, clinging style of Donna Karan and the casual sophistication of Ralph Lauren were very influential. A star of the New York social scene, Donna Karan brought a very personal and feminine approach to the severe, sober-colored, casual look that dominated American ready-to-wear. Setting up her own label in 1984, her designs won instant popularity among active urban women who greatly appreciated the understated luxury of her clothes. In 1971 Ralph Lauren opened a boutique for both men and women in Beverly Hills. His aristocratic style at prices the average American could afford created a sensation. For an elite faced with all kinds of avant-garde fashions, it represented a rallying point, endorsing a classic look that had been adopted for an active life. The number one of American ready-to-wear, Lauren was equally successful with his sportswear and jeans, which allowed him to reach the widest possible range of social classes and age groups.

Central to the success of a new wave of American sportswear was the Perry Ellis label, established in 1978, which used color and natural fibers to great advantage in its elegant variations on the basics. Norma Kamali, with her short skirts made of sweatshirting, leotards, headbands, and leg warmers, made jogging look fashionable. Kamali also created the popular 'rah-rah skirt'. Also notable is the extreme popularity of the Adidas sports label, which achieved an incredible level of street cred in the 1980s, inciting the hip hop group Run DMC to release the single 'My Adidas' in 1986. The legendary shoe designer Manolo Blahnik also rose to fame during the 1980s.

The multiplicity of trends that bloomed during the 80s were curtailed by the economic recession that set in at the beginning of the 1990s, largely destroying the optimistic mood that is so advantageous to the fashion industry.

1990s

In the 1990s it was no longer the done thing to follow fashion slavishly, a sharp contrast to the highly a la mode 1970s and 1980s. The phobia of being underdressed was finally completely displaced by the fear of overdressing. Fashion in the 1990s united around a new standard, minimalism, and styles of stark simplicity became the vogue. Despite the best efforts of a few designers to keep the flag for pretty dresses flying, by the end of the decade the notion of ostentatious finery had virtually disappeared. As well as the styling of the product, its promotion in the media became crucial to its success and image. The financial pressures of the decade had a devastating effect on the development of new talent and lessened the autonomy enjoyed by more established designers.

Fashion at the end of the 20th century tackled themes that fashion had not previously embraced. These themes included rape, disability, religious violence, death, and body modification. There was a dramatic move away from the sexy styles aimed at the glamorous femme fatale of the 1980s, and many designers, taken with a vision of romantic poverty, adopted the style of the poverty-stricken waif, dressed in a stark, perversely sober palette, with a face devoid of make-up. Clothes by ready-to-wear retailers such as The Gap, Banana Republic, and Eddie Bauer came to the forefront of fashion, managing to tap into the needs of women who simply wanted comfortable, wearable clothes. Retro clothing inspired by the 1960s and 1970s was popular for much of the 1990s.

The famous Italian fashion house, Gucci was created in 1921, by Guccio Gucci and was originally a firm that sold luxury leather goods. Under Guccio Gucci's children, by the end of the 1960s the label had expanded to include a plethora of products with a distinctly Latin glamor. However, only in the 1990s, when the Gucci heirs gave up control of the company to Invest Corp., who planned to turn the business around, did it truly begin to enjoy the kind of success it enjoys in the present day. Employing an unknown designer, Tom Ford, as design director in 1994, the fashion house was endowed with a great prestige, as Ford triggered a tidal wave with his chic and shocking collections, perfumes for men and women, revamped boutiques, and advertising campaigns. In 1998 Gucci is named "European Company of the year" by European Business Press Federation. Today it is the second biggest-selling fashion brand (after LVMH) worldwide with US$7 billion worldwide of revenue in 2006 according to BusinessWeek magazine. Most importantly Gucci is the biggest-selling Italian brand in the world.

In the 1990s the designer label Prada became a true creative force in the fashion industry. The Milanese company was first established in 1923, two years after Gucci, and like Gucci, it was a firm that sold high-quality shoes and leather. It was not until the 1980s that Miuccia Prada, the niece of the company's founder, began to produce ready-to-wear fashion, gaining fame for her subtle, streamlined, yet unquestionably luxurious style, that catered for the privileged young woman who prefers understatement to flamboyant extravagance.

In America three of the most influential fashion designers of the time were Michael Kors, Marc Jacobs, and Calvin Klein. Michael Kors set up his own business in 1980. However, it was not until the 1990s that the designer reached the peak of his popularity. His knowledge and consciousness of trends enabled him to produce simple well-cut garments, whose sophistication and elegance appealed to a whole new breed of wealthy American customers drawn to the new vogue for minimalist chic. Marc Jacobs is one of the most notable American designers of the period in that, unlike many American fashion designers in the past, he was not so much the co-ordinator of a mass-produced garment as a designer in the European sense of the word. One of the most promising talents in the fashion industry at the time, the LVMH (Louis Vuitton-Moet Henessy) group offered him the job of designing a line of ready-to-wear to compliment the de-luxe products of luggage specialist Louis Vuitton in the late 1990s. One of the first fashion designers to anticipate the globalization of world markets, the already well-known designer Calvin Klein started to market his fashions, perfumes, and accessories not only right across the US, but also in Europe and Asia, achieving an unequaled success. A brilliant artistic director, Klein used carefully constructed advertisements containing images tinted with eroticism to promote his sophisticatedly functional mass-produced designs, which won massive popularity among the urban youth of the 1990s.

The group of designers known as the 'Antwerp Six' (so named because all of them were graduates of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp), who first emerged in the 1980s, came to prominence in the 1990s. Three of the most influential of the group were Ann Demeulemeester, Dries van Noten, and Walter Van Beirendonck. Ann Demeulemeester, from her first collection in 1991, demonstrated a great deal of confidence and inventiveness. Naturally inclined to understatement, she built her designs on contradictions, introducing contrasting elements into her fluid and streamlined fashions, which appealed to women who dressed, above all, to please themselves. The work of Dries van Noten was founded on a solid mastery of the art of tailoring, to which the young designer added discreet touches of fantasy in a highly personal style. Managing to be both classical and original, his fashions appealed to those who preferred to express their individuality rather than slavishly follow trends. Walter Van Beirendonck, who erupted onto the fashion scene in 1995, produced decidedly futuristic designs under his label W & LT (Wild and Lethal Trash). Deliberately using fabrics developed by the very latest technologies, in violently contrasting colors, he produced clothes that were full of erotic and sadomasochistic references, touched with a caustic adolescent humor. His highly distinctive approach related to a resurgence of anti-fashion, but this time an anti-fashion with nothing in the least ethnic about its origins, instead based on science fiction that provided the inspiration for displays of such high-spirited provocation.

In Italy, Gianni Versace, with his brilliant, sexy, and colorful designs, and Dolce & Gabbana, with their superfeminine and fantastical style, broke away from the serious and sober-minded fashions that dominated during much of the 1990s. The British designer Vivienne Westwood produced many influential and popular collections in the early 1990s, which included outfits inspired by 18th-century courtesans and the Marquis de Sade, with rounded hips, corsets, and platform heels. The London-based designer Rifat Ozbek was also popular, particularly in New York and Milan. His youthful style, which mixed references to India, Africa, and his native Turkey with clever takes on historical clothing, was reminiscent of hippest nightclubs and the more outrageous street fashions of the time. Rap music was a prominent influence on popular and street fashion during the early and mid-1990s. Followers of hip hop adopted huge baggy jeans, similar to those worn in American prisons, with big patterned shirts and heavy black shoes. The sports label Nike had great popularity and materials such as Lycra and Spandex were increasingly used for sportswear. Increasing eco-awareness and animal rights made even top couture houses such as Chanel introduce fake fur and natural fibers into their collections.

2000s

In the 2000s, as the future began to seem increasingly bleak, fashion, and indeed the Arts in general, looked to the past for inspiration, arguably more so than in previous decades. Vintage clothing, especially from the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s (the 1980s idea of clashing, electric colours becoming especially popular in mid-late 2007) became extremely popular and fashion designers often sought to emulate bygone styles in their collections. The early 2000s saw a continuation of the minimalist look of the 1990s in high fashion. Later on, designers began to adopt a more colorful, feminine, excessive, and 'anti-modern' look. Name brands became of particular importance among young people and many celebrities launched their own lines of clothing. Tighter fit clothing and longer hair became mainstream for many men and women.

For many of the own-label designers who emerged in the early years of the 21st century, financial factors became increasingly critical. Many new young talents found they now depended on investors (to whom, in extreme cases, they would even surrender their names) and were always burdened by the risk that their partners, motivated by market realism and the desire for quick returns, would severely restrict their autonomy. Designers like Rodrick Gilchrist and Berny Martin of Catou struck out on their own to places like the midwest. Their hopes were to bring fashion design back to its artisan roots. Martin founded Midwest Fashion Week (MFW) to showcase the local talent and bring business to Indianapolis. By 2011 Martin had devised a simple blueprint for other cities to follow. His own line spread across the U.S. and abroad. He borrowed from the previous eras and created a line of custom clothing that he called 'business forward'.

As one of the reasons that relate to the evolution of fashion tastes and feelings
That love any reason for its development in addition to many psychological factors, social and prevailing weather conditions sometimes imposed on the peoples fashion that will meet their needs, and this is also why in addition to the traditions of the peoples heterogeneous cause of change from the people of fashion to another or from one geographical region to another .

Images Fashion Style hair styles young girls and stylesh 1826 - 2011

Fashion a new global and diverse

Photo Fashion variety of modern and ancient
Also includes interesting pictures and a bit strange

Accessories & contact lenses & glasses & Jackets & Clothing & Shoes

Photos from Flickr

Spain, Your Way: Four Destinations for Different Travelers

2011-08-05T14:03:00.000-07:00

For food lovers . . . Barcelona
Bring an appetite. Barcelona is a culinary superpower where avant-garde chefs are reinventing rustic tapas and haute cuisine. Breakfast is served at casual eatery Tapaç 24 (tapas24.net), so order the huevos estrellados (“smashed” eggs atop cheese, fries and chorizo). Midday, pop into La Boqueria (boqueria.info) to graze on jamón ibérico de belloto at one of Europe’s best-known markets. Cap the evening with dinner at Sergi Arola’s eponymous restaurant at the beachfront Hotel Arts (arola-arts.com). A DJ spins while you savor spicy patatas bravas, passionfruit-marinated sardines and other delectable bites.
Where to sleep:
Digest your meal at the Chic & Basic Born, where the remote-controlled mood lighting accentuates all-white rooms. About $128 per night; chicandbasic.com.
For art aficionados . . . Madrid
Wear comfortable walking shoes. Madrid’s top museums are within striking distance of each other and viewable for $30. Start at the iconic Prado Museum (museodelprado.es) to see how religion, royalty and war are interpreted on age-old canvases. Next is the Thyssen-Bornemisza (museothyssen.org), a neoclassical palace housing names like Dalí and Miró in its vast collection. Lastly, head to the contemporary Reina Sofia (museoreinasofia.es) to gape at Pablo Picasso’s Guernica mural, made in 1937 as a response to the bombing of the Basque town for which it was titled.
Where to sleep:
Retreat to the Hotel De Las Letras, where the walls are emblazoned with quotes by wordsmiths like poets Jorge Guillén and Joan Maragall. About $145; hoteldelasletras.com.
For flamenco fans . . . Sevilla
First, find a ruffled dress at María Rosa (mariarosa-sevilla.com), where you can also pick out a lace shawl and hair comb to complete your look. Now that you’re outfitted, take a beginner dance class at Taller Flamenco (tallerflamenco.com), and learn the difference between a celebratory alegría and a mournful soleá. Then show off what you’ve learned at one of the many small, dark tablaos (flamenco bars) in the gypsy barrio of Triana. Casa Anselma (c/Pagés del Corro 49) is owned by retired dancer and ranks high with sangria drinks.
Where to sleep:
Siesta is more enjoyable at Hotel La Música, an 18th-century manor house–turned–hotel with rooms named after the likes of Mozart and Chopin. About $150; hotelamadeussevilla.com.
For architecture buffs . . . Valencia
Familiarize yourself with local architect Santiago Calatrava, who catapulted Valencia into the future with his white space-age structures. Start with the City of Arts & Sciences (cac.es), a massive complex that houses an interactive science museum and one of Europe’s largest aquariums. Inside, you’ll also find performing arts center Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía (lesarts.com), where you can see ballet, theater, opera and music recitals, so book tickets ahead of time!
Where to sleep:
Admire the minimalist design at the funky Hotel Neptuno, located steps away from the water. About $125; hotelneptunovalencia.com.

Flower names for girls are one of the trendiest categories today

2011-07-24T21:33:00.000-07:00

Flower names for girls are one of the trendiest categories today.

First came Lily, one of the trendiest girls’ names of the nineties. Then Daisy began showing up on the chicest babies. Rose became the middle name du jour. And flower names for girls, last a craze a hundred years ago, became the most fashionable group around.

Nameberry includes a wide range of flower names for girls, from garden variety to hothouse blooms. Here, a rundown of the choicest:

THE TRENDIEST

DAISY — Charming and simple, Daisy started off as a nickname for Margaret, now more popular than the original.

IRIS — Former dowdy old lady name revived when Jude Law and Sadie Frost chose it for their daughter.

JASMINE — The most exotic of the popular flower names, with many spelling variations: Jazmin, Jazzmyn et al. Related: Yasmine and cousins, along with the lovely British favorite Jessamine or Jessamyn, actually French for jasmine.

LILY — Also stylish as Liliana, Lilia, and in France, Lilou.

ROSE — The middle name of the moment, with many variations — from Rosa to Rosalia to Rosemary — that would make lovely first names.

VIOLET — The adorable daughter of celebrities Jennifer Garner and Ben Affleck has brought this lush flower choice before the public eye. In France, Violette is chic, while in Italian it’s Violetta.

BRITISH BLOOMS

The British are famous gardeners and have long been more hospitable to flower names than Americans. Here, some heard most often in the British Isles.

BRYONY — Name of a vine with green flowers, also spelled Briony, popular in England and rarely heard elsewhere.

FLORA — Vintage name with considerable charm.

IVY — Starting to emigrate to the U.S., possibly because of its stylish initial “I”.

MARIGOLD — Posh British choice rarely heard elsewhere.

PETUNIA — Outside of the U.K., only heard in cow fields.

PANSY — Adorable yet the teasing possibilities render this one an unlikely choice.

POPPY — Popular in Britain and beginning to be heard elsewhere too; a perfect companion for Daisy.

PRIMROSE — Prim and dainty yet offbeat, the quintessential British name.

EXOTIC FLOWERS

AMARYLLIS — The flower may be similar to a lily, but the name is considerably more offbeat.

ASTER — The little girl on TV’s “Dexter” has this name, which could become more popular with the rise of the whole flower genre.

AZALEA — The z will definitely keep it exotic.

CALLA — Another lily relative, also similar to the trendy Callie/Kaylee family of names.

DAHLIA — This one seems to be percolating and we expect to hear more.

LILAC — The two l’s, the similarity to Lily, and the beautiful color and scent of the original flower make this choice a winner.

LOTUS — Only for the seriously exotic.

ORCHID — Another hothouse bloom not for the shy.

TULIP — Rebecca Romijn and Jerry O’Connell used this as a middle name for one of their twins, and singer Tiny Tim picked it as a first several decades ago. An everyday flower that makes a less-than-ordinary name.

ZINNIA — Any z name is off the beaten track.

FLOWER NAMES THAT DON‘T SOUND LIKE FLOWER NAMES

AZAMI — Japanese for “thistle flower.”

FLEUR — International words for “flower,” which also include Flor and Fiorello/Fiorella, make inventive flower choices.

GELSEY — Persian for “flower,” a balletic choice.

IOLANTHE — Greek for “violet flower” — for those who want to make Violet a lot more exotic.

JACINTA — Spanish for hyacinth and more suited to use as a name.

LEILANI — Hawaiian name that means ‘heavenly flower” and also has stylish double L sound.

MARGUERITE — The French for daisy is newly chic there, as is Capucine, which means nasturtium in France.

ZAHARA — A Hebrew name meaning flower popularized when Angelina Jolie and Brad Pitt chose it for their daughter.

Flowers

2011-07-17T17:20:00.000-07:00

A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also called angiosperms). The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. Flowers may facilitate outcrossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population) or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower). Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization (parthenocarpy). Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Flowers give rise to fruit and seeds. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen.
In addition to facilitating the reproduction of flowering plants, flowers have long been admired and used by humans to beautify their environment, but also as objects of romance, ritual, religion, medicine and as a source of food.
Morphology
A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk. Each of these kinds of parts is arranged in awhorl on the receptacle. The four main whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are as follows:
Calyx: the outermost whorl consisting of units called sepals; these are typically green and enclose the rest of the flower in the bud stage, however, they can be absent or prominent and petal-like in some species.

Corolla: the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination.

Androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house): the next whorl (sometimes multiplied into several whorls), consisting of units called stamens. Stamens consist of two parts: a stalk called a filament, topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis and eventually dispersed.

Gynoecium (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's house): the innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called carpels. The carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes. These give rise to egg cells. The gynoecium of a flower is also described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl (consisting of an ovary, style and stigma) is called a pistil. A pistil may consist of a single carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma.

Although the arrangement described above is considered "typical", plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species.
The four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part. In some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like, the double flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens.^[1] Flowers show great variation and plant scientists describe this variation in a systematic way to identify and distinguish species.
Specific terminology is used to descried flowers and their parts. Many flower parts are fused together; fused parts originating from the same whorl are connate, while fused parts originating from different whorls are adnate, parts that are not fused are free. When petals are fused into a tube or ring that falls away as a single unit, they are sympetalous (also called gamopetalous.) Petals that are connate may have distinctive regions: the cylindrical base is the tube, the expanding region is the throat and the flaring outer region is the limb. A sympetalous flower, with bilateral symmetry with an upper and lower lip, is bilabiate. Flowers with connate petals or sepals may have various shaped corolla or calyx including: campanulate, funnelform, tubular, urceolate, salverform or rotate.
Many flowers have a symmetry, if the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point, symmetrical halves are produced—the flower is called regular or actinomorphic, e.g. rose or trillium. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic. e.g. snapdragon or most orchids.
Flowers may be directly attached to the plant at their base (sessile--the supporting stalk or stem is highly reduced or absent). The stem or stalk subtending a flower is called a peduncle. If a peduncle supports more than one flower, the stems connecting each flower to the main axis are called pedicels. The apex of a flowering stem forms a terminal swelling which is called the torus or receptacle.
Christmas Lily (Lilium longiflorum). 1. Stigma, 2. Style, 3. Stamens, 4. Filament, 5. Petal
Floral formula

A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular species. The following representations are used:
Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e. g. Ca⁵ = 5 sepals)

Co = corolla (petal whorl; e. g., Co^3(x) = petals some multiple of three )

Z = add if zygomorphic (e. g., CoZ⁶ = zygomorphic with 6 petals)
A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e. g., A^∞ = many stamens)
G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e. g., G¹ = monocarpous)
x: to represent a "variable number"
∞: to represent "many"
A floral formula would appear something like this:
Ca⁵Co⁵A^{10 - ∞}G¹
Several additional symbols are sometimes used

Inflorescence
In those species that have more than one flower on an axis, the collective cluster of flowers is termed an inflorescence. Some inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a formation that resembles a single flower. The common example of this is most members of the very large composite (Asteraceae) group. A single daisy or sunflower, for example, is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence composed of numerous flowers (or florets).
An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified leaves known as bracts.

Development
A flower is a modified stem tip with compressed internodes, bearing structures that are highly modified leaves.^[2] In essence, a flower develops on a modified shoot oraxis from a determinate apical meristem (determinate meaning the axis grows to a set size).
Flowering transition
The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that is favorable forfertilization and the formation of seeds, hence ensuring maximal reproductive success. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of plant hormones and seasonable temperature and photoperiod changes.^[3] Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals is through the transmission of a complex signal known as florigen, which involves a variety of genes, including CONSTANS, FLOWERING LOCUS C and FLOWERING LOCUS T. Florigen is produced in the leaves in reproductively favorable conditions and acts in buds and growing tips to induce a number of different physiological and morphological changes.^[4] The first step is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental cue.^[5] Once the process begins, even if that cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower.

Organ development
The molecular control of floral organ identity determination is fairly well understood. In a simple model, three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within the floral meristem. These gene functions are called A, B and C-gene functions. In the first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of sepals. In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of homeotic mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana and snapdragon,Antirrhinum majus. For example, when there is a loss of B-gene function, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C-function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. See also The ABC Model of Flower Development.
Most genes central in this model belong to the MADS-box genes and are transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes specific for each floral organ.

Floral function
The principal purpose of a flower is the reproduction of the individual and the species. All flowering plants are heterosporous, producing two types of spores. Microspores are produced by meiosis inside anthers while megaspores are produced inside ovules, inside an ovary. In fact, anthers typically consist of four microsporangia and an ovule is an integumented megasporangium. Both types of spores develop into gametophytes inside sporangia. As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes also develop inside the spores (are endosporic).
In the majority of species, individual flowers have both functional carpels and stamens. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect or bisexual. Some flowers lack one or the other reproductive organ and called imperfect or unisexual If unisex flowers are found on the same individual plant but in different locations, the species is said to be monoecious. If each type of unisex flower is found only on separate individuals, the plant is dioecious.

Flower specialization and pollination

Flowering plants usually face selective pressure to optimize the transfer of their pollen, and this is typically reflected in the morphology of the flowers and the behaviour of the plants. Pollen may be transferred between plants via a number of 'vectors'. Some plants make use of abiotic vectors — namely wind (anemophily) or, much less commonly, water (hydrophily). Others use biotic vectors including insects (entomophily), birds (ornithophily), bats (chiropterophily) or other animals. Some plants make use of multiple vectors, but many are highly specialised.
Cleistogamous flowers are self pollinated, after which they may or may not open. Many Viola and some Salvia species are known to have these types of flowers.
The flowers of plants that make use of biotic pollen vectors commonly have glands called nectaries that act as an incentive for animals to visit the flower. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and color. Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits.
Anemophilous flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next. Examples include grasses, birch trees, ragweed and maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Male and female reproductive organs are generally found in separate flowers, the male flowers having a number of long filaments terminating in exposed stamens, and the female flowers having long, feather-like stigmas. Whereas the pollen of animal-pollinated flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to animals.

Pollination
The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction. Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of plant, they mediate the joining of the sperm, contained within pollen, to the ovules — contained in the ovary. Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. The joining of the sperm to the ovules is called fertilization. Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another, but many plants are able to self pollinate. The fertilized ovules produce seeds that are the next generation. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring, allowing for adaptation. Flowers have specific designs which encourages the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. Many plants are dependent upon external factors for pollination, including: wind and animals, and especially insects. Even large animals such as birds, bats, andpygmy possums can be employed. The period of time during which this process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis.

Attraction methods
Plants cannot move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous; literally "insect-loving" in Greek. They can be highly modified along with the pollinating insects by co-evolution. Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar. Birds and bees have color vision, enabling them to seek out "colorful" flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible only under ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and some of those scents are pleasant to our sense of smell. Not all flower scents are appealing to humans, a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals, often called Carrion flowers including Rafflesia, the titan arum, and the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba). Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and most such flowers are white.
Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate.

Pollination mechanism
The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of pollination is utilized.
Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods:
Entomophilous: flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. Many flowers rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination. Others, such as the Sarracenia or lady-slipper orchids, have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while preventing self-pollination.

Anemophilous: flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects, though it may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little value to them.
Some flowers are self pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called cleistogamous. Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers.

Flower-pollinator relationships
Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship is often given as an example of coevolution, as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed together over a long period of time to match each other's needs.
This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction. The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain extinction of the other member as well. Some endangered plant species are so because of shrinking pollinator populations.

Fertilization and dispersal

Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible (see also: Plant sexuality).

Evolution
While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: spores. In the sea, plants—and some animals—can simply scatter out genetic clones of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants reproduced. But plants soon evolved methods of protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the seed, though it had not yet evolved the flower. Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo and conifers. The earliest fossil of a flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated about 125 million years old.^[6] Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps.
Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematics) shows that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants.
The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps.
Likewise, most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains.
While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland organisms, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life.
While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including gigantopterids,^[10] which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of petrification.
The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.^[11] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior".
Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.

Symbolism
Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as floriography. Some of the more common examples include:
Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion.

Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Canada, red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war.

Irises/Lily are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining.

Daisies are a symbol of innocence.

Flowers within art are also representative of the female genitalia, as seen in the works of artists such as Georgia O'Keeffe, Imogen Cunningham, Veronica Ruiz de Velasco, and Judy Chicago, and in fact in Asian and western classical art. Many cultures around the world have a marked tendency to associate flowers with femininity.
The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th-19th century Romantic era. Famous examples include William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and William Blake's Ah! Sun-Flower.
Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as Van Gogh's sunflowers series or Monet's water lilies. Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of flower art.
The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris.
In Hindu mythology, flowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on a lotus flower.^[13]Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.^[14] For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.

Usage
In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable appearance and smell. Around the world, people use flowers for a wide range of events and functions that, cumulatively, encompass one's lifetime:
For new births or Christenings

As a corsage or boutonniere to be worn at social functions or for holidays

As tokens of love or esteem

For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and decorations for the hall

As brightening decorations within the home

As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts

For funeral flowers and expressions of sympathy for the grieving

For worshiping goddesses. in Hindu culture it is very common to bring flowers as a gift to temples.

People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire parts of their living space to flower gardens, pick wildflowers, or buy flowers from florists who depend on an entire network of commercial growers and shippers to support their trade.
Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts (seeds, fruits, roots, stems and leaves) but they provide several important foods and spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke. The most expensive spice, saffron, consists of dried stigmas of a crocus. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are used to flavor beer. Marigold flowers are fed to chickens to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable. Dandelion flowers are often made into wine. BeePollen, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. Honey consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g. orange blossom honey, clover honey and tupelo honey.
Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible but few are widely marketed as food. They are often used to add color and flavor to salads. Squash flowers are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Edible flowers include nasturtium, chrysanthemum, carnation, cattail, honeysuckle, chicory, cornflower, Canna, and sunflower. Some edible flowers are sometimes candied such as daisy and rose (you may also come across a candied pansy).
Flowers can also be made into herbal teas. Dried flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, camomile are infused into tea both for their fragrance and medical properties. Sometimes, they are also mixed with tea leaves for the added fragrance.

from wikipedia

Best of the British seaside

2011-07-16T12:02:00.000-07:00

Best of the British seaside: restaurants, pubs and cafés

find of Britain's best seaside restaurants, pubs, cafés with views and fish and chip shops.

The interior of the Harbour Bar in Scarborough.

Watch the sunset from the smart cliff-top terrace at Pebble Beach in Barton-on-Sea, Hampshire

Hix Oyster & Fish House, a relaxed restaurant overlooking Lyme Regis harbour

The Boathouse Cafe & Bar Gigha boasts one of the wildest, most unspoilt outlooks imaginable

French the most beautiful city in the world

2011-04-28T07:34:00.000-07:00

Nice French City

This is the city of the most beautiful cities in the world
This city contains many elements that earned her the title of this World
It features the most beautiful places coordinated and professionally designed residential unparalleled
I leave you with pictures of this wonderful city

City of French in France

Art and architectural magnificence of construction, as well as scenic and relatively quiet atmosphere makes this city has the elements of a magnificent city, which is worth a visit.
Visited by tourists from all over the world for rest and recreation and also for treatment, because of the quiet comfortable places that give physical and psychological comfort of the person requesting the comfort and relaxation

City France

John James Audubon

2011-04-25T16:00:00.001-07:00

John James Audubon

If , you would see a BIG photo click here

(April 26, 1785 – January 27, 1851) was a French-American ornithologist, naturalist, hunter, and painter. He painted, catalogued, and described the birds of North America in a manner far superior to what had gone before. Born in the French colony of Saint Domingue (now Haiti) and raised in France as a youth, in his embrace of America and his outsize personality and achievements, he represented the new American people of the United States.

Contents

Early life

Immigration to the United States

Starting out in business

Early ornithological career

Birds of America

Later career

Art and methods

Legacy
Place names

Works
Posthumous collections

See also

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Early life

Audubon was born in the Les Cayes in the French colony of Saint Domingue^[1] on his father's sugar plantation. He was the illegitimate son of Lieutenant Jean Audubon, a French naval officer (and privateer), and his mistress Jeanne Rabin, a chambermaid recently arrived from France. They named the boy Jean Rabin.^[2] His mother died when the boy was a few months old, as she had suffered from tropical diseases since arriving on the island. His father already had two mixed-race children by his mulatto housekeeper, Sanitte, and he took up with her again and had another daughter following Jeanne Rabin's death. Sanitte also took care of the infant boy Jean.^[3]
During the American Revolution, Jean Audubon was imprisoned by the British Empire. After his release, he helped the American cause.^[4] A slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue in 1788 convinced Jean Audubon to sell his holdings and return to France with his French son and infant mixed-race daughter, who was very fair (she was the daughter of Sanitte).^[5]^[6]
The boy was raised by his father and stepmother Anne Moynet Audubon in Nantes, France, who formally adopted both the children in 1794.^[5] They renamed the boy Jean-Jacques Fougère Audubon. When Audubon at age 18 boarded ship for immigration to the United States in 1803, he changed his name to an anglicized form: John James Audubon.^[7]
From his earliest days, Audubon had an affinity for birds. "I felt an intimacy with them...bordering on frenzy must accompany my steps through life."^[8] His father encouraged his interest in nature; "he would point out the elegant movement of the birds, and the beauty and softness of their plumage. He called my attention to their show of pleasure or sense of danger, their perfect forms and splendid attire. He would speak of their departure and return with the seasons."^[9] In France during the chaotic years of the French Revolution and its aftermath, Audubon grew up to be a handsome and gregarious young man. He played flute and violin, and learned to ride, fence, and dance.^[10] He was hearty and a great walker, and loved roaming in the woods, often returning with natural curiosities, including birds' eggs and nests, of which he made crude drawings.^[11] His father planned to make a seaman of his son. At twelve, Audubon went to military school and became a cabin boy. He quickly found out that he was susceptible to seasickness and not fond of mathematics or navigation. After failing the officer's qualification test, Audubon ended his incipient naval career. He was cheerfully back on solid ground and exploring the fields again, focusing on birds.

Immigration to the United States

In 1803, his father obtained a false passport so that Audubon could go to the United States to avoid conscription in the Napoleonic Wars. His father and Claude Rozier arranged a business partnership between their sons to venture to Pennsylvania. The partnership was between Ferdinand Rozier and John James Audubon, and funded by Claude Rozier buying half of the senior Audubon’s share of the plantation in Haiti, and lending money to the partnership as secured by half interest in Audubon’s business interest of lead mining at Mill Grove in Pennsylvania.^[13]^[14]
Audubon caught yellow fever upon arrival in New York City. The ship's captain placed him in a boarding house run by Quaker women. They nursed Audubon to recovery and taught him English, including the Quaker form of using "thee" and "thou", otherwise then anachronistic. He traveled with the family's Quaker lawyer to the Audubon family farm Mill Grove, near Philadelphia.^[15] The 284-acre (1.15 km²) homestead, bought with proceeds from the sale of his father's sugar plantation, is located on the Perkiomen Creek, just a few miles from Valley Forge. Audubon lived with the tenants in what he considered a paradise. "Hunting, fishing, drawing, and music occupied my every moment; cares I knew not, and cared naught about them."^[10] Studying his surroundings, Audubon quickly learned the ornithologist's rule, which he wrote, "The nature of the place—whether high or low, moist or dry, whether sloping north or south, or bearing tall trees or low shrubs—generally gives hint as to its inhabitants."^[16] His father hoped that lead mines on the property could be commercially developed, as lead was an essential component of bullets. This could provide his son with a profitable occupation.^[17] Audubon met his neighbor William Bakewell, the owner of the nearby estate "Fatland Ford", whose daughter Lucy he married five years later. The two young people shared many common interests, and early on began to spend time together, exploring the natural world around them.
Audubon set about to study American birds with the goal of illustrating his findings in a more realistic manner than most artists did then.^[18] He began conducting the first known bird-banding on the continent: he tied yarn to the legs of Eastern Phoebes and determined that they returned to the same nesting spots year after year.^[19] He also began drawing and painting birds, and recording their behavior. After an accidental fall into a creek, Audubon contracted a severe fever. He was nursed and recovered at Fatland Ford, with Lucy at his side. Risking conscription, Audubon returned to France in 1805 to see his father to ask permission to marry. He also needed to discuss family business plans. While there, he met naturalist and physician Charles-Marie D'Orbigny, who improved Audubon's taxidermy skills and taught him scientific methods of research.^[20] Although on his return Audubon's ship was overtaken by an English privateer, Audubon and his hidden gold coins survived the encounter.^[21]
Audubon resumed his bird studies and created his own nature museum, perhaps inspired by the great museum of natural history created by Charles Willson Peale in Philadelphia. Peale's bird exhibits were considered scientifically advanced. Audubon's room was brimming with birds' eggs, stuffed raccoons and opossums, fish, snakes, and other creatures. He had become proficient at specimen preparation and taxidermy.
With his father's approval, Audubon sold part of the Mill Grove farm, including the house and mine, as they deemed the mining venture too risky. He retained some land for investment.^[22] He went to New York to learn the import-export trade, hoping to find a business to support his marriage to Lucy. The still skeptical Mr. Bakewell wanted to see a solid career from the young Frenchman before releasing his daughter to him.

Plate 41 of Birds of America by John James Audubon depicting Ruffed Grouse

Starting out in business

The business partnership between Audubon and Ferdinand Rozier was moved west at various stages, ending ultimately in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri. Shipping goods ahead, Audubon and Rozier started a general store in Louisville, Kentucky, the most important river port between Pittsburgh and New Orleans. In 1808, six months after arriving in Kentucky, he married Lucy Bakewell. Soon he was drawing bird specimens again. He regularly burned earlier efforts to force continuous improvement.^[23] He also took detailed field notes to document his drawings. Because rising tensions with the British resulted in President Jefferson's embargo of British trade, Audubon's business was not thriving. In 1810, Audubon moved his business to the less competitive Henderson, Kentucky area. He and Lucy took over an abandoned log cabin. In the fields and forests, Audubon wore typical frontier clothes and moccasins "and a ball pouch, a buffalo horn filled with gunpowder, a butcher knife, and a tomahawk on his belt."
He frequently turned to hunting and fishing to feed his family, as business was slow. On a prospecting trip downriver with a load of goods, Audubon joined up with Shawnee and Osage hunting parties, learning their methods, drawing specimens by the bonfire, and finally parting "like brethren."^[25] Audubon had great respect for native Americans: "Whenever I meet Indians, I feel the greatness of our Creator in all its splendor, for there I see the man naked from His hand and yet free from acquired sorrow."^[26] Audubon also admired the skill of Kentucky riflemen and the "regulators", citizen lawmen who created a kind of justice on the Kentucky frontier. In his travel notes, he claims to have encountered Daniel Boone.
Audubon and Ferdinand Rozier ended their partnership at Ste. Genevieve on April 6, 1811 when Audubon heeded the call of his talent as an ornithologist and artist and longed to returned to his wife Lucy. The partnership was dissolved by mutual agreement, Ferdinand agreeing to pay Audubon $3,000 (equivalent to ~$120,000 in 2010 dollars) by the payment of $1,000 cash and the balance being owed to Audubon over time.
While out riding, Audubon witnessed the 1811-1812 earthquakes, among the most severe to strike the mid-continent. When Audubon arrived home, he was relieved to find no major damage, but the area was shaken by aftershocks for months.Again while on horseback, he encountered his first tornado, thinking it was another earthquake. Ever the naturalist, he described how its "horrible noise resembled the roar of Niagara." He noted that as the tornado retreated, "the air was filled with an extremely disagreeable sulphurous odor."

Carolina Pigeon
(now called Mourning Dove)

Though their finances were tenuous, the Audubons started a family. They had two sons: Victor Gifford (1809-1860) and painter John Woodhouse Audubon (1812-1862), and two daughters who died while young: Lucy at two years (1815–1817) and Rose at nine months (1819–1820).
Both sons would help publish their father's works. John W. Audubon became a naturalist and writer in his own right.
During a visit to Philadelphia in 1812, following Congress' declaration of war with Great Britain, Audubon gave up his French citizenship to become an American citizen. After his return to Kentucky, he found that rats had eaten his entire collection of over two hundred drawings. After weeks of depression, he took to the field again, determined to re-do his drawings to an even higher standard.The War of 1812 upset Audubon's plans to move his business to New Orleans. He formed a partnership with his brother-in-law and built up their trade in Henderson. Between 1812 and the Panic of 1819, times were good. Audubon bought land and slaves, founded a flour mill, and enjoyed his growing family. After 1819, Audubon went bankrupt and was thrown into jail for debt. The little money he did earn was from drawing portraits, particularly death-bed sketches, greatly esteemed by country folk before photography.[
He wrote, "my heart was sorely heavy, for scarcely had I enough to keep my dear ones alive; and yet through these dark days I was being led to the development of the talents I loved."Early ornithological career

Early ornithological career

After a short stay in Cincinnati to work as a naturalist and taxidermist at a museum, Audubon with his gun, paintbox, and assistant Joseph Mason, traveled south on the Mississippi. He had made a personal commitment to find and paint all the birds of North America for eventual publication. His goal was to surpass the earlier ornithological work of poet-naturalist Alexander Wilson.^[37] Though he could not afford to buy Wilson's work, Audubon used it to guide him when he had access to a copy.
On October 12, 1820, Audubon started into Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida in search of ornithological specimens. He traveled with George Lehman, a professional Swiss landscape artist. The following summer, he moved upriver to the Oakley Plantation in the Felicianas to teach drawing to Eliza Pirrie, the young daughter of the owners. Though low paying, the job was ideal, as it afforded him much time to roam and paint in the woods. (Located at 11788 Highway 965, between Jackson and St. Francisville, the plantation is now the Audubon State Historic Site.) Audubon called his future work Birds of America. He attempted to paint one page each day. Painting with newly discovered technique, he decided his earlier works were inferior and re-did them.^[38] He hired hunters to gather specimens for him. Audubon realized the ambitious project would take him away from his family for months at a time.
Audubon sometimes used his drawing talent to trade for goods or sell small works to raise cash. He made charcoal portraits on demand at $5 each and gave drawing lessons.^[39] In 1823 Audubon took lessons in oil painting technique from John Steen, a teacher of American landscape, and history painter Thomas Cole. Though he did not use oils much for his bird work, Audubon earned good money painting oil portraits for patrons along the Mississippi. (Audubon's own account reveals that he learned oil painting in December 1822 from Jacob Stein, an itinerant portrait artist, and after they had enjoyed all the portrait patronage to be expected in Natchez, Mississippi during January–March 1823, both painters resolved to travel together as perambulating portrait-artists.) Lucy became the steady breadwinner for the couple and their two young sons. Trained as a teacher, she conducted classes for children out of their home. Later she became a local teacher in Louisiana and took up residence, with her children, at the home of a wealthy plantation owner.^[40]
Audubon returned to Philadelphia in 1824 to seek a publisher for his bird drawings. Though he met Thomas Sully, one of the most famous portrait painters of the time and a valuable ally, Audubon was rebuffed for publication. He had earned the enmity of some of the city's leading scientists at the Academy of Natural Sciences. He did take oil painting lessons from Sully and met Charles Bonaparte, who admired his work and recommended he go to Europe to have his bird drawings engraved.

Audubon, John James ~ Golden Eagle, 1833-4

Audubon, John James ~ Golden Eagle, 1833-4

Birds of America

With his wife's support, in 1826 at age 41, Audubon took his growing collection of work to England. He sailed from New Orleans to Liverpool on the cotton hauling ship "Delos", reaching England in the autumn of 1826, taking a portfolio of over 300 drawings.^[42] With letters of introduction to prominent Englishmen, Audubon gained their quick attention. "I have been received here in a manner not to be expected during my highest enthusiastic hopes."^[43]
The British could not get enough of his images of backwoods America and its natural attractions. He met with great acceptance as he toured around England and Scotland, and was lionized as "the American woodsman." He raised enough money to begin publishing his Birds of America. This monumental work consists of 435 hand-colored, life-size prints of 497 bird species, made from engraved copper plates of various sizes depending on the size of the image. They were printed on sheets measuring about 39 by 26 inches (660 mm).^[44] The work contains just over 700 North American bird species.
The pages were organized for artistic effect and contrasting interest, as if the reader were taking a visual tour. (Some critics thought he should have organized the plates in Linnaean order as befitting a "serious" ornithological treatise.)^[45] The first and perhaps most famous plate was the Wild Turkey, which had been Benjamin Franklin's candidate for the national bird. It lost to the Bald Eagle.
The cost of printing the entire work was $115,640 (over $2,000,000 today), paid for from advance subscriptions, exhibitions, oil painting commissions, and animal skins, which Audubon hunted and sold.^[44] Audubon's great work was a remarkable accomplishment. It took more than 14 years of field observations and drawings, plus his single-handed management and promotion of the project to make it a success. A reviewer wrote, "All anxieties and fears which overshadowed his work in its beginning had passed away. The prophecies of kind but overprudent friends, who did not understand his self-sustaining energy, had proved untrue; the malicious hope of his enemies, for even the gentle lover of nature has enemies, had been disappointed; he had secured a commanding place in the respect and gratitude of men."^[46]
Colorists applied each color in assembly-line fashion (over fifty were hired for the work).^[47] The original edition was engraved in aquatint by Robert Havell, Jr., who took over the task after the first ten plates engraved by W. H. Lizars were deemed inadequate. Known as the Double Elephant folio after its double elephant paper size, it is often regarded as the greatest picture book ever produced and the finest aquatint work. By the 1830s, the aquatint process was largely superseded by lithography.^[48] A contemporary French critic wrote, "A magic power transported us into the forests which for so many years this man of genius has trod. Learned and ignorant alike were astonished at the spectacle...It is a real and palpable vision of the New World."

Plate from Birds of America, featuring the Ivory-billed Woodpecker

Audubon sold oil-painted copies of the drawings to make extra money and publicize the book. He had his portrait painted by John Syme, who clothed the naturalist in frontier clothes. The portrait was hung at the entrance of his exhibitions, promoting his rustic image. (The painting now hangs in the White House.)^[50] The New-York Historical Society has all 435 of the preparatory watercolors for Birds of America. Lucy Audubon sold them to the society after her husband's death. All but 80 of the original copper plates were melted down when Lucy Audubon, desperate for money, sold them for scrap to the Phelps Dodge Corporation
King George IV was also an avid fan of Audubon and a subscriber to the book. London's Royal Society recognized his achievement by electing Audubon a fellow. He followed Benjamin Franklin, who was the first American fellow. While in Edinburgh to seek subscriptions for the book, Audubon gave a demonstration of his method of propping up birds with wire at professor Robert Jameson's Wernerian Natural History Association. Student Charles Darwin was in the audience. Audubon also visited the dissecting theatre of the anatomist Robert Knox. Audubon was a hit in France as well, gaining the King and several of the nobility as subscribers.
On 6 December 2010 a copy of the book sold at Sotheby's in London for £7.3m, making it the world's most expensive ever single book.

Later career

Audubon returned to America in 1829 to complete more drawings for his magnum opus. He also hunted animals and shipped the valued skins to British friends. He was reunited with his family. After settling business affairs, Lucy accompanied him back to England. Audubon found that during his absence, he had lost some subscribers due to the uneven quality of coloring of the plates. Others were in arrears in their payments. His engraver fixed the plates and Audubon reassured subscribers, but a few begged off. He responded, " 'The Birds of America' will then raise in value as much as they are now depreciated by certain fools and envious persons."^[54]
He followed Birds of America with a sequel Ornithological Biographies. This was a collection of life histories of each species written with Scottish ornithologist William MacGillivray. The two books were printed separately to avoid a British law requiring copies of all publications with text to be deposited in Crown libraries, a huge financial burden for the self-published Audubon.^[55] Both books were published between 1827 and 1839.
During the 1830s, Audubon continued making expeditions in North America. During a trip to Key West, a companion wrote in a newspaper article, "Mr. Audubon is the most enthusiastic and indefatigable man I ever knew...Mr. Audubon was neither dispirited by heat, fatigue, or bad luck...he rose every morning at 3 o'clock and went out...until 1 o'clock." Then he would draw the rest of the day before returning to the field in the evening, a routine he kept up for weeks and months.^[56] In 1833, Audubon set forth from Maine accompanied by his son John, and five other young colleagues to explore the ornithology of Labrador. On the return voyage, the Ripley made a stop at St.George's, Newfoundland and Audubon and his assistants documented 36 species of birds. ^[57]
In 1839 having finished the Ornithological Biography, Audubon returned to the United States with his family. He bought an estate on the Hudson River (now Audubon Park). In 1842, he published an octavo edition of Birds of America, with 65 additional plates. It earned $36,000 and was purchased by 1100 subscribers.^[58] Audubon spent much time on "subscription gathering trips", drumming up sales of the octavo edition, as he hoped to leave his family a sizable income.
Audubon made some excursions out West where he hoped to record Western species he had missed, but his health began to fail. In 1848, he manifested signs of senility, his "noble mind in ruins."^[59] He died at his family home on January 27, 1851. Audubon is buried, close to the location of his home, in the graveyard at the Church of the Intercession in the Trinity Churchyard Cemetery and Mausoleum at 155th Street and Broadway in Manhattan. There is an imposing monument in his honor at the cemetery, which is the center of the Heritage Rose District of NYC. ^[60]
Audubon's final work was on mammals, the Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America, prepared in collaboration with his good friend Rev. John Bachman of Charleston, South Carolina. Bachman supplied much of the scientific text. The work was completed by Audubon's sons and son-in-law and published posthumously. His son John did most of the drawings.

Audubon, John James ~ White Gyrfalcons

Art and methods

Audubon developed his own methods for drawing birds. First, he killed them using fine shot. He then used wires to prop them into a natural position, unlike the common method of many ornithologists, who prepared and stuffed the specimens into a rigid pose. When working on a major specimen like an eagle, he would spend up to four 15-hour days, preparing, studying, and drawing it.^[61] His paintings of birds are set true-to-life in their natural habitat. He often portrayed them as if caught in motion, especially feeding or hunting. This was in stark contrast to the stiff representations of birds by his contemporaries, such as Alexander Wilson. Audubon based his paintings on his extensive field observations.
He worked primarily with watercolor early on. He added colored chalk or pastel to add softness to feathers, especially those of owls and herons.^[62] He employed multiple layers of watercoloring, and sometimes used gouache. All species were drawn life size which accounts for the contorted poses of the larger birds as Audubon strove to fit them within the page size. Smaller species were usually placed on branches with berries, fruit, and flowers. He used several birds in a drawing to present all views of anatomy and wings. Larger birds were often placed in their ground habitat or perching on stumps. At times, as with woodpeckers, he combined several species on one page to offer contrasting features. He frequently depicted the birds' nests and eggs, and occasionally natural predators, such as snakes. He usually illustrated male and female variations, and sometimes juveniles. In later drawings, Audubon used assistants to render the habitat for him. Going beyond faithful renderings of anatomy, Audubon employed carefully constructed composition, drama, and slightly exaggerated poses to achieve artistic as well as scientific effects.

Audubon, John James ~ Bobwhite (Virginia Partridge), Painted 1825. Published as Plate 76, 1829

Audubon, John James ~ Bobwhite (Virginia Partridge), Painted 1825. Published as Plate 76, 1829

Detail from the above image

Detail from the above image

Legacy

Audubon's influence on ornithology and natural history was far reaching. Nearly all later ornithological works were inspired by his artistry and high standards. Charles Darwin quoted Audubon three times in On the Origin of Species and also in later works.^[63] Despite some errors in field observations, Audubon's field notes comprised a significant contribution to the understanding of bird anatomy and behavior. Birds of America is still considered one of the greatest examples of book art. Among his accomplishments, Audubon discovered twenty-five new species and twelve new subspecies.^[64]

He was elected to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Linnaean Society, and the Royal Society of London in recognition of his contributions.
The homestead Mill Grove in Audubon, PA is open to the public and contains a museum presenting all his major works, including Birds of America.
The John James Audubon State Park in Henderson, Kentucky. The Audubon Museum there houses many of Audubon's original watercolors, oils, engravings and personal memorabilia. The Nature Center features a wildlife observatory, to nurture love for nature and the great outdoors.
In 1905, the National Audubon Society was incorporated and named in his honor. Its mission "is to conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds, other wildlife, and their habitats for the benefit of humanity and the earth's biological diversity." In his journals, Audubon prophetically warned of dangers that threatened the enormous flocks of his time, including over-hunting and loss of habitat. Several species which he recorded have become extinct, including the Carolina Parakeet, the Passenger Pigeon, the Labrador Duck, and the Great Auk.
He was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 22¢ Great Americans series postage stamp.
On December 6 2010 Birds of America was sold at a Sotheby's auction for $11.5 million, a record price for a single printed book.

Place names

Audubon, New Jersey and Audubon Park, New Jersey are names after Audubon. Many street signs in Audubon Park are names after birds Audubon drew.
Audubon, Pennsylvania is named in Audubon's honor and is home to the Audubon Bird Sanctuary.
Audubon Park, New Orleans was created on land purchased by the city for an urban park, and designed by the American landscape architect John Charles Olmsted.
The Audubon Park and country club in Louisville, Kentucky is in the area of his former general store.
Several towns and Audubon County, Iowa were named after Audubon.
In Louisiana, John James Audubon Bridge (Mississippi River) was named in his honor. It will provide a crucial crossing over the Mississippi River between Pointe Coupee Parish and West Feliciana Parish.
Audubon Memorial Bridge crosses the Ohio River, connecting Henderson, Kentucky and Evansville, Indiana.
John James Audubon State Park and the Audubon Museum (located within the park) in Henderson, Kentucky was named after Audubon.
Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon, in Nantes, France, was named after Audubon

Clipper ship Audubon

Clipper ship Audubon

Works

Posthumous collections

John James Audubon, Writings & Drawings (Christoph Irmscher, ed.)
John James Audubon, The Audubon Reader (Richard Rhodes, ed.) (Everyman Library, 2006) ISBN 1-4000-4369-7
Audubon: Early Drawings (Richard Rhodes, Scott V. Edwards, Leslie A. Morris) (Harvard University Press and Houghton Library 2008) ISBN 978-0-674-03102-9

J.J. Audubon in later years

the world's smallest horse , its fantastic

2011-03-27T02:08:00.000-07:00

THE world's smallest horse is getting ready to celebrate his big day — with the release of his first book.

Little Einstein the miniature stallion may be just 20 inches tall, but that hasn't stopped him becoming a huge star.

The tiny horse, from New Hampshire in the US, has already captured the hearts of millions, including celebrities like Oprah Winfrey, who invited him on her hit TV show.

But it is friends a bit closer to home that the small steed struggles with.

Happy family ... Einstein with owners Rachel Wagner and Charlie Cantrell

Barcroft Media

And his quest to find a pal tiny enough to play with him has been made into book called A Friend for Einstein — which is due to be released on his first birthday next month.

Einstein's owners Dr Rachel Wagner and Charlie Cantrell have struggled to find a mini playmate for the little pony.

He is so tiny they worry a bigger horse could hurt or crush him, but no-one has told Einstein that.

He has already made firm friends with Playboy, a towering full-sized Stallion owned by a neighbour.

Little and large ... Einstein with his pal Playboy

Barcroft Media

And he has befriended Charlie and Rachel's Boxer dog Lilly and a St. Bernard called Heather.

Owner Charlie said: "Playboy is owned by a young lady who lives next to our farm and Einstein sometimes meets him to have a head sniff and a simple hello.

"You see the adorable thing about Einstein is that he doesn't seem to be too aware of his height at all."

He added: "He approaches Lilly and Playboy just like he was a fully grown stallion. He rears up and huffs and gallops around."

Friends ... Einstein with pal Hannah the St. Bernard

Barcroft Media

The very miniature horse sparked massive public interest when he was born, with 4,000 visitors queuing to see the 14-inch high newborn.

Tiniest horse is having a ball

Horsing around ... tiny Einstein loves to play

Lovebird

2011-02-19T17:11:00.000-08:00

A Lovebird is one of nine species of the genus Agapornis (Greek: αγάπη agape 'love'; όρνις ornis 'bird'). They are a social and affectionate small parrot. Eight species are native to the African continent, while the Grey-headed Lovebird is native to Madagascar. Their name stems from the parrots' strong,monogamous pair bonding and the long periods in which paired birds will spend sitting together. Lovebirds live in small flocks and eat fruit, vegetables, grasses and seed. Black-winged Lovebirds also eat insects and figs, and the Black-collared Lovebirds have a special dietary requirement for native figs, making them problematic to keep in captivity.

Some species are kept as pets, and several color mutations were selectively bred in aviculture. Their average lifespan is 10 to 15 years.

Lovebirds are 13 to 17 centimeters in length and from 40 to 60 grams in weight. They are among the smallest parrots, characterized by a stocky build, a short blunt tail, and a relatively large, sharp beak. Wildtype lovebirds are mostly green with a variety of colors on their upper body, depending on the species. The Fischer's Lovebird, Black-cheeked Lovebird, and the Masked Lovebird have a prominent white ring around their eyes. The Abyssinian Lovebird, the Madagascar Lovebird, and the Red-faced Lovebird are sexually dimorphic. Many colour mutant varieties have been produced by selective breeding of the species that are popular in aviculture

The lovebird genus comprises nine species of which five are monotypic and four are divided into subspecies.^[2] Eight of them are native in the mainland of Africa and the Madagascar Lovebird is native to Madagascar. In the wild the different species are separated geographically.

Traditionally, lovebirds are divided in 3 groups:

1. the sexually dimorphic species: Madagascar, Abyssinian, and Red-headed Lovebird
2. the intermediate species: Peach-faced Lovebird
3. the white-eye-ringed species: Masked , Fischer's, Lilian's, and Black-cheeked Lovebirds

However, this division is not fully supported by phylogenetic studies, as the species of the dimorphic group are not grouped together in a single clade.

Species and subspecies:^[4]

Rosy-faced Lovebird, Agapornis roseicollis, (Vieillot, 1818) — or Peach-faced Lovebird
- Agapornis roseicollis catumbella, B.P. Hall, 1952
- Agapornis roseicollis roseicollis, (Vieillot 1818)
Yellow-collared Lovebird, Agapornis personatus, Reichenow, 1887 — or Masked Lovebird
Fischer's Lovebird, Agapornis fischeri, Reichenow, 1887
Lilian's Lovebird, Agapornis lilianae, Shelley, 1894 — or Nyasa Lovebird
Black-cheeked Lovebird, Agapornis nigrigenis, W.L. Sclater, 1906
Grey-headed Lovebird, Agapornis canus, (Gmelin, 1788) — or Madagascar Lovebird
- Agapornis canus ablectaneus, Bangs, 1918
- Agapornis canus canus, (Gmelin, 1788)
Black-winged Lovebird, Agapornis taranta, (Stanley, 1814) — or Abyssinian Lovebird
Red-headed Lovebird, Agapornis pullarius, (Linnaeus, 1758) — or Red-faced Lovebird
- Agapornis pullarius pullarius, (Linnaeus, 1758)
- Agapornis pullarius ugandae, Neumann, 1908
Black-collared Lovebird, Agapornis swindernianus, (Kuhl, 1820) — or Swindern's Lovebird

Agapornis swindernianus emini, Neumann, 1908
Agapornis swindernianus swindernianus, (Kuhl, 1820)
Agapornis swindernianus zenkeri, Reichenow, 1895

Yellow-collared Lovebird
or Masked Lovebird
(Agapornis personatus

Fischer's Lovebird

(Agapornis fischeri)

Lilian's Lovebird

or Nyasa Lovebird

(Agapornis lilianae)

Black-cheeked Lovebird

(Agapornis nigrigenis)

Rosy-faced Lovebird

or Peach-faced Lovebird

(Agapornis roseicollis)

Black-winged Lovebird

or Abyssinian Lovebird

(Agapornis taranta)

Red-headed Lovebird

or Red-faced Lovebird

(Agapornis pullarius)

Grey-headed Lovebird

or Madagascar Lovebird

(Agapornis canus)

Black-collared Lovebird

or Swindern's Lovebird

(Agapornis swindernianus)

Valentine’s Day Decoration Ideas

2011-02-13T14:39:00.001-08:00

Valentine’s Day Decoration Ideas

If you happen to be in love with someone, you must be knowing that Valentine’s Day is pure magic. And the enchantment is possible with a perfect setting that can be achieved through careful decoration. If you are clueless about Valentine’s Day Decoration, relax for TheHolidaySpot provides you with highly assistive decoration tips for Valentine’s Day. Check out these Valentine’s Day Decoration Ideas and implement these easy tips into your Valentine’s Day beautification. If you like our Valentine’s Day Decoration Ideas, Have a wonderful Valentine’s Day celebration.

Red roses are what makes Valentine's Day. Fill vases with bright red or pink roses and place in strategic positions in your house to create the aura of the occasion. You can also place the petals of some red roses, or even tulips, daffodils or irises, in glass bowls filled with water. This looks highly romantic and can be a great contributor to your Valentine's Day celebrations.

Do you know that greeting cards can also be a good decoration item? Carefully place some cards around your house - on the living room table or over the mantlepiece. Stick some on the walls, or scatter on the bed or the sofa. You can also hang some in a string across the room.

Balloons can also make cute decor pieces. Tie some air filled balloons of different colors and shapes to chairs and bed stands. Place some of these around the room though you are adviced to keep these off from walking space to avoid irritation. This is specially to be kept in mind if you plan to throw a Valentine's Day bash at your shack.

What can be more romantic than a candlelit dinner? Place some special scented Valentine candles (available at gift stores) in the middle of your dinner table. Carelessly strew a few beautiful red roses on the side tables along with some plates filled with chocolates, cherries or strawberries. Place a Valentine's Day greeting card atop the dinner table. Light the candles and dim the lights. The setting would be terrific for a Valentine's Day dinner.

Let some nice romantic music (no sad songs), preferably karaoke, play softly in the background to add that special romantic charm to the event. This will also make it easy for you to have a slow, close dance with your partner. Special Valentine's Day collection of love songs are easily available at gift shops these days. You can buy one of those and put to use.

Top Ten Images Of 2010

2011-01-08T19:08:00.000-08:00

The Best Images of 2010

This image, created by Sir Mitchell, was responsible for uniting the Internet together for a cause everyone could agree on. In an effort to give Conan "Coco" O'Brien the same air time that the Tonight Show has had for 60 years, people were setting this image as their Facebook profile pictures, creating desktop backgrounds with it, and overall spreading it around like wildfire.

best image 2010

This is Riley, and it was his birthday! It was also the time he became an Internet sensation. With close to 1 million views, he's been seen more than most other dogs, AND he got cake. He's owned by the Redditor moe-jito.

Wasps. Everyone hates them, but at over 750,000 views, it's clear that everyone likes this image. Be cool, chill out, and enjoy reading it -- but watch your back, they're coming for you...

This image, created by Matt McInerney, is the only image on the list that became extremely popular without the help of Reddit. With over 1,250,000 views and climbing, it gained its popularity from being reposted on Tumblr over and over again.

Click the image to view its full size.

This one is without a doubt one of the most controversial images of the year. It was uploaded way back in February, and it still gets asked to be taken down regularly. But since it doesn't violate the Terms of Service and has over 1.5 million views, it never will be. The MPAA's not going to be happy with us after this...

This is an incredible image that tells the life story of three women. It's beautiful and really makes you think. It's also the second most popular album of all time, with close to half a million views.

This is a really touching commic by Enzo from cheerupemokid.net. After only 2 months, its been viewed over 500,000 times, and will probably put tears in your eyes. It even inspired some users of Reddit to fly home to see their old dogs.

"You never think you're going to miss animals as much as you do. It was just nice having some creature in my life who never disappointed me. Never judged me...Man's best friend, huh? They got that one right." -Dr. Kelso from Scrubs.

This isn't just one image, it's a set of images from a holiday party. Every year when user everetthiller throws a party, he sends out photos with famous people added to the pictures. This is the most popular album of all time, and accounted for almost 2% of Imgur's total pageviews for the month of November. People have even contacted me for invitations. Needless to say, this guy can throw one hell of a party.

This image was not only viewed over half a million times, it spawned an entire printing business! Josh from Stikkitnow.com created this shirt for his girlfriend, Danielle. When he showed it to the folks over at Reddit, they fell in love with it (and her). Since then, Josh has been printing shirts, decals, and everything else as his full time job. A few months later, baby Roslyn was born and is doing great

The #1 image of the year goes to Keanu Reeves. This image became a huge Internet meme after being released, and is one of the most popular images of all time. People were constantly creating and uploading new "Sad Keanu" images, and Imgur saw a huge increase in images uploaded during that time. A simple Google image search for Sad Keanu will bring up hundreds, if not thousands, of Photoshopped images of Keanu. Even Riley, the birthday dog (#9) was seen with him, and it's all thanks to this image.

girl love story

2011-01-08T02:13:00.000-08:00

I swear this is a true story

At the beginning of the semester, my roomate and I got into a discussion about the wildest things we had ever done. My life being rather boring, my roomate did most of the talking

She told me about a terrible experience she had that knocked me half out of my bed when I heard it. Knowing what an interest most people have in chatting on the net, I thought you would all appreciate this as well.

I asked my roomate if I could write it up. She didn't mind as long as I didn't use her name, so here it is. An anonymous girl, let's call her Jen, is a junior in college attending school in Colorado. Like all college students, she was wrapped up in the partying and the wildness college life has to offer.

Jen is a computer science major and always has a lot of work to do on her computer. So, when she's not out having a good time, she'll be working

her butt off designing computer programs and installing software.

Having recently broken up with her boyfriend, she was home alone on a Friday night for the first time in the three years they had been dating. Feeling sad, alone and depressed, she decided to make a new homepage. While she was playing on the Net, she decided to get on to a chat line. Being the wild psycho she is, she logged on a sex line. Over the line, she met a guy who identified himself as "Jeremy."

She started playing with him, gave him a false name of "Katie," and started getting into details about what she would like to do to him with her tongue. He responded by telling her to picture herself being naked while his hands ran over every square inch of her body. Soon they were having cybersex. This went on for a while, and then she got off the line agreeing to meet him back on line the following night. Saturday night rolls around and Jen, as 'Katie,' is on line with Jeremy again. They became even closer this night, and continued like this for a week. At the end of the week, they started talking about other things and got into very intimate issues and feelings. They became close, exchanging details about their lives, but Jen didn't tell Jeremy she was in college, because she was afraid of sounding like an immature college girl. She felt guilty but, after a few weeks, she found she really liked this guy.

The virtual relationship carried on like this for months, and the months turned into a year. By the end of the year they had exchanged their most intimate thoughts, but had never even spoken on the phone. They were afraid of ruining the mystery. "Katie" & Jeremy had done everything sexually possible over the Net. They were affectionate as well, waiting for the day that they could someday be together. Finally, the time had come: they had to meet each other. They were in love. They didn't care about age or looks, but only for each other. Jeremy told Jen he thought she could be his next wife. Jen was wary at first, but decided she didn't care how old or ugly he might be. She loved him and he was the only one she could feel comfortable with.

They planned a trip to meet in a small Colorado town. They were finally going to see each other, and spend the weekend together. As Jen didn't want the hassle of trying to recognize someone she had never seen, she said, "Why don't you just get a room? We'll meet there, and that way there will be no mistake." Jeremy agreed.

Jen showed up at the resort first, and checked in, telling the desk lady to hold a key for the next party. She then went up to the room. Wanting things to be special, she lit some candles and put on some music. She stripped naked and climbed into bed under the covers, deciding to surprise Jeremy when he got there. The lights were out and the mood was right; then she heard a key in the door. She heard someone walk in and around the corner. She whispered, "Jeremy?" A voice replied, "Katie?" "Yes," she said. He fumbled for the light, and turned it on to see Jen on the bed naked before him.

Then next thing heard around the world were two blood curdling screams. Jen covered herself up, and in her most humiliated voice said...........

"DAD?"

"Anonymous Girl"

love story

2011-01-03T03:09:00.000-08:00

love story

Hi guys and grils
This is a love story that u will never forget...
He met her on a party. She was so outstanding, many guys chasing after her
,
while he was so normal, nobody paid attention to him. At the end of the
party, he invited her to have coffee with him, she was surprised, but
due to
being polite, she promised.
They sat in a nice coffee shop, he was too nervous to say anything, she
felt
uncomfortable, she thought, please, let me go home.. suddenly he asked
the
waiter: "would you please give me some salt? I'd like to put it in my
coffee."
Everybody stared at him, so strange! His face turned red, but, still,
he put
the salt in his coffee and drank it. She asked him curiously: why you
have
this hobby?
He replied: "when I was a little boy, I was living near the sea,
I liked playing in the sea, I could feel the taste of the sea , just
like
the taste of the salty coffee. Now every time I have the salty coffee,
I
always think of my childhood, think of my hometown, I miss my hometown
so
much, I miss my parents who are still living there". While saying that
tears filled his eyes. She was deeply touched.
That's his true feeling, from the bottom of his heart. A man who can
tell
out his homesickness, he must be a man who loves home, cares about
home, has
responsibility of home.. Then she also started to speak, spoke about
her
faraway hometown, her childhood, her family. That was a really nice
talk,
also a beautiful beginning of their story.
They continued to date. She found that actually he was a man who meets
all
her demands; he had tolerance, was kind hearted, warm, careful. He was
such
a good person but she almost missed him! Thanks to his salty coffee!
Then
the story was just like every beautiful love story, the princess
married to
the prince, then they were living the happy life... And, every time she
made
coffee for him, she put some salt in the coffee, as she knew that's the
way
he liked it.
After 40 years, he passed away, left her a letter which said: "My
dearest,
please forgive me, forgive my whole life lie. This was the only lie I
said
to you---the salty coffee. Remember the first time we dated? I was so
nervous at that time, actually I wanted some sugar, but I said salt It
was
hard for me to change so I just went ahead. I never thought that could
be
the start of our communication!
I tried to tell you the truth many times in my life, but I was too
afraid to
do that, as I have promised not to lie to you for anything.. Now I'm
dying,
I afraid of nothing so I tell you the truth: I don't like the salty
coffee,
what a strange bad taste.. But I have had the salty coffee for my whole
life! Since I knew you, I never feel sorry for anything I do for you.
Having
you with me is my biggest happiness for my whole life. If I can live
for the
second time, still want to know you and have you for my whole life,
even
though I have to drink the salty coffee again".
Her tears made the letter totally wet.
Someday, someone asked her: what's the taste of salty coffee?
It's sweet. She replied.
Pass this 2 everyone coz
love is not 2 forget
but 2 forgive
not 2 c but understand
not 2 hear but 2 listen
not 2 let go but HOLD ON !!!!
Love begins with a smile, grows with a kiss and ends with a tear.
"The glory of Success is in bouncing high every time you
hit the bottom!!"
“Love is not selfish so Love is not being happy it is to make happy whom you love even if you are unhappy with it

HOW TO WIN HIM / HER

2010-12-29T01:03:00.000-08:00

HOW TO WIN HIM/HER
Sending signals with your body language can be much more powerful than the spoken word.

Make eye contact. A longing look at the right moment that captures the attention of the other person should cause the heart to skip a beat. It says, "I've noticed you and I like what I see."
Strike a pose. But make sure your posture is open and tells the other person you're available. Turn your body completely in the direction of your target.
Smooth your hair. This is a signal that you want to look good for the person you are interested in. Do it when you know that person is looking your way. However, this gesture should not be overdone or you will appear vain and self-absorbed.
Toy with your jewelry. If you're a woman, this is a sensuous way to tell a stranger that you're ready for some fun and adventure -- and that you wouldn't mind some company!
Smile! There's nothing more devastatingly attractive than a friendly smile with twinkling eyes If the smile is returned, you're well on your way to romance.

WHEN NOT TO WASTE YOUR TIME

2010-12-29T01:02:00.000-08:00

WHEN NOT TO WASTE YOUR TIME
The Cold Shoulder: After eye contact is made, one party turns his or her back on the other. This shutting-off gestures says, "I'm not interested."
The Cut-Off: Using a more direct approach, a woman comes up to a man face-to-face. If he turns away so he is now sideways to her, the message is, "Go away." It's the same story if this happens when a man approaches a woman.
No Reaction: If you encounter a blank stare, tight lips, no smile, fluttering eyelids or fidgeting, you can bet there's no interest. The message is loud and clear, "Move on." Yet amazingly, some men and women find that attitude challenging. Instead of using their energy on someone else who might really care, they banter away trying to soften the stony face. Don't bother. [Nancy's note: They are trained by the stony indifference of a parent to think this is love.]
Freezing: This can be different than no reaction. Sometimes a likely love interest is so overwhelmed with the new attention that he or she remains immobile. Or, perhaps, there really is no interest. But how can you tell the difference? If you receive a smile,it's usually a good sign.
Tense Lips: This is a sign of displeasure. It's a natural sign of distaste and a negative social cue. If a woman's lips are pursed when a man approaches -- and she may even bite her lower lip -- the message is "back off."

SITTING The Sloucher

2010-12-29T01:01:00.000-08:00

SITTING
The Sloucher: Cuddling into a chair shows a relaxed attitude toward life. Slouchers are really saying, "I want to be held."
The Sprawler: The sprawler is an uninhibited lover who has few hangups about sex. When sprawlers sit, they take up the whole chair with their bodies inviting you in to their party.
The Ramrod: This is someone who sits at attention, back straight, knees together and feet planted firmly on the floor. If you're looking for someone who's a free spirit, look elsewhere.
The Retreater: Retreaters back into a chair as far as they can, pulling their legs back underneath them. This says, "You're going to have to work hard to make me enjoy this."
The Leg Crosser: With legs crossed and knees grasped firmly, the leg crosser is saying, "I need some convincing before this goes any further." While they may not be shy or uninterested in sex, leg crossers simply need a little more time before making a decision.
The Squirmer: People who have trouble sitting in one position for any length of time are usually athletic paramours. They clutch, squeeze and changes positions while in bed. Making love becomes a sporting event -- with everyone in the game a winner!
The Rebel: A rebel will sit in an unconventional way -- facing backwards, perching on an armrest, perhaps with a foot tucked underneath or better yet on a cozy beanbag chair. These people often look for new andunusual places for lovemaking.

MORE LOVE SIGNALS

2010-12-29T01:00:00.000-08:00

MORE LOVE SIGNALS
Do What I Do: unlike mirroring , which is a sitting or standing posture, isopraxism is "same behavior" -- walking in the same way, eating at the same speed or taking a sip of your drink together.
Eyelashes: This gesture is a dead giveaway that the hormones are racing. When the body is aroused, lashes flutter faster than a hummingbird's wings. Mascara and false eyelashes enhance this signal, making it impossible for a man to miss.
Self-Touching: When people are unsure of themselves in a social setting, they often wrap their arms around the torso, hugging themselves. This gesture controls anxiety. Likewise, when someone receives a romantic cue, he or she will often touch an earlobe or rub an arm, leg or the chest area.
The Smile: A simple, closed mouth smile is a courtesy and nothing more. An upper smile -- where the top teeth show -- is an invitation. An open smile -- where both top and bottom teeth show and the eyes crinkle -- is an out-and-out invitation to get sociable.

HEAD TILTING

2010-12-29T00:59:00.000-08:00

HEAD TILTING
Men and women do this upon meeting. When it is accompanied by a smile, it says, "I'm a friendly person." Tilting the head while listening shows you are very interested. But a backward head tilt says, "I'm superior."
Shoulders: The shrug, raising one's shoulders, tilting the head to the side and extending the palms, says, "I give up." It's a way to show you are harmless and approachable.
Pigeon Toes: While most people don't look at the feet, standing with toes pointing inward is an inviting gesture. It's the bottom half's counterpart to the shrug.
More signals from her: These common body signals are directed toward a guy a woman find attractive.

parting her lips and licking them
stroking and flicking her hair
massaging her head and neck
crossing and uncrossing her legs
pointing a knee in his direction

More signals from him: These common body signs are directed toward a woman a guy finds attractive.

massaging his outer thigh
narrowing his eyes while he is talking to her
hooking his thumb in his belt loops
adjusting his cuffs, flicking dust from his jacket or smoothing his hair
stroking the jaw
rolling a glass or pen between his palms

A woman who is interested will

2010-12-29T00:58:00.000-08:00

A woman who is interested will ...
... give a sidelong glance. In this coy, flirtatious gesture, the woman stares boldly while lowering the head and tilting it away, giving the message, "I am shy, yet bold."
... wink!
... run a hand over her exposed leg, indicating that more intimate contact is welcome.
... slip a shoe off and dangle it from the toes -- or remove an earring. These "undressing" signals are very suggestive and inviting.
... touch his thigh or knee. The length of time she allows it to rest there heightens the intensity of desire. Rubbing it back and forth provides a signal that's as clear as it gets.

object of your affection

2010-12-29T00:55:00.000-08:00

FLIRTING TIPS

These are the right and wrong ways to show the object of your affection that you're interested in getting more personal:

Don't

turn away
scan the room
give a phony smile
Do
lean in toward the object of your desire
give a genuine smile
focus your eyes on your subject
tilt the head to the side

Is S/he Interested?
A man who is interested will ...
... hold your glance a little longer
... make eye contact, look away, then glance again in your direction. It's a sign that he wants to get to know you better.
... touch your arm, hand or shoulder lightly as you talk. The message is "I'm friendly."
... smooth his clothing or run a hand through his hair, which says, "I want to look good for you."
... lean in toward you.
... fondle a chain or cigarette. This is a sign that he wants more intimate contact.
... swagger and flex his muscles. This age-old display of masculinity is not much different than a peacock displaying his tail feathers!
... speak low so only you can hear, thus inviting you into his space and making the conversation exclusive between the two of you.