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Soopa Shastra: Did soup flow from Karnataka ?

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Fri, 12 Apr 2019 07:00:00 +0000

King Mangarasa III proved himself more of a chef than a king. His treatise named ‘SoopaShastra’ on cookery of medieval Karnataka stands out to be the only compilation in a regional language during the medieval ages. King Mangarasa III belonged to the Chengalvu dynasty who were subordinate kings ruling under the suzerainty of Hoysala kings in the 16th century Karnataka. Mangarasa’s palace once stood in the present day Kallali in HunsurTaluk in Karnataka.

Mangarasa being a well-knownpoet, versified SoopaShastra in 385 stanzas running into six chapters during 15-16th century. The first chapter, ‘Pistakadhyaya’ describes as many as 50 wheat preparations. The next chapter called ‘Panakadhyaya’ deals with food-drinks. Mangarasa in old Kannadameant a good king (manga=good, beautiful; rasa=king). So there were Kings with the same name ruling the same kingdom but they were not related to each other - Mangarasa I wrote on poison; Mangarasa II came up with a dictionary; and Mangarasa IV became a chronicler of Kings in Kashmir.

The existing palm leaf manuscript of SoopaShastra, a poetic treatise in old Kannada was transcribed into prose by S.N. Krishna Jois around sixty years back and later published in 1969 by Mysore University. And now it has been translated into English by MadhukarKonantambigi under the patronage of INTACH, an organisation working towards art and culture. ‘Soopa’ in Kannada means cooked pigeonpea (arhar/tur dal)in semi-liquid form with salt, chilli and turmeric. However, SoopaShastra in general means the science of cooking. The present day English word ‘soup’ may have arisen from this soopa of Karnataka.

Only two Sanskrit books - Bhima and Nala are devoted on cookery but fall short in being called profound works. Mangarasa has obtained help from both these books and besides got inspired by a character of an adept chef, Gouri, Hindu God Shiva’s spouse as mentioned in SkandaPurana. Two earlier Kannada literatures, Lingapurana and Lokopakara have more than fifty stanzas devoted on cookery. However, unlike Soopashastra they are not entirely devoted to cookery. Soopashastra stands apart from all other work done till then in Kannada.

Prodigious culinary acumen
The king uses a hundred items, as spices in his cooking. N.P. Bhatt co-editor of the English translation says, ‘Things change as spices as if magic in his hand. He roasts a coconut in full and uses the contents as a spice. He grates a coconut, puts the contents after a spiced rice is cooked, on top of it and closes for some time and then removes the same and it gives the effect of a wonderful spice!’ Mr Bhatt confesses, ‘The poetry is so eloquent. I was never interested in cookery.’

Mr Bhatt goes eloquent on the king’s strategies - ‘He packs the contents of an item into the leaves of turmeric or plantain or beetle tree and brings the effect of an aromatic spice’. And for all this the king devices vessels right from the mud pot up to the golden vessel to render the desired effect. Mangarasa made use of an impressive array of spices (other than the regular ones) such as cooked semolina, flowers of Bengal gram (chicken pea) and green grams. He also contrived spices for instance by roasting coconut on burning coals with its shell.

Vegetable preparations
Seven types of cooking methods are mentioned in SoopaShastra - roasting, seasoning or tempering, burning or baking, boiling in water, steam baking and subjecting to prolonged heat to refine.Mangarasa though a practicing Jain where onion is not allowed, describes food items where onion is used liberally. Interestingly, we find many preparations of bamboo from a chef king in the southern part of India. As such, bamboo preparations in south India are perhaps unheard of. But Mangarasa cooked bamboo sprout porridge, bamboo sprout fry, bamboo sprout milky way and variant preparations of bamboo sprouts.

The book contains several quaint and quirky though ingenious preparations. For instance, Flowered vermicelli, rice flower bloom and umpteenth of Mangarasa’a innovations.

Rice preparations
Several exotic names crop up in SoopaShastra - butter treated rice, coconut treated mixed rice, milk porridge, macaroni porridge, butter porridge, coconut porridge, cream porridge, cream rice, mango rice, tamarind rice, mustard rice, spiced butter milk rice, milk wheat porridge and curd wheat porridge.

Soft drinks
In the chapter Panakadhyaya devoted on soft drinks, Mangarasa dwells on various types of butter milk. In one preparation, he advises, salt, mustard powder, fresh ginger, onion, coriander leaves and flavours of fragrant screw pine (ketaki). In one other type, he advises, ‘Put the raw butter, crushed mango to flavor it.’ The preparation, milky bloom on the sling uses milk cream, curd cream, thickened cream, juice of sooji, juice from grated coconut, milk, pepper powder, salt and ghee.

King Mangarasa devised several methodologies for making curd, ‘Rasaladahi’ that is citron tinged or made by mixing cardamom, dry ginger and sometimes onion which makes it last longer than otherwise curds last. Again by mixing processed mango juice with milk while curdling, ‘one can get exquisite mango coloured and flavoured sweet curd. Red saffron can also be mixed in the same way and it will be saffron flavoured excellent curd called kumkuma (kashmirs) RanjithaDahi.’ Mangarasa also mentions of curd with bael fruit essence.

The present relevance and feasibility of SoopaShastra holds aplomb

Dr B Manjula in her book, KannadadalliSoopaShastra or SoopaShastra in Kannada Literature comes up with several interesting corroboration to adjudge Mangarasa.

In the chapter, Pishtakadhyaya, items made with flour such as rotti, mandige, garige, dose, iddali have been described. What is mentioned as rotti, rotiks in Sanskrit and rotti, rotte, rottia in Dravidian languages has been in practice in India for centuries and the term ‘katorti’ mentioned in ‘RamcharitaManasa’ by Tulsidas resembles ‘roti’. Again, in the 16th century, the work ‘BhavaPrakasha’ by Bharata Mishra has mentioned the Sanskrit term ‘rotiks’. Ancient Kannada poetry has used ‘rotika’ even earlier.

The much sought after dish, mandige has been in vogue right from the seventh century. Mangarasa has dealt upon preparing dose (dosa)using different corns and grains that still goes on using mediums like gramdal, green gram, wheat, rice, jowar, ragi and sooji. Mangarasa has mentioned a type of dosa called ‘chandramandala’ that bears close resemblance with the present day iddali prepared on steam in small plates. Mangarasa describes a dish called veiled vada whose preparation is exactly same as the modern blackgramvada.

Surprisingly, Mangarasa has not mentioned the proportion of ingredients. Perhaps, it has been left to the sense of the cook. Certain vegetables like cabbage, ladyfinger, potato and green chillies do not find any mention. Strange enough, bitter gourd which grew in abundance in the area at that time is nowhere mentioned by Mangarasa.

Reading the book will sizzle epicurean taste buds. Do not feel morbid to set the platter. Although some of the dishes, and the procedures the poet describes, may not appear useful or practicable, his works remain epochal. There is mention of innumerable delicious items that could be successfully cooked with judicious changes according to modern tastes and trends. Amazingly, Mangarasa’s work can serve as a very good guide to cooking even today. Bon appétit!

(The writer RatnadeepBanerji is a senior journalist with varied interests, reachable at ratnaub@gmail.com)

[Source:TheSoopaShastraoh of Mangarasa III; Edited in English by N.P.Bhatt, N Modwell]

Source
PTI

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Noble Persian in Service of Kadamba Maharaja in Ancient Gandhara

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Tue, 26 May 2015 18:08:00 +0000

During clearance of storage boxes in the Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin, Dr Caren Dreyer came across a bunch of old photographs taken by Mr G.W.Leitner in the Museum of Lahore at the end of the 19th century. Most of the pictures show well-known Kharosti epigraphs. The few Brähmi epigraphs are likewise well-documented. One picture, however, labelled 'VIII 10159' shows a rectangular stone-slab of about 60x20 cm length, never before presented in photography.

Some time before 1911 an estampage was made and in that year sent to the office of the Govemment Epigraphist for India by G.A. Wathen, Curator of the Lahore Museum. In 1919, D.R. Sahni (1920) wrote a note on 'Unpublished inscriptions in the Central Museum, Lahore'. At least for this and three more pieces he seems to have seen only the rubbings, not the objects themselves. He reported on its origin «in a spring tank three miles from Abbottabad» , probably based on the notes sent by Wathen. Abbottabad is about 60 km north-east of Taxila and can be regarded as part of the cultural sphere of Gandhära, although the area today called Hazara is situated geographically at the periphery of it.

It was only in 1953 that D.C. Sircar, then Chief Epigraphist, came to see the rubbing. He published the rubbing together with his reading, referring to the fragmentary decipherment as found in Sahni's note. He dates the inscription on paleographical grounds as 3rd century AD. The Inscription came in four lines as below.

Inscription
sa(m}) märgasira di pratha kärito ya
kumärasthanam gasurana makaputrena
säpharena mahäriija-kadambeSvaradäsa-ra(?)[e?]
data(h}) bhak{s}a(h})

means
Year 25, first day of Märgasirsa, this place for Kumära was caused to be made by
the Gasura saphara, son of Maka, [during the reign?] of the Mahäräja [calIed] the
'Servant of the Lord of the Kadamba[ -tree]'.
Food has been provided

Maharaja kadambesvaradasa
Sircar equated the King kadambesvara to be a Kushan king and tried to fit into kushan chronology. But left it off without any further additions.

We can see here that Kadambesvara is Kadamba king of South India. Kadambas worship kadamba Tree. So Kadambesvara dasa can only mean Kadambas of Banvasi. But Kadambas ruled in South India about 2000km from Abottabad. Now does the inscription says king is servant of the person, No it says the lord of the person who gave the inscription is kadamba king. Did kadamba rule extended to Afghanistan. That possibility looks remote.

Now let us come to the early part of the inscription. It says Saphara built temple of kumara (kumarasthanam). Kumara is other name of karthikeya. Now kathikeya or Shanmuga or skanda has special place in the kadamba kingdom. In Mahabharata mother of Karthikeya is venerated as Kadamba. Kadamba inscripton speaks of skanda from Kadamba tree helped to establish the dynasty.

Now kadambas are well known from the times of Mayuravarman. Mayuravarman alludes to Karthikeya, whose sign is peacock feathers. Kadamba inscriptions talk about their diety as skanda, karthikeya, Mahasena all denoting the kumara.

Gasurana
The spelling admits to versions, Gasurena, Gasuranam, Sircar said the inscription says Gasurana. The Term is Gasura is also spelled Gusura, Gosura or Gausura. Gusura comes from documents of Central Asia. Documents says high souled (noble) Gausuras and Servants of kings. First group is higer than later. Luders points out gusura mahatvana found in Niya Documents, regarded the highest titles in the area. Burrow says to H W Bailey, that Gusura means son of the house from Aramic and Avesta texts. H W Bailey rather than pointing out says its military rank and points to inscription from Swat by senavarman of Odi in reference to Kujula Kadphises. So Gausrana seems to either nobleman or leader of some rank.

Makaputra
Maka in kannada means Son. But here it seems to denote son of maka. Ancient Magas is well known. We cannot deduce maka is name of father or the clan or country he comes from.

Sapharena
Sapharena is name of the person giving inscription or who established the kumara temple. Sims-williams says it Saphar as name from Rabatak inscription. Now the name ends with phara, which is persian farnah similar to Gondophernes. So it indicates Persian or Iranian Background.

What does it say
The Inscription presents a highborn soldier or Knight, who is probably leader of group of soldiers. He must have been in service of Kadamba Maharaja. The knight installs a place of worship in Hazara for Kumara or Karthikeya, who is regarded as the power to kadamba king.

Significance
1. Soldiers from Northwest India (Afghanisthan), Perisa, Central Asia came to serve under leadership of Kadambas.
2. It talks about leadership qualities of Kadambas
3. Even after he goes back to his native place, he still considers to his master and dates inscription to the year of the king.
4. The kind of devotion shown by kadamba to Karthikeya , that person from different background, religion, language takes the faith of the kadamba ruler.
5. This inscription marks the beginning of the end of Karosthi and start of Brahmi inscriptions or replacement of Karosthi by Brahmi.
6. The Inscription marks the beginning of sanskrit replacing Prakrit.
7. Skanda cult was very popular in Northwest, but here the kadambas are held high on this regard replacing the local tradition.
8. The Name Hazara is derived from Urasha. Did the name came from kannada word UR (meaning from city). Did Sapharena renamed his region as URs from kannada.

Conclusion
Kadamba king did not go to Abbottobad to make the inscription, but his fame has reached this place. The Noble soldier in service of the kadamba king still revers the king he served even after 25 years of service and creates the temple to kartikeya worshipped by his lord kadambesvara. This shows the great Personality , Leadership, Character of Kannada king, that person of foreign origin, born with different background, takes him as his lord, eventhough he is far removed and years have passed, out of free will with no swords dangling on him in the age of no TV, Radio or Internet. That is true character.

Source
Six Early Brahmi Inscriptions of Gandhara by Harry Falk
Studies in the religious life of ancient and medieval India By Dineschandra Sircar

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Brahmagiri, Maski and other Ashokan Archeological Sites

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Mon, 25 May 2015 07:06:00 +0000

Brahmagiri is located in the Chitradurga district. BRAHMAGIRI (Minor Rock Inscription 1 & 2). Excavations at the site have revealed considerable archaeological evidence pointing to Brahmagiri having been an important centre in south India even well before the Mauryan period. Continual habitation for many thousands of years resulted in its emerging as an influential town, particularly after it had become one of the southern outposts of the Mauryan empire. It may also have been the starting point of pilgrimages to the sources of the two rivers, Godavari and Kaveri.

Bricks built caityas have been excavated in Brahmagiri 1942 and again in 1947, There is no evidence to date the caitya, though the brick sizes are similar to those from Dharanikota. A comparison with similar structures from the north is revealing.

At that time the place was called Isila Patna. The kannda word – Sila was pronounced as Isila in Prakrit, the language used by Asoka in the edict. So the place name must have been Sila Patnam (sila – rock, patnam – town). Let us see more details.

Archeological Excavations

The site was first explored by Benjamin L. Rice in 1891, who discovered rock edicts of Emperor Ashoka here. These rock edicts indicated that the locality was termed as Isila and denoted a part of the Mauryan empire. The Brahmagiri site is a granite outcrop elevated about 180 m. above the surrounding plains and measures around 500 m east-west and 100 m north-south. It is well known for the large amount of megalithic monuments that have been found here. The e settlements found here has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BC.

After being explored by Rice in 1891, M. H. Krishna who belonged to the Archaeological Department of the Mysore state, excavated the area in 1940. In 1947, Mortimer Wheeler further excavated the site on behalf of the Archaeological Survey of India. The region was excavated again in 1956 by Seshadri and by Amalananda Ghosh in 1965 and 1978.

During his excavations, M. H. Krishna discovered medieval stone temples, pottery, terracota beads and figurines, semiprecious stones and megalithic structures. After digging 16 trenches he identified the following cultures: Microlithic, Neolithic, Iron Age, Maurya and Chalukya-Hoysala. He named the microlithic culture as Roppa culture after the Roppa village within which the microlithic trench was located. He also found out that the neoliths found in this region were evidence of the occupation of this region by farming-herding communities in the pre-megalithic period.

In 1947, Mortimer Wheeler did further excavations at Brahmagiri, found ten domestic structures and classified them as belonging to a sequence of three cultural periods: Period I - Neolithic or Neolithic-Chalcolithic, Period II - Megalithic and Period III - an early historical culture. Brahmagiri was identified to contain a mortuary of 300 tombs with burials made in rectangular cists, cist-circles (stones surrounding granite cists) and pit-circles. The cists also included artefacts like vessels with graffiti, stone beads and iron and copper tools

Period I (Neolithic)
Dated to 3rd Millennium to 2 Millennium BC. The objects found in this period included a large number of polished stone axes made of dolerite, microliths like crescents, gravers and blades made of jasper, agate carnelian and opal, and ornaments worn by humans like bronze rings and beads of magnesite, agate and shell. Handmade vessels made of coarse grey fabric and with shapes like globular vase, shallow bowl and spouted bowl were also found. The infants who died in this period, had their body folded and were buried in urns while the adults were buried in pits in an extended way.

Period II (Megalithic)
Dated to 2nd Millennium to 1st Millennium BC. It was found that the humans who inhabited Brahmagiri during this period used iron for agricultural tools like sickles and for weapons like spears, swords and arrowheads. Pottery of this period were made in shapes like hemi-spherical deep bowl, funnel shaped lid, shallow dish and three-legged pots among others. The vessels appear in three kinds of fabrics: polished black and red ware, all-black ware, and bright and coarse dull-red ware.The burials in this period were done in stone cists or excavated pits which were surrounded by boulders arranged in the shape of a circle or concentric circles. The cists also contained funeral pots and objects like iron implements and beads.

Period III
Dated to 1st Millennium BC. In this period, sophisticated pottery was made using fast wheels. The vessels were made in shapes like shallow dish, cups and vases, coated in a russet colour and painted with geometrical designs in white colour. Ornaments found included bangles of shell, clay, bones, glass and gold, and beads of magnesite, agate, carnelian and terracotta.

Period IV (Ashoka and Satavahana period)
The Ashokan and Satavahana period sites are well documented.

K A Nilakantha Sastri, said that the Brahmagiri site, near Ashoka Siddapura, "is remarkable for its culture continuity extending from the polished stone axe culture to early historic cultures.” He also said that there were two phases of the stone axe culture here (known from a study of the pottery found here)., and that the authors of this culture knew how to use Neolithic celts, microliths, and how to work copper and bronze. The French Institute of Pondicherry, has published a Historical atlas of South India. If we superimpose the maps of the Stone Age, the New Stone Age and the Iron (Megalithic Age), we can see that Bellary had a continuous human civilization from 5,000 years.

N Kameswara Rao of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore, has published a research paper in which he said that the megalithic stone circles at Brahmagiri, which have been dated at 900 BC show clear astronomical orientation.

The geometrical properties of the circle indicate the sunrise and the full moon rise at the time of solar and lunar solsitices and equinoxes. “The megalithic people were aware of the 18.61 period of the moon's solstice, in addition to keeping track of the sidereal day, the seasons and the year.”

Nearby Sites

GAVIMATH (Minor Rock Edict 1). Gavimath is situated in modem Mysore and is one among the group of places in the neighbourhood of Siddapur where this edict is found with great frequency. Its importance may have been largely due to its being a mining area or on an important route.

JATINGA-RAMESHWAR (Minor Rock Inscription 1 & 2) This site lies about three miles from Brahmagiri and the inscription belongs to the Mysore group. It might originally have been a place of religious interest since the inscription is within the precincts of the present Jatinga-Rameshwar temple.

MASKI (Minor Rock Edict 1). Maski is in the Raichur district. It lies on the bank of the Maski river which is a tributary of the Tungabhadra. The site came into prominence with the discovery of a minor rock edict of Emperor Ashoka by C. Beadon in 1915. It was the first edict of Emperor Ashoka that contained the name Asoka in it instead of the earlier edicts that referred him as Devanampiye piyadasi. This edict was important to conclude that many edicts found earlier in the Indian sub-continent in the name of Devanampiye piyadasi, all belonged to Emperor Ashoka. The edict is etched on a rock-face of Durgada-gudda, one of the gneissic outcrops that are present in the site.

An identification of Maski with Suvarinagiri has been suggested but it is unacceptable as will be clear in the consideration of the location of Suvarnagiri.

Maski was studied initially by Robert Bruce Foote in 1870 and 1888. In 1915, C. Beadon, a mining engineer, discovered Ashoka's rock edict here. In 1935-37, the archaeological department of Hyderabad state explored this region and in 1954, Amalananda Ghosh excavated this place on behalf of the Archaeological Survey of India.

The excavations indicated that the region was occupied across four different cultural periods; Period I: Neolithic-Chalcolithic, Period II: Megalithic, Period III: Early historical and Period IV: Medieval. In Period I, microliths and blades made of agate, chert, carnelian and opal are found. Ornamental beads of agate, coral, shell and other materials are also found. Dull-grey ware and painted-buff ware pottery are found, some of which were painted with linear patterns. Animal remains of cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat are also found. Period II saw the introduction of iron and five different forms of burials were discovered. Lances, ferrules, daggers and arrowheads were found, apart from beads of gold and terracotta objects. The pottery of Period II consisted of the megalithic red-and-black ware, all-black ware and red-slipped ware, some of which had graffiti on them. Coins were discovered in the Period III which also saw the use of Russet-coated painted ware. The earliest specimens of Indian glass were also discovered at Maski. A cylinder seal has also been found here.

Maski inscription is Important Inscription in three ways , first it was the first inscription to give both Priyadarshan and Ashoka , thus identifying Ashoka with Priyadarshin.

Second is Identification of Suvarnagiri with (karnataka). Before this inscription was discovered various places were identified as suvarnabhoomi and there was a wide speculation on where the ancient swarnabhoomi was. With this inscription we know swarnabhoomi is the golden land of karnataka

Third the Earliest specimen of Glass. Which shows karnataka was the pioneer of high technology in India not just now but also in ancient times as well.

PALKIGUNDU (Minor Rock Edict 1). Palkigundu lies at a distance of four miles from Gavimath. This site again belongs to the group around Brahmagiri.

To the west of Palkigundu, there is a hillock called the Malimallappa hill, on the top of which are a number of dolmens. Some of these dolmens, which are locally called Moriyara-angadi or Moriyas shops, are intact, while others are disturbed. The fields between this hill and the Palkigundu hill are called Pandavara vathara

SIDDAPUR (Minor Rock Inscription 1 & 2). Siddapur lies one mile to the west of Brahmagiri, and three miles south of the location of the Jatinga-Rameshwar inscription. This group of inscriptions may have marked the southern boundary of the empire, in addition to their importance from other points of view which we have already considered. one at Siddapura is found on ‘Emmetammana Gundu’

SUVARNAGIRI (Minor Rock Edict). Suvarnagiri is the modern town of Kanakagiri south of Maski in Hyderabad. The word means 'golden mountain' and this has been connected with the ancient gold-mining area in Raichur which to this day shows traces of ancient gold workings. Suvarnagiri was the capital of the southern province of the empire.

Source
ASI
Brahmagiri Revisited: A Re-Analysis of the South Indian Sequence by KATHLEEN D. MORRISON

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Environment Friendly Mining in Ancient Karnataka

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Mon, 27 Apr 2015 09:06:00 +0000

by Tushar Gandhi

During my travels through Karnataka and Andhra, I have seen evidence of how our ancestors were very much aware of the importance of metals and minerals. How to explore them, mine them and extract metals from ore. Ancient Indians were smelting zinc, apart from producing brass, copper, iron, gold and silver, and producing complex alloys long before Damascus became famous for steel. The complex composition of the Ashoka Pillar at Qutub Minar still baffles modern metallurgists.

Last week, I visited a tiny hamlet in Chickmagalur district of Karnataka. Towards the west of the village, on a hilltop there is a temple built by the villagers in memory of a saint who had done penance in a cave on the hilltop for the betterment of the residents.

The man-made cave, in which the sage did penance, was an ancient mine. A mine discovered and developed by our ancestors some seven to eight hundred, or even more years ago. The ancient mine is a well planned and developed, an example of expertise and engineering skills. Ancient Indians had even built a large tank on the hilltop to store water required for mining operations. British explorers have lavishly praised the ancient mine and marvelled at its technological brilliance. The ancient mine was not a gold or diamond mine, it was a mine for zinc, lead and traces of silver.

We went up to the summit of the hill and hugging its eastern slope, we walked down tracing the path where ancient Indians worked. The ancient mine starts at the peak of the hill, goes across the summit and then down the north slope into the plain. It is not a series of holes in a hillside, it’s not a bunch of trenches; it is a well designed underground mine. An ancient geologist had prospected and discovered the mineral deposit and had accurately mapped its occurrence identifying where the rich deposits existed and then sunk a series of shafts, audits and dug out an underground mine. The mine consists of many shafts and a long underground tunnel; a tunnel almost a couple of hundred metres long. The men who designed the mine had calculated how much rock needed to be chipped off so that the did not cave in and crush the miners and yet they extracted the maximum quantity of ore. They only stopped when they hit hard rock, impervious to their primitive tools.

The beauty of the ancient mine is that there are no signs of the mining activity harming the surroundings or causing ecological damage. Today, in not too far off Bellary, Karnataka, one witnesses the devastation caused by modern miners and shudders to see how man’s insatiable greed for minerals and metals is ravaging the environment. Modern Bellary is an example of the devastation caused by mining; the ancient mine I visited is a shining example of how mineral extraction doesn’t need to damage or ravage our environment and leave behind a wasteland. Now, centuries later, the roof of the old mine has collapsed. In ancient times, when it was a producing mine, it must have been an awe-inspiring site, it still is.

The old mine in Chickmagalur district is not a stray incident of the brilliance of our ancestors. In Gadag district of Karnataka, I have seen many ancient works where our ancestors, many centuries ago, mined for gold. I have climbed a hill that has a large deposit of gold ore; the hill is peppered with holes dug by our ancestors to extract gold bearing ore. One sees no evidence of the gold on the surface, I was accompanied by geologists who showed me gold ore, only then did I realise that I was walking on a mountain of gold. Ancient Indians could identify gold-bearing ore, knew how to mine it and how to extract pure gold from the ore. In another place, where gold ore is available on the surface, I have seen craters where ancient gold prospectors patiently ground the surface of the ore-bearing rock, collected the grinds and extracted gold. The rock surface here is dimpled by craters large and small, where ancient miners ground away patiently and extracted miniscule quantities of gold. They knew that the rock contained gold.

In neighbouring Andhra Pradesh too, I have gone down shafts and tunnels dug by our ancestors in pursuit of gold. Ancient India was famous for its diamonds and gems and its mineral wealth, a wealth explored and extracted by those whom we call primitive people.

India was the jewel of the world, a world that lusted for our wealth and our vast knowledge. Because of our ancient wisdom and technology, we became the envy of the world. We discovered metals and how to extract them and then lost the technology and wisdom, Europeans recognised the importance of metals and minerals and based on that, ushered in the industrial revolution and conquered the world. We abandoned our ancient wisdom and knowledge; we forgot the technical skills of our ancients and were enslaved.

(Tushar Gandhi is Founder President of Mahatma Gandhi Foundation)
Source
Technical prowess of ancient India

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Legends of Ganga Dynasty Origin

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Thu, 22 Jan 2015 06:28:00 +0000

There are various legendary stories of Ganga Dynasty Origin, especially when during 8th to 10th century AD. Let us analyse them

Legends of Origin
Ikshvaku Lineage
Traditional Account of Gangas, says Harischandra of the Ikshvaku vamsa (ikshvaku of Ramayana, Mahabharata) had a son named Bharata, whose wife Vijaya Mahadevei bathed in Ganges to remove her langour and begot Gangadatta, whose posterity were Gangas. On one of inscription, Bhagadatta, was betowed the government of Kalinga, while to sridatta his brother, was given the ancestral kingdom with the elephant which became the Ganga Crest. God Indra gave to priya Bandhu one of this dynasty five tokens with a warning that they would disappear if the king proved an apostate. During the agression by Mahipala of Ujjain on the territory of Padmanabha Ganga demanding surrender of the five tokens, the two sons of padmanabha Ganga with their sister and attendent brahmins and the tokesn were sent southwards to escape assault. These two sons Didiga and Madhava were the founders of Ganga Dynasty. This is 9th century Legend.

Ganges Lineage
Kalinga Ganga inscriptions says that Purvasu, son of Yayati being without sons practiced self restraint and propitiated the river Ganga, which means the obtained a son Gangeya, whose decendents were victorious in the world as Ganga Line.

Krishna Lineage
Durvinita is mentioned in the Gummareddipura Plates as belonging to the lineage of Krishna.

Kanva Lineage
Jayaswal says that Gangas are from Kanvayanas of Magadha. Last king of Kanvayanas was Susarman was taken prisoner and removed to the south by satavahana. The Kanvayana empire according to Jayaswal ended in 28 BC. So he says the Ganga Empire started around that time.

Tumbura Lineage
In the Andhavaram copperplate inscription of Indravarman III of Ganga dynasty, the Gangas are described as the descendants of the Tumbura dynasty. Vayu Purana that at the foot hills of the Vindhyas, there was a Janapada (human habitation) named Tumura, Tumbura.

Kongu region.
Some historians claim the earliest home of the Gangas was the Kongu region in Tamil Nadu accepting in to the twelfth century Shimoga inscription. They further qualify their reasoning with a seventeenth century chronicle called Kongidesarajakkal. They have identified Perur (the place where the prince supposedly met the Jain guru) as a location in the Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. This is because some inscriptions call them Konganiyarasas (kings of Kongu region).However it has been pointed out that this epithet may have come into use only because the Kongu region came under their control quite early in their rule. However studies has proven that the earliest lithic record calling the Ganga kings Konganipattam (Kongani crown) starts only with the Serugunda inscription of 6th century, during the rule of King Avinita, indicating the conquest of the Kongu region by Avinita. This is proof enough, , that the Gangas were not natives of the Kongu region of modern Tamil Nadu either. Perur is now identified as Cudappah, Andhra Pradesh.

Ganga Pallava Theory
The Ganga Pallava Theory was propounded by Mr.Hultzsch . His theory is based on Bahur plates which also mention that Konkani verma who is the ancestor of Gangas. According to this theory.

Nirputanga is not a pallava , He unsurped the title of Pallvas, Name Konkani verma present in the geneology in Bahur plates proves that he is decendent of Western Ganga Dynasty not Pallava Dynasty. If you see Ganga-Pallava theory then it is based on the presence of Name.Kongani verma in the plates.

This theory does not take into account that that there is not proof to establish that Nirputanga is decendent of Konkani verma, Konkani mentioned in plates is same as konkani verma of Ganga dynasty, Nirputanga is not decendent of Nandi varma pallavamalla. In this background another person called Venkayya came into picture and added more masala into it. His theory is based on the premise that if the king calls himself pallava then he is pallava. He adds further that the Dantivarman mentioned in Triplicane, Tiruvellarai inscriptions and Nandipottaraiyan of Pallavatilaka family are Pallavas, so the family continued to exist after the death of Nandivarman pallavamalla at the hands of western chalukya king vikramaditya II. But he does not apply the theory to Bahur plates, where Nirputanga calls himself Pallava. And Venkayya proposes the Nandivarman, Danti, are pallava family and there existed another Ganga-Pallava dynasty consist Narashimavarman, Danti, Nandi and Nirputanga of Bahur plates. They carry titles Vijaya. This theory fell flat when inscriptions of Valuvar,Velurpaliayam proved beyond doubt that Successors of Nandivarman pallavamalla has Ko-Visaya Prefix and Nirputanga is son of Nandivarman III. The deciphering of Vayalur plates has given complete geneology of Pallvas as after pallava, asoka, Harigupta, Aryavarman, and Some others. , we have Kalinda, Byamalla, Kamalla, Vimala, Konkanika, Kalabhartri, Chutupallava,Vikrakurchamalla. Which shows the close political association and Marital relations between Pallavas and Gangas.

Bharata Lineage
According to the 1122 AD. inscription of Kalluragudda the Gangas were descendents of the Ikshvaku dynasty which was ruling Ayodhya. The queen Vijayamahadevi, wife of Bharatha of Ayodhya while taking bath in river Ganga birth to a son Gangadatha. The dynasty of Gangadatha who was born by the grace of Ganga river became the Gangas. Vishnugupta of that lineage was so valorous that Lord Indra was pleased by him and he gave him an elephant as a reward. The elephant thus was adopted in the emblem of Gangas. This is a legend and could not be accepted as an historical evidence. However, the story further runs up to the establishmeht of a kingdom by Dadiga and Madhava. Indra was pleased with Padmanabha, another king of this lineage and gave him five emblems or ornamentals seals and cautioned him that if any of the king’s descendents took to unethical path the seals would be destroyed. The king Mahipala of Ujjaini wanted these emblems and brought pressure on Padmanabha. But he refused to give them up and a battle was waged. However, as a precaution he sent his two sons Madhava and Dadiga to south. These brothers who thus came to south met a jain ascetic by name Simhanadi and under his directions they established a small kingdom. It was called Gangavadi 96,000.

Northern origins.
Dr. S.N. Rajaguru has given the following opinion:“Different royal dynasties, while narrating their geneology, were eager to identity themselves with the famous solar or lunar dynasties of the Puranas” Dr. H. K. Mahatab and other historians have given similar opinions and have said that for this reason the geneology available from these inscriptions do not tally with the historical facts.

Ganga and Gangas
Most theories has been based on Ganga and River Ganges. Somehow they should be related. Ganga Empire is called Gangavadi or Gangapadi. However Gangas started their kingdom in Kolar and later Nandi Hills(Near Bangalore). Only later Talavanapura (Talakad) was established as Capital. Inscriptions call them Konganis after their Kongani verma, though they call themselves Kanga vamsa.

Kalinga Gangas
The Western Ganga king Durvinita is mentioned in Gummareddipura Plates as belonging to the lineage of Krisna, a fact which induces the conclusion that the both Gangas were same like the Kalinga Gangas who formed an important line in the seventh and eigth centuries and continued their rule down to the sixteenth century.

Chronology
Pallava - Ganga
Ganga Harivarma was installed to the throne by Pallava Simhavishnu. We can arrive at the Chronology by Synchronism of Pallavas and Gangas for the starting point of Ganga Dyansty. We arrive at 340 for Kongani Madhava Coronation.

Simhanandin cornation of Dadiga.
Konganivarman and son Madhava if assumed ruled for 100 years than, we arrive at date 350 AD. Now his brother Dadiga helped by by Acharya Simhanandin for foundation of Ganga Rule. This is mentioned in many inscriptions and is a collateral fact. Acharya Simhanandin is mentioned with Elacharya Padmanandin. But nowhere is Kundakunda is Mentioned, whose is dated in 8 BC- 44 AD. Now Samadrabhatra is mentioned before Simhanandin in inscriptions and he cannot be dated before 250 AD. But this will also take Simhanandin past 300 AD. So Cornation of Kongani Verma is around 340AD.

Simhanandi Vow for Gangas.

If you fail in what you promise, if you
descend from the J aina Sasana, if you take the
wives of others, if you are addicted to spirits or
flesh, if you associate with the base, if you give
not to the needy, if you flee in battle-your
race will go to ruin

Geneology
(From Inscriptions we get )
Kampa (Founder)
Padmanabha (Saka 111 or 188 AD) (188 - 239)(Contemproary of Mahipala)(Daughter Alabbe)
Madivarma (Madhava Verma) (Married Alabbe)(Sons Konganivarma Madhava, Dadiga, Unknown)
Konganivarman Madhava Mahadhiraja (340-370AD)(Son Madhavavarma)(Conquerer of Bana Mandala)
Dadiga (Defeated Matsya Army)(Crowned by Simhanandi)
Kiriya Madhavavarma Mahadhiraja I (Wrote Commentary on Dattaka Sutra) (Sons Harivarma, Aryavarma, Krishnavarma)

Talakad Mainline
Harivarman (390-410AD) (Used Elephants in War, Built Capital Talavanapura(Talakad))
Vishnugopa (Worshipper of Narayana (Vishnu), protector of Brahmans, Cows)
Madhava II Tandangala (430-466AD) (Married Sister of Kadamba Krishnavarma)(Worshipper of Tryambaka (Shiva))
Avinita Kongani(466-495AD)(Appointed as Infant on Mothers Lap)(Under Jain Guru VijayaKirti) (Married Daughter of Skandavarma Raja of Punnad)
Durvinita Kongani (495 - 535AD) (Wrote Commentary on Kiratarajuniya (by Bharavi))(Jain Grammarian and his Perceptor Pujyapada wrote Sabdavatara)(Defeated Pallava Jayasimha, annexed Kaduvetti and placed his daughters son on throne)(Conquered Andari,Alattur(in Coimbator), Porulaye(in Chengalpet), Pennagara(in salem) and others)(Worshipped Vishnu)
Mushkara (Mokkara)(535-608AD)(Married daughter of Sindhu Raja) (Son Srivikrama)
Srivikrama (608 - 654) (Sons Bhuvikrama(Monovinita, Sri Vallabha, Kesiga), Durgamara(Dugga), Shivamara(SthiraVinita, Ghana Vinita, Sripurusha, Navakama, Nava Chokka, Sivakumara)(Married Princess of Sindhu Raja(Sindha ruler of Erambarige))

(Bhuvikrama of Kolar Branch Took over the Talakad Branch after Death of Srivikrama)
Sivamara I (Sons Duggamara, Ereganga (Ereyappa)) (Navakama, Prithuvi Kongani,Sripurusha I) (679 - 713)(Has under his guardianship two grandsons of Pallavas)
EreGanga (Son Sripurusa II (Muttarasa))
Prithvipati (Prithuyasas)(726)(Defeated Pandya Varguna, lost life saving his friend)(sons Marasimha, Kamaranava(brothers Went to Kalinga to establish Eastern Gangas))
Sripurusha II (Muttarasa, Permanadi, Prithuvi Kongani) (726-777) (Grandson of Sivamara)(Sons Sivamara,Duggamara, Lokaditya)(Reconquered Kaduvetti from Pallavas)(Changed capital to Manne in Nelamangala)(Reinstated Bana King Hastimalla)(Author of Gajas Astra)
Shivamara II(Saigotta) (780 - 814) (Son Marasimha)(Author of Gajashataka)(Took on the Combined might of Rastrakutas, Chalukyas, Haihaya Chiefs at Murungundur (Mudugundur,Mandya))(Twice Imprisoned by Rastrakutas)(Died Fighting Rastrakutas)
(Rastrakuta Appointed own Viceroys Dharavarsha's Son Kambha or Ranavaloka (802AD), Chakki Raja (813AD))
Vijayaditya (814-869)(Brother of Shivamara)
Rachamalla I (Satyavakya)(869 - 893)(Son of Vijayaditya)(Sons Ereyappa, Buttuga)
Ereyappa (Mahendrantaka)(921 AD)
Butuga (Ganga Gangeya)(930-963) (Slew half brother Ereyappa and took Crown)(Married Rastrakuta Amoghavarha Daughter)(Expanded Kingdom to Banavasi, Belvola, Purigere, Kisukad, Bginad, Subdued seven Malavas)(Defeated and Killed Chola king at Takkola)(Son Marula Deva )
Neetimarga I (Marula, Nanniya Ganga)(Son of Buttuga)(893 - 915) (Married daugher of Rastrakuta Krishna)
Marasimha (Nolambakulantaka)(963-974AD)(Slain all Nolambas)
Rachamalla II (974 - 984AD) (Indepedent of Rastrakutas)(Minister Chamunda Raya Erected the Gomata Image at Sravana Belgola)
Rakkasaganga (Govindara) (984) (Brother of Rachamalla)
Ganga Raja (996-1004)
Neetimarga Permanadi (1004- 1025AD)

Paruvi Branch
Aryavarma
Madhava
Vijaya Krishnavarma (Sons Simhavarma, Viravarma)
Viravarma
(reunited to Talakad Branch by Madhava II)

Kaivara Branch
Simhavarma
(reunited to Talakad Branch by Madava II)

Kovalala Nadu (Kolar) BranchSrivallabha(Defeated Pallavas under Mahendra Varma Pallava 633AD)(Married Princess of Renadu Chola)
Kannakuriraja
Paramakuala
Ajavarma Mahadhiraja Kaduvisama
Singadi
Ajavarma
Nriparaja
Jayateja (810AD)

Discussion
Inscriptions linking Gangas to North India and Ganges, come in 9th and 10th century AD, when every dynasty in India linked themselves to Rama, Krishna or Ikshvaku lineage. Gangas are no exception. The rulers mentioned Kampa, Madiverma, Kongani, Dadiga, Durvanita, Avinita are all Kannada Names, though Padmanabha, Madhava are sanskrit names. The Kannada Names indicate that they are local dyansty. Ganga rulers were also one of the earliest dynasties to use Kannada in Administration and Inscriptions.

There are several Gangavadi's in Karnataka alone, let alone South India. So Ganga being a Holy river, it is not surprising that Gangas called their kingdom Gangavadi.

Indologists have confused us lot about chronology due to multiple branches of Gangas ruling simultaneously. Now many inscriptions which were termed spurious has been found to be genuine in the context of acceptance of multiple branches of Ganga Dynasty. The same problem has been found and solved in the case of Multiple Branches of Kadamba, Pallava Dynasties has been now identified and chronology corrected.

Certain Branches of Ganga and Pallava had matrimonial relations. So there are Ganga names in Pallava inscriptions and vice versa. That should not be the basis for Ganga Pallava theory.

Eastern Gangas are decendents of Prithvipati of Ganga Dynasties. So both have same stories on their origin.

Kongu desa rajjakkal was composed in 19th century AD under British, it is based on this the kongu claims are based. We have to note here that the author dates rastrakutas ahead of Gangas and cheras in the Kongu region, because he likes them more. This work is anything but historical. If you see its claim kongani madhava cornation by Simhanandi in Skandapura, there are twenty odd places in Karnataka with the name Skandapura and goes against inscriptional evidence that he was crowned near Nandni hills and there is even a skandapura in Doddaballarpur known today known as Kandavara.

Kongu region got its name because it was conquered and ruled by Kongani Madhava. Even today you can see Koundar (Related to Gowdas of Karnataka) in Kongu region speaking Tamil with Kannada Grammar. These region were under Ganga rule for around 800 Years. The Indigenous rulers who came out of Kongu region like Adigaman dynasty can be seen owing alligence to Hoysalas rather than Cholas. So there is a strong link between Kongu region and Gangas. But to suggest that Perur near Coimbator is Ganga perur and Kongani got his name from Kongu region is false. The Simhanandi Perur has been identified as Ganga perur near Cuddapah region. We can see that nearby Raichur region in karnataka in ancient time was known.

Reference
Early Gangas of Talakad by Srikanth Shastri
Gangas of Talakad by M V Krishna Rao
Sources of Karnataka History by Srikanth shastri
Indian Archeology Review 1978-79
The Origin of Ganga Dynasty - A New Insight by Harihar Kanungo

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Anti-colonial uprisings in Karnataka 1800-1860

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Thu, 01 Jan 2015 18:38:00 +0000

The micro-stories from different parts of Karnataka during the six decades of 19th century (1800-1860) give us an indication of the wide-spread nature of anti-colonial struggles in different parts of India. Clearly they had spread among commoners and gentry and a national anti-colonial consciousness had seeped down to the remotest village.

It is unfortunate that we in India have not studied the facts regarding the 1857 revolt nor have we digested the lessons from it. Our conception is dominated by the British narrative. In short, they painted the revolt as a feudal reaction to the modernity of industrial Britain. British historians took great pains to paint all the leaders and heroes of 1857 as decadent, two-faced, selfish, reactionary, turn-coats who were fighting against loss of privileges and had no conception of national consciousness or peoples’ welfare. More over according to British historians, to carry out their personal agendas, the leaders inflamed religious fanaticism and misled people who were otherwise happy to be ruled by the British. Of course they also displayed British colonial “even handedness and fair play”, by pointing out that there was “some disaffection in the population and even the troops of the British Indian Army caused by the high handedness of some Company officials, however things became fine after the Company was replaced by the British Crown through Queen Victoria’s Proclamation in 1858 and “the rule of law” was established".

However a remarkably rich literature exists in various Indian languages in the form of ballads, folk songs and legends and even documents and reports, which is not accessible to English readers. An excellent beginning in giving the Indian point of view was made by V D Savarkar in his book “The Indian war of independence 1857”, published underground in 1907. It has been followed up in the last 20 years by various micro studies and finally by a significant two volume work, “War of Civilisations: 1857 AD” by Amaresh Misra.
This article tries to put together some highlights of anti-colonial struggles in the post-Hyder-Tipu-Karnataka from 1800-1860. In 1779 itself Hyder and Tipu had tried to put together a confederacy and worked out an agreement with Nana Fadanvis, Janoji Bhosle, Mahadji Scindhia and Nizam according to which Hyder was supposed to attack the Arcot area and Madras, Janoji Bhosle on Bengal, Nana Fadanvis and Mahadji Scindhia on Bombay and the Nizam on Circar districts. While Hyder and Tipu went ahead with the plan the others did not. If this grand plan had succeeded then perhaps India would have been rid of British colonial rule 80 years before 1857. However the narrow concerns of some rulers enabled the East India Company to meticulously play on petty selfishness and rule a continental sized diverse country like India for almost two hundred years.

In this article we have put together some highlights of anti-colonial uprisings in Karnataka between 1800 and 1860. The great struggle between Hyder Ali-Tipu Sultan and the British was already over by 1799 with Tipu’s death in the 4th Anglo-Mysore war. The micro-stories from different parts of Karnataka in those six decades tell us how wide-spread the anti-colonial struggles were in different parts of India and how they had spread among commoners and gentry and how deep the consciousness had seeped down to the remotest village.

On the occasion of Golden Jubilee of the formation of Karnataka State many historians have documented to a considerable degree the colonial history of Karnataka. They have recorded dozens of armed uprisings in Karnataka prior to 1857 besides the most famous one led by Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. One can see concrete linkages of these revolts with the uprising in the North. Many letters of request of support written by Nanasaheb to various principalities in North and coastal Karnataka, which were responded to by local kings have also come to light.

After the defeat and Tipu’s death in the battle field in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799), Karnataka was literally torn asunder between the British presidencies of Bombay and Madras; Nizam of Hyderabad and Marathas. A small dependency was created under the tutelage of Wodeyars as the kingdom of Mysore, which increased the land revenue and the burden on peasantry in an arbitrary manner to satisfy British demands. This led to uprisings in kingdom of Mysore as well as areas of Karnataka which had now been brought under, Nizam, Maratha and British rule. A few of them are briefly described below:

Dhondiya Wagh (1800):
One of the first to revolt against the new arrangement was Dhondiya Wagh. He was born in Chennagiri near Mysore. He joined Hyder Ali’s cavalry in 1780. Later he developed differences with Tipu, who incarcerated him. Hence British soldiers found Dhondiya in Srirangapattana’s prison when they ransacked the city after the death of Tipu. Dhondiya was released, who however immediately vanished and tried to gather the demobilised Tipu’s soldiers. Very soon he built up a significant armed force with a cavalry etc. He kept moving from territory to territory and capturing small towns and forts that had been taken over by Marathas, British and the Nizam. Governor General, Richard Wellesley was exasperated by Dhondiya’s revolt and assigned his brother Arthur Wellesley (Later to be known as Duke of Wellington, who defeated Napolean at Waterloo) to suppress Dhondiya’s revolt. He sent troops not only from Madras but even summoned some from Bengal.
The theatre of Dhondiya’s war encompassed forts at Chitradurg, Savanur, Shimoga, Bidanur, Honnali, Harihar, Shikaripur, Kittur, Londa, Ranebennur, Kundgol, Shirahatti, Kunigal, Dharwad, Gadag, Raichur, Hungund etc. Practically it encompassed all of Central and North Karnataka. He was supported by the people and smaller principalities (samsthana) that were discontented with the British. Tipu’s son Fateh Hyder supported him and Tipu’s former soldiers were the core of his forces which at one point grew to over 70,000 with a 30,000 strong cavalry. The British troops were led by Col, Stevenson, Col Wellesly, Col Tolin, Col Mclean, Col Darlymple. The heroic campaign lasted from June 1799 to September 1800. In the end Dhondiya was cornered by British, Maratha and Nizam’s troops and fell for a bullet in the battle at Konegal.
British historians have painted him as "rogue bandit”, whereas Dhondiya himself had the title of “lord of both the worlds” among his people. Edward Clive a British officer later admired his organising ability and said “what started as an anarchic revolt became a major international war”. Nationalist historians have described him as, “a person with great determination and a magnetic personality”.

Venkatadri Nayak (1803)
Aigur (Ballam) Venkatadri Nayak was another leader who started his revolt when the British were tied down by Dhondiya Wagh. His father Krishnappa Nayak, was made the ruler of Aigur by Hyder Ali. But Krishnappa betrayed him and joined the Marathas in 1792 and helped the British. After the war he was scared of Tipu and ran away to Kodagu (Coorg). However Tipu did not punish him but instead reinstated him. On Tipu’s defeat in 1799, Krishnappa’s son Venkatadri Nayak became the ruler of Aigur. He was ambitious and started expanding his territory. Venkatadri Nayak captured Subrahmanya Ghat, a crucial pass in the Sahyadris with access to Mangalore. He attacked the British troops at Arakere and also defeated a 2500 strong army sent by Wodeyar of Mysore.

Venkatadri Nayak came to be known as the Bull Raja and Ballam Raja. Wellesley took his revolt very seriously and made an elaborate plan to capture him by getting troops from Mangalore as well as Bombay, Bidnur and Sondha. The British tried to organise all the Patels of surrounding villages against him and also terrorised the population by executing many of his sympathisers. They generally followed a scorched earth policy to prevent him getting any food supplies. The campaign lasted nearly three years and finally on February 10, 1803 he and his 6 followers were arrested when they were in search of food supplies. All the insurgents were later executed. Thus two great warriors were suppressed by the British with Machiavellian tactics using the Mysore Wodeyars, Marathas and the Nizam.

Koppal Veerappa (1819):
As mentioned earlier Karnataka was torn asunder between Nizam, Marathas and the British after Tipu’s defeat. The North eastern parts were taken over by Nizam, who put unbearable burden on the peasantry. The Nizam was totally under British control with the Subsidiary Alliance signed in 1800. As a result of which the Nizam had to pay for the British Subsidiary Force stationed to “protecthim” and even accept the humiliating condition that the British would decide who the top bureaucrat—the Diwan of Hyderabad would be. As Nizam’s unbridled oppression with heavy taxation increased, there was no way but for the peasantry to revolt. One such revolt was led by Veerappa in Koppal in 1818. Veerapaa was a small landowner in Koppal, he built a force and captured Koppal and Bahadur (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f3SWXcLH0UA) forts built by Hyder Ali 40 years earlier. British forces led by Major Doughton and Brig General Pritzler rushed to crush Veerappa and Nizam’s general Idruskhan also joined them. Veerappa fought valiantly for five days with only 500 men and died in battle. Even though Veerappa’s rebellion was confined to a small area around Koppal, it represented a popular peasant revolt and inspired many more in the region.

Deshmukhs of Bidar (1820)
After Tipu’s defeat the remnants of the old Bahmani Kingdom of Bidar too were incorporated into Nizam’s rule and burdened with heavy taxation. As a result revolts started appearing in 1820 in Udgir. Using Suliyal as their base the local Deshmukhs led by Shivalingayya, Tirumal Rao and Meghsham led this revolt. Hence this revolt is known as the revolt of Deshmukhs. The Nizam relied on British help to suppress the Deshmukhs. Lt. Gen. Sutherland was assigned for the same and he defeated them in a campaign lasting two months and imprisoned them.

Sindagi Revolt (1824)
The popular revolt against the British spread to Bijapur too and in Sindagi, 40 km from Bijapur the local people led by Chidambar Dikshit, his son Diwakar Dikshit and Diwakar’s comrades Shettyappa, Raoji and Rastiya declared sovereignty of people of Sindagi. They took over Sindagi Taluk and boldly declared that “British Raj does not exist here and we anyway do not recognise it. We are sovereign”. British could not tolerate this challenge to their rule in such a brazen way even if though it was confined to a Taluk in North Karnataka. They sent forces led by Lt. Stevenson to capture the leaders. However the forces could not locate the leaders. A traitor Annappa Patne however showed the hiding place to the British. The local people who came to know the same lynched Annappa on the spot. However the British were able to capture the leaders and imprison them. The revolt was confined to a Taluk, but showed advanced consciousness.

Rani Chennamma and the Kittur Revolt (1824)
Rani Chennamma of Kittur is a veritable icon in Karnataka and was perhaps one of the first women leaders who fought against British Raj. To this day she inspires people. She was born in the Desai family of Kakati, a small village in the wealthy kingdom of Kittur, which stood around 5 km north of Belgavi in Karnataka. In her youth she received training in horse riding, sword fighting and archery. She became the queen of Kittur on her marriage to Shivalinga Rudra Sarja, of the Desai family of Kittur.

Kittur was a principality (samsthana) covering large parts of Dharwad and Belgavi districts and was paying tributes to Marathas after the fall of Tipu. However after the fall of Marathas in 1818, Kittur came under British rule. Shivalinga Rudra Sarja did not have children and when he fell sick, he asked his close confidant Gurusiddappa to choose a boy from the surrounding region to be adopted as the heir to the throne. Shivalingappa was such a boy who was then trained in appropriate manner, renamed Mallasarja and adopted as the heir to Kittur. Shivalinga Rudra Sarja died soon after on September 11, 1824.

Chennamma started ruling the kingdom in the name of the minor prince. However Thackeray the then collector and political agent in Dharwad arbitrarily refused to recognise this and asked the British Governor, Elphinstone in Bombay to take over the kingdom under paramountcy—a ruse three decades later formalised by Dalhousie as the Doctrine of Lapse.

In a clear act of provocation he declared that the treasury of the kingdom was not safe and hence brought in his own guards and administrators to “protect” the same. He even left a few soldiers to “guard” the main gate of Kittur Fort. These provocations enraged the people of Kittur. Chennamma patiently tried to get justice and sent her emissaries to talk to the “Company Sarkar” (British East India Company) and at the same time started strengthening the fort and carrying out various military preparations anticipating a conflict. She called all the loyal fighters from the surrounding region and discussed the situation with them, sought their advice and loyalty. Thackeray was surprised by the Rani’s gumption. He invited the Rani for talks, which she refused. While Thackeray was gathering his forces the fighters of Kittur readied themselves inside the fort and carried out a daring attack on the British forces. Chennamma directed the battle from the ramparts of the fort. On her orders, Balasaheb Sayyad, Rani Chennamma’s loyal sharpshooter, killed Thackeray. Thus Thackeray came to a sorry end on October 23, 1824 and along with him two more officers Capt.. Black Stevenson and Lt. Dicton also died. British forces were roundly defeated and many were taken prisoners by the insurgents.

This was a great setback for British Raj and its cultivated image as an invincible force in the region. They soon gathered forces from Sholapur, Mysore and Bombay and neared Kittur. Rani sent them a message that if they attack Kittur then all British prisoners of war will be put to death and then the people of Kittur will fight to death. Taken aback, Chaplin, Commissioner of Deccan sent a message that if the British prisoners are released and Sardar Gurusiddappa is handed over then the status quo will prevail. Chennamma refused to hand over Gurusiddappa but released British prisoners as an act of good faith. However Chaplin had no intention of keeping his end of the deal and sent his forces under the leadership of Lt.. Col Deacon to siege Kittur on Dec. 3, 1824. The fighters of Kittur fought bravely for three days, however due to treachery they found that their gun powder had been mixed with cow dung and made useless. The fort fell. Rani Chennamma escaped with the younger Rani Veeramma through a secret passage towards Sangolli where she had supporters.

However British were able to intercept her on her way and capture her. She was imprisoned in Bailhongal prison. After incarceration of four years Chennamma died in prison on February 3, 1829. The Kittur countryside was full of rebellion for over five years. The leader of this rebellion was Rani Chennamma’s ardent admirer Rayanna of Sangolli.

Sangolli Rayanna (1829)
Rayanna was born in a shepherd family in Sangolli, a village in Belgavi district. The family had a fighting tradition and was loyal to the Desais of Kittur. Rayanna fought with the Kittur army in 1824 and was captured by the British after the defeat of Rani. However soon he was released as a part of British pacification program. His family members had generous tax free lands given as Inam by the Desais, for their earlier bravery and loyalty. However the Company Sarkar now increased the taxes and eventually confiscated his lands. In November-December 1829, when he was restless, some of his friends invited him to lead a revolt against the British. Rayanna soon started a guerrilla war suitable to the surrounding landscape. He gathered a compact group of fighters and started attacking treasuries and rich land owners who were British collaborators. He seized mortgage and debt documents of peasantry from them and burnt them. He soon gathered over 1000 fighters and harassed the British and their collaborators relentlessly.
Realising that it was not possible to capture Rayanna by conventional warfare, British adopted other means to do so. They sent in some spies into his army and caught him unarmed when he was bathing in a river. He and his associates were executed and many sent abroad for life imprisonment.

Interestingly though British rewarded the traitors who betrayed Rayanna very generously through land grants, the entire community socially boycotted them. Even today the legend has it that those families are cursed for generations and if anyone goes to their homes for a lunch or dinner as a guest then the food in their plates will turn into maggots!

Rayanna’s revolt inspired other loyalists of Kittur too to rise up time and again. Gurusiddappa, Shankaranna, Gajapati, Savai Shetti, Kotagi, Shaikh Suleiman, Bheemanna, Kaddigudda Balanna, Waddar Yellannaetcled several uprisings against the British in support of Kittur for almost a decade. The rebels executed the traitors who had betrayed Rayanna and rose up time and gain demonstrating their love and pride for the Rani Chennamma of Kittur.

Nagar Peasant Revolt (1830-31)
Nagar comprised of the taluks of Sagar, Nagar, Kowlidurga, Koppa, Lakwally, Sorab, Shikarpur, Shivamogga, Honnaly, Harihar, Chennagiri, Tarikere, Kadur, and Chickamagalur. Besides, there were 5277 villages, 1277 hamlets. Its population was 459,842. The Ikkeri dynasty ruled this region and gained respect and prestige through an independent distinguished rule from the Vijaynagar times to late 18th century when they were taken over by Hyder Ali and Tipu. The region had a fighting tradition. When the Wodeyars and Diwan Poornaiah were installed in Mysore by East India Company after Tipu’s defeat, the region came under heavy taxation. In fact nearly 60% of the Kingdom’s revenues were coming from this region alone. After suffering from the duo’s arbitrariness for three decades, 1800-1830, the region was ripe for rebellion against the Wodeyars and their protectors—the “Company Sarkar”.

The administration was entirely corrupt and filled with nepotism and casteism. The local Nayak’s and Patels and ryots were fed up of this state of affairs and the heavy tax burden. This situation was utilised by Boodi Basavappa, who assumed leadership of the uprising and declared himself the new ruler. He declared sovereignty and pardoned the heavy taxes and peasant debt to Sahukars (money lenders).
The result was one of the largest peasant revolts in colonial India.

According to Dr.. Siddalinga Swamy, the greatest burden to cultivators was an advance payment of money to the government before the grain was harvested. As no renter, or cultivator had money to advance, he was obliged to take recourse to the Sahukars, who advanced money at the rate of two percent per month and extracted a present of five percent upon the advance. For the second and third instalment, a present was not demanded; but when the fourth was to be paid the crops were to be mortgaged. Most lenders insisted upon an immediate sale, and became the purchasers themselves at the bazar price, which would then be lower than at any other period. Many debt burdened ryots flocked to the government to make complaints against Sahukars. But the government were powerful. The Government also owed large sums of money to Sahukars. In February 1826 the peasant debt to Sahukarsin Nagar was estimated at 4 lakh.

This sorry state of affairs depicted a weak and ignorant government managed by corrupt officers, unable to correct the sources of evil inherent in it. As the Wodeyar’s Government was corrupt, no control was exercised over the district officers. Naturally the people were enraged by the unjust and arbitrary acts of those officers. There was no process in the country which required public servants to hear the complaints of the ryots. This was the fertile ground for the insurrection in 1830.

Taking advantage of this, Basavappa spread the news that he had assumed the sovereignty of the country and promised the ryots full remission of all balance debt. A reduction of the Government tax demand on their lands was also promised, if they would espouse his cause. Many inflammatory speeches were made by supporters of Boodi Basavappa in August 1830, asking ryots to join them. One of his supporters, made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the fort of Anandapur in Nagar province. On 23rd August the ryots of Nagar circulated a letter in the other fouzdaris, inviting other ryots to assemble in a koota (assembly). On 23rd September the ryots of Chennagiri refused to pay their taxes, and other taluks in Nagar fouzdari followed them. In December, Fouzdar Viraraj Urs employed troops to disperse demonstrators at Holehonnur. The ryots of the Chitradurg and Bangalore Divisions also refused to pay taxes and joined the movement.

In the meantime efforts were made by Diwan Venkat Raj in Bangalore and Chitradurg Divisions to pacify the ryots. The Maharaja himself under took to tour some of the taluks in December 1830. However he was humiliated by the ryots in Channarayapattana and in many other places.

The rebels gave a good fight to the troops. They captured some of the forts in Nagar, and in many places they repulsed the Mysore troops.

On the 21st of December 1830 a Proclamation was issued directing all persons carrying bones and Neem leaves (the symbols of insurrection) to be seized, tried and if convicted, to be hanged. On the following day instructions were given to the fouzdar of Bangalore to fire on the protesters and to catch one or two protesters in each taluk and hang them to spread terror among the populace. Many of the rebels were caught and hanged. Some of the rebels’ noses and ears were cut off resulting in several persons being badly disfigured.

The Raja said that this measure was indispensable to put down the rebellion. As a result hundreds of ryots were hanged throughout the territory. The Raja asserted that in ordering executions he did not act of his own accord, but in compliance with the advice of the British Resident.

The reverses to the Mysore troops led to the employment of Company’s forces to quell the revolt. On 31st May 1831, the stronghold of the rebels, Nagar, was captured and the revolt was practically quelled. But stray bands of insurgency continued till 1832 when it was completely suppressed.

The rebellion was spontaneous and did not have a visionary leadership but it however demonstrated the widespread anger among different sections of Kannadigas against the British rule and as well as their puppets like the Wodeyars and Poornaiah. The Company however used the occasion to further strip any element of autonomy from the Wodeyars and Governor General William Bentinck, appointed commissioners to administer the region.

Coastal Uprisings (1830-31)
There were widespread uprisings against heavy taxation in the coastal regions of Karnataka. These regions had first protested the taxes earlier in 1809-1810. The later agitations learnt from this experience and were consequently more audacious.

The documents of East India Company have called these revolts as Koota revolts. Kootaswere general assemblies of people of a village or town, where they asserted their sovereignty, and hence a form of direct democracy.

The mass struggle started in early 1830 and assumed a host of forms. The most important of these, however, was the koota or simply ‘gathering’. The mass awakening was ignited through their assembly into kootas which was a broad forum to organize the masses. While the struggles might have been spontaneous, the form was quite well developed.

The signs of the peasant unrest could be seen in the closing months of 1830, when the ryots gave general petitions complaining of their losses. But they developed and came to the fore in the beginning months of 1831. The ryots of Kasargod, Kumbla, Mogral, Manjeshwar, Bungra Manjeshawar and Talapady sent general arzees (petitions) and complaints of their losses to Dickinson the Collector of South Kanara.
In their petitions, the ryots not only complained about the harsh revenue assessment of November 1830, but they also demanded remission to them all at a uniform rate.

In the second stage, beginning of January 1831, the ryots started their Kootas or assemblages.
It was in Bekal (Kasargod) that the Kootas started in the first week of January 1831 and within a few days they spread to the northern parts of Kanara.

Barkur, Brahmavar, Buntwal, Madhur, Manjeshwar, Mulki, Kadri, Kumbla, Malluly (Malali), Wamanjoor, Mogral, Udyawar, Uppinangadi and Vittal were some of the important places where the ryots of the respective regions had assembled in Kootas or assemblages. The Kootas extended to North Kanara also. Manjunatha temple at Kadri was the centre of these peasant uprisings, where the Grand Koota [MahaKoota] was organised towards the end of January 1831. Ryots from other important centres of the district such as Kasargod and Buntwal came and met at Kadri. The Venkataramana temple at Basrur, the Mahamayi temple at Mangalore, the temple at Manjeswar and another temple at Wamanjoor were other important centres of the Koota movement.

In order to organise these Kootas, the ryots assigned one Patel and two head ryots in each of the villages. When any aspect was discussed and plan or action was proposed in the Kootas, these leaders disseminated them to the ryots in the villages. Further, each of the Kootas had its own leaders and all of them met and discussed (at the Grand Koota in Kadri). The organisers of these Kootas also made use of a ‘Secret Council’ or a secretariat. The object of this Council was to maintain the secrecy of the whole organisational affair of the Kootas. However, the result of the deliberations of this Council was communicated to the various assemblies or Kootas. Thus the Secret Council played the role of a linking and organising body in these peasant uprisings. It in fact acted as a think-tank of the rebellion. Further, anonymous pamphlets were made use of by the leaders to spread their ideas and programmes among the ryots.

The participants in these Kootas at times made bold to attack Government servants. Before Dickinson left Kundapura for Mangalore at the end of January 1831 he received reports from the Tahsildar of Barkur that the ryots of that taluk had assembled in Koota and had assaulted some of the public servants. The report of the Tahsildar of Barkur says that a Magane Shanbhog, who was deputed to read a government proclamation was severely assaulted. Again at Mulki the ryots roughed up an Ameen who had been sent to read them a proclamation issued by the Government. The ryots were determined to refuse to give taxes to the Government, until a fresh settlement was made, and their mood was so defiant that they unhesitatingly attacked those public servants whom they feared not long back. The growing sense of unity among themselves and faith in their organisational strength had emboldened them to take such postures of defiance. The peasant rebellion that surfaced in the month of November 1830 continued up to the end of March 1831. It was after Cameron’s promise (March 1831) to the riots that their petitions would be considered and remissions would be made after an examination of their losses to redress their hardships that they dispersed and stopped organising the Kootas. Thus by April 1831 the rumblings of Koota rebellions died down.

Kodagu (Coorg) Revolts (1833-37)
After the defeat of Tipu, the East India Company could not directly rule Kodagu. They had to restore the kingdom to the traditional kings of Haleri dynasty who were earlier displaced by Hyder and Tipu. However these Haleri kings were fiercely independent and particularly Chikka Veera Rajendra (1820-34) was a proud and independent king. He refused to follow British diktat and instead armed his population and built up his forces to resist any British attack. He corresponded with Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab and sought his support against the British.

There were constant skirmishes between him and the British administration, which was based in Bangalore and Mysore and finally a war between the British and Kodava forces was inevitable. Despite brave fight put up by the Kodavas the British were able to capture the Madikeri fort through treachery in 1834 and depose the king. He was sent in Exile to Bangalore, Kashi and later London.

However the fighting people of Kodagu did not take this lying down and several revolts took place. These were led by Swami Aparampaar, Kalyan Swami and Putta Basava. All these fighters claimed to be heirs to Kodagu throne one after another and sought support from the people in their fight against the British in the name of Haleri dynasty. Each one of them was given due respect and recognition by the people as true heirs of Kodagu and thousands joined them. All of them sought to throw out British from Kodagu, cancel the taxes imposed by them and fought for an independent life for Kodavas. These uprisings went on from 1834 to 1837.

Other revolts before 1857
There were several other revolts which were local and minor in dimension but which had a lot of impact on the psyche of the people of North Karnataka between 1840 and 1857. One of them was in Badami, a town in today’s Bagalkot district, which has an ancient history and was the capital of Chalukyas who ruled much of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh between 6th and 8th centuries CE. An army built by loyalists of the deposed king of Satara took over the fort and established their rule in 1839-40. They were suppressed by British Army and the leaders sentenced to death and life imprisonment.
Similarly there were uprisings in Nippani, currently in Belgavi district, in 1840-41, where over 300 Arab fighters under the leadership of local Zamindar, Raghunath Rao attacked the fort and took it over. Later they were suppressed by the Company Army. In 1849 the Paleygar of Chitradurga rose up unsuccessfully. Revolts led by Lingappa in Bidar in 1852 harassed the British for several months and he had captured several forts.

Uprisings in Karnataka during Ghadar of 1857
There were several uprisings in Karnataka during the Ghadar in 1857 and went on till 1860. Unlike the Gangetic belt, where the revolt was signalled by mutiny of British Indian Army, which were then followed by revolts led by Nanasaheb, Zeenat Mahal, Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi, Kunwar Singh et al, the Karnataka revolts were popular uprisings led by local peasant leaders, or small principalities who linked their local struggles with the larger national one that was being fought under Bahadur Shah Zafar and Nana Saheb’s leadership. The area of uprising covered the entire districts from the coastal Canara (present day Karwar and Mangalore) in the Madras Presidency, to the eastern Raichur and Koppal districts under the Nizam; from Bijapurand Dharwadin the North in Bombay Presidency to Sringeri and Hassan in the south.
Notable among them are the uprisings of: Bedasin Halagali near Bijapur; revolt of Nargund near Gadag and Dharwad; revolt of Mundargi Bhimaraya; revolt of Venkatappa Nayak of Surpur near Gulburga and Supa revolts near Karwar.

Bedas of Halagali
One of the fighting tribes which fought the British tooth and nail from 1820’s to 1942 and formed the backbone of many uprisings in the Deccan (comprising Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra) were Bedas who descended from hunters. They have been called Ramoshis, Berad, or Bedas, Boya, Dorabiddu and Valmiki in different areas.

Bearing arms to protect themselves and the community and their king was part of their life and they did it with great pride. The prince of Mudhol had accepted British overlordship and the Bedas in the area were seething with dissatisfaction. The East India Company announced on 11 September, 1857 that all Indians should disarm, submit their arms to the company and then get licences to carry arms. This was simply out of question for Bedas. Hence when the Company Sarkar’s edict was sought to be implemented by the King of Mudhol principality, the Bedas of Halagali and surrounding area considered it a great insult and defied him. They did not allow any official to enter their villages. They did not even allow an arms’ census to be taken and did not accept the offer that they will not be actually disarmed but will all be given licences to bear arms. They said, “Bearing arms is our birth right and why should we take anybody’s permission for the same?”
The revolt, which started in a small village called Halagali, kept snowballing and started spreading to surrounding areas. The British Raj saw it as a serious threat to its rule and when the local ruler was not able to suppress it, Major Malcolm summoned the southern Maratha regiment let by Lt. Col Seton Karr. The bedas, though vastly outnumbered, fought fiercely for their rights. The British followed a scorched earth policy in the region and after the final battle captured 290 Bedas and hanged 19 leaders of the uprising in Mudhol market in December 1857.

Nargund Bandaya (revolt)
The principality of Nargund used to be under the Peshwas after the defeat of Tipu. After the defeat of Peshwas in 1818, it came under British overlordship. Bhaskar Rao Bhave also known as Baba Saheb rose to the throne of Nargund in 1842 and administered this region efficiently. However he did not have a son and told the British that he would adopt a son to create an heir for Nargund. The British refused permission and asked him to return some of the land received as Inam. This enraged Baba Saheb and he got in touch with several rulers in Karnataka like Mundaragi Bhimaraya, Surpur Venkatappa Nayakaand many others. He was aware of the north Indian uprising and wanted to time his revolt also in June of 1857. However he postponed the date at the last moment. Meanwhile the British came across his correspondence with other rulers due to some traitors and informers. They were alarmed by it but Baba Saheb’s external conduct with them was friendly and proper and hence they were lulled into not taking immediate action. However, when they came to know that he had accumulated a large amount of artillery and ammunition in his fort in Nargund, they asked him to deposit the same in Dharwad. He readily agreed and sent them with an escort to Dharwad. Simultaneously he secretly organised an attack on the convoy and brought them back to Nargund, while claiming innocence.

In May 1858 when the British sent a force to prevent his networking with other rulers, he attacked them and brought the decapitated head of officer Manson, the head of British force sent to suppress him, to his fort and displayed it to the people. Meanwhile he discovered treachery within his fort leading to sabotage and adulteration of gun powder with cow dung. While he went to attack the fort in Amargol near Hubballi, British came to Nargund with a large force. Baba Saheb had over 2500 soldiers within the fort who fought valiantly, when the defeat was imminent, Baba Saheb consulted his comrades and decided to escape to a nearby forest. However in the forest near Torgal he was betrayed by some camp followers. This led to his capture and later execution in Belagavi on June 12, 1858. Nargund Bandaya is a legend in North Karnataka.
Interestingly, when a large peasant movement started in 1980 in North Karnataka, in the Malaprabha basin, it took a massive turn due to brutal police firing on agitating peasants in Nargund and the vast mass peasant movement that developed came to be known as the second Nargund Bandaya.

Surpur Venkatappa Nayak
Surpur or Shorapuris situated in the hills, about 50 km west of Yadgiri, a district headquarters. It was ruled by Beda Nayak kings who had a fighting tradition. They had resisted even the mighty Mughals under Aurangzeb. Later they were harassed by the Nizam, the Peshwas and the British and the kingdom was reduced in size toonly Surpur and Shapur taluks. When Raja Krishnappa Nayak died in 1842, prince Venkatappa Nayak the 4th,was only 8 years old. So the British created regency where the prince was enthroned but Meadows Taylor a British administrator was appointed as the Regent. Taylor was a scholar-administrator and greatly improved the condition of the kingdom in terms of treasury, accounts, clearing the old debts owed to the Nizam and Peshwa, public works, irrigation etc. In 1853 Taylor handed over the reins to 19 year old Venkatappa Nayak and retreated into the background.

In 1857, British got wind that some representatives of Nana Saheb came to Surpur and had secret meetings with young Raja Venkatappa Nayak. In the meanwhile, Mahipal Singh, a rebel from 1857 revolt, was captured by the British and he disclosed to them that he was carrying out instructions of Raja Venkatappa Nayak. The Company had actually administered the kingdom under regency and the King had a close almost filial relationship with Col Meadows Taylor. Even then, the British were very suspicious of Bedas in general as they were playing an important anti-colonial role. So they started interfering more and more in the affairs of the kingdom. Finally in February 1858, they sent troops led by Capt. Windham and Maj Hughes to attack Surpur, but the fort of Surpur was very strong and a fierce battle ensued. When they were outnumbered, the Raja escaped to Hyderabad and tried to get Nizam and his Diwan’s support for the uprising. Unfortunately however, they handed him over to the British. The Raja was sentenced to life imprisonment and while he was being transported to Chenglepet jail from Sikandarabad, he was killed. The Raja Venkatappa Nayak of Surpur was a lynchpin in a coordinated uprising covering Miraj, Kolhapur, Koppal, Raichur and Surpur and hence the British were greatly relieved by his defeat and the kingdom was given to Nizam for the services rendered to the East India Company.

Mundaragi Bhimaraya
Bhimaraya of Mundaragi is a legendary hero of Ghadar of 1857 in Karnataka. There are many lavanis (ballads) written about him. He was not a Raja but a commoner with extra ordinary vision and organising and mobilising ability. His father was a local judge and Bhimaraya himself served as a Mamledar (a land revenue official) in Bellary, Hoovina Hadagali and Harapana Halli. He could not stand the exploitation of peasantry under British rule and in protest he resigned and came back to Benne Halli, his village.

He had observed the development of anti-colonial movement in Karnataka and networked with various like-minded leaders. Nana Saheb’s call to the people of India and all Desais, Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Jahagirdars, Patels and Kulkarnis of Karnataka greatly influenced him. He had sent many emissaries in the garb of Sadhus and Swamijis to contact others. He is also rumoured to have secretly visited Bangalore and written a letter in vain to the Maharaja of Mysore, Krishna Raja Wodeyar 3rd. Bhimaraya encouraged people in various areas to refuse to pay taxes to Company Sarkar. He contacted various groups of Beda fighters and started accumulating arms and creating ammunition dumps at various places. On 23 May 1858 the fouzdar of Dambal raided one such arms cache and sealed it. On hearing the news Bhimaraya came with his army attacked the armoury and took back all his arms and ammunition and shifted to a safer place in Shirahatti. Then he started raiding British armouries in various places. Many local land owners and kings supported Bhimaraya and joined him in the revolt. When British took Bhimarayas wife and kids as hostages, Bhimaraya came with his army freed his family and went to the fort in Koppal and prepared to fight with a large stock of food, arms and ammunition. British gathered a large force from their stations at Dharwad, Raichur, Hyderabad and Bellary and marched on Koppal fort. After a fierce fight Bhimaraya fell to British bullets on 1 June, 1858. British carried out brutal reprisals against Bhimaraya’s associates and supporters.

Canara Revolts
The district of Canara consisted of present Mangalore (Dakshina Kannada) and Karwar (Uttara Kannada) districts and after Tipu, they were made a part of Madras presidency. However these coastal districts were thickly forested and mountainous and the large distance from Madras led to further reasons for a weak British colonial state in the area. As uprisings in coastal Maharashtra spread during 1857, Canara too became a refuge for revolutionaries and also a centre of resistance. Here the revolutionaries who came from Savantwadi played a major role. They also tried to get support from some Goans as well as Portugese and moved into Khanapur, Supa, Ulavi, Dandeli etc. They were also joined by Siddis (African slaves brought to India by Portugese and who had escaped to the dense forests of Canara near Karwar). Though many British historians have said that these revolts were caused by the increased land and salt taxes, it is clear that they were inspired by the stories of 1857 uprising in the North and were waiting for Nanasaheb to move southwards. Despite the death and capture of many leaders, new ones kept springing up in this region for nearly three years. Finally British divided the district into two and attached Karwar to Bombay presidency in 1862.

This brief account of anti-colonial uprisings in Karnataka suffices to understand the deep felt hatred of British rule in every corner of India. Karnataka threw up its own heroes and legends in resistance like Dhondiya Wagh, Swami Aparampar, Rani Chennamma, Sangolli Rayanna, Nargund Baba Saheb, Mundargi Bimaraya, Surpur Venkatappa Nayak, Bedas of Halagali and others. Moreover, the revolts and networks clearly demonstrate the development of a broad national consciousness among Indian people much before the so called modern era, despite India being composed of many nationalities, languages, religious sects, cultures and castes.

References:
1) “Kannada Bhoopradeshagalallina Sashastra Bandayagalu” (Armed uprisings in Kannada Region)- by Dr. D. N. Yogeeshwarappa, from Charitrika Karnataka (History of Colonial and Contemporary Karnataka) -Ed by Dr. C. R. Govinda Raju (2010), Kannada
2) “Peasant Revolt of Nagar in 1830-31"- Dr. Siddalinga Swamy, pre-print
3) N. Shyam Bhat, “South Kanara, 1799–1860: a study in colonial administration and regional response", 1998,
4) “Ramoshi/Berad-Lingayat-Maratha Heroism, Jain Dilemma and the Haider Ali-Tipu Sultan Memory: Perspicacious 1858 Karnataka Battles”, Chapter 55, War of Civilisations- India AD 1857, Vol II –by Amaresh Misra, Rupa& Co (2008)

by Shivanand Kanavi

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GI Tags from Karnataka

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Karnataka, the land of history and heritage has the highest number of GI Tags in India. A geographical indication (GI) is a name or sign used on certain products which corresponds to a specific geographical location or origin (e.g. a town, region, or country). The use of a GI may act as a certification that the product possesses certain qualities, is made according to traditional methods, or enjoys a certain reputation, due to its geographical origin.
Byadagi chilli
Byadagi chilli (Kannada: ಬ್ಯಾಡಗಿ ಮೆಣಸಿನಕಾಯಿ) is a famous variety of chilli mainly grown in Karnataka. It is named after the town of Byadagi which is located in the Haveri district of Karnataka. The business involving Byadagi chillis has the second largest turnover among all chilli varieties of India. An oil, oleoresin extracted from these chillies is used in the preparation of nail polish and lipsticks. Byadagi chilli is also known for its deep red colour and is less spicy and is used in many food preparations of karnataka. They are also known as kaddi (meaning stick-like) chillies. The quality of chilli varieties is measured in terms of the extractable red colour pigment; this colour is measured in ASTA colour units. Byadagi Chilli has an ASTA colour value of 156.9. The higher the ASTA colour unit, the better the quality of chilli and therefore the higher the price. The Byadagi chilli has negligible capsaicin content making it less pungent than other chilli varieties.Byadagi chilli is an important ingredient in spicy preparations like Bisi bele bath, sambar, chutneys and other food items of South India and is widely used in the Udupi cuisine. It is also used in meat preparations because of the bright red colour that it imparts to the meat.Earlier Byadagi Chilli was grown mainly for the purpose of using it in food items as a spicy ingredient but recently, it has also been grown for the extraction of oleoresin, a red oil from the pods. Oleoresin is used in the preparation of nail polish and lipsticks.

Udupi Mattu Gulla Brinjal
Mattu village is famous for a particular variety of brinjal (eggplant) that is grown only in this village. The brinjal grown here is light green in colour and is spherical, unlike the usual purple-coloured variety. The first brinjal harvested is offered to Lord Krishna at Krishna Matha, Udupi. The seeds for growing this type of brinjal is said to be given by Shri Vadiraja swamiji. This village is also famous for a bridge named as Annekatta which connects this tiny village to Katapady. This village lies in the midst of Arabian sea in the west and a small river in the east side. Shree Vadhirajacharya, a monk, was daily offering food to Hayagreeva or Hayavadhana (Narayana in Horse's face). He used to close the door and a horse steps up on his shoulder to eat it. Vadhirajaru used to return empty vessel always. This enraged other brahmanas, and in turn they mixed poison, thinking that Vadhirajaru has eaten it, as usual he offered food, the horse came and ate fully without leaving a trace. But to their surprise, other Brahmins saw Shri Krishna, Udupi's Idol turning blue in color. So other brahmnas felt guilty and went to Vadhirajaru for pardon. Vadhirajaru with his divine powers gave some seeds of Brinjal to Mattu Brahmins to sow it. The brinjal grown there is bought and being offered to Krishna as Nayvedhya. Slowly the blueishness vanished away. So even now "Mattu Gulla" is famous for non-septic in nature.

Malabar Arabica Coffee
Monsooned Malabar is a process applied to coffee beans. The harvested beans are exposed to the monsoon rain and winds for a period of about three to four months, causing the beans to swell and lose the original acidity, resulting in a smooth brew with a practically neutral pH balance. The coffee is unique to the Malabar Coast of Karnataka . The blend is heavy bodied, pungent, and considered to be dry with a musty, chocolatey aroma and notes of spice and nuts.The origins of Monsooned Malabar date back to the times of the British Raj, when, during the months that the beans were transported by sea from India to Europe, the humidity and the sea winds combined to cause the coffee to ripen from the fresh green to a more aged pale yellow. Legend has it that in the past, when wooden vessels carried raw coffee from India to Europe, during the monsoon months taking almost six months to sail around the Cape of Good Hope, the coffee beans, exposed to constant humid conditions, underwent characteristic changes. The beans changed in size, texture, and appearance, both as beans and in the cup. Modern transportation reduced the length of this journey and better protected the beans from weathering and humidity. However, the Europeans noticed that the coffee beans now arriving in their ports lacked the depth and character of the coffee beans received in days gone by.It was determined that in the past the coffee beans had been transformed by exposure to the sea air and monsoon winds and rain. An alternative process was implemented to replicate these conditions, so that these coffee beans could be enjoyed once again. It was observed that a typical ambiance could be simulated along the coastal belt of southwest India during the monsoon months bringing about the same characteristic transformation to the ordinary cherry coffee beans. Thus was born the ritual called "monsooning." Arabica variety with this process is called Malabar Monsoon Arabica Coffee.

Monsooned malabar robusta
Another Coffee Variety of same Process is monsooned malabar robusta

Coorg Green Cardamom
A fragrant spice, used in most chai recipes, cardamom is one of the mildest but most effective digestive stimulants. Removes excess Kapha from the stomach and lungs, and combined with fennel, it acts a soothing digestive for nervous stomach disorders in children. The queen of spices (just ask the spice mistress), cardamom stimulates the heart and mind and offers clarity and joy. The Coorg Cardmom has more unique features.

Devanahalli Pomelo
Devanahalli is also known for its pomelo-a fruit whose local flavour is not found anywhere else in India. Interestingly, the Devanahalli Chakotha or Pomelo was on the verge of extinction a few years ago, Soaring land prices and the location of the new Bengaluru international airport had almost sounded the death knell of this wonderful fruit. Chakotha is a thick, yellow-skinned fruit. It is the largest citrus fruit in the world and belongs to the Rutaceae family. It is known in the West as pomelo, Shaddock, Batavia lemon and its scientifically name is Citrus Grandis. The fruit is consumed as it is and is also used in cooking to make desserts and jellies. It can weigh up to 10 kg. What makes it imperative to preserve the Devanahalli Chakotha is that the type of Pomelo grown here cannot be grown anywhere else. The unique nature of Devanahalli soil-loamy, clay and neither too dry nor moist- disallows the fruit from being taken to other locations in the state for cultivation. The Chakotha of Devanahalli is unique in the sense that its outer rind is thick and light yellow in color and its flesh is pinkish and mildly juicy.

Appemidi mango
The appemidi is not just any old mango. It is at the heart of the mango pickle industry and Karnataka's food culture. Its fragrance is so strong that adding just a few midis to an ordinary mango pickle can change its taste and smell. Among the tens of varieties of mango pickle, appemidi pickles are the most sought after as they remain fresh for years. In the land of their origin, appemidis are also used to make gojju, sasve, appehuli, chutney and thambli, which is a good digestive. he appemidi is a native of the forests of the Western Ghats, where there are natural plantations of centuries-old mango trees in the valleys of the Aghanashini, Kumudvati, Kali, Varada, Bedthi and Sharavathi rivers in Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts. The trees are also found in places like Chittoor and Khanapur in Belgaum and parts of Chikmagaloor district. A wild appemidi tree can yield several tonnes of tender mango, with features varying from tree to tree. The appemidi can have as many names as its diversity demands. But being a soft-wood variety, the appemidi treeis ideally suited for building fishing boats. In the last five decades, the forests in the area have been cut down to make way for hydroelectric projects and construction, and for timber. In the process, thousands of appemidi trees have been felled.

Kamalapur Red Banana
Banana cultivation is known to be difficult. Lot of inputs like compost, water, labour costs make this crop an expensive one to grow. In arid areas like Gulbarga, banana cultivation is not known to be profitable. But one special variety of banana, has been grown in the district, and a lot of farmers are concerned about saving this traditional variety. This is the red banana, grown in and around Kamalapur of Gulbarga district. Although a small town, Kamalapur has gained recognition thanks to this variety of banana. Red banana cultivation is entirely different from other varieties. Plantation starts in June to August and requires a large quantity of compost. The banana is being grown in this area from hundreds of years. he red banana has medicinal properties and many nutrients.

Bangalore Blue Grapes
Bangalore Blue, characterized by its 'foxy flavour', is exclusively grown in Bangalore Urban, Chikkaballapur and Kolar districts. Its cultivation has been going on for the past 150 years in about 5,000 hectares. The livelihood of over 15,000 farmers in the Nandi Valley depends on their cultivation. Authentic Bangalore Blue grapes need to be grown in red sandy loam soil at a day temperature of about 35-37 degrees Celsius and night temperature of 12-15 degree Celsius which is unique to Bangalore and its surrounding areas. The grapes develop their typical colour and slip skin nature (thin skin) at this temperature.

Coorg Oranges
Coorg orange has global recognition and has attracted the attention of the customers at the global level due to its colour and taste. In 1960s, oranges were grown in 50,000 to 60,000 hectare land. However, over the years, disease attacked orange plants. As a result, the land under orange cultivation was reduced to 3,000 to 4,000 hectares. After the price of coffee rised in the international market, orange estates have disappeared in Kodagu.

Mysore Betel Leaf
Tambula is a enlightening tradition of India since ancient time from ordinary people to the Maharajas. After their dinner, people chew tambula, consisting of betel leaves, areca nut and lime with necessary perfuming ingredients. Mysore betel leaves are special for tambula because of its special taste.

Nanjangud rasabale
A popular variety of banana locally known as Nanjangud Rasabaley has also made Nanjangud famous all over the region. The fruit evokes tremendous appreciation for its taste among the older generation of the region. A variety of banana that offers a distinctive taste, "Nanjangud rasabale" has tickled the taste buds of people from far and wide. The "Nanjangud rasabale," which has unique characteristics, is identified by its distinct aroma when it ripens fully. The fruit is also characterised by its medium size and gall formation in the pulp. A major characteristic of the fruit is its long shelf life, as it survives for around a fortnight after its starts ripening.

Mysore Mallige (Jasminum sambac)
This is the most well-known variety, which derives its name since it is grown mostly around Mysore city and partly in Srirangapatna taluk in Mandya district in Karnataka state. The Jasmine's association with the city of Mysore, the royal city of palaces, patronized by the Wodeyar of the Kingdom of Mysore, because its fragrance is as powerful as the famous Dasara festival held every year in the city during October. Mallige grows in profusion in the open areas either in exclusive farmland, in front or at the backyard of houses.
Mysore Mallige, mostly grown in and around Mysore city is a viable crop for small farmers. Farmers reap two crops of this seasonal flower.

Hadagali Mallige (Jasminum auriculatum)
Hadagali Mallige is known for its rich fragrance and shelf life. Locally known as “Vasane Mallige”, (fragrant Jasmine), it is grown mainly in Hoovina Hadagali and surrounding areas in Bellary district of Karnataka.

Udupi Mallige (Jasminum sambac)
The cultivation of Udupi Mallige is of relatively recent origin. Cultivation of this variety of jasmine started in Shankarapura in Udupi district about 100 years ago. It is found extensively in Bhatkal, Udupi, Dakshina Kannada and Uttara Kannada, and has been found more economically viable among all the three varieties. The flower is in high demand in places such as Mumbai, besides the coastal region. Every home in this region has 0.5 to 1 acre (2,000 to 4,000 m2) of land in front of the house for Jasmine growing.

Dharwad Pedha
Dharwad pedha (Kannada: ಧಾರವಾಡ ಪೇಡ) is a sweet delicacy unique to the state of Karnataka, India. It derives its name from the city of Dharwad in Karnataka.This sweet's history is around 175 years old. origin to Thakur family which migrated from Unnao in Uttar Pradesh to Dharwad after the dreaded plague broke out there sometime in early 19th Century. With meagre funds, Shri. Ram Ratan Singh Thakur (first generation sweet maker) started making ‘pedhas’ and selling them and gradually, it started becoming popular.

Mysore silk
Karnataka produces 9,000 metric tons of mulberry silk of a total of 14,000 metric tons produced in the country, thus contributing to nearly 70% of the country's total mulberry silk. In Karnataka, silk is mainly grown in the Mysore district. The growth of the silk industry in the Kingdom of Mysore was first initiated during the reign of Tipu Sultan. Later it was hit by a global depression, and competition from imported silk and rayon. In the second half of the 20th century, it revived and the Mysore State became the top multivoltine silk producer in India. The story, how sericulture took roots in these parts lay buried deep in history, relics sparse. Every saree produced here comes with an embroidered code number and a hologram to prevent misuse. Mysore silk sarees are also undergoing an innovating change with the use of kasuti embroidery, thickly woven pallus (the part of the saree worn over the shoulder), bandhini techniques and new colours like lilac, coffee-brown and elephant-grey.

Molakalmuru Silk Sarees
Molakalmuru is best known for its hand-woven silk sarees of exquisite design and craftsmanship. Weaving is a major occupation of the people in this region. Molakalmuru sarees have prints of fruits, animals and birds on them. It is said that Nalvadi Krishnarajendra Wodeyar appreciated the finesse of these sarees during his visit to the place during 1914. The beautiful floral designs and the rich pallu make these sarees attractive and gorgeous. The long border sarees have a contrast border and the traditional touch is their speciality. The small or narrow border sarees are popular, and are woven with peacock, mango, bugudi and chakra border designs. The peacock border saree is made from pure mulberry silk and this design is a replica of the Maharaja peacock design. Sarees with multicolour checks are of Molakalmuru origin and have a contrast border. These sarees are woven under three shuttle looms. Sarees with the abstract temple motif is the speciality of Molakalmuru silk weavers. The border of the saree interlocks with the shell saree to give a temple design. Temple border sarees are woven with plain pallu and have a contrast colour combination. Butta sarees, of Molakalmuru origin, are woven under dobby looms and have a melange of both traditional and computer designs. The buttas are there on both sides of the border. There are also double border sarees which are available in two contrast colours. One is a silk brocade saree with jari that makes it a beautiful wedding saree. Designer sarees with ethnic multi-design and different colour combinations may take nearly 40 days to weave.

Ilkal saree
Ilkal saree (Kannada: ಇಳಕಲ್ ಸೀರೆ) is a traditional form of saree. Ilkal saree takes its name from the town of Ilkal in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka state, India. Ilkal sarees are woven using cotton warp on the body and art silk warp for border and art silk warp for pallav portion of the saree. In some cases instead of art silk, pure silk is also used. Ilkal was an ancient weaving centre where the weaving seems to have started in the 8th century AD. The growth of these sarees is attributed to the patronage provided by the local chieftains in and around the town of Bellary. The availability of local raw materials helped in the growth of this saree.
The uniqueness of saree is joining of the body warp with pallav warp with a series of loops locally called as TOPE TENI technique. The weaver will gait only 6 yards, 8 yards, 9 yards warp due to above TOPE TENI technique. KONDI Technique is used for weft through inserting 3 shuttles (లాళి).
Pallau portion-Design: “TOPE TENI SERAGU” Normally in tope teni seragu 3 solid portions would be in red colour, and in between 2 portions in white colour.
Tope Teni seragu has been regarded as a state symbol and was greatly respected during festival occasions.
Traditional Borders: (i) Chikki, (ii) Gomi, (iii) Jari and (iv) Gadidadi, and modern Gayathri are unique ones in Ilkal sarees - width ranging from 2.5” to 4”
Border Colour Uniqueness: Red usually or Maroon dominates.
The peculiar characteristic of the saree is joining the body warp with the pallu warp which is locally called as TOPE TENI. This technique is only used exclusively at Ilkal. If anyone requires Ilkal saree one must prepare a warp for every saree. Warp threads for body is prepared separately. Similarly pallu warp is prepared separately either with art silk or pure silk depending upon the quality required. Thirdly border portion of warp is prepared as like the pallu warp either art silk or pure silk and the colour used for pallu and on border will be one and the same. In general, the length of the pallu will range 16” to 27”. The pallu threads and body threads are joined in loop technique, a typical method which is locally called as TOPE TENI.
The distinctive feature of Ilkal sarees is the use of a form of embroidery called as Kasuti. The designs used in Kasuti reflect traditional patters like palanquins, elephants and lotuses which are embroidered onto Ilkal sarees. These sarees are usually 9 yards in length and the pallu of the Ilkal saree (the part worn over the shoulder) carries designs of temple towers. This pallu is usually made of red silk with white patterns. The end region of the pallu is made up of patterns of different shapes like hanige (comb), koti kammli (fort ramparts), toputenne (jowar) and rampa (mountain range). The border of the sari is very broad (4 to 6 inches) and red or maroon in colour and is made of different designs with ochre patterns. The saree is either made of cotton, or a mixture of cotton and silk or in pure silk. The colors traditionally used are pomegranate red, brilliant peacock green and parrot green. The sarees that are made for bridal wear are made of a particular colour called Giri Kumukum which is associated with the sindhoor worn by the wives of the priests in this region.
The design woven in the length wise borders are mainly three types :-
Gomi (more popularly known as Ilkal dadi)
Paraspet (Sub-divided into chikki paras and dodd paras)
Gaadi
Main Body design
Stripes
Rectangles
Squares
Other Differences
With above broad parameters the Ilkal sarees differ in matters of size, nature and quality of yarn used for different portion of saree as also colour combination and combinations of designs on the borders and main body of the saree. The beauty of Tope-teni seragu is further enhanced at times by weaving in its middle portion, yet another design known as ‘Kyadgi’.

Kasuti
Kasuti (Kannada: ಕಸೂತಿ) is a traditional form of embroidery practiced in the state of Karnataka, India. Kasuti work which is very intricate sometimes involves putting up to 5,000 stitches by hand and is traditionally made on dresswear like Ilkal and Kanchivaram sarees.Kasuti work involves embroidering very intricate patterns like gopura, chariot, palanquin, lamps and conch shells. Locally available materials are used for Kasuti. The pattern to be embroidered is first marked with charcoal or pencil and then proper needles and thread are selected. The work is laborious and involves counting of each thread on the cloth. The patterns are stitched without using knots to ensure that both sides of the cloth look alike. Different varieties of stitches are employed to obtain the desired pattern. Some of the stitches employed are Ganti, Murgi, Neyge and Menthe. Ganti is a double running stitch used for marking vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines, Murgi is a zig-zag stitch, Neyge is a running stitch and Menthe is a cross stitch resembling fenugreek seeds.

Sandur Lambani embroidery
A unique facet of the costume of the Lambadi woman is its elaborate embroidery. This is usually combined with mirror work to produce the glitter and colour that are integral parts of the Lambadi costume. The clothes of the Lambanis reflect their love of life and evolved across the centuries to suit local climatic and social conditions. Traditionally this embroidery was done on personal items of girls to be married. It was done elaborately on different household accessories that went into the bride's trousseau. The traditional costume of the Lambadi woman glitters with small pieces of mirror, coins and costume jewellery.
The Lambani women's costume comprising of Lehenga, Choli and Odhni are embroidered with bright rainbow-coloured fabrics covered with a mosaic of patchwork mirrors. Their work is sought after by collectors for its vibrancy of pattern and colour, and for the unusual technique of sewing hundreds of small mirrors into the compositions. Each piece depicts an aspect of the Lambani creation myths.
This style of embroidery has been handed down from mother to daughter through many generations. Thus making every daughter of the house a lambani artist.
Some of the most important features of the Lambani embroidery are:
Exquisite needle work which is done on different kinds of fabric to create interesting patterns is done by nomadic women of the Banjara tribe only.
Banjara embroidery is a unique combination of intricate appliqué, patchwork and also fine embroidery.
This embroidery is done with mix of different kinds of rawmaterial like mirrors, shells, alluminium buttons and jewellery pieces.
Lambani embroidery also to a large extent comprises of the quilting technique which is done on the edge of the garment and is called "katta".
The colours on their garments signify their lifestyle. The most commonly used colours are red and yellow. Red signifies marriage and fertility while yellow signifies vitality and strength.
The distinctiveness of the lambani embroidery is the random designs and bright colours that is so traditional to this tribe.
Using intricate methods of embroidery, the mirrors, shells, jewellery piece etc are affixed to cloth, which is made into dresses, bags, pillow cases, wall hangings, table mats etc. Exquisite purses, dresses, bed spreads and wall hangings are made with intricate needlework. These articles come from the experienced and deft hands of traditional craft women.

Navalgund Durries
Navalgund is is famous as birth place of 'jamkhanas', the floor covering woven using cotton ropes or carpet. Weavers at Navalgund make Jamkhane (durries for daily use) with Pagadiatte - Chaupad motif and Jainamaaz (prayer mats) to be used by Muslims.

Mysore painting
Mysore painting (Kannada: ಮೈಸೂರು ಚಿತ್ರಕಲೆ) is an important form of classical South Indian painting that originated in and around the town of Mysore in Karnataka encouraged and nurtured by the Mysore rulers. Painting in Karnataka has a long and illustrious history, tracing its origins back to the Ajanta times (2nd century B.C. to 7th century A.D.) The distinct school of Mysore painting evolved from the paintings of Vijayanagar times during the reign of the Vijayanagar Kings (1336-1565 AD) The rulers of Vijayanagar and their feudatories encouraged literature, art, architecture, religious and philosophical discussions. With the fall of the Vijayanagar empire after the Battle of Talikota the artists who were till then under royal patronage migrated to various other places like Mysore, Tanjore, Surpur, etc. Absorbing the local artistic traditions and customs, the erstwhile Vijayanagar School of Painting gradually evolved into the many styles of painting in South India, including the Mysore and Tanjore schools of painting.
Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colours, and attention to detail. The themes for most of these paintings are Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology. The most famous of the manuscripts detailing the various nuances of the Mysore school and listing out the various Gods and Goddesses, is the Sritattvanidhi, a voluminous work of 1500 pages prepared under the patronage of Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar. This pictorial digest is a compendium of illustrations of gods, goddesses and mythological figures with instructions to painters on an incredible range of topics concerning composition placement, colour choice, individual attributes and mood. The ragas, seasons, eco-happenings, animals, and plant world are also effectively depicted in these paintings as co-themes or contexts. Other Sanskrit literary sources such as the Visnudharmottara Purana, Abhilasitarthacintamani and Sivatatvaratnakara also throw light on the objectives and principles of painting, methods of preparing pigments, brushes and the carrier, qualifications of the chitrakar (traditional community of painters) the principles of painting and the technique to be followed. The ancient painters in Mysore prepared their own materials. The colours were from natural sources and were of vegetable, mineral or even organic origin such as leaves, stones and flowers. Brushes were made with squirrel hairs for delicate work but for drawing superfine lines a brush made of pointed blades of a special variety of grass had to be used. Due to the long-lasting quality of the earth and vegetable colours used, the original Mysore paintings still retain their freshness and lustre even today. Mysore Paintings are characterized by delicate lines, intricate brush strokes, graceful delineation of figures and the discreet use of bright vegetable colours and lustrous gold leaf. More than mere decorative pieces, the paintings are designed to inspire feelings of devotion and humility in the viewer. The painter’s individual skill in giving expression to various emotions is therefore of paramount importance to this style of painting. The first stage of Mysore Painting was to prepare the ground; paper, wood, cloth or wall grounds were variously used. The paper board was made of paper pulp or waste paper, which was dried in the sun and then rubbed smooth with a polished quartz pebble. If the ground was cloth it was pasted on a wooden board using a paste composed of dry white lead (safeda) mixed with gum and a small quantity of gruel (ganji). The board was then dried and burnished. Wood surfaces were prepared by applying dry white lead, yellow ochre and gum, and walls were treated with yellow ochre, chalk and gum. After preparation of the ground a rough sketch of the picture was drawn with crayon prepared from the straight twigs of the tamarind tree. The next step was to paint the furthest objects such as sky, hill and river and then gradually animal and human figures were approached in greater detail. After colouring the figures, the artists would turn to elaboration of the faces, dress and ornaments including the gesso work (gold covering), which is an important feature of Mysore painting.

Gesso work was the hallmark of all traditional paintings of Karnataka. Gesso refers to the paste mixture of white lead powder, gambose and glue which is used as an embossing material and covered with gold foil. The gesso work in Mysore paintings is low in relief and intricate. Gesso was used in Mysore painting for depicting intricate designs of clothes, jewellery and architectural details on pillars and arches that usually framed the deities. The work was taken up in the morning when the base of the gold work on the painting was still moist so as to hold the gold foil firmly. After allowing the painting to dry, glazing was carried out by covering the painting with thin paper and rubbing over it with a soft glazing stone known as kaslupada kallu. When the thin paper was removed the painting shone brightly and looked resplendent with the combination of gold and a variety of colours.

Mysore Rosewood Inlay work
British writers mention the existence of thousands of workers in Mysore involved in inlaying etched ivory motifs into rosewood to create intricate wood work. Even now an estimated 4000 people in Mysore are involved in rosewood inlay work though other media like plastic have replaced ivory. This intricate work involves many stages. The first step is to design and draw the images and patterns on the rosewood. Then the rosewood is cut into proper shape by carpentry. The motifs that have to be inlaid are then carefully handcut to shape. The areas where the motifs have to be inlaid on the rosewood, are carefully scooped out. Next the motifs are inlaid and fixed. The wood is then smoothened using sandpaper and polished to give a bright look.

Mysore sandal soap
In the early 20th century, the Mysore Kingdom in India was one of the largest producers of sandalwood in the world. It was also one of the major exporters of the wood, most of which was exported to Europe. During the First World War, large reserves of sandalwood were left over because they could not be exported due to the war. In order to make good use of these reserves, Nalvadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar, the king of Mysore established the Government Soap Factory in Bangalore. This factory, which was set up in 1916, started manufacturing soaps under the brand-name Mysore sandal soap using sandalwood oil as the main ingredient. A factory to distill sandalwood oil from the wood was set up at Mysore in the same year. In 1944, another sandalwood oil factory was set up at Shimoga. After the unification of Karnataka, these factories came under the jurisdiction of the Government of Karnataka. In 1980, the Government decided to merge these factories and incorporate them under a company named Karnataka Soaps and Detergents Limited. Sharabha, a mythological creature having a body of a lion and the head of an elephant, was chosen as the logo of the company. This was because the creature represents the combined virtues of wisdom, courage and strength and symbolizes the company's philosophy. The company has since diversified and manufactures incense sticks, talcum powder and detergents; apart from soaps.

Mysore Sandalwood oil
Mysore Sandalwood oil are most valuable & demanded all over world in comparison to the Sandalwood oil manufactured in any part of the world, India meets 80% demand of sandalwood oil in the world because of the best quality.

Mysore Agarbathi
The state of Karnataka, referred to as the Capital of Agarbathi (Incense Sticks),[8] is the leading producer of the agarbathi in India, with Mysore and Bangalore being the main manufacturing centres.[9] The Mysore region is recognised as a pioneer in the activity of agarbathi manufacturing and this is one of the main cluster activities that exist in the city. This is due to the fact that it has a natural reserve of forest products especially Sandalwood, which provide for the base material used in production.

Ganjifa Art
Ganjifa or Ganjeefa was a popular card game in ancient India. Played extensively in the Mughal period, Ganjifa is now known more for the art work on the cards than the game itself. Cards made for royalty were inlaid with precious stones and were also made of ivory, mother-of-pearl and wafers of lac. In Mysore, this game was known as "Chadd" (God's play). One of the finest exponents of Ganjifa Art, Ganjifa Raghupathi Bhatta is a resident of Mysore and has set up an International Ganjifa Research Centre at Mysore. The cards are generally circular and sometimes rectangular in shape with lacquered backs with exquisite paintings on them

Kinnal Craft
Kinnal Craft or Kinhal Craft (Kannada: ಕಿನ್ನಾಳ ಕಲೆ ), is a traditional wooden craft local to the town of Kinhal, or Kinnal, in Koppal District, North Karnataka, India.The town is famous for Kinhal toys and religious idols.
Kinhal has an immensely rich artistic heritage. It was once a flourishing centre for crafts, the most well-known being exquisite carvings in wood. The famous mural paintings in the Pampapateshwara Temple, and the intricate work on the wooden chariot at Hampi, are said to be the work of the ancestors of the Kinhal artisans of today. Old paper tracings found in the ancestral house of one of the artisans further substantiates this belief.
The artisans are called chitragars. Lightweight wood is used for the toys. The paste used for joining the various parts is made of tamarind seeds and pebbles. Jute rags, soaked, slivered into pieces, dried, powdered, and mixed with saw dust and tamarind seed paste is made into kitta. A mixture of pebble powder paste with liquid gum is used for embossing the ornamentation and jewellery on the body of the figure. Once the components of the figure are assembled, kitta is applied by hand all over, and small pieces of cotton are stuck on it with the tamarind paste. Over this is applied the pebble paste which forms the base for the application of paint.
Previously, toys depicting people involved in various occupations were popular; now the preference is for figures, animals, and birds. Garuda, the epic bird, has 12 components while Lord Ganesha on a throne has 22 components. The styling is realistic and the designing and chiselling has a master touch. In the festival season, clay toys and images are made, often out of cowdung and sawdust.

Channapatna toys
Channapatna toys are a particular form of wooden toys (and dolls) that are manufactured in the town of Channapatna in the Bangalore Rural district of Karnataka state, India. This traditional craft is protected as a geographical indication (GI) under the World Trade Organization, administered by the Government of Karnataka. As a result of the popularity of these toys, Channapatna is known as Gombegala Ooru (toy-town) of Karnataka. Traditionally, the work involved lacquering the wood of the Wrightia tinctoria tree, colloquially called Aale mara (ivory-wood).
The craft has diversified over time; in addition to the traditional ivory-wood, other woods—including rubber, sycamore, cedar, pine and teak—are now used as well. Manufacturing stages include procuring the wood, seasoning the wood, cutting the wood into the desired shapes, pruning and carving the toys, applying the colours and finally polishing the finished product. Vegetable dyes are used in the colouring process to ensure that the toys and dolls are safe for use by children. As of Oct 2006, more than 6,000 people in Channapatna, working in 254 home manufacturing units and 50 small factories, were engaged in the making of these toys. The Karnataka Handicrafts Development Corporation (KHDC) provides assistance with marketing efforts.

Bidriware
Bidriware (Kannada: ಬಿದ್ರಿ ಕಲೆ ) is a metal handicraft that originated in Bidar, Karnataka, in the 14th century C.E., during the rule of the Bahamani Sultans. The term 'Bidriware' originates from the township of Bidar, which is still the chief centre for the manufacture of the unique metalware. Due to its striking inlay artwork, Bidriware is an important export handicraft of India and is prized as a symbol of wealth. The metal used is a blackened alloy of zinc and copper inlaid with thin sheets of pure silver.
The origin of Bidriware is usually attributed to the Bahamani sultans who ruled Bidar in the 13th–15th centuries. Abdullah bin Kaiser, a craftsman from Iran was invited by the Sultan to work on decorating the royal palaces and courts. According to some accounts, Kaiser joined hands with local craftsmen and gave birth to Bidriware. Since then, the craft has been handed down succeeding generations mostly among the local Muslim and Lingayat sects.

Karnataka Bronze Works
Metal works in Karnataka is not confined to any particular area or city. While some regions are famous for bronze casting, others are known for bell metal works. Metal work industry is an important part of Karnataka people as numerous families are involved actively in it. Many articles for religious purposes are made of metal. Karkala, famous for Jain statues and Udupi are the major centers for such works. Mangalore is famous for the bell metal works and Nagamangala is famous for bronze casting. Most attractive pieces of bronze work are the human figures made out of it.

Earliest Full Length Kannada Inscription

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Thu, 09 May 2013 06:26:00 +0000

Although Kannada words in abundance have been found in edicts and inscriptions prior to the Christian era in places like Ashoka Edicts and as far as Egypt, The Earliest Known Full length inscription in kannada is said to be Halmidi Inscription. Full length inscription means inscriptions in sentence and paragraphs in Kannada not just few words. Halmidi inscription is put at around 450 AD. We are now becoming aware of inscriptions which are challenging the earliest known Full length inscription in Kannada Tag. Dr.S Shettar claims that there are five to six inscription in kannada that are older than Halmidi. Let us see them

Halmidi Inscription

The inscription was discovered in 1936 by Dr. M. H. Krishna, the Director of Archaeology in Mysore (Karnataka state of India), in Halmidi, a village in the Hassan taluk. The inscription is written on a stone pillar 4 feet high. The Inscription written in pre-old-Kannada or Purvada Hala Kannada. The content refers to king Kakusthavarma of the Kadamba dynasty. Further it makes a mention of a war between the Kadambas and the Pallavas in which a brave soldier Vijarasa distinguished himself. He was given a grant of two villages Halmidi and Mulavalli as Balgalchu. It is a form of a gift in which the sword used by the hero for killing the enemies is ceremoniously cleaned and worshipped and the grant made thereafter.The Insc Text is given below the post and there is lot of information on the net, so we are not going in details into this inscription.

Tamatekallu inscription

5th century Inscription in Tamatekallu in Chitradurga dist is one more in contention. Govind Pai observed the extensive use of sanskrit words in Kannada Stanza inscribed there and hazards a guess prior to the adoption of Sanskrit words there must have been a fairly long period of literary composition when native kannada in vogue.

Chandragiri Inscription

Dr.M.G.Manjunath, epigraphist, an authority on "Nishadi"(Sallekhana Samadhi or Nishadi Memorials) inscriptions deciphered "Gunabhushitana nishadi Shasana" one of the 271 inscriptions on Chandragiri hill outoff 800 odd inscriptions in sharavanabelagola. He Concluded Nishadi is the oldest known kannada inscription dating to 400AD. After a detailed study and based on palaeographical and linguistic inferences, Dr.Manjunath dated the inscription to first half of 400AD. Dr.Manjunath figured out after in-depth study that the inscription contained Prakrit, Sanskrit and Purvada Halegannda words. There are no prakrit words in Halmidi inscription. The four lined inscription is in satavhana brahmi and Aadi Ganga Script. M.Chidanandamurthy, kannada Scholar agrees with the findings and puts the inscription older than Halmidi inscription by 50 to 100 years.

Tagarthi Inscription

Tagarthi inscription by Gangas in Shimoga District is dated prior to Halmidi by Dr.S.Shettar. According to Shettar, the Ganga dynasty controlled most of southern India, including current-day Shimoga, by the middle of the third century. “The inscription found at Tagarthi in Shikaripura taluk of Shimoga district dates back to the same period,” Shettar said. “Tagarthi is well within the Gangavadi region.” Targarthi is a mix of three different scripts, Brahmi, Nagari and Kannada scripts.Dr. S Shettar claims that Tagarthi inscription is much older than Halmidi inscription, dating back to 350 AD. Dr.Shettar says that Tagarthi inscription is in kannada form earlier than purva-hale-Kannada.

Coins

Kadamba Coins

Some early Kadamba Dynasty coins bearing the Kannada inscription Vira and Skandha were found in Satara dist in Maharastra. A gold coin bearning three inscriptions of Sri and an abbreviated inscription of king Bhagiratha’s name called bhagi (390-420 CE) in old Kannada exists. These coins prove that Kannada was Administrative language in 4th century Itself. We have seen another article on kannada being third Indian admin language after Prakrit and Sanskrit. We have abundant number of Pre-Kadamba coins in Karnataka in Prakrit.

Satavahana Coins

The coin was discovered recently by numismatist Mukunda Prabhu of Mangalore. On one side of the coin, there is an inscription ‘Srimanaragi’ in Kannada script and on the other side, the symbol of Ujjayini is inscribed, says Dr Gopal, director, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History. According to him, the letter ‘Srimanaragi’ is perhaps the name of a king or a title given to somebody. This is one of the oldest copper coins discovered having the inscription in Kannada script, he says. Notably, it is believed that Banavasi had a ‘Tankashale’ which produced coins having Kannada script.

Recent discovery of a copper coin dated in Banavasi, Uttara Kannada district with the Ujjain Symbol one side and inscription Srimanaragi in Kannada script proves that Kannada had become an official language of Chutus, Satavahana times as well. While Chutu dynasty was restricted to South India. Ujjain Symbol shows that the coin can be Satavahana / Satakarni Coins, who controlled much of India. Which could mean Kannada was official language of Whole of India. We need to search for inscriptions in Kannada by Satakarnis / Satavahanas especially in Maharastra / Goa area.

Indology scholars have been saying Kadambas and Gangas are the first Kannada Dynasties becuase they used Kannada. But here we have proof that Chutus, Satakarni / Satavahanas have used kannada in administration born by proof of this coins. This also proves that Kannada words in Ashoka Edicts in Karnataka is no fluke, but due to admin language of the area being Kannada. It has to be noted that apart from Prakrit, Greek and Aramic words, only other language word in Ashoka Edict is Kannada none else not even Sanskrit.

Halmidi Inscription

The pillar on which the inscription was written stands around 4 feet (1.2 m) high. Its top has been carved into an arch, onto which the figure of a wheel has been carved, which is probably intended to represent the Sudarshana Chakra of Vishnu.The following lines are carved on the front of the pillar:

1. jayati śri-pariṣvāṅga-śārṅga vyānatir-acytāḥ dānav-akṣṇōr-yugānt-āgniḥ śiṣṭānān=tu sudarśanaḥ
2. namaḥ śrīmat=kadaṁbapan=tyāga-saṁpannan kalabhōranā ari ka-
3. kustha-bhaṭṭōran=āḷe naridāviḷe-nāḍuḷ mṛgēśa-nā-
4. gēndr-ābhiḷar=bhbhaṭahar=appor śrī mṛgēśa-nāgāhvaya-
5. r=irrvar=ā baṭari-kul-āmala-vyōma-tārādhi-nāthann=aḷapa-
6. gaṇa-paśupatiy=ā dakṣiṇāpatha-bahu-śata-havan=ā-
7. havuduḷ paśupradāna-śauryyōdyama-bharitōn=dāna pa-
8. śupatiyendu pogaḷeppoṭṭaṇa paśupati-
9. nāmadhēyan=āsarakk=ella-bhaṭariyā prēmālaya-
10. sutange sēndraka-bāṇ=ōbhayadēśad=ā vīra-puruṣa-samakṣa-
11. de kēkaya-pallavaraṁ kād=eṟidu pettajayan=ā vija
12. arasange bāḷgaḻcu palmaḍiuṁ mūḷivaḷuṁ ko-
13. ṭṭār baṭāri-kuladōn=āḷa-kadamban kaḷadōn mahāpātakan
14. irvvaruṁ saḻbaṅgadar vijārasaruṁ palmaḍige kuṟu-
15. mbiḍi viṭṭār adān aḻivornge mahāpatakam svasti
The following line is carved on the pillar's left face:
16. bhaṭṭarg=ī gaḻde oḍḍali ā pattondi viṭṭārakara

Sources

Wiki
Govind Pai By M. Thirumaleshwara Bhat, Neerkaje Thirumaleshwara Bhat
Halmidi -The earliest Kannada inscriptionHistorian’s study pushes earliest record of Kannada writing back by a century
Mysore scholar deciphers Chandragiri inscription
5th Century copper coin found at Banavasi
Coin Network
Wikimedia
Two hero stones of Chitradurga

First Administrative Language of South

Inscriptions and Artifacts List

Kannada Inscriptions outside Karnataka

Ashoka 's Swarnabhoomi

Early Rashtrakutas

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Thu, 21 Mar 2013 12:49:00 +0000

When dealing with History, Suddenly we see Rashtrakutas defeating Chalukyas and forming an empire. An Empire at one time stretched from Himalayas to Srilanka. Is it possible for someone to build an empire immediately coming to power. So we start digging and we come across Early Rashtrakutas.

History from Plates
Undikavatika grant (Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay)of Abhimanyu residing at Manapura calls himself Rashtrakuta and also gives geneology. Indology scholars confused these early rashtrakutas with kings of Sarbhapura and for decades disimissed the Rashtrakuta rule.

Then Pandarangapalli plates (Mysore Archeological Survey) were discoverd in Kohlapur. It gives geneology of Mananka, Devaraja, Avidheya. Dr.Krishna of Mysore Archeological Survey identified Avidheya as the third son of Devaraja. He also said that Devaraja, son of Mananka has three sons. Avidheya, Jayaraja, Bhavisya. Between the sons the extensive Rashtrakuta empire stretching from Mahanadi and Tapti to Bhima comprising of three Maharastras were divided. Jayaraja was ruling over parts of Mahanadi, Bhavisyas over Northern Maharastra and Avideya over Southern Maharastra and Northeastern Karnataka.

Krishna son of Indra and Govinda who are mentioned as defeated by chalukya jayasimha and Pulakesin II of Badami belong to this family. Overthrowing them Pulakesin II become lord of three Maharastras.

However Altekar of Bhandarkar Institute dismissed the vast empire of Rashtrakuta, claiming that many kings do not call themselves Rashtrakutas and other kings such as Nalas, Mauryas, Kalachuris and kadambas were ruling many areas of Maharastra.

Rashtrakuta Empire in 5th century AD ?
First the identification of sarbhapurias of Chattisgarh with Rashtrakutas was disimissed.
Identification of Manamatra with Mananka and Sudevaraja with Devaraja was dismissed.
The Paleography of Inscriptions suggested that Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Western variety of Brahmi script similar to Satavahana-Kadamba script and Sarbhapuria Inscriptions were box headed script of central India similar to Gupta inscriptions
The Royal emblems are Lion facing Rightside and figure of standing lakshmi with elephant on either side pouring water on her.
Once these identification and differentiation was done, then it became easy to identify the Rashtrakuta Kings. The King Avidheya of Pandaranganapalli and King Abhimanyu of Undikavatika plates belong to same dynasty. They have same geneology starting with Manaka, Devaraja as son (described as lord of Gods (Indra)), Inscribed in Similar Characters, Emblem of Lion facing Right. One gives the family as Rashtrakuta other is silent. But that is not rare.

Extend of Empire
Now where they ruling different regions. Avidheya was ruling southern Maharastra and Northern Karnataka. Bhavisya was ruling over Northern Maharastra and southern Madya pradesh. The Pandaranganapalli plates gives Mananka as glorious ruler of Kuntala, Conquered Asmaka(godavari Valley) and Vidarbha. The Capital was Manapura, which is today Man(satara Dist), throughwhich Manganga(tributory of Bhima) flows. Another Copper plates from Sisodra in Goa mentions Devaraja father of Chandravarman of gomins. There are many theories on this. This devaraja may be different from Rashtrakutas, Rashtrakutas were originally Gomins etc. This record shows that Devaraja held sway over South Konkan also. So the theory of big Rashtrakuta Empire in 5th century AD is tenable.

Period of Rashtrakuta rule
Mr. Krishnamacharlu who edited Sisodra Plates says the characters resemble Mayidavolu plates of Pallava Sivaskandavarman. He also draws to certain Prakrit expressions found on the grant. Which puts the plates to 3rd or 4th century AD. Now Pandaranganapalli and Undikavatika plates are put at 5th century AD. The grants themselves gives jovian year of Bhadrapada. This does not happen after 5th century AD in South India. So Rashtrakutas started as contemproaries of Trikutakas(ruling over North Konkan, Gujarat and North Maharastra) and Vakatakas (ruling Vidarba). They were lords of Kuntala, because Mananka started as ruler of Kuntala.

Dejja Maharaj is also from this family, who gave Gokak Plates grant in Belgaum. This record was issued 845 years of Aguptayika Kings expired. This date corresponds to 532-33 AD. There was inscription from Madhavavarman which was also clubbed to Rashtrakutas. But it now certain, it belong to Vishnukundin Madhavavarman. Kalyani Chalukya records reveal Jayasimha of Badami Chalukyas defeated King Indra son of Krishna. We know Govinda who invaded with his troops of elephants at the time of accession of Pulakesin II belong to Rashtrakutas. Aihole inscription state that Govinda Immdiately obtained reward for the services. But Pulakesin soon annexed all the territories upto Narmada. So the Rashtrakuta empire is replaced by Chalukya Empire.

Lords of the Kuntala
Vindhyashakti II of Vatsagulma Vakataka in Ajanta caves Inscription claims to have defeated Lord of Kuntalas. Mananka is found have conquered Vidarbha. So may be it is a battle with no clear victors. So if we put mananka as Contemproary of Vindyashakthi II, then he flourished around 4th century AD. Prithvisena II father Narendrasena Married Ajjhitabhattarika, daughter of Lord of Kuntala. This princess may be of Rashtrakuta Lineage. Harisena last known Vakataka ruler records victory over Lord of Kuntala. This may also be Rashtrakutas. If we identify Rashtrakutas as lord of Kuntala, then Kadambas of Banavasi as being identified as lords of Kuntala goes. Also we find no record of Kadambas in Kuntala.

Certain passages of Kuntaleshwaradautya, a sanskrit work ascribed to Kalidasa, which has been cited by Kavyamimasa of Rajashekara, Chandragupta II Vikramaditya of Guptas sent Kalidasa as an ambassador to the court of Lord of Kuntala. Kalidasa was not well received here, but he gradually gained kuntaleshwara favour and stayed in the court for sometime. When he returned to Vikramaditya Court , he reported kuntaleshwara spending time in enjoyment throwing responsibility and governance on vikramaditya. This Kuntaleshwara is identified as Vakataka Pravarasena II, But this appears plausible as Vakataka did not rule kuntala, they raided few times sure.

There is original kuntaleshwars of (Chutus)Satakarnis mentioned in Hathimgumpha inscription of Kharvela. Kharvela has also mentioned to have defeated Rashtrika and Bhojas. Are Rashtrikas the ancestors of Rashtrakutas. We don't know. Rashtrikas and Bhojas are also mentioned in Ashoka edicts. They are roughly ruling the same areas of Maharastra. Rashtrikas can be pronounced Rattas in prakrit. Rattas as later decendents of Rashtrakutas call themselves. But Rashtrakutas do not link themselves to these Rashtrika.

As Feudatories
Rashtrakutas later moved to Berar where they founded the principality with Acalapura(Elichpur) as their capital. the Tivarkhed Plates of Nannaraja shows family ruling in 631 AD. This gives geneology of Durgaraja, his son Govindaraja, his son Svamikaraja and his son Nannaraja. Altekar gives Approximate dates to them starting with 570AD with twenty years each. When Pulakesin II defeated Kalachuri Bhuddharaja and annexed all territories including, Maharastra, Vidarba, Konkan, Central and Southern Gujarat. He placed his trusted chiefs in thier positions. Sendraka in Gujarat. Similarly he should have placed Svamikaraja in Berar. We can find Nannarja plates resemble Kalachuri records, who preceded them. One thing that has to be noted here is that Early Rashtrakutas were saivites and later Rashtrakutas are Vaishnavites like Chalukyas. The Eagle has replaced Lion as emblem.

Rashtrakuta Empire
Early Rastrakutas
(Rastrakutas of Manapura)
Mananka(Founder) (375-400 AD)
Devaraja (400-425AD)
(Sons - Jayaraja Bhavisya , Avidheya )
Avidheya
Bhavisya (son - Abhimanyu)
Abhimanyu(440)
Krishna
Indra (Defeated by Chalukya Jayasimha)
Dejja-Maharaja (A.D. 520-550)
Durgaraja (570-590)AD
Govindaraja(Defeated by Pulikesin II)(590-610)

(Feudatory of Badami Chalukyas)
(Rastrakutas of Achalpura (Elichipur))
(Chalukyas defeated them and shifted them to Achalapura, annexed after defeating Kalachuris)
Svamikraja (610-630)
Nannaraja alias Yuddhasura (630 -650AD)
Dantivarman(650-665AD)
Son Indra
Grandson Govindaraja(665-700AD)
karkkaraja(700 -715AD)
Indra(715-735AD)

(Independent)
(Rastrakutas of Manyakheta)
Dantidurga (735 - 756)
Krishna I (756 - 774)
Govinda II (774 - 780)
Dhruva Dharavarsha (780 - 793)
Govinda III (793 - 814)
Amoghavarsha I (814 - 878) (Shifted Capital from Mayurkhandi to Manyakheta)
Krishna II (878 - 914)
Indra III (914 -929)
Amoghavarsha II (929 - 930)
Govinda IV (930 – 936)
Amoghavarsha III (936 – 939)
Krishna III (939 – 967)
Khottiga Amoghavarsha (967 – 972)
Karka II (972 – 973)
Indra IV (973 – 982)
Place of Origin of Rashtrakutas
From the Inscriptions we find Mananka founded the rule at Manapura, Which is todays Man in Satara District. The River Manganga, tributory of Bhima flows through this place. They call themselves as Lattalura-puraveshvara , which means lord of the great city of Lattalura (Latur). Latur is not far away from Satara. They might have originated.
Other Claims of origin we have already dealt in the Origin of Rashtrakutas article.

Building an Empire
Dandidurga who was ruliing in Acalapura defeated his failing overlord Kirtivarman II of Chalukyas of Badami. He also installed his father-in-law Nandivarman Pallava to Kanchi throne. Successors to Dandidurga took their empire to great heights.As one historian puts it, the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar

Sources
The Rashtrakutas of Manapura by V.V.Mirashi ,Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
Kamat Potpourri :Coins
Clockwise from centre Lions of Goa Kadambas, Harihara II (1377-1404 A.D) of Vijayanagar, Rashtrakuta, Ganga, Badami Chalukya , Alupas of South Kanara ,Kalachuri

Related
Origin of Rashtrakutas
Kannada Kings
Rajputs Origin
Kuntala Janapada
Who is Trivaradeva
Date of Kalidasa
Date of Kamasutra
Origin of Marathi
Topics

Kannada Inscriptions outside Karnataka - Tamil Nadu

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Tue, 13 Nov 2012 14:52:00 +0000

Tamil Nadu

Sittannavasal Inscription
Inscriptions were found at Jain caves of Sittannavasal in Pudukottai district. These inscriptions contained Kannada words like Gavudi, hosilu, tenku etc. The date of these inscriptions is second century BC according to Iravatham Mahadevan, Mostly these sites are dated to pallava medieval period 7th century AD. Hence occurrence of these Kannada words in distant Pudukottai is significant.

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Kanchi Inscription of Vikramaditya
Kannada Inscription in Kannada Script undated it records that after the conquest of Kanchi, Vikramaditya (II) Satyasraya did not confiscate the property of Rajasimhesvara temple but returned it to the God. This edict was written by Anivarita Punyavallabha, under the authority of Vallabhadurjaya.

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Melpadi Inscripton of Rastrakuta Krishna III
Two inscriptions belonging to the reign of the Rashtrakuta King, Krishna III, were found at Vallimalai village in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu.
Vallimalai is situated close to Melpadi village, which served as the military encampment of the king during the middle of the 10th century C.E. It is about 50 km from Takkolam, where the king defeated the Chola prince Rajaditya, son of Parantaka Chola I, in a battle in 949 C.E.
The inscriptions — one in Tamil and the other in Kannada — were discovered by archaeologist K. Kumar while visiting Vallimalai two months ago. The Tamil inscription came to light when workers dug up a trench.
The inscriptions record that Krishna III, while camping at Melpadi (“Melpaadikku vanthirunthu,” as mentioned in the Tamil inscription) gifted Mahendrapadi as “jivitham,” after auditing the village accounts and exempting it from all imposts, to “Disai-idang Gaganadeva Appaiyan,” an immigrant from Karanjikheta area in the Krishna valley.
The Kannada inscription says the endowment was made in the presence of Krishna III's feudatories, Rattas and Bitti Raja, who were staying at Melpadi. Krishna III was eulogised as Akalavarsha Deva, Prithvi Vallabha, Maha Rajathiraja, Parameshvara, Parama Bhattaraka and Chaleka Nallathan, indicating that he was yet to accomplish his conquests of Kancheepuram and Thanjavur as recorded in the later-day inscriptions issued by him, according to Dr. Kumar.
The importance of these inscriptions, which are Krishna III's two earliest stone inscriptions discovered so far, mention his presence at Melpadi, a fact otherwise known only through copper plate charters, says Dr. Kumar.
The Karhad copper plates in Kannada from Maharashtra talk about his distribution of the spoils of war among his men at his military camp at Melpadi after defeating Rajaditya in Takkolam.
A small portion of the inscriptions is missing. They contain the image of Goddess Gajalakshmi at the top.

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Kodumbalur Inscription of Irukkuvelir Chiefs
There are Kannada inscriptions belonging to 10th century CE at Kodumbalur in Pudukkottai District, which was the headquarters of the Irukkuvelir Chiefs. This shows that the Irukkuvelir chiefs had traditional connections with Karnataka.

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Madras Kannada Herostone Inscription
A Herostone inscription was discovered by Madhav N Katti in Kalashetra Campus, Adyar in Madras. The slab Measuring 2.5m in height, 1m in width and 10mm in thickness. The hero in whose memory the stone was set up is portrayed standing with bow in his left hand and dagger tied to waist in right hand . The Face wearing mustache and beard with majestic appearance. The Hair is tied in a knot. The quiver with arrows tied to his right shoulder from behind. The figure appears to be very dynamic and strong person. The Enemy arrows are seen piercing his body, head and left arm etc. Seven more persons are in the panel along with hero. At the bottom an animal OX is shown with mouth open as if crying on the death of its master. In between the legs is a kneeling figure with downcast face. The figure may be his wife who committed sati. This sculpture has been assigned to 9th-10th century AD. The Inscription contains three lines in Kannada in

Kannada Script. It states
Svasti[]Sri yara Sandeya-settiya ma[gan]
kannada[m]ba[]iya poriyamgadol[] tu[ru]go[]
satta palarode-ganda Koattali mutti

It states yara, son of Sandeyasetti, described as Palarodeganda died in a cattle-raid at Poriyamgadu, which was situated in Kannadamballi, after reaching kottali(Kottali Mutti). The fight must have taken place in paoriyamgadu area within he jurisidiction of Kannadamballi and the hero must have continued his fight till he reached Kottali, where he must have collapsed after much resistance. Kannadampalli is today identified as Kannada halli in Krishnagiri taluk, Dharmapuri district.

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Hero-stone Inscriptions in Kondaharahalli
Ten memorial stones, six of them with Kannada inscriptions, have been discovered at near the hills close to Kondaharahalli village, six km west of Bommidi in Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu. All the stones have identical sculptural representations and belong to the 10th century AD.

The Kondaharahalli stones were discovered a few months ago by R. Ramesh, assistant archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India (Chennai Circle) following information he received from C. Chandrasekar, lecturer, Government Arts and Science College, Dharmapuri. The first stone has a carving of a man holding a bow and a sword. He is shown with arrows piercing his neck and abdomen. On his left, four animals are portrayed, which represent a cattle raid. Above the hero, there is a small sculptural representation that shows him in a seated position with two apsaras on either side. There are three horse riders at the foot of the hero. One of them has an umbrella above his head, denoting that he is a chieftain or a leader, explained Dr. Rajan. An eight-line inscription is found engraved in Kannada characters and refers to a hero called Macayya, son of Hocayya, who (Macayya) had a title called Sarasatti-karakandarpa. He died in a cattle raid that took place when Sabhatukadeva, son of Byaliciradeva, who belonged to the Pallava line and bore titles such as ‘Pallava-kula-tilaka', ‘Sri Piruthuvi-vallabha', ‘Kanchipura-paramesvara', ‘Sri Manipathi-raja' and ‘Jagadeka-malla', was ruling the region.

Professor Rajaram Hegde of Kuvempu University, Shimoga, Nagarjuna, Deputy Superintending Archaeologist, ASI and Sathyabhama Badhreenath, Superintending Archaeologist, ASI, read the Kannada inscriptions.

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Avinashi Temple Inscription in Coimbatore
Avinashi Appar or Avinashi Easwarar temple is located in Avinashi near Tirupur in Coimbatore District. Around the basement of the temple, there are inscriptions in Kannada of which three relate to Vira Balla III or Balla III (1291-1343 A.D.), the penultimate Hoysala king of Dwarasamudra. He held a fest called ‘Kakuthrayan Sandhi’ for Avinashiappar and for the expenses of which he donated Thenpalli village through Perumal Danayakan, feudatory of Balla III.

This List will grow...

Ancient Kannada Woman Poets

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Sat, 18 Aug 2012 14:07:00 +0000

Continuing with personalities who enriched Kannada and Karnataka Literature, we look at Woman Poetess, who did great work and recognized for it. Here is a partial list. I will continue to update as I gather more info.

Rebbaladevi
Towards the close of 11th century AD, during the reign of Tribhuvanamalladeva (Vikaramaditya VI), a Brahmin lady called Rebbaladeva earned a great repuatation for building a temple to Keshavadeva at her birth place, Huvina-Hadgali, Bellary, which was noted for its Vedic Lore. She was wife of brave general called Ravideva, who was also very charitably deposed.
Besides donating enough land for the service of the diety, Rebbaladevi established a feeding house for Brahmins. She was well versed in learning and fine arts and was respected by learned Brahmins.

Kanti Kanti (1100AD)
Kanti, the great Kannada poetess adorned the court of the Legendary Hoysala king Ballala I, who was great patron of learning. Nagachandra, who called himself Abhinava, new Pampa and was her contemporary in the same court, thought and others also did the same about him that he had the ability to write as the great kannada poet Pampa.
Some of the verbal contests with Nagachandra are very interesting and can be read in the verses. That she was the poetess of a very high order is also borne by the fact that the poet of later generation, Bahubali (1560AD), praises her in very laudatory terms, and even calls her Abinava vag devi (new goddess of learning).

Honnamma
A shudra woman, Who became much reputed as the writer of a socio-political composition in Kannada. She was working in the palace of the mysore king Chikka Devaraja. She was evidently the favourite maid servant of the queen Devajamanni. She was educated at the instance of the queen by a well known scholar proficient in the vedas and vedanta, who was also the author of a drama called Mitravinda Govinda. This teacher, Alashingaracharya was evidently so pleased with the ablility of his pupil that he called her the goddess of charming literature. THis praise of a pupil by a teacher impressed the king so much that he told his queen to get a literary piece written by Honnamma. The queen must have communicated the kings wishes to Honnamma, who accordingly wrote a important book called Hadibadeya Dharma, which deals with the duties of chaste woman. It is of value also from the point of view of history, since it gives the genealogy of the Mysore kings upto the seventeenth century.

Cheluvamba
Among the later poetesses of the Karnatka Country, we may mention Cheluvamba, the queen of Dodda Krishnaraja of Mysore Empire. She is reputed as the author of a long poem called Varanadikalyana. She had written lullaby songs on the greatness of the diety Venkatachala of Tirupati and on the godess Alamelumanga. She had in addition written a prose commentary on the Tulakaverimahatmya

Helavantakatte Giriyamma
From a place called Helavanakatte was a Brahmana poetess called Giriyamma. She was devotee of lord Ranganatha. She is remembered for her devotional poetry and some oher well known poems deal with popular themes as the marriage of sita, the stories of Chanrahasa and Uddalaka

Related Posts
Legendary Kannada Queens
Kannada Literature Works
kannada Grammer Works
Lost works of Kannada Literature
Ancient Technical Publications
List of Kannada Dictionaries
Most Jnanapith Awards
Sahitya Academy and Pampa Awardees
Topics

Karnataka and Arabia Since Ancient Times : Arabian Nights

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Sat, 19 May 2012 14:36:00 +0000

Geographically Karnataka and Arabia are next door neighbors. Naturally they share a lot of history and interactions. The Persian ruler Khusru-II established diplomatic relations with Arabia (Middle East) and King Pulikesi-II of the Chalukyas of Badami (535 - 757 A.D.). Some of the Arabs had settled on the West Coast of Karnataka and inscriptions speak of them as Tajjikas. The Rashtrakutas (757-1000 A.D.) had a Tajjika governor at Konkan as testified by Sanjan plates, and Arab travellers also speak of Muslim settlements in the major commercial centres of the Rashtrakuta Empire. Their guild called Hanjamana (Anjuman) is mentioned in the records of the Kadambas of Goa, Alupas of Dakshina Kannada and Vijayanagara rulers. This guild Hanjamana was part and parcel of every town assembly. Arabs also became popular in Karnataka during the Vijayanagara period (1346-1565 A.D.), as the empire employed Arabic soldiers, and all towns and villages in the empire had Arabic residents as testified by Barbosa. The Bahamanis were the first Muslim rulers to enter Karnataka and to have ruled the Northern areas. They were followed by the Adil Shahis, Barid Shahis, Mughals, Haider and Tipu Sultan. let us explore the unique relationship. Earliest Contact between Karnataka and Arabia or Middle east is Sumerians.

Sumerian
Sumerians migrated from India to Southern Mesopotamia around four and half thousand years ago carrying with them the seeds of civilization. It was also suggested that they migrated from the west coast (Ancient Kannada Speaking region of Karnataka and Maharastra) of India. The fact that they were not a local people is suggested by the fact that their language belongs to a completely different and isolated group. Experts trying to unravel their roots have found two convenient ways. One is the Language similarities and Physical appearance.

Physical Appearance
Analyzing the bones, skulls and descriptions of them by other cultures indicate these: These people are of medium stature, with slightly dark complexion and hair , to which race they are allied with dark eyes, and oval faces, broad noses, rather feeble jaws, and slight sinewy bodies. This description fits for normal Indian. This description also closely describes the regal person seen on a famous clay tablet from the Indus Valley. These people should have migrated from coastal areas of raising of sea level on the west coast submerging many cities now found under the west coast sea from Dwaraka to lanka around 2500BC.

Language Similarities.
1)Ur or Uru (=city) was a major city during Sumerian civilizatin times. The word Uru or Ooru ( village or township) has got into almost all Dravidan languages including Kannada/Tulu/Kodava. Possibly the the name of the once famous Sumerian city was extended to all civilized settlements later on. It is a common suffix now in most of the place names in southern India. Bengaluru, Mangaluru, Mundkur etc.There are also other Sumerian/Dravidian words sharing similar sounding verb -ur.
2) (= firewood.) has similar words in Tulu, Kannada (Uri- is to burn).
3)(=to till or grow) has Urpini/Ulpini (Tulu), Ulu(=to till) in Kannada.
4)One of the numbers,"five" in Sumerian was Ia or i (=five).It is ain in Tulu and aidu in Kannada.
5)Sig(=sun burnt clay tiles) has analogous Sike or seke (=sunny sultriness) and Sigadi (=fire place/oven) in Tulu/Kannada.
There may be more such analogous words in Sumerian and Tulu/Kannada.
So Citing these reasons Sumerians considered to be the earliest known civilization of Middle east is said to be from Karnataka or Kannadiga tribe.

Hurrians (Mittanis) and Kassites
Hittites , Mittanis,and Kassites are the Indian Tribes which went to West after drying up of the Saraswathi river around 2000BC. Mittanies also called Hurrians(From city of Hurr) by Hittites, Naharin(of River) by Egyptians, may be due to their presence in Eupharates and Tigries delta. Mittanis had iron weapons like their Hittite counterparts. Mittanis are related to Kassites and had marital relations frequently. Both of them called themselves Uratu(From the Hills). Similar word in kannada means from the city. Mittani and Kassites names are all Indian Name, So no doubt they are Indian Tribe. What we are interested is whether we can trace them to karnataka. There were several clans among Mittanis and they had different dialects. One point they can be traced is extensive use of Iron technologies and their claims that they are from Hill Country. Which suggest Karnataka roots. After the fall of Babylon empire Hittites, Mittanis, kassites formed an Indian superstate in the Middle east, with another Indian Tribe Hyksos controlling Egypt, they were in complete domination of Middle east. They seem to have definite Karnataka connection.

Trade and Navigation
Navigation was known in Sumer between the 4th and the 3rd millennium BCE, and was probably known by the Indians before the Sumerians. The Egyptians had trade routes through the Red sea, importing spices . Arabia Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the manipulation of the monsoon winds By making use of the maritime trade routes, bulk commodity trade became possible for the Romans in the 2nd century BCE. A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at one-sixtieth the cost of over-land routes. The Trade between Western Coast (kannada Speaking regions of Karnataka and Maharastra) and Arabia was in brisk pace.

The replacement of Greece by the Roman empire as the administrator of the Mediterranean basin led to the resumption of direct trade with Karnataka and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen. According to Milo Kearney (2003) "The South Arabs in protest took to pirate attacks over the Roman ships in the Gulf of Aden. In response, the Romans destroyed Aden and favored the Western Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea." Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single empire.

The Ptolemaic dynasty had initiated Greco-Roman maritime trade contact with India using the Red Sea ports. The Roman historian Strabo mentions a vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt, indicating that monsoon was known and manipulated for trade in his time.By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India, trading in a diverse variety of goods.
Karnataka exports of spices find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150 AD), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century).

Wootz Steel
Wootz is the anglicized version of ukku in kannada language of the state of Karnataka, a term denoting steel. Literary accounts suggest that the steel from the Karnatka was exported to Europe, China, the Arab world and the Middle East. Though an ancient material, wootz steel also fulfills the description of an advanced material, since it is an ultra-high carbon steel exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness and held sway over a millennium in three continents- a feat unlikely to be surpassed by advanced materials of the current era. Wootz deserves a place in the annals of western science due to the stimulus provided by the study of this material in the 18th and 19th centuries to modern metallurgical advances, not only in the metallurgy of iron and steel, but also to the development of physical metallurgy in general and metallography in particular.A description from the Crusades of the Damascus blades is as follows: One blow of a Damascus sword would cleave a European helmet without turning the edge or cut through a silk handkerchief drawn across it. One sixth century writer describes blades as having a water pattern whose wavy streaks are glistening-it is like a pond on whose surface the wind is gliding. Let us see how this wootz steel is different and unique ot karnataka

Carbon Nanotubes
According to Robert Floyd Curl, Jr., Nobel Prize Winner in Chemistry in 1996, Indian craftsmen used nanotechnology in Wootz steel as well as in paintings. More specifically carbon nanotubes, first announced by Russian scientists in 1952, was found in the sword of Tipu Sultan as well as in Ajanta paintings. Carbon nanotubes which are cylidrical fullerenes have extraordinary strength in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus
This steel making process was practiced in Karnataka since great antiquity. The ancient Indian steel was known as Damascene steel in Persia and was in great demand in the Persian courts of the First Millennium BC. Even Alexander was presented a sword made of such steel. Coze studied the etymology of the terms denoting steel. Taking into account the fact that the names given to steel in different languages have always a technical content (hardness, resistance, etc.), Le Coze traced the transformation of the term Wootz, denoting the Indian crucible steel, through the Arab texts of the 9-12th centuries AD describing the preparation of the crucible steel named fulad. He discovered that fulad had an Indian origin of the word as transformed by Arab travellers. The subsequent success of Arabs in many wars shows that Karnataka's Wootz has played a prominent role.

There are numerous early literary references to steel from India from Mediterranean sources including one from the time of Alexander (3rd c. BC) who was said to have been presented with 100 talents of Indian steel.During the reigns of the Roman Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, Ferrum Indium appears in the list of dutiable articles.

An ancient Greek chemical treatise entitled "On the Tempering of Indian Steel". Edrisi has noted that "The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron. They have also workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world. It is impossible to find anything to surpass the edge that you get from Indian Steel". This passage which has been quoted in the notes to the Periplus on page 71 proves beyond doubt, in the words of a foreign historian, that the art of smelting and casting iron was well developed in ancient India.
Pant , Bronson has summarised several accounts of the reputation of Indian iron and steel in Greek and Roman sources which suggest the export of high quality iron and steel from ancient India.
Zaky pointed out that it was the Arabs who took ingots of wootz steel to Damascus following which a thriving industry developed there for making weapons and armour of this steel, the renown of which has given the steel its name.

In the 12th century the Arab Edrisi mentioned that the Hindus excelled in the manufacture of iron and that it was impossible to find anything to surpass the edge from Indian steel, and he also mentioned that the Indians had workshops where the most famous sabres in the world were forged,. while other Arab records mention the excellence of Hinduwani or Indian steel as discussed by Egerton.

Several European travellers including Francis Buchanan and Voysey from the 17th century onwards observed the manufacture of steel in Karnataka and Deccan by a crucible process.
By the late 1600s shipments running into tens of thousands of wootz ingots were traded to Persia. This indicates that the production of wootz steel was almost on an industrial scale in what was still an activity predating the Industrial Revolution in Europe.

Marco Polo has mentioned that iron and Ondanique was sold in the markets of Kerman in Iran. The word Ondanique has been interpreted as a corruption of the Persian word Hundwaniy which meant 'Indian Steel'.
Indeed the word wootz is a corruption of the word for steel ukku

Indo scythian
When parts of Karnataka/Maharastra were under western satraps and Middle east under scythians, there were large trade between two parts of the world.

Marsh Arabs
The society of the Marsh Arabs was divided into two main groups by occupation. One group bred and raised domestic buffalo(Similar Life style to Karnataka) while others cultivated crops such as rice, barley, wheat and pearl millet; they also kept some sheep and cattle. Rice cultivation was especially important; it was carried out in small plots cleared in April and sown in mid-May. Cultivation seasons were marked by the rising and setting of certain stars, such as the Pleiades and Sirius. Same crop as Karnataka.
The origins of the Maʻdān are still a matter of some interest. British colonial ethnographers found it difficult to classify some of the Maʻdān's social customs and speculated that they might have originated in India, while it was rumoured amongst neighbouring tribes that they had Persian origins.

Many scholars have proposed historical and genetic links between the Marsh Arabs and the ancient Sumerians, based on shared agricultural practices and methods of house building. There is, however, no written record of the marsh tribes until the ninth century AD, and the Sumerians were absorbed by the Akkadians (Assyrians-Babylonians) by around 1800 BC, some 2700 years before. Norwegian explorer, archaeologist and ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl wrote:
“ In the veins of the Ahwar Arabs there runs Sumerian blood more than that in the veins of any other Arabian tribe. Only those Ahwar Arabs are the grandchildren of the ancient civilization. ”
—Thor Heyerdahl
The case seem to point to Indian Origin of Maʻdān.

Chalukyas and Arabs

The Arab writer Tabari speaks of Persian envoys visiting the court of the Chalukyas of Badami King Pulakeshi-II and the diplomatic exchanges.

Pulikesin defeated Arab Invasion
In the early years of Vikramaditya's II reign, Arab invaders who had established themselves in the Sindh made a push into the Deccan. According to Navsari Plates, Avanijanashraya Pulakesi, a son of Vikramaditya I's brother Jayasimhavarman who was the governor of the Lata branch (Gujarat) fought and stopped them in 739 CE. Vikramaditya II so appreciated his valour, he conferred the title of Avanijanasraya (refuge of the people of the earth) on Pulakesi. The Rashtrakuta King Dandivarman or Dantidurga also fought along the Chalukyas against the Arabs. The result was not only Arabs beaten back, but also Gurjara was brought under direct control of Badami Chalukyan Empire.The Indian Numerals travelled to Arabia during Chalukya rule with extensive contacts between the two.

Siddharaja protects Arabs
The Muslim Historian Awfi recorded that Siddharaja, the Chalukyan king punished his Hindu subjects of Cambay for Rioting against the Muslims and gave Muslim merchant community funds to rebuild their mosque which had been destroyed in the riots.

Rastrakutas resist Arab incursions
The very Arab attack on India had taken place in Sindh in the year 715 C.E. These Muslim invaders were Arabs led by Mohammad Bin Qasim. They had displaced Raja Dabir who ruled Sindh from his capital Deval (near modern Karachi). The actual reason for this invasion was that Raja Dabir was aiding the Iranian (Zoroastrian) princes in trying to overthrow the Arab Rule in Persia. This seems to be a fact as many Sassanian nobles from Iran had taken refuge in Sindh and were plotting for the liberation of their country from the Arab yoke. But the pretext given by Arab historians for the Arab invasion of Sindh is that Raja Dabir's navy had detained an Arab merchant ship. To avenge this detention of a merchant ship, the Arabs overran the entire kingdom of Raja Dabir as also the neighbouring kingdom of Mulasthana (Multan). They even unsuccessfully tried to attack Malwa (Malibah in Arab records). After this invasion which was limited to Sindh, for a period of 300 years all further Muslim attacks were thwarted by Prathihara kings and Gujarat branch Rastrkutas.

Rastrakutas Trade with Arab
Karnataka has long straight coastline of 254 km with different types of natural harbours. we should also include Konkan coast. Estuaries have played an important role in maritime activities. The important ports of Karnataka are Karwar, Bhatkal, Honnavar, Basrur, Barkur, Gangolly, Malpe, Udyavara and Mangalore played an active role in establishing the trade contacts with outside countries. The sea trade of Karnataka constituted a significant part of her economic activities and secured for her a niche in the oceanic trade of the western coast of India from the earliest times. The literary and archaeological evidence indicates that its sea trade extended up to Malaysia, Sumatra, and Java, Cambodia on the southeast and Arab countries Persia and Egypt on the west.

In the "Silsilatuttavarlkh" , a history written by an Arab trader Sulaiman, in A. H. 237 (V. S. 908-A.D.
851) and modified and completed by Abuzaldul Hasan of Siraf, in A. H. 303 (V. S. 973=A.D. 916), it is thus stated :

"The Balhara is the most eminent of the princes of India, and the Indians acknowledge his superiority. Every prince in India is master in his own state, but all pay homage to the supermacy of Balhara. The representatives sent by the Balhara to other princes are received with most profound respect in order to show him honour. He gives regular pay to his troops, as the practice is among the Arabs. He has many horses and elephants, and immense wealth. The coins which pass in his country are the Tatarlya dirhams, each of which weighs a dirham and a half of the coinage of the king."

The above statement seems to be a sketch of the reign of Rastrakuta Amoghavarsha I. when this book was written and who had also attacked Rashtrakuta king Dhruvaraja I of Gujrat. The kingdom of the Rashtrakuta king Dhruvaraja 1 of the Deccan extended from Rameshvara in the south to Ayodhya in the north. In the Chronology of Nepal it is stated that in Shaka 8. 811 (V. 8. 946 A.D. 889) Kyanadeva, the founder of the dynasty of Karnatik, having conie up from the Deccan, took the whole of Nepal and for (> generations his descendants ruled there. In Shaka Sannat 811 Krishnaraja II was the king of Karnatik ; and seventh in descent from him was Karkaraja II from whom Tailapa II of the Chalukya dynasty seized the kingdom of the Rash^rakutas. So, it is probable that the descendants of Dhruvaraja 1 of Manyakheta, having progressed beyond Ayodhya, might have captured a portion of Nepal and afterwards Krishnaraja II, having advanced farther, taken the whole of the country. As the boundaries of China and Nepal are adjacent, Sulaiman might have, for thip reason, recorded the extent of their kingdom to be upto the Chinese frontier.

They are dated from the year in which the dynasty acquired the throne. They do not, like the Arabs, use the Hijra of the prophet, but date their eras from the beginning of their kings' reigns; and their kings live long, frequently reigning for fifty years. The inhabitants of the Balhara's country say that if
their kings reign and live for a long time, it is solely in consequence of the favour shown to the Arabs. In fact, among all the kings there is no one to be found who is so partial to the Arabs as the Balhara; and his subjects follow his example/' "Balhara is the title borne by all the kings of this dynasty. It is similar to Chosroes (of the Persians), and is not a proper name. The kingdom of the Balhara commences on the seaside, at the country of kukam (Konkan)on the tongue of land which stretches to China. The Balhara has around him several kings with whom he is at war, but whom he greatly excels. Among them is the king of the Jurz
.

In the book "Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik", written by Ibn Khurdadba, who died in A. H. 300 (V. S. 969= A. D. 912), it is thus stated: "The greatest king of India is Balhara, whose name imports "king of kings." He wears a ring in which is inscribed the following sentence : "What is begun with resolution ends with success." The book named "Murujul Zahab", written by Al- Masudi about A. H. 332 (V. S. 1001A.D. 944), contains the following: "The city of Mankir(Manyakheta), which was the great centre of India, submitted to a king called the Balhara, and the name of this prince continues to his successors who reign in that capital until the present time (332 A.H.)." " The greatest of the kings of India in our time is the Balhara, sovereign of the city of Mankir. Many of the kings of India turn their faces towards him in their prayers, and they make supplications to his ambassadors, who come to visit them. The kingdom of the Balhara is bordered by many other countries of India. . .The capital of the Balhara is eighty Sindi Parasangs from the sea, (and the Parasang2 is equal to eight miles). His troops and elephants are innumerable, but his troops are mostly infantry, because the seat of his government is among the mountains. . .Bayura who is the king of Kanauj, is an enemy of the Balhara, the king of India The inhabitants of Mankir, which is the capital of the Balhara, speak the Kirlya(Kannada) language, which has this name from Kira(karnataka) the place where it is spoken."

Al Istakhr : who wrote the "Kitabul Akalim", in A. H. 340 (V. S. IGOo A.D. 931) as also Ibn H iukal,e
who came to India between A. H. 331 and 35b (A.D. 943 and 968) and wrote the "Ashkal-ul-Bilad" in A. H. 366 (A.D.=976), say: "From Kambaya1 to Saimur2 is the land of the Balhara, and in it there are several Indian kings. The city in which the Balhara resides is Mankir, which has an extensive territory."

From the above extracts, taken from the writings of the Arabian travellers, we conclude that at that time the power of the Karnataka Empire under Rashtrakutas had reached its zenith. The Rahshtrakuta Dantidurga defeated Solanki (Chalukya) 'Vallabha' Kirtivarman and assumed the title of 'Vallabharaja which was also attached to the names of all his successors.

Arabs about Rastrakutas
In all Indian kingdoms the sovereign power resides in the royal family, without ever departing from it, and the heirs of the family follow each other in regular succession. In like manner, there are families of learned men, of physicians, and of all the artificers concerned in the various arts; and none of these are ever mixed with the family of a different profession. The several states of the Indies are not subject to one king, but each province has its own; though the Balhara is considered in the Indies as king of kings. The Chinese are fond of gaming and all manner of diversions; but the Indians condemn them, and have no pleasure in such employments. They drink no wine, neither do they use vinegar, because it is made from wine; although this abstinence does not proceed from any religious duty: but they allege that a king given to wine is not worthy of being a king; for how should a drunkard be able to manage the affairs of a kingdom, especially as wars are so frequent between the neighbouring states. Their wars are not usually undertaken to possess themselves of the dominions of others, and I never heard of any except the people bordering on the pepper country that seized the dominions of their neighbours after victory. When a prince masters the dominions of a neighbour, he confers the sovereignty upon some person of the royal family of the conquered country, and thus retains it in dependence upon himself, under the conviction that the natives would never submit to be otherwise governed.

Tax on Arabs
We learn from the copper grant,2 dated V. S. 1161 (A.D. 1104), of Govindachandra, found at Basahl, that it was Chandradeva of the Gahadavala branch of the Rashtrakuta family, who had restored order by suppressing the anarchy that had resulted on the deaths of kings Karna and Bhoja. It also refers that Govindachandra had granted in charity the village of Basahi (Basahl) together with the 'Turushkadanda (cess levied upon the Mohmmedans), which shows that just as the Mohammedan kings levied 'Jaziya' upon the non-Mohammedans, in the like manner, Madnapala levied a tax upon the Muslims. This proves his power and glory.

Bahmani sultans
Even-though Bahmani sultans based out of Gulbarga promoted Persian as the court language , Arabic was also used, which led to interactions between Kannada and Arabic. They made many Arabic Inscriptions in Karnataka

Adil Shah II
The Dakhani language, an amalgam of Persian-Arabic and Kannada, developed into an independent spoken and literary language. Under the Adil Shahis many literary works were published in Dakhani. Ibrahim Adil Shah II's book of poems and music, Kitab-e-Navras is in Dakhani. The Mushaira (poetic symposium) was born in the Bijapur court and later traveled north. The Dakhani language, which was growing under the Bahamani kings, later came to be known as Dakhan Urdu to distinguish it from the North Indian Urdu. Ibrahim Adil Shah II was scholar in Kannada as well.

Hyder and Tippu
Hyder and Tippu natives of karnataka though patronised Persian, gave patronage to Arabic as well. Interaction between Arabic and Kannada reached zenith during this period..

Sultan Jamaluddin
Ibn Batuta, who was entertained by the Sultan Jamaluddin, ruler of Hinavr (Honavar in North Kanara), but a feudatory of the Hindu king "Haryab", has left an interesting account of a coastal Muslim dinner. Sitting on a chair, he was served food on a copper table called khawanja, in a copper plate talam (thali), by jariya (beautiful or slave girl) wrapped in a silk sari. She would ladle out rice from a big copper vessel, pour ghee over it, add pickles of pepper, green ginger, lemon and tender mangoes. The second helping consisted of rice with cooked fowl. The third serving was another variety of chicken, also with rice. Then followed different fish preparations with rice. Thereafter vegetables cooked in ghee, and milk dishes were served with rice. The meal was rounded off with kushan or curded milk. Hot water was drunk after the meals, as cold water would be harmful in the rainy season . The food habits of the aristocracy followed a regional pattern; except for the religious taboos, there was no marked difference between Hindu and Muslim repasts. The Nalachampu gives a vivid description of a wedding feast or buvaduta with all its regal magnificence

Conversation between Arabic and Kannada
Arabic Words in Kannada
This is specifically true of many words dealing with army, trade and commerce. Words such as PVju, (army) trAsu (weighing balance), tEji (horse) had crept in to Kannada by twelfth century itself.

From the fifteenth century onwards these words found their way in to the South Dravidian through Dakkhini Urdu. Village officials dealing with land records used many administrative terms relating to land revenue and legislation, which have become part of the common language.” (‘Dravidian Languages’ by Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, 2003, Cambridge University Press) .
Many of the words borrowed like this were not replaced during the British rule and they are being used even today. However the process of borrowing new words has stopped.

Most of the words borrowed like this have taken up a vowel at the end like Kannada. (shumAr=sumAru, jamIn=jamInu, vasUl-vsUli etc) Some times the final ‘aa’ changes to ‘e’ (KajAnA=KajAne, tamASA=tamASe, ravAnA=ravAne etc.)

A list of some words borrowed from Persian and Arabic is given below.
Persian: rAstA=raste=road, shumAr=sumAru=approximately, shiPAras=shiPArassu=influence, dastAvej=dastAvEju=document, sibbandi=staff, sIpAyI=sipAyi=soldier, jamIn=jamInu=arable land, gumAsta=clerk.

Arabic: anAmat=anAmattu=all together, jaPti=search, nAjuk=nAjUku=delicate, mAmUl=mAmUli=as usual, bribe, daPtar=daPtaru=file, sAvkAr=sAhukAra=rich man, CAkU=cAku=knife

Incidentally many of these words are more are less similar in Kannada. Persian and Arabic words are found in many ancient literary works of Kannada such as ‘Shabdamanidarpana’ by Keshiraja, ‘Basavapurana’ by Bheemakavi, ‘Chennabasavapurana’ by virupakshapandita, and Jaimini Bharatha by Lakshmeesha.

This is not merely a contact between two sets of languages but the linguistic inter change is a sub product of a cultural exchange. This amalgamation of cultures has done a lot of good to the arts and crafts of Karnataka and Arabia. It is not fair to identify the Perso-Arabic languages and culture exclusively with Islam. As Sisir Kumar Das obseres, ‘ The legends and tales that reached India thorough Persian and Arabic were not neccessarily reflections of sectarian attitudes, many of them were of pre-Islamic oroigin........And the beautiful poems of Rumi, Sadi, Omar Khayyam or Hafiz defy all religious labels. ......It needs to be emphasised that Perso-Arabic element was never considered an exclusive property of the Muslims in India, or a conspicuous feature of Urdu poetry only, it was used with power and feeling by many non-Muslims and it penetrated languages other than Urdu.” (Sisir Kumar Das, History of Indian Literature, Sahitya Academy, New Delhi)

Borrowings with minimal word Constraint
Kannada and Arabic share a peculiar aspect as respect to borrowings words from other languages. Kannada Speakers germinate a single Consonant after what is a lax(short) vowel in English as in Bed, Bus to make a super-heavy syllable. But if the English word already has a super-heavy syllable, then no germination of final consonant occurs. Thus Arabic like Kannada appears to obey constraint on minimal word size. In Arabic the words are rhymed to keep the minimum word constraint.
(Eg)
Kannada
Test -> Testu
Road -> Roadu
Bus -> Bassu
bed -> Beddu

Arabic
teen -> tiin
base -> bees
road -> rood

bus -> baas,bass
bed -> baad,badd

Arabic Inscriptions
Many Arabic Inscriptions are found, chiefly by Bahmani Sultans, Adil shahis and Hyder-Ali Tipu Sultan.

Translations
This can be corraboarated by the fact that the Rubayiyath’ of Omara Kahyyam was translated in to Kannada by no less than three important poets.

Dakhini Urdu
Dakhini was the lingua franca of the Muslims of Deccan, chiefly living in Hyderabad state, Mysore state and the Hyderabad–Karnataka Region. The Language chiefly developed in the courts of Bahmani sultans, Adil Shahis and Hyder Ali-Tipu Sultan. Deccani urdu has large borrowings from Kannada.

Kannada Lands through Arab Eyes
Al Beruni
Al beruni gives vivid accounts of karnataka especially under Rastrakutas. When he tells about warrior Kannadigas (Kanaras), he goes on to add they were employed by Ghazni as well. He says so much about karnataka ,we need special article on this.

Al Idrisi
He was an Arabian traveller who went through India and wrote Najhjul-Mushtaq describing the Rastrakuta, Chalukya states. Some observations may be false or coined by himself,but he gives important information about commercial ties of India with China and Persia. He divided Indian Societies in seven sections such as Kulin, Brahmins, Soldiers, peasants, Craftsmen, Muscians and Entertainers.

Shiekh Fak Abu Abdullah Mohmmed bin Batuta
He is a Moroccon arab travelling various countries reached India at the time of Mohmmad bin tuglaq was appointed qazi of Delhi by sultan. For 8yrs he worked post, he stayed for a time in southern India under the protection of Jamal-ud-Din, ruler of the small but powerful Nawayath sultanate on the banks of the Sharavathi River next to the Arabian Sea. This area is today known as Hosapattana and lies in the Honavar administrative district of Uttara Kannada. Following the overthrow of the sultanate, Ibn Battuta had no choice but to leave India.

Rafiuddin Shiraz
His book Tajkirat ul Muluk deals with Adilshahi rulers of Bijapur. He gives vivid accounts of Karnataka

Suleiman (9th century AD)
He was an Arabian Traveller who visited India and China through persian gulf. In his travel account he described rastrakuta, Pala , Pratiharas .

Albila Duri (9th century AD)
This Arabian traveller in his book entitled Futuhul Buldaan described the arab invasion of India and its impact. His descriptions tell us that the Chalukyas and Rastrakutas tried to check the expansion of the Muslims in India in an organized manner. As a result the arabs were forced to leave many regions which they had conquered.

Al Masudi (915-917AD)
In 10th century AD, he came to visit India from Baghdad. He wrote a book entitled Muruj ul Jahan describing in an interesting manner the political rivalry between Pala, Pratihar and Rastrakutas. He says King of Pratihar was a natural enemy of king of south Rastrakutas. He has a big army. He state was encircled with many small states whose kings were ever ready and determined to wage a war.

Influx of Arabs in Karnataka
Coastal Karnataka had trade relations with Arabian merchants through the oceanic route even before the founding of Islam in the seventh century A.D. Arab followers of Islam came to Karnataka either via Landroutes from Sind-Gujarat or the costal cities of Karnataka like Mangalore and Karwar. Some Arab writers have spoken about the presence of Muslim subjects during the regime of Rashtrakutas. There are conclusive evidences about the spread of Islamic community in the west coast of Karnataka by the 11th century. Written documents are available to substantiate the fact that horses imported from Arabia, Persia and Turkey were sold and bought during the later centuries.

THE BEARYS
The Beary is a small Muslim community concentrated mostly in Tulu areas, which includes coastal districts of Dakshina Kannada & Udupi in Karnataka State and Kasargod in Kerala State. The Bearys are Muslims in faith. The Beary language is a mixture of Arabic , Tulu and Kannada.

The Bearys are the earliest Muslim Community in the area and one among The earliest Muslim population of India with a clear history of more than 1200 years. Tulu folk song 'PADDANAS' and many other records explain their incorporated relation to Tulunadu & its Culture. The Word 'BEARY' is said to be derived from the Tulu word 'BEARA', which means trade or business. Since early times a majority of these people were involved in business activities.

This Theory of Arab social interchange with Southern Coast leading to the emergence of new communities is supported by prominent Scholars like Tarachand. Thomas Arnold, Saletore & Many Historians. The MANNERS COLLECTIONS (Padthanas) 1886 refers to two groups of Bearys Viz., Jathi Neethi Bearys & Jathi Setty Bearys. Jathi Neethi Bearys were highly honoured by the local people. They followed Islamic faith & discipline. But, other group, Just pronounced the KALIMAH ( Oath of Islam) and adhered to the community without islamic practices. Their names also resembld the local names such as Andu, Seku, Bappa, Sadu, Saidu etc. Beary community shows the depth of interaction between Karnataka and Arabia.

Arabic Dictionary
Al Muzhir Arabic Dictionary , Arabic -Kannada dictionary in Kannada by Abdul Shaheed Azharyand M.S.M Abdul Rasheed Zaini Kamil.

References:
‘kannaDadalli PArasi, urdu shabdagaLu’, D.K.Bheemasena Rao, Kannada Sahitya Parishath Patrike, Volume 22.
HISTORY OF THE RASHTRAKUTAS BY PANDIT BISHESHWAR NATH REU
Pratiyogita Darpan: General Studies Indian History
Tracing the Origin of Ancient Sumerians By: Dr. Ashok Malhotra
Linguistic theory in second language acquisition By Suzanne Flynn, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Social Life in Medieval Karnataka By Jyotsna Kamat

Source
Classical Kannada
Karnataka Beary Sahithya Academy
Sumerian Dictionary

Related Posts
Origin of Wootz
Persia and Karnataka
Turkey and Karnataka
Origin of Rastrakutas
Topics

Sahitya Academy and Pampa Awardees

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Mon, 23 Jan 2012 06:07:00 +0000

List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Kannada
Sahitya Akademi Award is given each year, since 1955, by Sahitya Akademi (India's National Academy of Letters), to writers and their works, for their outstanding contribution to the upliftment of Indian literature and Kannada literature in particular. A total of 55 Sahitya Akademi Awards have been received by Kannada Writers.

Sahitya Akademi Award winners and their works in Kannada language
1955     Kuvempu     Sri Ramayana Darshanam (Epic)
1956     R. S. Mugali     Kannada Sahitya Charitre (History of Literature)
1958     D. R. Bendre     Aralu-Maralu (Poetry)
1959     K. Shivaram Karanth     Yakshagana Bayalata (A treatise on folk-drama)
1960     V. K. Gokak     Dyava-Prithivi (Poetry)
1961     A. R. Krishnashastry     Bengali Kadambarikara Bankim Chandra (A critical study)
1962     Devudu Narasimha Sastri     Mahakshatriya (Novel)
1964     B. Puttaswamayya     Kranti-Kalyana (Novel)
1965     S. V. Ranganna     Ranga Binnapa (Philosophical reflections)
1966     P. T. Narasimhachar     Hamsa Damayanti Mattu Itara Rupakagalu (Musical plays)
1967     D. V. Gundappa Shrimad Bhagavadgita Tatparya Athava Jivanadharmayoga (Philosophical expositions)
1968     Masti Venkatesha Iyengar     Sannakathegalu (12-13) (Short stories)
1969     H. Tipperudraswamy     Karnataka Samskriti Sameekshe (Cultural Study)
1970     S. B. Joshi     Karnataka Samskritiya Poorva Peethike (Cultural Study)
1971     Adya Rangacharya     Kalidasa (Literary criticism)
1972     S. S. Bhoosnurmath     Shoonyasampadaneya Paramarshe (Commentary)
1973     V. Sitaramaiah     Aralu Baralu (Poetry)
1974     Gopalakrishna Adiga     Vardhamaana (Poetry)
1975     S. L. Bhyrappa     Daatu (Novel)
1976     M. Shivaram     Mana Manthana (Psychiatric studies)
1977     K. S. Narasimhaswamy     Tereda Baagilu (Poetry)
1978     B. G. L. Swamy     Hasuru Honnu (Travelogue)
1979     A. N. Murthy Rao     Chitragalu Patragalu (Reminiscences)
1980     Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar     Americadalli Goruru (Travelogue)
1981     Chennaveera Kanavi     Jeewa Dhwani (Poetry)
1982     Chaduranga     Vaishakha (Novel)
1983     Yashwant Chittal     Katheyaadalu Hudugi (Short stories)
1984     G. S. Shivarudrappa     Kavyartha Chintana (Literary criticism)
1985     T. R. Subba Rao     Durgaasthamaana (Novel)
1986     Vyasaraya Ballal     Bandaya (Novel)
1987     Poornachandra Tejaswi     Chidambara Rahasya (Novel)
1988     Shankar Mokashi Punekar     Avadheshwari (Novel)
1989     H. M. Nayak     Samprati (Belles- Lettres)
1990     Devanur Mahadeva     Kusuma Bale (Novel)
1991     Chandrashekhara Kambara     Sirisampige (Play)
1992     S. R. Ekkundi     Bakulada Hoovugalu (Poetry)
1993     P. Lankesh     Kallu Karaguva Samaya (Short stories)
1994     Girish Karnad     Taledanda (Play)
1995     Kirtinath Kurtakoti     Uriya Nalage (Criticism)
1996     G. S. Amur     Bhuvanada Bhagya (Literary Criticism)
1997     M. Chidananda Murthy     Hosatu Hosatu (Criticism)
1998     B. C. Ramchandra Sharma     Sapthapadi (Poetry)
1999     D. R. Nagaraj     Sahitya Kathana (Essays)
2000     Shantinath Kuberappa Desai     Om Namo (Novel)
2001     L. S. Seshagiri Rao     English Sahitya Charitre (Literary history)
2002     S. Narayana Setty     Yugasandhya (Epic)
2003     K. V. Subbanna     Kaviraja Marga Mattu Kannada, Jagattu (Essays)
2004     Geetha Nagabhushana     Baduku (Novel)
2005     Raghavendra Patil     Teru (Novel)
2006     M. M. Kalburgi     Marga - 4 (Essays)
2007     K. Veerabhadrappa     Aramane (Novel)
2008     Shrinivas B. Vaidya     Halla Bantu Halla (Novel)
2009     Vaidehi (Janaki Srinivasa Murthy)     Krouncha Pakshigalu (Short Stories)
2010    rahamat tarikere kathiyanchina daari
2011     Gopalkrishna Pai     Swapna Saarasvata (Novel)
(No awards were given in 1957 and 1963).

PAMPA AWARD
The award is named after the first Kannada poet Adikavi Pampa. The award comprises a cash prize of Rs. one lakh , a shawl, a citation and a memento. However from 2008, cash prize increased to Rs. three lakh. Prior to 1996, the awards were given for a best single work by a Kannada writer. since then, the award has been given to the writer for his lifetime contribution to the Kannada literature. Kuvempu was the first recipient of this award for his work Sri Ramayana Darshanam.The Pampa Prashasti is presented by the Minister of State for Kannada and Culture, during the Kadambotsava, a cultural festival held annually in poet Pampa's town of Banavasi in Uttar Kannada district.

List of Pampa Awardees
Year     Writer     Works
1987     Kuvempu-     Sri Ramayana Darshanam
1988     T. N. Srikantaiah -    Bharathiya Kavya Meemaamse
1989     K. Shivaram Karanth -    Mai Managala Sulliyali
1990     S. S. Bhoosnurmath -    Shoonya Sampadaneya Paramarshe
1991     P. T. Narasimhachar -    Shri Haricharitha
1992     A. N. Murthy Rao-     Devaru
1993     Gopalakrishna Adiga -    Suvarna Puthalli
1994     Sediyapu Krishna Bhatta -    Vichara Prapancha
1995     K. S. Narasimhaswamy -    Dundu Mallige
1996     M. M. Kalburgi -    lifetime contribution
1997     G. S. Shivarudrappa -    lifetime contribution
1998     D. Javare Gowda -    lifetime contribution
1999     Chanaveera Kanavi -    lifetime contribution
2000     L. Basavaraju -    lifetime contribution
2001     Poornachandra Tejaswi -    lifetime contribution
2002     M. Chidananda Murthy -    lifetime contribution
2003     Chandrashekhara Kambara -    lifetime contribution
2004     H. L. Nage Gowda -    lifetime contribution
2005     S. L. Bhyrappa -    lifetime contribution
2006     G. S. Amur -    lifetime contribution
2007     Yashwant V. Chittal -    lifetime contribution
2008     Venkatachala Shastri - lifetime contribution
2011    Champa - Lifetime Contribution
The Kadambotsava was not held in 2009 and 2010 due to natural calamity and controversies, Although Champa was recommended for the award in 2009, he was presented with the award only in 2011

Source
Wiki

Related Posts
Most Jnanapith Awards
Vijnaneshwara - Pioneer Ancient Hindu Jurist
Kannada Literature
Oral Epics
Kannada Grammar Works
List of Kannada Dictionaries
Lost Works of Kannada Literature
Ancient Technical Publications

Bangalore Kannada Slangs

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Sun, 31 Jul 2011 14:25:00 +0000

Since lot of you are searching for this slang's on the blog, I am writing this article, I have borrowed slang's from Dharwad.com website and posting it. You can also contribute to list in the comments column. Some may argue that Bengaluru Kannada slang's are degrading the language, Some also argue,these are new additions to the language, which show the language is alive, kicking and constantly evolving in the new world. Just like English language adds the new words, the Kannada Language should add the words to their list. Sometimes if we go out of Karnataka, that we find that these Bangalore Slang's and Kanglish have acquired the cult status, especially in south Indian towns. These slang's are used to show oneself, the person has been in Bengaluru. Let us see. Time only will tell.

Bangalore Kannada Slang is a vernacular dialect of Kannada, spoken mainly by people residing in and around Karnataka, especially South-East Karnataka (Bangalore, Mysore, Mandya, etc.).

This dialect is primarily spoken by youth and in informal discourse between locals. This slang is quickly picked up by the outsiders who stay in Bangalore. The slang is also pure Kannada and is quite old, too.

Bangalore Kannada is spoken by the native people almost everywhere: at home, in educational institutions and other places. Bangalore and Mysore Kannada are the most commonly used in other mediums such as plays and movies.

Some words specific to Bangalore Kannada are:

    bombaat, sakkath - meaning awesome/cool
    bejaan - a lot
    kudumi - bookworm

These words can be slang or catchy words, and can also be combined into Kanglish [Kannada+English]. In fact, there is a whole list of Kanglish words and phrases.

For instance, "Just Maja Maadi" used as an alternative for "chill out" (a phrase popularized by one of the city's radio stations). "Enjoy Maadi" and "Swalpa Adjust Maadi" are other such popular Kanglish phrases. The word Maadi literally means do/ make.

Contribution from Kannada cinema
Upendra a popular star of urban blues has popularized Bangalore Kannada. His famous song from a movie named Upendra he has popularised the word oLu - meaning rubbish. The song says MTV subbulakshmige bari OLu - meaning for a doyen of Carnatic Shastreeya Sangitha like Subbulakshmi, MTV is rubbish. He is known to popularize the side effects of urbanization

Jaggesh has to his credit for inventing word Dagaar meaning a whore/prostitute for those who follow seductive and revealing outfits on city roads. One more innovation is Dow (from Dove rhymed with love) for referring a lover.

Sudeep introduced a word Kichcha in a superhit blockbuster movie Huchcha which means a person with lot of fire or Kichchu inside him. In fact Kicha is used to denote Lord Krishna which becomes Kichcha due to his fiercesome nature in this heart touching movie.

Anant Nag had introduced terms Roll Call in one of movies meaning one who makes fools of people from his talking skills.

Ambareesh had introduced a term Guldu Khan - to mean a stupid/brainwashed person - related to a foolish Muslim invader in his films.

Ravichandran and Kashinath have also contributed a lot of pun related dialogues and terms in their movies.

There is a whole list of vulgar slangs. Many of them could be derogatory or offensive in nature, though they all have a funny connotation. Hence, caution is advised while using them in public.

Bangalore Kannada slang words List

Aandu Paandu - The mundane or the common folks

Bhadko - Rogue [popularized by the TV serial Paapa Pandu]

Bond - Professional; expert (from James Bond)

Chaddi Dost - Bum Chum (meaning a childhood friend; perhaps denoting the time of friendship)

Dove - A girlfriend (perhaps a distortion of the English word love)

Edda Diddi/ Erra Birri - Rash/ Hapazard (Perhaps derived from vehicular noise)

Gamad/ Gampar/ Gubaal/ Guggu/ Gujjad - Foolish person/Villager/ or Illiterate (Hindi Derivation Gawar = Illiterate)

Jack Haku - To screw somebody (from carjacking - Haku is to put)

Juttu - Weakling

Maama - [Literally means maternal uncle/ father-in-law (mother's brother)] often used as derogatory term for incompetent police

Maga, Maam, Machi, Raaja - Son or Dude

Chindi : Too good

Bombat : Incredible

Sak'kat : Awesome

Blade : Got screwed (also see 'Kuiey' in chap 3)

Topi : Got cheated

Chatri:- No.1 fraud

Adjust : Anytime you are caught on the wrong foot use this word

Kirik : Mess

Magane : Anybody (Male) who does not keep in touch!!!

Lo : Anybody (Male) who keeps in touch always

busy : Busy !!!

Mucchu : It is a very potent word and should be used with caution.It is normally used in conjuntion with various body parts. Strictly to be used with friends and definitely not with members of the opposite sex

Madam : Any girl who becomes a friend thus putting an end to any mischief you want to commit !!!

Chitranna : To be used with Chindi. It means had a gala time

Maj'A : Fun. To be used with Sakkat depending on the amount of
fun you had.

Bend Aethu: Screw, Ex:-Maneli appa,amma bend aeththaaramma !!

Jai Aagu: fully disappered.

Punta : Good in fundamentals, very able person. High IQ. Also used for teasing, like " 2 year ninda, India hogillva ? Panta kano neenu!"

Kudami :- Book worm !!.

Puntar Ke Gin : Gina of Puntas i.e. king of punters.

Tuppa : Very easy to grasp. Eg:"Question paper olle tuppa eddange ettu kano.. chindi chitranna maadaak butte!!"

Mileage : Scope u get by any different or special act in a friends group."Eno new hair dye-na ? Full Milageaaaah ?? "

Hodeskonda : Got screwed.

Biddaah! : Total flat for the outward shining of any object/subject.. like "dekhke dekhke gir gaya saaala" "Photo nodi Biddaah..... maduveyaagi..Biddaah!!"

Guru : Mix of Lo and magane.

Deevru : Person who is seen once in a while.

Sisyaaa! : Close friend in need of free advice. "Haangalla kano sisya! Hing daarig baa! Nan maat kelade hodeskobyada"

Aenamma : Aenamma Chennagiddiya !!!

Solid : Great deal. "Java++nallidya ?? Solidale, Solid kanamma Panta kano neenu! Full mileage, full posh!!".

Baggu : Don't fool me, u better be. e.g: "100 rupai saalana ? buggtiyaa ? oythaa irallae magane! Naane elli bombdi hodita eddini! Doddadaagi band butta kisadkondu! "

Mindri:- Bastard.

Jagat Mindri:- International Bastard.

Othla/Thooku/Dumki: Total gone case. "Wipro na ? MG roadaa ? Full othlanaa ? " " Otla hodediddu jaasti aaythu, enoo kelsa maadilla.

Launch/Kick::- Next stage after high Boosing.

Dagaar/Half set/keepu : Famous in Jaggesh fan's circle!

Gaandu:- Impotent

Kirik : Problem, nuisance. " Heavy kirikkamma, hike kodu andre baggu antaane namm managerru !"

Blade & Kori: same as kuyyi.

Siva : same as guru. " En siva..daadi bittidiya ? Hendru oorallilva ? "

Magane : To be used with very close friend circle.Else u may loose your relationship and a few teeth too :-)."
Eno magane, pathene ella? Elli beli haaroke hogidde ?"" Mag-Ane!! Muchhu, adella Nannishtaaa !" " Sari, eaga nadi Magane, otla hodiyonaa"

Heat : Fully equipped with hormones. MEB. (Most Eligible Bachelor)
            "Namma huduga full heat-Ge bandavne. Enadru vyavaste maadbeku"

Piece : How "heat-Ge bandavru" look almost every female on Brigade."Sakhath piece-amma! Full biddog-bitte".

Pure : A deshi found in videsh.

Mom:- Close friend eg:- Yen Mom full zooma.......( Kinglish)

Anna:- Must be used , when u 'r talking with Bigges.        ex:- Anna nanagu ovandu Chance!!(jaggesh)

Thirtha/Prasada:- Same as Yenne

Sight/Line/Dove:- Other names for Loving.....

Hakki/Birds :- Pretty girls

Nimmajji :- One Abuse !!

Ainaathi :- Videshi

Guldu\Pyaade :- Person who is very innocent.

Dharmada Aeetu :- Absoulutley Free of cost.

Maavana Mane :- Police Station.

Chamak : alias Minchu. show off ; derive 'scope' (see Mileage)

Tagadu : Opposite of Punta. A person of very low IQ. Dudhead, Dunce...

BaaNali:- Baaldie

Turimane:- Dentally forward

Dabba :- Same as Tagadu

Maska : see Benne

Benne : Butter. Used to promote relationship. esp. political, organisational etc. Building goodwill in a viley way

Biscuit : Lancha.

Peerethi : Love. usu. superficial. Used to impress 'Piece'. inapprpropriate with 'Dagar'

Chamcha : A Person who uses lot of 'Maska' to promote his self interest. The villan in old kannada movies, nowadays potrayed as a statesman

Bathati/Fitting :- Pimping. ex:- Lecturerge namma mele Olle batti itta maga aa attender.

Yennai/Gundu : Liquor. Booze. Usu. followed by a 'Thalping' session. The in-thing to do in the pubs esp. by young people

Thalpu : Eat rather, Gobble. eg. "Thalp it all I say !" is famous when you go to free Luncheon in a star hotel

Kuiey : A Boring session. "Meeting nalli blade haki sakkath kuieydhru..."

Saaru : An informal greeting. opp. of Sir which is mark of respect. "Namaskara Saar ge"

Sustu : Tired or, when you are Dazed. "Aa piece nodithere neenu sustu aagbidtheya"

Burudae : Lie. also referred as 'Reel' or 'Rail' eg. "Nin      burudae keli keli sustu aaythu

Dani : Boss. "Promotion sigle antha namma Danige sakkath benne haktha idene"

Oollu : - Same as Burude( Upendra's contribution)

Tufree:- famous past time or hangout for Students who fag.

Hawa:- Famous ,ex:- Maga awanu valle hawa Ittiddane.

Hattisu:- Flattering

Kivege Huvvu:- same Reel.

Mabbu:- Same as GulDu.

Damar:- The End.

Udis :- Gone case. Ex:- Bitti sikre ella Udis.

Guraiusu:- Gazing with anger

Attakaiusu;- Enter

Jamaiusu:- Enjoy

Lagaiusu :- same as 3

Udaiusu:- Enjoy others Propertey.

Pattaisu:- Trap a girl

Bitti/Oosi(O'c) :- Free

Mundaisu/Bolisu:- Shave others Purses.

Shikshe       :- Great punishment.

Bharatharatna :- person who is very honest.

Achchu\Batti :- To copy in exams.

Seize :-    Caughted Redhand.

Sinku:- Escape ,Ex:- Poice baruva munche baa maga sink agi bidona

Kalakar:- Jack of all.

Uri   :- Jealousey(Stomach burning).

Aata   :- Ex:- Yannamma tumba Aata aaduthithiya

L.K.B :- Famous foul word .

T.P     :- Time Pass

T.T     :- Titte Tirisu( Uppi contribution).

D.T    ;- Means same as Enjoy

A.J.M:- A'n Just Miss
           ex:- Maga ,distige 100 marks ninda ajm aagihoyithu

J.K : --???****

TMH:- Next stage after high Boosing.

P.P :-Pakkada mane Phone

Underworld Bhashe:

Adda    :- Hangout place.

Deal    :- Buisness

Sketch :- plan for Supari Killings

Laang   ;- Famous weapon

Finish :- End life

Hudugaru:- Chelas of Don.

Nin A'----n :- This should be used alternatively with very word.

Dichchi :- Eg. Nanna Magane ondu dichchi kotre kannage stars kaanisuthe

Ikku :- Bash or Beat.

Namma Area:- Our propertey.

Mamulu :-   Haftha.

Kaki    :-   Police

Linku:-

Gadegalu

Umpirege decision.
Thirupahige Laddu.
Conductor ge ticket.
Sun ge torch
Samudrakke uppu.
Sollege malaria.
Kannu Tampu.
Paadada Xerox.
Chakkage Chappale.

Ranges
------
Ekkaa Chikki - |
Bejaan.        | --> Long Ranges
Ekkaa Makka.   |
Ragadu    |

Kaanji Pinji   |
Kuyya          | --> Short Ranges.
Jujubi

Sources
Wiki
Ramblings with Bellur
Dharwad.COM

Karnataka Janapada Tradition

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Tue, 19 Jul 2011 11:26:00 +0000

Jaanapada is a word made by two words Jana - People or tribe, Pada - a kind of short verse joined together as a Sandhi- a grammatical term. The folk culture and colloquial tongue of Kannadigas.

Janapada Tradition has generally described as the expressions of the illiterate. it represents the uninhibited response of the uneducated and unsophisticated sections of the Karnataka to life experiences in a variety of forms. Janapada tradition represents Kannadiga desire to communicate his/her experiences of joy and sorrow and share it with others. This motivation as such is the same as that of proper Kannada Literature. Karnataka Janapada tradition finds expression not in the form of writing but in the form of the spoken word or song(Janapada Geethe) which is transmitted and perpetuated by oral tradition. Another distinguishing characteristic Karnataka Janapada tradition is that whatever the themes or the experience, it expression is simple, direct and vivid, unembellished by artifice or ornament, and if occasionally figures of speech make their appearances, they appear as sparkle and freshness of live speech that directly but picturesquely express whatever is felt or thought. Janapada Literature reflects the life of kannadigas as it is lived from day to day.

Karnataka Janapada Folk Tradition even though includes every aspect of Kannadiga life can be broadly classified into three main heads.

1.Folk Literature

2.Janapadageethe, songs expressive of the common joys and sorrows of the common people. All can be subdivided according to subject matters of the occasion or purpose the different forms intended to serve.

3.Folk Theater, Poetry intended to celebrate the greatness of chosen deities and ballads dramatizing the heroism or sacrifice of chosen heroes, historical or legendary

1.Folk Literature

Kannada Stories, short and long , in diverse forms and dealing with diverse themes has been found and collected . Though the purpose of the narrative is both entertainment and enlightenment, the former usually gains emphasis. Karnataka Janapada Folk Tradition, questions of probability or realism do not arise at all. The natural and the supernatural easily coalesce, and traffic between earth, heaven and hell is easy and common. When human being marries a celestial maid or a celestial damsel is enamored of a mortal, all kinds of difficulties arise, jealousies are roused, impediments are created by men and demons alike and the hero and the heroine after perilious fights and strange escapades get finally united and everything ends happily. Karnataka Janapada Folk Tradition do not have unhappy endings always. Like the supernatural , the magical element too marks frequent appearance in Kannada folk tales. The story of the gem in the serpent's hood or that of the young acrobat appears with slight variations all over Karnataka and have drawn attention of scholars and researches as being typical. These and similar stories could be described as complex narratives but there are a large number that are straightforward in their manner and intent. There are the stories of clever and stupid, stories of birds and animals, all of which reveal a moralist bias but narration is always vivid and attractive. In the former category, the clever and the stupid find themselves in the opposite roles in peculiar circumstances of the story. Such situations make for humor as in those stories which are intended to be humorous, like the stories of wandering ministerial who in the course of the single night cheated four women or the story of the night blind son in law who makes fool of himself when he went to his wife’s parents house. Animal stories are pretty common and intentions are moral. What provides interest is the free intercourse between animal and human world and even the occasional metamorphosis into all kinds of beings, common, strange or celestial. The Story of the crow and the sparrow is well known. Almost of all the animals of the forest figure in one character or the other. Equally common are the stories of cruel kings and childless queens and the strange happenings inside royal places. Nothing limits the folk imagination in the invention of stories and teller always displays his art in making his narrative absorbing and in the end instructive. Who among us has not heard the story of a rich boy or girl falling in love with a poor girl or boy and marrying her or him eventually after many hardships including fierce opposition from would-be parents-in-law? Karnataka folk literature abounds in such stories such as our films do. Or, consider the story of a vagrant husband whose exploits are finally discovered by the wife but pardoned immediately, true to spirit of ideal house wife. This as you may have thought is not a film story either. This is the story of our Lord Srikanteswara, of Nanjangud, who in spite of being wedded to the beautiful Deveri, had an affair going, with Chamundi, of the Chamundi hills. Or, take the story of Lord Ranganatha, of the Biligiri hills, who fell in love with a poor Soliga tribal girl - and married her. So much credence is given to this story by the local people, the Soligas, that they even to this day address Lord Ranganatha as ‘Bhava’, that is brother-in-law. These are stories which could make wonderful film material, and it is no exaggeration if we say that the genesis of majority of Kannada film stories is the folk literature.

Folk tradition in Karnataka, began orally. The systematic study of folk literature was initiated by European scholars. Anyone who glances at the Kittel dictionary is sure to be amazed by the abundant collection of proverbs, most of which are of folk origin. Kittel was helped in this by his immediate superior at the Basel Mission Church, Mangalore, Rev, Moegling. Abbe Dubois’ work ‘Hindu Customs, Manners and Ceremonies’ contain a number of folk tales. May Frere’s ‘Old Deccan Day’ is an independent collection of folk tale. Among Kannadigas, Nadakeriyanda Chinnappa, a scholar from Kodagu, published in 1924, a book in Kodava language called ‘Pattole Palame’, which was a collection of regional folklore with Kannada commentary. This was followed by Halasangi brothers of North Karnataka who published three volumes of folksongs and Ballads, titled ‘Garathiya Haadu,’ ‘Mallige Dande’ and ‘Jeevana Sangeetha’. Archaka B. Rangaswamy Bhatta of Mandya District brought out a book ‘Huttida Halli Halliya Haadu’ which depicts the rural traditions of an entire village. During pre-independence period B.S. Gaddagimath was perhaps the first scholar in Kannada to secure a doctorate for his thesis on folklore. This was followed by Jee. Sham. Paramashivayya’s series of articles in Kannada Journals on folklore. Haa. Maa. Naik, a scholar in linguistics, published many papers on the study of folk culture.

Mathigghatta Krishnamurthy has brought out a series of voluminous books like ‘Grihini Geethegalu’, a collection of folk songs. S.K. Karim Khan has travelled the length and breadth of Karnataka giving lectures on folk literature. Popular playwright - novelist Chandrasekhara Kambara has to his credit many popular adaptations of folk stories like Siri Sampige, Singaravva Matthu Aramane, Kadu-Kudure and Sangya-Balya. Girish Karnad won international acclaim for his play ‘Nagamandala’ based on folk story. And so did A.K. Ramanujan for his collection of folk stories. B.V. Karanth and C. Aswath are pioneers in scoring folk music to films. They made their debut as music directors in ‘Vamsha Vriksha’ and ‘Kakana Kote’ respectively. H.L. Nagegowda, B.B. Handi and H.K. Rajegowda have done remarkable work in this field. ‘Janapada Loka’ of Janapada Parishat, at Ramanagar which has taken a good shape by H.L. Nagegowda, has a rare collection of folk materials. ‘Arambhadettu Inooru’, ‘Aane Banthondane’, ‘Nannuru’, ‘Veriyar Elvinnana Girijana Prapancha’, are some of his important collections. H.K. Rajegowda’s ‘Kempanna Gowdana Yakshagana Kavyagalu’, ‘Vokkaliga Janangada Sampradaya’, ‘Itihasa Janapada’ are notable works. K.R. Krishnaswamy (Karakru) Hi.Chi. Boralingaiah and Mudenur Sanganna’s works are also noteworthy.

Certain folk tales are common to all regions of Karnataka. One such is about a Harijan youth masquerading as Brahmin and marrying a girl from that community. The girl when discovers the deceit, throws herself into pyre and becomes a goddess. Another narrative - ‘Kerege Hara’ is woven round a chaste woman who sacrifices herself for the successful completion of village tank. And then we have many number of animal tales in which the fox is the trickster.

Gaadegalu (Kannada Proverbs)

Proverbial Gaade which has a famous saying in Kannada as Veda sulladaru Gaade sullagadu -meaning even if Vedas are proved wrong practically , Gaade(Proverb) can never go wrong.

Panchatantra and Jataka Stories

There is hardly any other secular work in the World which has penetrated so deeply in many cultures encompassing practically every continent of the World. During the last 1500 years there are at least 200 translations of Panchatantra in about 60 languages of the World. Aesop fables (2), Arabian Nights(3), Sindbad(4) and more than 30 to 50% of Western nursery rhymes and Ballads have their origin in Panchatantra and Jataka stories. Dated to around 3rd century BC. The Panchatantra stories migrated out of India in 6th century AD during Kadamba rule. Panchatantra migrated to Iran in the 6th century CE . The story is well known. Burzoe, a physicianat the court of Sassanian king Anushirvan (531-571 c.CA), was sent to India in search of Sanjivani herb. In search of this medicine he traveled a lot in India and brought Panchatantra to Iran, which he translated into Pahlavi, titled Kalilah wa Dimnah, with the help of some Pundits. Available version is the Syrian version of Karataka and Damanaka. The Panchatantra stories developed and collected around the Karnataka/ Maharashtra region. It shows the antiquity of Janapada tradition to unknown eras. Panchatantra stories have become the part of glorious Karnataka temple architecture along with Ramayana and Mahabharata stories. The Navalinga temple of Kakanur, someshwara temple in Somashila, Abalur, Isvara temple in Hiresinganagutti, Kolaramma temple in kolar, Pillar Stones at Yasale, Isvara and Kadambeshwara temple at Sirival and Sculptures at Galaganatha ,Virupaksha, and Mallikarjuna temples in Pattadakal, Aihole, Mudhol, Tripurantakeshwara Balligave, Kalleswara temple in Bagali, pillar in Kadur etc carry the legacy. Durgasimha(Lived during Jagadakamalla of Chalukya dynasty) author says that the panchatantra was collected in the court of Salivahana of Banavasi by Court Poet Gunadaya. Panchatantra is Jain origin and jain essence is retained by Durgasimha eventhough he was a Brahmin, we have to note Gunadaya was Buddhist scholar. Vasubhaga Bhatta version is now used everywhere in south India as well as South east Asia and Far east, while Vishnu Sharma is north Indian version dominates other parts of the globe. You will find Vasubhaga version is followed in South Karnataka and Vishnu sharma version in North Karnataka. Both Vasubhaga and Vishnu Sharma are from Karnataka. Vishnu sharma belonging to Aihole, under king called Amarshakti who ruled with capital Mahilaropya (Mailara in Bellary district). Mailara today is on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in Hadagali taluk, Bellary district. This is a well known piligrimage center famous for the Shivamallari temple.

2. Janapadageethe (Poems)

Janapadageethe are lengthy poetical compositions, religious or semi-religious in character and related either to local deities or legendary characters that had achieved miracles or had rendered one or another kind of service to the community. Janapadageethe are similar to but distinct from ballads which celebrate the heroism or sacrifice or similar action of historical and legendary heroes. Janapadageethe relating to deities are attached to particular temples or religious institutions like mutts and the compositions are sung by particular classes of professional minstrels to accompaniment of musical instruments. These compositions are extensive that it takes several nights to sing them. Usually selected portions dealing with episodes favorite with listeners are sung on particular occasions. Such , for example , are the songs pertaining to Maleya madeswara or yellamma, the female deity of saundatti. The worship of zunjappa, the deity of golla community has its own song sequence which is built-up within the framework of the Krishna story.

The Gorava community has its own sacred places like Mylara whose legends provide the theme celebrating the importance of the place. All over Karnataka, tradition of such folk poetry abound are numerous. Diverse in theme and treatment are the Janapadageethe which form the most voluminous and popular body of folk literature. Janapadageethe's chief characteristics are that they are invariable anonymous compositions handed down by oral tradition. Janapadageethe have their own kind of musical style recitation. Janapadageethe prosodic forms and variety can be the subject of a detailed study. Invariable Janapadageethe deal with some kind of activity or another at home or in the fields. Janapadageethe pertain to all aspects and contexts of life and are, therefore, too numerous to classify under particular headings. Janapadageethe are sung either to relieve the tedium and monotony of work or purely for entertainment. there are separate Janapadageethe for men and women differing again in age groups of the singers and their audiences. Parents love for their children, the mother in law harassment. the sorrows of childless woman., the ever strong attraction of parental home for the young bride, pure lover songs and songs of separation the variety of Janapadageethe is endless.

When we come to the realm of songs we find songs for every rural activity, be it grinding, pounding, christening the baby, lullaby, marriage, nuptials, or even tattooing. The last named is the forte of a distinct community called the ‘Koravanjis’. Kolata or stick dance is unique to Karnataka.

JaanpadaGeethe can be classified for our convenience as

(I).Small songs which are sung on every occasion like marriage, festival, travel and most importantly on every work done mostly from harvest to cooking. The art of composing verses was natural when Kannadigas were deeply involved in their works commonly related to agriculture , pottery , harvest, flouring grains.

(II). Ballad or narrative folk song is another distinct form. ‘Jeeshampa’ has classified them to twelve groups or traditions as 1. Devara Guddas, 2. Neelagaras,3. Ganeplayers, 4. Gorvas, 5. Choudikeyavaru, 6. Aradigalu 7. Karapaladavaru,8. Tamburiyavaru, 9. Kinnara Jogigalu, 10. Dombidasaru, 11. Helavaru and 12. Jangamaru.

(III). Religious pada like those of Dasa Saahitya and Vachana Saahitya and probably even the literature of Guru shishya tradition which is known to only be passed through ears and not on papers can be put into this broad term. Shishunala Shareefa ,Purandara Dasa , Kanaka Dasa , Sarvajna stand at top as wandering saints. There were also compositions on rituals which were laid on common man when caste system was on peak to oppose the atrocities and understand the traditions. Normally the Jangama or wandering monks or the Dasa or wandering devotee who used to hold a tamboori - a famous instrument to add muse the verses , use to travel places spreading the knowledge they had acquired and used to receive alms from people known as Bhavathi Bhiksha Dehi which does not find a right word in contemporary English.

(IV). Songs sung by Mothers to their Babies and children.

(V). Apart from these the folk dance arts added color to expressions rather than words and were popular at mass gatherings.

3.Folk Theater

Ballads as such form a separate category. They are actually narrative poems, but all narrative poems are not ballads. The principle characteristics of ballads are that they tell the story of some hero and heroine in verse forms that keep pace with quick tempo of action. They celebrate the heroism or sacrifice or some other breath taking adventure or action. Such for example are the ballads of Sangoli Rayanna or Kittur Chennamma or Hyder Ali or the adventure during battle of Periyapatna. Karnataka Folk literature is thus purely social product rooted in the life of the community and expressive of its likes and dislikes, its deepest faith and loyalties expressive of everything that determines the quality and content of its daily living.

Folk theater has a rich tradition in Karnataka. Who, for instance, has not heard of ‘Yakshagana’ , Doddata, Bayalata etc., Puppet theater is another folk form, classified into two categories as Thogalugombe and Keelugombe. The former is shadow play with the help of leather cut into human or animal or super-human forms and the latter are performed with the help of dolls with movable limbs controlled by strings by the operators. What Interests as literature is the narrative technique which would be quite engrossing.

4. Janapada Medicine

And then there are a host of books on folk medicine such as ‘Padartha Sara’, ‘Vaidyaratnakara’ etc. Many of these were brought out by, or with the help of the Royal family of Mysore.

5. Janapada Dance

As dance is a visual art, the visual impression of this dynamic art is lost on the sands of time. The tradition of dances currently at vague in Karnataka can be broadly divided as Janapada and Shista, the former being localized in certain areas only, whereas the latter has spread to other parts outside the state. Closely connected with folk literature are folk arts Kamsaalay, Chaudike, Ekatari etc., and dances like Lambani dance, Patada Kunita, Nandikolu Kunita, Veeragase, Dollu Kunita, Gorawara Kunita, Gondala, etc. These are all connected with religious rituals, tagged with some deity, and Yakshagana and puppet show are also of similar origin.

6. Janapada Jaatre

A Jaatre or gathering festival arranged by government of Karnataka showcasing Jaanapada art.

Janapada Trust and Academy

Two other main centres for the study of folk literature are the Karnataka Janapada Trust and the Karnataka Janapada and Yakshagana Academy. The former has a collection of more than 1,000 folk songs recorded from all over the state. The latter brings out an annual collection of folklore of about 100 pages at a low cost.

Govinda Pai Research Centre. Udupi (M.G.M. College) has been doing unique documentation work, and has collaborated with a Spannish University. In order to promote folk literature and folk arts, the Karnataka Jaanapada and Yakshagana Academy honours the outstanding folklore scholars and the artists every year by granting Jaanapada Tagna Award and Annual Awards.

D. Javaregowda, as Vice-Chancellor of Mysore University, established a Folklore Research Centre at Mysore. The Universities of Bangalore; Dharwad and Gulbarga, also offer Doctoral Degrees in the study of folk culture. Of late Hampi Kannada University and Shimoga University have also been in the forefront.

Jaanapada Tagna Award Winners

1986 : Simpi Linganna; 1988 : Mathighatta Krishnamurthy and D. Javeregowda; 1989: H.L. Nagegowda; 1990 : H.M. Nayak and B.B. Hendi; 1991 : Ku.Shi. Haridasa Bhat and K.R. Lingappa; 1992 : Chandrashekhara Kambara and Mudenuru Sanganna; 1993: M. Chidananda Murthy, P.R. Thippeswamy and N.R. Nayak; 1994 : G. Narayana, Goru Channabasappa, Devendra Kumar Hakari, M.G. Biradara, Amrita Someshwara and C.P. Krishnakumar; 1995: Ham.Pa Nagarajaiah, Ramegowda (Ragau), Somashekhara Imrapura and R.C. Hirematha; 1996 : B.A. Vivek Rai, Basavaraja Malashetty and P.K. Rajashekhar; 1997 : M.M. Kalburgi, M.B. Neginahala, T.N. Shankaranarayana, O.K. Rajendra and P.K. Khandoba; 1998: Kyatanahally Ramanna, Shanthi Nayak and A.V. Naavada; 1999 : Nam Tapasvikumar, M.N. Vali and H.J. Lakkappa Gowda; 2000 : Taltaje Keshava Bhatta, C.H. Mahadeva Nayak, M.T. Dhoopada, T.S. Rajappa and M.A. Jayachandra, 2001: Siddalingaiah, William Madtha, Shrirama Ittannavar, 2002: Channanna Valikara, B.S.Swamy, Nallur Prasad, 2003: M.G.Eswarappa, Shreekanta Kodige, Prabhakara Joshi, Since 2004, the Jaanapada Tagna Award being stopped and awards established in the name of B.S. Gaddagi Math and Jishampa are given to folklore scholars. Gaddagi math award: Keremane Mahabala Hegade (2004), Veeranna Dande (2005), Ha.Ka. Rajegowda (2006), D.B. Naik (2007), C.K. Navalagi (2008) Jishampa award: He. She. Ramachandra gowda (2004), M.K. Raghava Nambiyar (2005), Basavaraja Nellisara (2006), G.S. Bhat (2007), Y.C. Bhanumathi (2008).

Jaanapada and Yakshagana Acadamy Award Winners

The Academy honors the folklore scholars, artists, authors, collectors/ editors/critics/ publishers, institutions, groups, art promoters etc., every year by granting annual awards. So far (2008) 703 eminent persons have won Annual Awards. For Yakshagana separate accadamy is founded in 2008-09. Under the chairmanship of Kumble Sundararao.

Source

A Handbook of Karnataka

Wiki http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaanapada

The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature Volume 2, By Amaresh Datta

Narrative sculpture and literary traditions in South and Southeast Asia By Marijke J. Klokke

Related Posts
Folk Epics of Karnataka
Gaadegalu -Kannada Proverbs
Bhavageethe -Poetry Marries Music
Folk Dances of Karnataka
Gamaka : Art of Story Telling
Arts and Crafts of Karnataka

Images

The Hindu

Karnataka Treatises on Music

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Fri, 04 Mar 2011 10:12:00 +0000

As the only surviving seat of governance of India(Malwa, Magada and Karnataka) through the ancient times Karnataka empires and kingdoms has been patronising knowledge, Arts and science for over 2000 years. The Karnatic traditions of Music and Dance have been the only surviving forms of what was standardised in Natyasastra. In fact Dattilam contemproary of Bhratamuni Natyasastra tells about Raga Kannada. The Music that flourished in Royal courts of Karnataka is called carnatic music and Dance form Bhratanatyam. When Adil Shah's and Bhamani kindoms took a piece of karnataka ,they adopted the carnatic music to persian and Arabic tones and we have now Hindustani music. If we say today's Hindustani music is daughter of Carnatic music it will be understatement. Since seeing how Carnatic sangeeta and Bhratanatyam evolved in karnataka is vast topic. I will deal with one topic each. Here I am dealing with list of works on music from karnataka in kannada and Sanskrit.

Brhaddesi Music by Matanga Brhaddesi (5th century AD)

Abhilashitartha Chintamani By Someshvara (1116-27 A.D)

Sangita Chudamani By Jagadekamalla(1138-50 )

Sangeeta Sudhakara

Sangeeta Samayasara by Parsvadeva

Bharatesavaibhava by Ratnakaravarni (12th Century AD)

Sangita Ratnakara By Sarangadeva Suri (12th Century)

Basavapurana by Palkuriki somanatha

Panditaradhya charitra by Palkuriki somanatha

Sangita Suryodaya By Bandaru Lakshminarayana (16th Century )

Sangita sara By Vidyaranya

Kalaanidhi By Chaturakallinatha

Kavya Alankara sutra by Gopenda Tippa

Taladipika by Gopendra Tippa

Sangeeta Suryodaya lakshminarayana

Svaramelakalanidhi By Ramamatya (16th Century)

Shivatatva Ratnakara Immadi Basavappa Nayaka (18th Century )

Kitab I Nauras Ibrahim Adil Shah-2 (16th century )

Sri Tatva Nidhi By Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar (1825 A.D)

Sadraagachandroodaya , Raagamanjari , Raagamalaa and nartana nirNaya By Pundarika Vittala, (16th Century )

Chaturdandi Prakashikaa By Venkatamukhin, (17th century)

Sources
Classical Kannada

Related Posts
Ancient Music
BhavaGeethe
Gamaka
Technical Publications
Topics

Ancient Technical Publications of Karnataka

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Sat, 04 Dec 2010 05:31:00 +0000

Karnataka has been a innovation hub not just now but has been land of science and technology, since time immemorial. Let us see some of the technical writings in ancient times.

Kamasutra(171 BC) by Vatsyayana - work on Erotics (kama)

Gajastaka (8th century AD) by Shivamara II - on Elephant Management in Kannada

Kalyanakaraka (850AD) by Ugraditya - WOrk on Medicine in Sanskrit.

Abhidanaratnamala or Sadrasanighantu (800 to 900 AD) unknown author - Medicinal work in sanskrit with kannada commentary.

Ganitasarasangraha by Mahaviracharya - Mathematics work, ground breaking theories on Algebra, Arithmetic and Geometry

Lokopakaram (978 AD) Chavundaraya - Veterinary Science, Aromatics,Horticulture,Medicine, Astrology, Water resource, Cookery,etc

Gajankusha also known as Narayana wrote on Erotics

Jatakatilaka (1049AD) by Sridharacharya - work on Astrology in Kannada.

Madanatilaka(1050 AD) by Chandraraja - work on erotics in Kannada

Mitakshara (1070 AD) by Vijananeshvara - A legal work on Hindu inheritance in Sanskrit

Kshetraganita, Vyavaharaganita, and Lilavati (1191 AD) by Rajaditya - Mathematical Works in Kannada

Karnataka kalyanakaraka(1150 AD) by Jagaddala Somanatha - work on Medicine in Kannada

Govaidya(12th century AD) by Kirtivarma(chalukya Price) - Work on Vertinary Medicine in Kannada.

Abhilashitartha Chintamani (Manasollasa)(1127-1138 A.D) - work on rt, architecture, dance, music, ornaments, food and drinks, love and lust

Rattamata(1300 AD) by Rattakavi - work on Meterology and omens in kannada.

Khagendramanidarpana(14th century AD) by Mangaraja I - work on Toxicology in kannada.

Akaradi Vaidya Nighantu(1300AD) by Amrita nandi - Kannada Medicine Dictionary with Meanings in Sanskrit.

Asva Vaidya (14th century AD) by Abhinava Chandra - work on Vetinary Medicine. in Kannada.

Manmathavijaya(14th century AD) by Kavi malla

Vaidyamrita(15th century AD) by Sridharadeva - Medical work in Kannada.

Ayurveda Sudhanidhi compiled by Sayana (1570AD) - Work on Ayurvedic Medcine in Sanskrit.

Works on Carnatic Music and Bharathanatyam , which originated in Karnataka and works on Hindustani Music which primarily developed in karnataka are vast, which we will see in another Article.

Ref
History of Kannada Literature by R. Narasimhacharya, Praktana vimarsa vichakshana mahamahopadhyaya rao Bahadur.

Gamaka - Art of Story Telling

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Sat, 20 Nov 2010 10:18:00 +0000

Gamaka or Kavyavachana is a special ancient art of Karnataka. This is one among the 64 vidyas mentioned in the Hindu puranaas. The origin of Gamaka goes back to the age of Ramayana. Adikavi Valmiki taught Ramayana to Lava and Kusha, his disciples in Gamaka form. These two boys sang the whole of Ramayana in musical form before the great Sri Rama. Gamaka is the art of singing classical literature in musical form. Kannada literature is enriched by the classical poetic kavyas of the great poets like Pampa Ranna, Harihara, Raghavanka, Naranappa of Gadag Lakshmeesha, Torave Narahari. These literature are sung in different ragas, according to the meaning bringing out the poetic beauty. Gamaka is the perfect combination of "Kavya" or Literature and music. Artist who sings 'Gamaka' is known as 'Gamaki'. An able Gamaki should be well versed in both Music and Literature.

Gamaka
Gamaka' programme usually will be scheduled by two artists. The 'Gamaki' will sing the kavyas and the other 'Vyakyanakara' will explain the same. Gamaka is a form of story- telling wherein, One person sings a stanza of a poem, applying suitable ragas to it so that is will be melodious to hear. Another person then explains the meaning of the stanza with examples and anecdotes. It demands an in-depth knowledge of Carnatic music, old Kannada epics, the meter(s) of poetry, and the epics and puraanas. Gamaka brings alive great epics for the benefit of the common man. Gamaka draws raagas from traditional Kannada folk Dhaati(tunes) and Carnatic music . The singing itself is called Gamaka and the singer a Gamaki. The explanation of the rendering is called Vyakyana. Most noticeable thing in this art is that the singing has no rhythm.

Vyakhyana
A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in the original, with little elucidations here and there. A Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya, deals with eight different modes of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha, Sandhi, Alankara, Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit and Kannada Sahitya Sastra. An Anu-Vyakhyana - like the one written by Sri Madhva - is a repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An Anuvada is merely a running translation or statement of an abstruse text of the original. Tika is only another name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas, especially on Sankaras Brahmasutra-Bhashya.

Gamaka Development
Gamaka is centuries old, believed to date back to the time when Valmiki narrated the Ramayana and twins Lava-Kusha sang them. Earlier Gamakis were part of Maharaja's court, but their art was not limited to the palace. They sang at temple, wedding, village katte, popularising it among the people. The art slowly faded away but was revived during the 1900's by eminent persons of literature like Prof. A.R. Krishna Shastry, D.V. Gundappa and others. Gamaki gained ground during G. Narayana's tenure as Kannada Sahitya Parishat's President and later as Karnataka Gamaka Kala Parishat's President since 1982.

Gamaka in History

Gamaka as the art of effective recitation of poetry, is probably as old as poetry itself. Poetry being intended to be recited and heard rather than read from the printed or manuscript page and not all poets being adept or effective in presenting their compositions to full effect, a person who specialised in the art of recitation and helped the poet to achieve his/her effect appears to have coexisted with him/her from early times. Appellations like "Gamaki", "Vadi" and "Vagmi" are frequently mentioned in early works as the appellation "Kavi"(poet) does. The royal courts of ancient times had places of equal honour for all these. Early poets like pampa and ponna are clearly referred in this context. The Gamaki enjoyed a place of distinction in royal courts and enjoyed public esteem next only to that of the poet.

Keshiaraja in his sabdamanidarpanam has mentioned Gamaka. There are references in the inscriptions to persons who excelled in this art and enjoyed royal patronage. An Inscription of 1068 described Gangarasa as a great lover of four kinds of artists mentioned earlier(kavi,gamaki,vadi and vagmi). Another inscription of 1255 extols the unsurpassed excellance of one Traividya Balachandra in these arts. Another one of 1533 of the time of Achchyutaraya tells us about a lady of Tirumalamma who was a great gamaki besides poetess on her own right. Innumerable inscription record grants made to persons for reading and reciting puranas in temples for the benefit of the listeners.

Several kannada works from Kavirajamarga down to Bharaesha vaibhava not only bestow high praise on the gamaki but also describe him in action and accordingly define the qualities that go to the making of a great artist in that line. He has poessess a good voice and have the capacity to understand the different sentiments to be expressed and the art of modulating his articulation to suit the sentiment and the situation. Music and Musical accompaniment may have a place in the art, but no more than what can aid and augument the expression of the literary content and intent of the work. An overdoes of music may obscure the literary worth of a poem and its total absence may diminish the depth and intensity of its appeal. The art of effective recitation of poetry, which is gamaka, has to achieve a happy compromise between the two. That is the gist of what poets like kumaravysya and Laksmisha expected this artist to do. There have been many who recited particular works so well and effectively that their names got attached to work themselves. Udayagiri varadani Ramayya and Gubbi Mallanarya became famous for their reading of Basavapurana so much as to join the names of the work and the reciters as if the work belong to them. In our own times we have seen that Bindurao came to be known as Bharata Bindurao because he specialised and excelled in the recitation of Kumarvysya's work.

Kavyas rendered Gamaka
Gamaka includes rendition of the verses in epics like Torave Ramayana and Kumaravyasa Mahabharata set to a classical raga, and an interpretation of the same with a brief explanation generally called vyakyana. The poems are chosen mostly from old Kannada epics such as 'Karnataka Bharatha Kathamanjari', Jaimini Bharatha, Harischandra Kavya, dEvi bhAgavata, and Torave Ramayana.

Gamaka Vachanas
Vachanas are also rendered in Gamaka Style. This is called Gamaka Vachanas. It is also uses Hindustani ragas for rendering the music.

Kumara Vysya Contribution
Kumara Vyasa's works belong to the Nadugannada (Middle-age Kannada) period of Kannada literature. His influence on later Kannada literature is significant. Gadugina Bharata is still widely read. It is popularly sung in a unique style known as Gamaka. Kumara Vyasa's most famous work, the "Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari" (The Mahabharata of Karnataka)is popularly known as Gadugina Bharata and Kumaravyasa Bharata. It is a sublime adaptation of the first ten Parvas (chapters) of the Mahabharata. A devotee of Krishna, Kumara Vyasa ends his epic with the coronation of Yudhishtira, the eldest of the Pandavas. The work is easily the most celebrated in Kannada literature. Its fame arises due to its universal appeal.

Gadugina Bharata is entirely composed in the "Bhamini Shatpadi" meter, a form of six lined stanza. Kumara Vyasa explores a wide range of human emotions, examines values, and displays extensive mastery over vocabulary. The work is particularly known for its use of sophisticated metaphors. It has earned him the honor of "Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti" (Emperor of the World of Metaphors). Kumara Vyasa is also renowned for his characterization. "Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari" is also known as Dasha Parva Bharata because it originally had only 10 parvas as opposed to the 18 in the original Mahabharata. It is said that Kumara Vyasa died before completing the remaining 8 parvas.

There is a strong belief among locals that Kumaravyasa was a blessed poet of Sri Veera Narayana i.e Lord Vishnu. The poet used to sit in front of sanctum sanctorum in the temple and the Lord himself narrated the story of the ancient Mahabharatha from behind the statue. The poet transformed the story into an excellent poetry.

Kumaravyasa has shown an exemplary style of writing in the introduction. He proudly claims that his poetry is matchless and that it caters to the taste of all kinds of readers. He writes "A king enjoys the valor in the poetry, A brahmin the essence of all vedas, Philosopher, the ultimate philosophy, ministers and state administrators the tact of rule, Lovers, the inspiration. Besides this he proudly acclaims that this work of his is the "GURU" of the works of all other great scholars." However, his self-lessness may be noted when he says he merely noted all that was narrated by his lord, his actual poet".

The other, lesser-known work of Kumara Vyasa's is "Airavata."

Misconceptions
Gamaka is different from Gamak and Gamakam, the words used in Carnatic music to refer to the styles of rendering a note (ornaments (in music))

Exponents

Some of the early Gamakis included Abhinava Kalidasa Late Basavappa Shastry, Late Bharat Bindurao, Late Krishnagiri Krishna Rao and Late Shakuntalabai Panduranga Rao while the recent names include B.S.S. Koushik, Hosahalli Keshavamurthy, Gangamma Keshavamurthy and others. Gamaka Gandharva and Rajyothsva Prashasti puraskrutha Hosahalli H R Keshava Murthy is a living legend of Gamaka. Gamakakalanidhi Basavappa Shastri was one of the famous Gamaka singers. Among popular Gamakis are Rajyothsva Prashasti and Kanaka Purandara Prashasti puraskrutha Basavapatna Subbaraya Kaushik, Rajyothsva Prashasti puraskrutha Hosabale Seetharam Rao, Narahari Sharma Kerekoppa, Mattur Ramamurthy, Raghavendra Rao and Kam Su Venkatadri Sarma.

Gamaka Academies
Karnataka Gamaka Kala Parishat (Academy of Gamaka Art, Karnataka) is an organisation that is formed to support and encourage the Gamaka Art form. Over the last 28 years, Karnataka Gamaka Kala Parishat has been working in Bengaluru to popularise the art of Gamaka. The Parishat has its branches in all the districts of Karnataka. There are about 450 active Gamakis, of which over 100 are in Bengaluru.
Sankethi Sangeetha Saba
Vidyaranya Veda Patashale
Kannada Sahrudaya Prathistana conducts Gamaka recitals throughout the year at the famous “Kumara Vyasa Mantapa”, Rajajinagar.

Gamaka Innovations
Gamaka, though it is essentially the art of poetical recitation, has not always remained so confined. Varadachar and Gurudanagiri Nagesh Roa were well known for their rendering of "Kanda" verses from the stage. In rendering shatpadis effectively Balakawadi srinivas Iyengar and Chikka Rama Rao had made a great name. Basvappa Shastri enjoyed great reputation for his reading of Bharata.

The art of Bhagavata in Yakshaganas is not very different from that of the gamaki proper except that his rendings subserves the immediate purpose of the dramatic situation to be enacted. The singing of the Bhagavata links up the sophisticated art of the gamaka with the unsophisticated art of folk song.

Enlighted Audience
The Gamaka not only requires talented Gamaki's and Great works but also Enlighted audience. The Audience quest for Knowledge and Enlightenment, which you find abundantly in Karnataka has contributed to the flourishing Gamaka tradition. Not till very long ago kumaravysya's Bharata and Lakshmisha Jaimini Bharata were very commonly read to rural audiences in karnataka. Such sessions served the purpose of both entertainment and enlightenment. The Gamaka Tradition was thriving in 9th century AD as seen from the words Gamaki and Gamaka used to refer to the artists. Even if less than before, these and other classics of kannada poetry continue to be popular when recited by competent gamakis. One more work in the form of kuvempu's Ramayana darshanam has been added in recent gamaka repertoire. Among gamakis who acquired fame during the last few decades of this century the prominent ones are krishnagiri krishna rao, kalale sampathkumarachar, Bharat Bindu Rao, K.T.Ramaswami Iyengar, H.K Ramaswami , chandrasekharyya, Raghavendra Rao, Shakuntalabai panduranga Rao and Kaushik. All of them displayed mastery in the ancient and popular art of poetical recitation and have successfully maintained the old tradion.

References
"Dr. Suryanath U. Kamat", A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002)
The Art of Posterity by Jyothi Raghuram
http://karnatakagamakakala.org/
http://www.iadvaita.com/
http://www.kamat.com

Origin of Satavahana

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Sat, 20 Nov 2010 07:21:00 +0000

Satavahana Dynasty is also called Andhra’s. Let us analyze this

Who is Satavahana dynasty?
The Satavahanas were the political successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and their rule lasted for four and a half centuries from about 230 B.C. their empire seems to have extended from the Konkan Coast in the West to the Godavari and Krishna Deltas in the East, while to the South it must have reached as far as Chandravalli.

Where is this claim made?
If we search the various sources. We can see this claim comes only with reference to Puranas.Those who claim Satavahana as Andhra’s cite the Puranas as the only source. Let us see the various Puranas.

1. No where in the Puranas Satavahana’s is mentioned.
2. No where we have any references to Satavahana kings.

So what does the purana’s tell?

Matsya Purana: Sisuka Vishnu Purana: Sipraka
Vayu Purana: Sindhuka Bhagvatha Purana: Vrsola Bali (i.e. Strong Sudra)
Brahmanda Purana: Chismaka

All this is supposedly to refer to King Simuka who established Satavahana dynasty.

All Purana’s refer second king as Krishna

Third is given as
Matsya: Sri-Mallakarni Vayu, Brahmanda, And Vishnu: Sri Satakarni
Bhagvatha: sri-Santakarna

The List of Names in Matsya Purana
1.Sisuka (Chimuka)-23 years, 2.Krishna-18 yrs, 3.Sri Mallakarni (Satakarni I)-10yrs, 4.Purnotsanga-18 yrs, 5.Skandhastambhi-18 yrs, 6.Satakarni (Satakarni II)-56 yrs, 7.Lambodara-18 yrs, 8.Apilaka-12 yrs, Meghasvati-18yrs, 0.Svati-18 yrs, 11.Skanasvati 7 rs, 12.Mrgendra Svatikarna-3yrs, 13.Kuntala Svatikarna 8 yrs, 14.Svatikarna-1 yr, 15.Pulumavi (Pulumavi I)-36 yrs, 16.Riktavarna-25 yrs, 17.Hala-5 yrs, 18.Mandalaka-5 yrs, 19.Purindrasena-5 yrs, 20.Sundara Satakrna-1 yr, 21.Chakora Svatikarna-6 months,22.Sivasvati-28 yrs,23.Gautamiputra Satakarni-21 yrs,24.Pulumavi(Pulumavi II)28 yrs,25.Sivasri-7 yrs,26.Sivaskanda Satakarni-7 yrs,27.Yajnasri Satakarni-29 yrs,28.Vijaya-6 yrs,29.Chandasri Satakarna-10 yrs, and 30.Pulumavi(Pulumavi III).

Let us see what the coins and inscriptions say
Chimuka, Krishna, Satakarni I, Satakarni II, Sata, Apilaka, Hala, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vasistiputra Sri Pulumavi, Vasistiputra Sivasri Satakarni, Vasistiputra Satakarni, Sivasri Pulumavi, Skanda Satakarni, Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni, Vijaya Satakarni, Vasishtiputra Chandra Satakarni, Pulumavi, Kausikiputra Satakarni, Saka Satakarni, Rudra Satakarni, Kumba Satakarni and Karna Satakarni.

Let us see when the purana’s are written?
Puranas were written between 300AD to 1000AD. A difference of around 500 years, significant time for discrepancies to creep in. which is why it misses out on many names and many characteristics of Satavahana’s. The reason why they were Andhra’s has crept in.

Some writers like V.S. Sukthankar, H. C. Raychaudhury and K. P. Jayaswal have not accepted the identification of Satavahanas with the Andhras.They have argued that the inscriptions mention these rulers as Satavahanas and not as Andhra’s, and that the language of the inscriptions is Prakrit and not Andhra. Moreover, the early evidences of the Satavahanas rule are not found in Maharashtra, and they might only have drifted into Andhradesa towards the end of their rule.

Some of these kings are not listed in the Puranas. It may be relevant to note that except for Chimuka no other Satavahana king called himself as Satavahana. Most others called themselves as Satakarnis or Pulumavis after their great early rulers of that name. No purana ever mentioned a king by the name as Satavahana or Sadavahana.

Let us see other evidences.

1. Contemporary inscriptions at Hathigumpha (150BC) referred to them as
Satavahanas
2. Line four of Hathigumpha inscription refer him as Satakamni
3. Epigraph of Visitthiputta Ananda of (1st Century BC) refer him as Satakani
4. Nasik Inscription of (1st century BC) refer him as Sadakani
5. Nanghat inscription refer Satakani
6. Coins issued by Satavahanas refer as Satakani, Satakamni

Vahana and kanni means same that is son, so we can reasonably assume sata as dynastic name. It means Sata’s Son

You can see none them refer them as Andhra’s, only in purana’s you can see Andhra Tag that is also not to the same names. So we can clearly see Satavahana’s are not Andhra’s.

So if they are not Andhra’s who are they?
1.Satavahan’s have their capital in Paithan. The ancient city of Pratisthan
now Paithan was the seat of Satvahana dynasty who ruled from 2nd century
BC to 2nd century AD. This is in ancient kuntala (kanara country) and not
Andhra.
2.Chutu’s (another line of Satkarnis) occupied most of the western Karnataka
with a capital at Vaijayantipura (Banwasi). Even though one more line of
Satakarni’s ruled Andhra, but chutu’s are called Kannada rulers.
3.Kuntala Satakarni denotes the king is from kuntala not Andhra.
4.Satavahanas never called themselves Andhra’s
5.Sukthankar held the view that Bellary district was the original home of
the Satavahanas
6.Satavahan’s were more interested in western region than in eastern Andhra
region showing they were not from the region

So Satavahan’s are of Kuntala and Kannada origin not Andhra Origin

Kuntala
In ancient times the areas south of the Godavari river including southern districts of modern Maharashtra, northern districts of modern Karnataka and south Karnataka districts of Shimoga and Chitradurga were collectively called Kuntala. An inscriptional passage the upper valley of the Krishna points to this theory [Ep. Ind., Vol. XII, p. 153. See Mirashi, Studies in Indology,]. In the Sanskrit work Udayasundarikatha of Soddhala (11th cent. A.D.) Pratishthana on the Godavari is said to be the capital of the Kuntala country. In early times Kuntala was probably included in the larger country called Maharashtra. The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshi II includes all these areas mentioned in Kuntala as Maharashtra. This designation of the entire area seems to be confirmed in Chinese notes as well. During these times, Kuntala came to denote the predominantly Kannada-speaking country, further corroborating views of historians such as Dr. Altekar and Dr. P.B. Desai. The Early Chalukyas of Badami and the Later Chalukyas of Kalyani were known as Kuntaleshvaras or lords of Kuntala. All their inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit and their regal capitals at different times, Badami, Manyakheta(Malkhed in Gulbarga district) and Kalyani were also in present day Karnataka, which historically would be southern Kuntala. During these times however, the districts of Kolhapur, Satara, Sholapur, Ahmadnagar and Bid which are now Marathi-speaking, were included in Kuntala, indicating that Kannada country spread much further north of today's political boundaries. The Kannada classic Kavirajamarga calls the entire region between the Godavari and Kaveri rivers as Karnataka indicating Kannada country at one time extended far north and east of present day boundaries. Perhaps this was the region that embraced Hale Kannada as the official language. It is well known that during these times, Kannada and Telugu were written in Hale Kannada script. The Early Rashtrakuta, who were ruling over this territory as feudatory of the Chalukyas, were known as Kuntaleshvaras as well and their inscriptions call their overlords at that time as Karnataka Bala. Much later their imperial empire would rule large parts of India from regal capital Manyakheta in present day Karnataka, though as their empire grew they had many provincial capitals.

Their oldest inscription is found in Satara district of Maharashtra belonging to 6th century. In it Rashtrakuta king Avidheya has donated a village to learned Brahmins. The inscription is in Sanskrit written in Brahmi script. This has confirmed their origin at above place generally called Kuntala. From above theories it is clear that the ancient regional names such as Kuntala, Karnata or Maharshtra may have covered large common areas in the deccan at different times in Indian history

History of Karnataka literature

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Wed, 01 Sep 2010 04:32:00 +0000

Karnataka literature denotes to the wealth of literature created in the region of Karnataka in South India roughly corresponding to the modern state of Karnataka. This literature includes works in Kannada, Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Chutu Satakarni
Gaha Sattasai (Sanskrit: Gātha Saptashati) By Hala
Brihatkadha by Gunadhya
Kamasutra by Vatsyayana

Badami Chalukya(500-750AD)
Karnateshwara Katha, a eulogy for King Pulakesi II (lost)
Prabhrita by Syamakundacharya (650) (lost)
Chudamani by Srivaradhadeva (Tumubulucharya 650AD) (lost)

Western Ganga Dynasty (350-999)
Pujyapada (Sarvathasiddi , Jinendra Vyakarana, KalayanaKaraka in Sanskrit)
Jinasena II (Adipurana - Sanskrit)
Ajitasena
Bharavi
Akalanka or Nemichandrasiddanta
King Madhava II (370-390 AD) (Dattaka Sutrain Sanskrit)
King Durvinita(495-535 AD) (Reference to his Kannada work in Kavirajamarga, Vaddakatha Sanskrit translation,Sabdavatara a work on Sanskrit grammar, commentary on the 15th sarga of Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya in Sanskrit )
Sripurusha (Gajasastra)
King Shivamara II (788-816 AD) (Gajashtaka, a Kannada work on elephant management, and Sethubandha in Prakrit).
Hemasena or Vidya Dhananjaya (Raghavpandaviya)
Vidhibhasimha (Gadyachintamani and Kshatrachudamani)
Guru Nemichandra (Gommatasara book on jain philosophy, his title was Siddhant-Chakravarti and was guru of Chavundaraya)
Chavundaraya (978 AD) (Chavundarayapurana, Charitrasara, Trishashti LaksanPurana -Kannada)
Gunavarma (Kannada Grammar)
Nagavarma (Chandombhudhi)
Jinasena I (738 AD) (Harivamsha - Sanskrit)

Rashtrakutas (753-973)
Trivikrama (Nalachampu in Sanskrit)
Halayudha (Kavirahasya and Mritasanjivini)
Somadevasuri (Nitikavyamrita)
Mahaviracharya (Ganita-sara-samgraha)
Padma pada
Visvarupa
Virasenacharya (Jayadhavala-tika)
Jinasenacharya (Parsvabhyudaya Mahapurana , Dhavala)
Gunabhadra (Uttarapurana - Sanskrit)
Pushpadanta
Akalanka
Asaga (Vardhamana Purana-Kannada)
King Amoghavarsha I Nripatunga, (Prashottara Ratnamakike, Kavirajamarga, a treatise on Kannada poetics, 850 A.D.)
Sri Ponna (950 AD) (title, Kavichakravarthi wrote Bhuvanaika- Ramabhyudaya, Santipurana and Jinaksaramale - Kannada)
Adikavi Pampa ( 902-975 AD) (called Adhikavi wrote Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya in Kannada)
Shivakotiacharya (Vaddaradhane 900 CE earliest prose in Kannada borrowed from Sanskrit work Brihatkathakosha of Harishena)
Sri Vijaya
Rudrabhatta of Banahatti - Kannada
Ravinagabhatta who wrote a record for Govinda IV - Kannada
Kavi Rajaraja wrote the Kalasa record, minister of Krishna II - Kannada
Gajankusha who wrote on erotics - Kannada

Western Chalukyas (973-1189)
Ranna (949 AD) (Ajitapurana, Sahasabhimavijaya, Gadayuddha, and Rannakanda - Kannada)
Chavundaraya II (Lokopakara,An important literary source in Kannada dealing with variety of subjects useful for mankind such as Veterinary Science, Aeromatics,Horticulture,Medicine, Astrology, Water resource,Cookery,etc belonging to 11 C AD - Kannada)
Chandraraja (Madanatilaka, a work on erotics - Kannada)
Shridharacharya (Jatakatilaka is a work on astrology - Kannada)
Kirtivarma (1125 AD) (Govaidya on veterinary science - Kannada)
Durgasimha (panchatantra - Kannada)
Nagavarma (Kavyavalokana - Kannada)
Brahmashiva (Samayaparikshe - Kannada)
Devara Dasimayya (Vachanakara belonged to this period - Kannada)
Vadiraja ( Yashodharacharitam and Parshvanatha Charitam - Sanskrit)
Bilhana (Vikramankadeva Charitha, The Kashmiri poet immortalized the name of his patron Vikramaditya VI through this work - Sanskrit)
Vijananeshvara (Mitakshara, a commentary on Yajnavalkya Smriti - Sanskrit)
Someshwara III (Abhilashithartha Chinthamani or Manasollasa, an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences and Chandraprabhacharite - Sanskrit)
Jagadekamalla (Sangithachudamani in Sanskrit)
Jagaddala Somanatha (Karnataka Kalyanakaraka) Kannada work on Ayurvedic medicine (1150 AD)
Karnaparya (1140 AD) (Neminatha purana- Kannada)
Nayasena (1112 AD) (Dharmamrita- Kannada)
Brahmasiva (1150 AD) (Samayaparikshe- Kannada)
Naga Chandra (Jain Ramayana- Kannada)
Kanti (Jain poetess - Kannada),
Shantiraja (Sukumaracharita - Kannada)
Nagavarma II (Kavyavalokana, Karnataka Bhashabhushana and Abhidana Vastukosha, Kirtti Varman and Vritta Vilasa-Kannada).

Hoysala Empire (1000-1346)
Madhvacharya(1238-1317 AD) wrote Rigbhashya in Sanskrit - propounded Dvaita Philosophy
Vidyatirtha (Rudraprashnabhashya - Sanskrit)
Nagachandra (Ramachandra Charita Purana, and Mallinathapurana - Kannada. He known as Abhinava Pampa).
Kanti (poetess)
Vishnudandadipa
Santa Mahanta
Harihara (Girija Kalyana, BasavarajadevaraRagale - Kannada)
Raghavanka (established Shatpadi, , Harischandra Kavya, Siddhara Chanitra, Veeresha Charite,Sharabha Charitre, somanathacharita and Harihara Mahatwa - Kannada)
Janna (1191-1230 AD) (Yashodhara Charite and Ananthanatha Purana- Kannada. Obtained title Kavichakravarti)
Nemichandra (1170 AD) ( (Leelavati, Neminatha Purana - Kannada)
Achanna (1195 AD) (Vardhamana Purana)
Rudra Bhatta (Jagannatha Vijaya - Kannada)
Mallikarjuna (Sukti & Sudharnava- Kannada)
Kesiraja (Shabdamanidarpana- Kannada grammar)
Hastimalla (1290 AD) (Adipurana- Kannada)
Andayya (1235 AD) - (Vardhamana Purana, Kabbigarakava - Kannada)
Choundarasa (1300 AD) (Abhinava-DashaKumara Charitha and Nala Champu - Kannada)
Rajaditya (1191 AD) (Kshetraganita, Vyavaharaganita, and Lilavati on mathematics-Kannada)
Ratta Kavi (1300 AD) (Rata-Mata work on meteorological topics - Kannada)
Bandhuvarma (1200 AD) (Neminatha Purana, Harivamsha - Kannada)
Mahabalakavi (1254 AD) (Neminatha Purana - Kannada)
Sumanobana - Kannada poet
Padmarasa (Dikshabodhe - Kannada)
Hastimalla (1290 AD) (Adipurana)
Trivikrama (Ushaharana, Dvaita philosohpy - Sanskrit)
Narayana Pandita (Madhwavijaya, Manimanjari and Parijataharana - Sanskrit)
Anandabodha - Advaitha Philosophy - Sanskrit
Vidyacharkarvartin II (Rukminikalyana - Sanskrit)

The Kalachuri kingdom (1130-1184), Virashaiva Saints and Vachanakaras
Basavanna (known as Basaveshvara wrote the spiritual lyrics vachanas- Kannada)
Renukacharya
Darukacharya
Ekoramacharya
Panditaradhyacharya
Vishwaradhyacharya
Akkamahadevi
Nilambike
Gangambike
Allama Prabhu
Siddarama
Chennabasava
Madivala Machayya (vachanakara- Kannada)
Madara Channayya (vachanakara -Kannada)
Sakalesha Madarasa (vachanakara-Kannada)
Ramanna (vachanakara-Kannada)
Sujikayakada Ramitande (vachanakara-Kannada)
Medara Ketayya (vachanakara-Kannada)
Kayakada Basappa (vachanakara-Kannada)
Virupaksha Pandita - (Chennabasavapurana- Kannada)
Dharani Pandita - (Bijjalarayacharite - Kannada)
Chandrasagara Varni (Bijjalarayapurana- Kannada)

Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri(850-1315)
Kamalabhava (Santhishwarapurana - Kannada)
Achanna (Varadhamanapurana - Kannada)
Amugudevi - Vachanakara
Chundarasa of Pandharapura (DashakumaraCharite - Kannada)

Vijayanagara Empire (1335-1565), Kannada Haridasa Sahitya
Kumara Vyasa (1430 AD) (Gadugina Bharata or Karnataka Bharata KathaManjari a Kannada adaptation of Mahabharata and Airavata. His title was Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti (Emperor of the World of Metaphors).)
Narahri or Kumara Valmiki (1500 AD) (Torave Ramayana in Kannada & Smriti Kaustubha in Sanskrit)
Vittalanatha (Bhagavatha)-Kannada
Ratnakarvarni (16th century) (Bharatesha Vaibhava, Triloka Sataka,Someswara Sataka) - Kannada
Nanjunda -Kumara Rama Charita (16th century) - Kannada
BhimaKavi - Basavapurana(1369 AD) - Kannada
Padmanaka - Kannada
Kereya Padmarasa - Padmaraja Purana (1385 AD) - Kannada
Lakkana Dandesa Shivatatwa Chintamani (1428 AD) - -Kannada
Gubbi Mallanacharya - Veerasaivamrita (1513 AD) - Kannada
Singiraja - Kannada
Chamarasa (Prabhulinga Leele) -Kannada
Akalanka (16th century), Jain scholar - Kannada
Bhattakalaka (16th century) -Kannada grammrian
Mangaraja (1360 AD) (Khagendra-Mani-Darpana, work on poisons and antidotes) -Kannada
Sayana (Vedartha Prakasha, Yajnatantra Sudhanidhi, Prayaschitra Sudhanidhi and Purushartha Sudhanidhi) -Sanskrit
Madhava Vidyaranya (Parasara – Madhaviya, Sarva-darshana-samgraha) -Sanskrit
Devanna Bhatta (Smriti Chandrika) - Sanskrit
Gangadevi (Poetess, Madhura Vijayam) - Sanskrit
Tirumalamba Devi (Poetess, Varadambika Parinayam) - Sanskrit
Krishnadevaraya (Madalasa Charita, Satyavadu Parinaya, Rasamanjari, Nyayamritam, Tarkatandava, Tatparya Chandrika - Sanskrit
Ramaraja (Bakhair - Battle of Talikota - Persian??)
Timmanna Kavi, patronised by king Krishnadevaraya, Kannada
Kereya Padmarasa, Padmaraja Purana - Kannada
Linganna, Keladinripavijayam - Kannada
Unknown author, Krishnadevarayana Dinachari is a recent discovery in Kannada.
Chatu Vithalanatha, Kannada
Madhura, Kannada
Salva
Mallanarya, Veerasaivamrita- Kannada
Lakkana Dandesa, Shivatatwa Chintamani - Kannada
Shivagna Prasadi Mahadevayya and Halageyadeva ,Shunya Sampadane- Kannada
Kallumathada Prabhuva - Kannada
Jakkanna - Kannada
Maggeya Mayideva - Kannada
Tontada Siddalingayati - Kannada

Haridasa
Narahari Thirtha
Padmanabha Thirtha
Akshobhya Thirtha
Jayatirtha - Nyaya sudha, Tattva prakashika, Prameya deepika, Nyaya deepika Important works
Sripadaraya of Mulbagal (1500 AD)
Vyasatirtha (1447 – 1539 AD) - Guru of Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa and Krishnadevaraya wrote Nyayamritam, Tarkatandava, Tatparya Chandrika Important Works
Sri Vadirajaswami
Purandaradasa (1484 – 1564 AD) (Father of Carnatic music. Composed 475,000 songs in Kannada. His titles wereDasaShreshta Purandaropanishat, Sangitapitamaha)
Kanakadasa (1509 - 1607 AD) (Padas and Keertans
RamadhyanaCharite, Haribhakthisara,Kalacharithre, Mohana Tarangini, Nalacharitre - Kannada)

Later Haridasa
Guru Raghavendra Swami (1600-1671 AD) the great Sage of Manthralaya.Important works
Vijaya Dasa (1687–1755 AD)
Mohana Dasa
Gopala Dasa (1721–1762 AD)
Helavanakatte Giriyamma
Jagannatha Dasa (1728–1809 AD) (Harikathamrithasara, Uga Bhogas, Keerthanas and Tathva Suvalis- Kannada)

Kannada literature from Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka kingdom
Basappanayaka (Shivatatwa Ratnakara - History Keladi Kings)
Linganna (Keladi Napra Vijaya- History of Keladi Kings)
Chikkupadhyaya, Minister and teacher of His Highness Sri Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar, (1670 AD) - more than 30 works in Kannada
Tirumalaraya (1680 CE) (Chikkadevaraja Vijayam, Chikkadevaraja Vamshaavali - History of Mysore Kings)
Govinda Vaidya (1648 CE) (Narasaraja Vijaya - History of Mysore Kings)
Bhattakalanka Deva (1604 AD) (Karnataka Shabdaushasana on grammar)
Sakdakshara Deva (1657 AD) (Rajshekhara Vilasa- romantic champu)
Noorondayya (1740 AD) (Soundara Kavya)
Nijaguna Yogi (1650 AD) (Viveka Chintamani- Shaiva work)
Nanja Raja (1760 AD) (Shiva Bhakti Mahatmya and Hari Vamsa - Puranic works)
Brahma Kavi (Samaya Pariksha)
Sarvajna (1650 AD) (tripadis or vachanas pithy three lined poems in Kannada)\

Kannada Literature From Old Bangalore (18th - 21st century AD)
18th Century Kannada
Guru Nanjesh (Jayastuti)
Ekambara Dikshit (Veerabhdra Vijaya)
Jayaram Pande (Radha Madhava Vilasa)
Mudduveeraswamy (1700 AD) (Vachanakara)
Sarpabhooshana Shivayogi (1795-1839 AD) (Vachanakara)
Mahant Desika (Vachanakara)
Jeerage Basavalingacharya (Vachanakara)

19th Century Kannada (topics-grammar, linguistics, Jain and Virashaiva philosophy, geology, agriculture, politics)
Siddhanti Velanada
Subramanya Shastri
Siddhanti Shivakumara Shastri
Srinivasa
Nagasharma
Dakshinamurthy Shastri
Padmaraja Bhramasuri
Ramanathapuram Raguraya
S.N. Narasimhaiah
Doddabele Narayana Shastri - commentary on Jaimini Bharatha, Sundarakhanda, translations of Kalidasa works

20th century Kannada
Bidare Ashwatha Narayana shastri (Dhammapada)
B. Puttiah (priniting technology)
Panyam Sudarashastri (a translation of Bhasa Dharma)
S.K. Nasasimhaiya (biography of Magadi Kempe Gowda)
Toppulu Raghavacharya (translation of commentary on Gita)
Mahant desika (Yakshagana composition)
Balasaraswati (first detective novel)
Mahadevaswamy (nicknamed Abhinava Allama)
Pt. Shivakumar Swamy
Siddalingaswamy of Beli Matha
Nanjundaswamy of Guruvanna Matha
Pt. B. Shivamurty Shastri

20th century Sanskrit Keerthanakaras
Singeri NarasimhaShastri
M. Lakshminarasimha Shastri
Varada Desikachar
Jaggu Vakulabhushana
Rariapalli Anantha Krishna Sharma
Motaganahalli Subramanya Shastri

2oth century harikathe dasaru
Gururajulu Naidu
Sant Keshava Das
Bhadragiri Achuth Das
Malur Sonnappa
Muiratnam Mudaliar

Modern Kannada Poets, Scholars & Writers (Navya, Navodaya or Bandaya Style)
Jnanpitha Awardees
Kuvempu
D. R. Bendre
Shivaram Karanth
Maasti Venkatesh Ayengar
V. K. Gokak
U. R. Ananthamurthy
Girish Karnad

Sahitya Academy Awardees
1955 'Kuvempu' (K. V. Puttappa) Sri Ramayana Darsanam (Epic)
1956 R.S. Mugali Kannada Sahitya Charitre (History of Literature)
1958 D. R. Bendre Aralu-Maralu (Poetry)
1959 K.S. Karanth Yakshagana Bayalata (A treatise on folk-drama)
1960 'Vinayaka' (V. K. Gokak) Dyava-Prithvi (Poetry)
1961 A.R. Krishna Sastri Bengali Kadambarikara Bankim Chandra (A critical study)
1962 Devudu Narasimha Sastri Mahakshatriya (Novel)
1964 B. Puttaswamayya Kranti-Kalyana (Novel)
1965 S.V. Ranganna Ranga Binnapa (Philosophical reflections)
1966 P.T. Narasimhachar Hamsa Damayanti Mattu Itara Rupakagalu (Musical plays)
1967 D.V. Gundappa Shrimad Bhagavadgita Tatparya Athava Jivanandharmayoga (Philosophical expositions)
1968 'Srinivasa' (Masti Venkatesa Iyengar) Sannakathegalu (12-13) (Short stories)
1969 H. Tipperudraswamy Karnataka Samskriti Sameekshe (Cultural study)
1970 S.B. Joshi Karnataka Samskritiya Poorva Peethike (Cultural study)
1971 Adya Rangacharya Kalidasa (Literary criticism)
1972 S.S. Bhoosnurmath Shoonyasampadaneya Paramarshe (Commentary)
1973 V. Sitaramiah Aralu Baralu (Poetry)
1974 Gopalakshrishna Adiga Vardhamaana (Poetry)
1975 S.L. Bhyrappa Daatu (Novel)
1975 L. Gundappa Translations from Tamil, Sanskrit to Kannada
1976 M. Shivaram Mana Manthana (Psychiatric studies)
1977 K.S. Narasimhaswamy Tereda Baagilu (Poetry)
1978 B.G.L. Swamy Hasuru Honnu (Travelogue)
1979 A.N. Moorthy Rao Chitragalu Patragalu
1980 Goruru Ramaswami Iyengar Americadalli Goruru (Travelogue)
1981 Chennaveera Kanavi Jeewa Dhwani (Poetry)
1982 Chanduranga Vyshakha (Novel)
1983 Yashwant Chittal Katheyaadalu Hudugi (Short stories)
1984 G.S. Sivarudrappa Kavyartha Chintana (Literary criticism)
1985 T.R. Subba Rao Durgaasthamaana (Novel)
1986 Vyasaraya Ballal Bandaaya (Novel)
1987 K.P. Poornachandra Tejaswi Chidambara Rahasya (Novel)
1988 Shankar Mokashi Punekar Avadheshwari (novel)
1989 H.M. Nayak Samprati (Belles Lettres)
1990 Devanur Mahadeva Kusuma Bale (Novel)
1991 Chandrasekhar Kambar Sirisampige (Play)
1992 Subbanna Ekkundi Bakulada Hoovugalu (Poetry)
1993 P. Lankesh Kallu Karaguva Samaya (Short stories)
1994 Girish Raghunath Karnad Tale Danda (play)
1995 Kirtinath Kurtkoti Uriya Nalage (Criticism)
1996 G.S. Amur Bhuvanada Bhagya (Literary Criticism)
1997 M. Chidananda Murthy Hosatu Hosatu (Criticism)
1998 B.C. Ramchandra Sharma Sapthapadi (Poetry)
1999 D. R. Nagaraj Sahitya Kathana (Essays)
2000 Shantinath Kuberappa Desai Om Namo (Novel)
2001 L. S. Seshagiri Rao English Sahitya Charitre (Literary history)
2002 Sujana (S. Narayana Shetty) Yugasandhya (Epic)
2003 K.V. Subbanna Kaviraja Marga Mattu Kannada, Jagattu (Essays)
2004 Geetha Nagabhushana Baduku (Novel)
2005 Raghavendra Patil Teru (Novel)

Kendra Sahitya Academy Awardees (Translation)
2005 Dr. Panchakshari Hiremath, Urdu to Kannada

Other Eminent Writers
De. Javare Gowda
Samethanahalli Rama Rao (Raasa)
Anupama Niranjana
B M Srikanthaiah (B M Sri)
Dr. A. N. Krishna Rao (Anakru)
G P Rajarathnam
G.B.Joshi (JadaBharata)
M Govinda Pai
M.V.Seetaramiah
Nisar Ahmed K.S.
P Lankesh
Dr.Panchakshari Hiremath
Panje Mangesh Rao
S.V.Parameshwara Bhatta
T. P. Kailasam - drama
Tha. Ra. Subbarao
Thee. Nam. Shree
R.K. Narayan, Noted Indian Author
R.K. Laxman, Famous Indian Cartoonist & Humorist
Kamala Markhandaya
Triveni (Sharapanjara)Novelist
G.P.Rajaratnam (Ratnana Padagalu)
Beechi - humorist
Dr M.Shivaram, Rashi - humorist
T. Sunandamma - humorist
H.L. Nage Gowda - folklorist
Anakaru - Novelist
M. Ramamurthy
K.V Iyer
Devudu
Niranjana
Na. Kasturi
Navaratna RamaRao
T.T Sharma - Journalism
VeeraKesari
Siddavanahalli Krishna Sharma
Hariharapriya
R.Kalyanamma
Tirumale Rajamma
Ambabai
H.V. Savitramma
H.S. Parvathi
Chi. Na. Mangala
H.R. Indira
M.K. Indira
M.V. Kanakamma
Nirupama
N. Pankaja
Usha Navaratna Ram
Kakolu Saroja Rao
Anupama Niranjana
Vi. Seetharamiah . - Poet, Critic
Basavaraja Kattimani
Nanjanagudu Tirumalamba (authoress)
Sundar V. Nadkarni Fiction writer and Poet
Ta. Raa.Subba Rao Novelist
Veenaa Shantheshvara Short Story Writer
Vaidehi Short Story Writer
Sumangala Short Story Writer
Dr K R Sandhya Reddy Poet, Story Writer, Folk Literature
Prathibha Nandakumar Poetess
D.R.Nagraj Critic
K.V.Narayana Literary Critic and Linguist
B.C.Ramachandra Sharma Poet and Fictionist
Shanhinatha Desai Novelist, Story Writer
Kum. Veerabhadrappa Novelist, Story Writer
Gowri Lankesh, Columnist
Vishweswara Bhat, Columnist
Ravi Hanj, Columnist
B.V Veerabhadrappa, Columnist
A N Murthy Rao
Shivarudraprasad, shimoga. poet and story writer
won prize for his story from Samyuktha Karnataka News daily,2007

Christian Missionaries Literature
Rev. John Garet (translated Bible, Bhagavadgita, Panchatantra, Shabda Manidarpana to Kannada)
Daniel Sanderson
Ellis Robert
Rev. B.L Rice
Edward Peter Rice

Ref
Dr. Suryanath U. Kamat, A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041
Prof K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, 1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002), ISBN 019560686-8
R. Narasimhacharya, History of Kannada Literature, 1988, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras,1988 ISBN 81-206-0303-6.
Ramachandra Sidenur, Karmanye Vadhi Karaste, 2004, Dharwad
History of Karnataka, Arthikaje
History of Kannada Literature, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
Literature from old Bangalore
Dvaita saints

Source Wiki
List is incomplete with prehistoric, Satavahana, Kadamba, Chalukya and many other dynasties Literature not added. Will be Added shortly.

Kasuti - Mother of world Embroidery

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Sun, 18 Jul 2010 12:04:00 +0000

Kasuti also spelt kasooti is the oldest form of Embroidery in India. Home to Satavahanas, chutus, Kadambas, Chalukyas, Ratrakutas,Hoysalas,Seunas, Vijayanagar and much more is also home to various arts, Karnataka is said to be the master of all 64 arts and one of them is Kasuti

Kasuti - Etymology
Kasuti can be broken down to ky - hand , suti- weave. Kasuti is called Kashida in North India.

Features

Kasuti was done on Ilkal saris woven in North Karnataka town called Ilkal in pit looms. These are woven in cotton and silk. The Dark background of Ilkal sari provide a good base for the colors used in Kasuti embroidery. These saris had a distinct style- a 4" of border, which was generally in deep shades of red and this enveloped a well woven sari with a red pallav carrying white panels called tope and tenni. Kasuti embroidery is done above this pallav in a border called bugadi. which forms the base of the embroidery to follow. This continous border is worked in gavanti stitch,which has been known to mean knot stitch or rural stitch. After this the large patterns on the sari emerge. The Chariot Ratha,or a tree with peacocks or flowers and this distribution of motis grows sparse as it travels away from the pallav,becoming small flowers and dots. Which are worked into the pleats of the sari.

Originally this embroidery was done by women with silk threads,which were taken directly from the weavers of the Ilkal saris. Later weavers sold these saris with 10" of extra silk thread in the wrap, which hung from the pallav area. This way the colours used in the embroidery blended well and the combinations were never garnish. The most readily available medium they could use was their daily clothing, which were saris,cholis,kunchis(bonnets) and lahngas or skirts.

The various themes that are embroidered in Kasuti are that of gopuram, bells, chariots, temple sculpture, flowers, animals etc. Appearing same on both the sides, various designs include Dagabaji Gopura, Gandolagida, Tulasi, Vankipatti, Kayapatti, Gopi Kamala Chittu Kamala, Gundala Gopura etc. Than the geometrical designs of the Kasuti have been educed from the temple structure.

Influences
Kasuti embroidery is every rich in symbolic motifs as the finest examples of this embroidery are found where vijaynagar ,Chalukya court influence was the strongest, the present Bijapur and Dharwad area's. Hence the inspiration of these womenfolk were symbols and designs which came from the temples, cavees, shrines,beautifully sculptured edifices with exquisite patterns, the flora and fauna of the region, and anything that their eyes could relate to.

Religion and Kasuti
Until recently, it was customary for brides to be presented with blue black Ilkal saris with kasuti embroidery on it. In earlier days, the girls themselves embroidered this sari known as chandrakali sari, which is nine yard Ilkal sari to be readied for their marrige. A Chandrakali sari taken by the bride as she goes to her husband house was traditionally woven with indio dyed warp and black weft. In fact the use of indigo as warp was mandatory in Ilkal sarees and thus the different colours woven would have light and shade effect. The Chandrakala was considered Shubha Shagun- Good Omen.

Among the Lingayats a hand embroidery khun or choli was considered a most appropriate gift for an expectant mother. The dreams and desires of these young girls find experssion in these embroidery pieces. Along the border, one may find horse, which is ridden by horseman, maybe a palanquin, which might take her to her husband's home or two love birds right in the middle of nowhere.

An interesting information is the kasuti is mentioned in bible as per the christian weavers of kasuti. kannada bible shows the kasuti in the book of exodus, chapter 26 shows emboridery and kasuti. The German missionaries put a school and hospital in North karnataka and the school also has kasuti weaving in their curriculum.

Guru Nanak(1469-1538AD) says Kadh kasida pahreh choli tan tu jane nari(only when you can embroidery of your own costume ,you will be considered as a woman) same as Chandrkala tradition also practiced in Nanded.

Technique
The most remarkable feature about kasuti is that there is no right or wrong side. Both sides are identical. However complicated the design, the end of the design coincides with the beginning. There is no knot used in the beginning or end of the thread. A small straight stitch is placed at the beginning and end.

Kasuti can be described as a delicate embroidery with geometric designs which when worked very closely can make dramatic patterns. A combination of four main stitches, all based originally on the counted thread method(equi-distance running stitches- by counting the same number of threads), allow many people to work on the same pattern and a change in the working hands does nto affect the final design. Now the designs are traced on paper or loosely woven gauge, which is then pulled off after completing the work. Kasuti Embroidery is done with four main stitches.

Gavanti or Gaunti meaning konts is a double running stitch and used in straight, horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines.

Muragi is a zigzag running stitch and looks like a ladder when it is used. Small motifs like squares, hexagons, octagons and ladders are created with this stitch. THe Muragi stitch looks identical on both sies of the cloth

Neygi or Negi - the name of the stitch is derived from the kannada word neyi to weave. This darning stitch in which long and short lines are used which gives the effect of weaving.

Menthe - A kannada word meaning Fenugreek seed or a forked stitch, crossed Stitch. This stitch is mainly used to fill motifs

Kasuti Antiquity
Kasuti became famous under Chalukyas of Badami and reached far corners of the country.

Bana Bhatta in Harshacharita in seventh century AD describes the Rajyasri wedding describes Kasuti.

Embroidery of Austria and Hungary bears close resemblance to the embroidery of Kasuti in karnataka.

Celtic stitches of scotland in particular of Holbein stitch used in Elizabethn black work resemble Kasuti of Karnataka.

Holbein was called Spanisshe stitche in 17th century. This apparently was seen in the book printed in Germany 1527, a seamstress of Elizabeth I called it True Stitch-there is no right or wrong side, why so many names for one stitch. The Answer lies in in Egypt. Fragments of printed and embroidery fabrics which have been found in the ruins of Fustat, the capital of Egypt in 14th century. Studies of these fragments which have reached several museums around the world, have revealed that these textiles were indeed made in karnataka. On studying the pictures, the similarities between kasuti and that particular embroidery which seems to have been done during the rule of the Mamluks(1270-1517) is nothing short of striking.

Laborious process.
The technique is difficult ot learn,as the patterns made by counting warp and weft threads, which when done on dark backgrounds can cause a great deal of eye strain. It is laborious process and taken years to master. Even a minor error during the embroidery process means undoing the motif and redoing it completely as the error would be spotted afar. This form of emboroidery also requires physical and mental alertness and a great deal of patience.

Revival of Kasuti
There are many who are responsible for revival of kasuti almost made extinct under British rule. Janata shikshana smiti founded by Hukkeri rama roa in dharwad, Laila Tyabji founded Dastkaar, Asha Ben savla, Sabala a NGO in Bijapur to name a few.

Ilkal Saree's

Ilkal saree is a traditional form of saree which is a common feminine wear in India. Ilkal saree takes its name from the town of Ilkal in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka state, India. Ilkal sarees are woven using cotton warp on the body and art silk warp for border and art silk warp for pallav portion of the saree. In some cases instead of art silk, pure silk is also used. Ilkal was an ancient weaving centre where the weaving seems to have started in the 8th century AD. The growth of these sarees is attributed to the patronage provided by the local chieftains. The availability of local raw materials helped in the growth of this saree

Uniqueness

The uniqueness of saree is joining of the body warp with pallav warp with a series of loops locally called as TOPE TENI technique.
The weaver will gait only 6 yards, 8 yards, 9 yards warp due to above TOPE TENI technique. KONDI Technique is used for weft through inserting 3 shuttles.
Pallav portion-Design: “TOPE TENE SERAGU” Normally in tope teni seragu 3 solid portions would be in red colour, and in between 2 portions in white colour
Tope Teni seragu has been regarded as a state symbol and was greatly respected during festival occasions.
Traditional Borders: (i) Chikki, (ii) Gomi, and (iii) Gadidadi, and modern Gaythri are unique ones in Ilkal sarees - width ranging from 2.5” to 4”
Border Colour Uniqueness: Red usually or Maroon dominates.

Description
The peculiar characteristic of the saree is joining the body warp with the pallav warp which is locally called as TOPE TENI. This technique is only used exclusively at Ilkal. If anyone requires Ilkal saree one must prepare a warp for every saree. Warp threads for body is prepared separately. Similarly pallav warp is prepared separately either with art silk or pure silk depending upon the quality required. Thirdly border portion of warp is prepared as like the pallav warp either art silk or pure silk and the colour used for pallav and on border will be one and the same. In general, the length of the pallav will range 16” to 27”. The pallav threads and body threads are joined in loop technique, a typical method which is locally called as TOPE TENI.

Features
The distinctive feature of Ilkal sarees is the use of a form of embroidery called as Kasuti. The designs used in Kasuti reflect traditional patters like palanquins, elephants and lotuses which are embroidered onto Ilkal sarees. These sarees are usually 9 yards in length and the pallu of the Ilkal saree (the part worn over the shoulder) carries designs of temple towers. This pallu is usually made of red silk with white patterns. The end region of the pallu is made up of patterns of different shapes like hanige (comb), koti kammli (fort ramparts), toputenne (jowar) and rampa (mountain range). The border of the sari is very broad (4 to 6 inches) and red or maroon in colour and is made of different designs with ochre patterns. The saree is either made of cotton, or a mixture of cotton and silk or in pure silk. The colors traditionally used are pomegranate red, brilliant peacock green and parrot green. The sarees that are made for bridal wear are made of a particular colour called Giri Kumukum which is associated with the sindhoor worn by the wives of the priests in this region.

Types of Borders
The design woven in the length wise borders are mainly three types :-

Gomi (more popularly known as Ilkal dadi)
Paraspet (Sub-divided into chikki paras and dodd paras)
Gaadi

Main Body design

Stripes
Rectangles
Squares

Other Differences
With above broad parameters the Ilkal sarees differ in matters of size, nature and quality of yarn used for different portion of saree as also colour combination and combinations of designs on the borders and main body of the saree. The beauty of Tope-teni seragu is further enhanced at times by weaving in its middle portion, yet another design known as ‘Kyadgi’.

Reference
Kasuti - Karnataka Kashida by Sunita Shahaney
Wiki - Ilkal Saree's

BhavaGeethe - Poetry Marries Music

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Thu, 20 May 2010 11:12:00 +0000

In 1980, medium wave radio sets across Karnataka began to tune into something new. Each day, for half an hour, people all over the state began to listen to a programme on Vividh Bharati Seva that played non-filmy Kannada songs or bhavageete. In the decade that followed, bhavageete, literally meaning “songs with emotion”, went through an incredible revival. Musty recording studios in Bangalore, Mysore and Dharwad started putting out compilations of Kannada bhavageete on tape, and these cassettes competed with mainstream Kannada film audio releases. Bhavageete combines expressionist poetry and light or semi-classical music, and relies heavily on both words and musical score. A resurgence of enthusiasm for the genre in Karnataka in the ’80s led to a renewed interest in modern Kannada poetry as well. Kuvempu, DR Bendre, Gopalkrishna Adiga and lesser known poets like KS Nissar Ahmed were reintroduced to an entire generation by bhavageete performers like Mysore Ananthaswamy, C Aswath, Shimoga Subbanna and Ratnamala Prakash. Thirty years since that half-hour programme debuted on AIR, bhavageete continues to be a force in Karnataka, with many performers, regular concerts and the odd album release.

As a classical form of "Folk music" Bhavageete has also gained applaud in the rich chronicle of Karnataka Music, which is again exceptionally atmospheric. Both the elements of the classical music and folk music are ideally interwoven in the genre of Bhavegeete. Rustic emotion, native wit and spontaneity are the base of the "Bhavegeete", which pounded a million souls. Bhavegeete, till today stands as that bridge to connect the high and low with its musical and literary expression.

Bhavegeete is an emblematic form of "emotion poetry" where expressing the deep desire of meeting the ultimate, Experiencing the "Omnipresence of the Omnipotent" is articulated amidst light music and perfect verbiage. Love, love for nature, Indian philosophy above all the philosophy of life are all united with the strings of "Bhavageete" which is even lot more than being just a particular form of " Expressionist poetry" This genre of music became popular as a form of expressionist lyrics especially in Karnataka. Whilst the verve of the Kannada lyrics enriched the Karnataka bhavageete.

Bhavageethe also known as Sugama Sangeeth, is the semi-classical form of Music, influenced by both the systems of Music Folk as well as classical . Metrical Poetry written in kannada is set to tune by composers. A group of musicians composed of one or more singers with percussion support and one or two lead instruments (Mandolin, sitar, flute etc.) supported by guitar and bass guitar performs these songs. Of late, electronic keyboards and synthesizers have crept in as the lead instruments making traditional classical instruments less prominent. “B hrungada Benneri Bantu Bhavageeta”, exclaimed the mystic bard Bendre, tracing the malodorous flight of the Kannada lyric. If the song came riding the bee's back, then who but the poet can fathom the many fragrances it embodies! A form that is unique to Kannada and marathi languages –the bhavageethe or sugama sangeeta – came with the intention taking to every home verses written

by major poets of the land. Thus lyric and melody got intertwined into a lasting relationship, like bee and honey. If every Kannadiga worth his salt hums “Hachchevu Kannadada Deepa” or “Ede Tumbi Haadidenu” it's not only a celebration of the immortal lyric, but also of timeless tunes that dropped it on every lip Coming together.
Scan the pages of BhavaGeethe history and you will see that every great singer who came by gave it a rich, distinct personality.The organic texture of the Kannada lyric at once had a strain of khyal music, carnatic classical, the ghazal, the folk song, apart from the singer's own persona. Now, as you lament the fading away of such a glorious tradition that once throbbed with vitality, M.D. Pallavi renews the faint hope.
MSIL Geethagalu
In 1980, long before it became fashionable for corporate houses to take an interest in culture, Mysore Sales International Limited (MSIL) created and presented a high quality programme of Kannada songs called MSIL Geethegalu. Thursdays became special for Kannada music lovers. That half-hour slot on Vividh Bharati sparked off great enthusiasm for the Kannada bhavageete, taking even its sponsors by surprise. Hundreds of Kannada poems sprang to musical life on audio cassettes, and a genre found its voice. Sugama
sangeeta, the singing of non-film Kannada songs, assumed such momentum that Bangalore studios were busy for a whole decade, recording one bhavageete album or the other. That movement unveiled musicians like C Ashwath and Rathnamala Prakash, who are celebrities today. And composers like Mysore Ananthaswamy became household names. The mystic poet Shishunala Sharif's songs Taravalla tagi ninna tamboori and Alabeda tangi alabeda were first sung on this programme. These poems had been in circulation in north Karnataka, but they suddenly became popular all over the State after Ashwath made new tunes for them. Sharif's compositions were later recorded in eight cassettes, and set a record in the sale of Kannada cassettes. Ashwath made the music for 72 Sharif songs. Kannada literary giants of this century -- B M Sri, Kuvempu, D V Gundappa, G P Rajarathnam, K S Narasimhaswamy and others -- became more popular when they were sung by sugama sangeeta artistes, although one school, led by poet Ramachandra Sharma, maintains that sugama sangeeta can ruin the poetic instinct, which doesn't need the "crutches" of music.

After a gap of 20 years, MSIL is renewed its association with Kannada music. Its just-instituted Nityotsava Award presented in November to the best male and female singers of the year. "It's our way of discovering sugama sangeeta singers of the future," said I M Vittala Murthy, the poetry-loving IAS officer who heads MSIL.The awards are named after Nityotsava, the first Kannada bhavageete album, and one of the most remembered tapes to this day. It featured the poems of K S Nissar Ahmed, with music by Mysore Ananthaswamy. Later tapes like Bhavasangama and Mysore Mallige also achieved cult status.

Starting this year,MSIL will hold an annual competition to spot young talent from schools and colleges all over Karnataka. Four young people (a boy and a girl each from the school and college categories) will be given Nityotsava Awards and named 'MSIL singers of the year'.

Sources
Music Magazine
IndianetZone
TimeoutBengaluru

Vijnaneshwara - Pioneer Ancient Hindu Jurist

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Sun, 09 May 2010 12:28:00 +0000

Vijnaneshwara was a prominent jurist of twelfth century India. His treatise, the Mitakshara, dealt with inheritance, and is one of the most influential legal treatises in Hindu law. Vijnaneshwara was born in the village of Martur, near Gulbarga in Karnataka. He lived in the court of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126), in Kalyan. The Hindu Law of the constitution is based on Mitakshara. Let us see the speech by Justice by Markandey Katju and then continue our discussion.

Speech by Justice Markandey Katju

When I was informed of the topic: "The importance of Mitakshara in the 21st century" my initial reaction was that Mitakshara has hardly got any importance today except with regard to coparcenary property rights of Hindus. As you all know, most of the old Hindu laws were replaced by parliamentary statutes in 1955 and 1956 viz. the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956, the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956, etc. These Acts have substituted the Mitakshara and the Dayabhaga law except with regard to succession to ancestral property, which continues to be covered by the Mitakshara vide Section 6 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956.

This is a practical age. Lawyers are interested in knowing the law which will help them in their cases, and they are hardly interested in purely academic matters which have little practical application. Hence, hardly anyone reads the Mitakshara or Dayabhaga today, as they have largely been superseded by the statutes made by Parliament.

However, I wish to speak on the topic from a somewhat different angle.

As is well known, the Mitakshara prevailed all over India except in Bengal and Assam where the Dayabhaga prevailed. The Mitakshara is a commentary on only one Smriti called Yajnavalkya Smriti, whereas Dayabhaga is a digest of all the Smritis.

Although Hindu law is regarded as having emanated from the Vedas (Shruti) the truth is that there is scarcely any law in the Veda (Shruti) and the Hindu law that has really emanated from the Smritis. There were large number of Smritis of which the surviving ones are of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Vishnu, Narada, Apastamba, Gautam, Parasara, Vashist, Katyayana, etc.

As I have mentioned, the Mitakshara is a commentary only on the Yajnavalkya Smriti. The question therefore which arises is as to why Vijnaneshwara chose only the Yajnavalkya Smriti for his commentary. There was Manu Smriti which was held in even greater respect than Yajnavalkya Smriti, but Vijnaneshwara preferred to write his commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti rather than on Manu Smriti.

We can get the answer to this question if we compare Manu Smriti with Yajnavalkya Smriti. Manu Smriti is not a systematic treatise. It does not have a clear-cut division between religion and law, as in Yajnavalkya Smriti. If we read the Manu Smriti, we will find that there is one shloka on religion, the next shloka on law, third on morality, etc. Everything is jumbled up. On the other hand the Yajnavalkya Smriti is divided into three chapters. The first chapter is called Achara which deals with religion, the second chapter is called Vyavahara which deals with law, and the third chapter is called Prayaschit which deals with penance. Thus, there is a clear demarcation between law and religion in Yajnavalkya Smriti, which is not to be found in the Manu Smriti. This demarcation between law and religion itself is a great advance over the Manu Smriti. Thus, the Yajnavalkya Smriti marks a tremendous advance in law over the Manu Smriti. Law is now clearly separated from religion. This is analogous to the Roman law or to the positivist jurisprudence in the 19th century of Bentham and Austin.

Also, the Yajnavalkya Smriti is shorter and more liberal, particularly towards women than the Manu Smriti. It was perhaps for this reason that Vijnaneshwara preferred the Yajnavalkya Smriti to the Manu Smriti for writing his commentary.

As is well known, the Mitakshara was written by Vijnaneshwara during the reign of Vikramarka, a Chalukya ruler of the 11th century A.D. Although, the Mitakshara was written by a South Indian, its remarkable feature is that its authority spread all over India except Bengal and Assam (where too it has great respect) and it was accepted as the authoritative text on Hindu law even in North India.

Mitakshara was certainly not a law made by Parliament. In fact, in those days there was no Parliament and the law consisted of treatises of learned jurists. The Mitakshara was accepted as an authoritative text on Hindu law not due to promulgation by any sovereign authority such as the King or Parliament, but due to its tremendous scholarship, logical analysis and the sheer force of intellect of its author.

The importance of the Mitakshara therefore is that it teaches us to have respect for intellect and learning wherever it may come from. As the Rig Veda says,

"Let noble thoughts come to us from every side."

or as it is said:

"A king is worshipped only in his own country, but a learned man is worshipped everywhere."

This is the lesson which the Mitakshara teaches us in the 21st century. If India has to rise as a nation we must not be sectarian or chauvinists but all must feel like Indians living like a united family and must respect each other, whether we come from North or South, East or West.

The second importance of Vijnaneshwara's Mitakshara in India in the 21st century is the great progress it made in traditional Hindu law by making it secular. In this connection it may be mentioned that in ancient India there was not only great development in Philosophy, Mathematics and Science, but there was also great advancement in the field of law.

Until the Mitakshara of Vijnaneshwara came into existence, Smritis and commentaries were largely religious and not secular. It was the Mitakshara which was the first to make the laws of property and inheritance secular.

The bifurcation of the Mitakshara and Dayabhaga was due to two different interpretations given to a single word "sapinda". Manu has written that when a man dies, his property goes to his nearest "sapinda". The question is therefore what is the meaning of the word "sapinda". That depends upon the meaning of the word "pinda". According to Dayabhaga, "pinda" means the rice balls which are offered in the Shraddha ceremony to one's deceased ancestors. On the other hand, according to the Mitakshara the word "pinda" does not mean the rice balls offered at the Shraddha ceremony at all but it means the particles of the body of the deceased.

The term "sapinda" as used in the Smritis and by the commentators before Vijnaneshwara meant only those connected with the funeral obligations. Vijnaneshwara's definition of "sapinda" as one connected by the particles of the same body was apparently unknown to any previous commentator. He cites no Smriti in support of his view, but only the Vedic texts on the theory of heredity which do not mention "pinda" or "sapinda" at all. As Nilakantha says in "Samskara Mayukha":

"Vijnaneshwara abandoned the theory of connection through the rice-ball offering and accepted the theory of transmission of constituent particles."

In this connection the Mitakshara may be contrasted to the Dayabhaga system. In the chapter which deals with the subject of succession, Dayabhaga appeals to the doctrine of religious efficacy at every step, testing the claims of rival heirs by their numbers and nature of their respective offerings. On the other hand, the Mitakshara never once alludes to such a test, as noted by the Privy Council in Balasubrahmanya Pandya Thalaivar v. M. Subbayya Tevar, IA at p. 102. The claims of rival heirs are determined primarily by the test of degrees of propinquity and not religious efficacy. Even persons who confer no religious benefits to the deceased are admitted as heirs for the reason of affinity. Vijnaneshwara states emphatically that "sapinda" relationship does not depend upon the relationship of the deceased through the offering of the "pindas" and his getting it or not, but it depends upon having the same particles of one's body. Vijnaneshwara's new definition was therefore revolutionary. It divested the word "sapinda" of its religious meaning, and was in keeping with the new orientation which he gave to the Vyavahara or civil law by treating property and inheritance as purely secular matters, like the Roman lawyers. He rested the rules of law on purely practical and rational considerations. Combating the view that the wealth of a regenerate man is designed for religious uses exclusively, Vijnaneshwara says:

"If that were so, other purposes of opulence and gratification, which are to be effected by means of wealth, must remain unaccomplished and if that be the case, there is an inconsistency in the following passages of Yajnavalkya, Gautama and Manu, 'Neglect not religious duty, wealth or pleasure in the proper season.' "

As stated above, Vijnaneshwara relies on no Smriti authority in support of his contention that the word "sapinda" has a secular and not religious connotation. Instead, Vijnaneshwara displayed his creative brilliance by relying for this purpose on Jaimini's Lipsa Sutras as he calls the 3rd Adhikarana of Chapter I Book IV of Jaimini's Sutras.

According to Vijnaneshwara, the origin of property is popular recognition, and hence the basis of inheritance and succession is relationship by blood. While Jimutavahana makes the text of Manu on the subject the foundation of his principle of inheritance (because Manu emphasises the spiritual aspect), Vijnaneshwara mainly relies on the text of Yajnavalkya, because the latter prefers the matter of factual aspect. Vijnaneshwara utilises the Mimansa Adhikarana as interpreted by Prabhakara who is reputed to be an heterodox propounder of the Mimansa Sutras, while the orthodox interpretation of the Adhikarana as given by Savaraswami and Kumarila Bhatta gives no support to Vijnaneshwara's views.

Thus, we see that Vijnaneshwara utilises the Mimansa principles, particularly, the Prabhakara school, for striking out a new, secular path in the field of law.

This new, revolutionary change in the law which Vijnaneshwara effected by his new definition of the word "sapinda" had remarkable practical effects. For instance, Jimutavahana who wrote the Dayabhaga, did not permit inheritance to a son at birth. This is because Dayabhaga followed the traditional rule that only the person who can perform Shraddha for his ancestor can inherit the property.

In the book called Parvana Shraddha the list of persons who can perform Shraddha is mentioned. At Serial No. 1 of the list is the son. At Serial No. 2 is the son's son, etc. The general rule is that if a person at a higher position in the list is available, then one cannot go down the list, and the list terminates there. For instance, if the son is alive, then the son's son (i.e. grandson of the deceased) has no right to perform the Shraddha, because the grandson is at Serial No. 2 in the list given in Parvana Shraddha, whereas the son is at Serial No. 1. Hence, the grandson of the deceased has no right to inherit the property when the son is alive, because the grandson has no right to perform Shraddha when the son is alive. It is for this reason that there is no inheritance at birth in Dayabhaga when the father is alive. This is in sharp contrast to the Mitakshara in which the son inherits a share in the ancestral property at birth.

Similarly, in Dayabhaga the unborn son in the mother's womb cannot inherit a share in the property, because an unborn son cannot perform Shraddha. On the other hand, in the Mitakshara an unborn son in the mother's womb gets a share in the ancestral property. Dayabhaga prefers the father to the mother, because he presents two oblations in which the deceased son participates, while the mother presents none. Vijnaneshwara takes exactly the opposite view on the ground that "her propinquity is greatest". The view of Vijnaneshwara is reflected in the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 because the mother of a deceased Hindu is a Class I heir, and is hence automatically entitled to a share in the property of her deceased son, whereas the father is only a Class II heir, and will only get the property if there is no Class I heir. Thus even today a mother's position is higher than the father so far as succession is concerned, and this is in accordance with Vijnaneshwara's view.

Similarly, the right of a daughter to succeed is rested by Jimutavahana upon the funeral oblations which may be hoped for from her son, and the exclusion of widowed, or barren, or sonless daughters, is the natural result. The Mitakshara follows Brihaspati in basing her claim upon simple consanguinity. As a son, so does the daughter of a man proceed from his several limbs. How then can any other person take her father's wealth? And he excludes neither the widowed nor the barren daughter, but prefers one to another, accordingly as she is unmarried or married, poor or rich, that is, according as she has the best natural claim to be provided for.

The right of a daughter's son when he succeeds on the death of the widow and daughter certainly rests far more upon consanguinity than on religious efficacy. The preference of the daughter's son to agnates, whose claims based upon pinda offerings are stronger, can only be explained by propinquity. No doubt, according to Manu, Vishnu and Yajnavalkya, a daughter's son should perform Shraddha for the maternal grandfather. But, from the way Vishnu expresses it, the rule appears to be recommendatory. According to the Mitakshara, the Shraddha of the maternal grandfather is not obligatory but is only optional, except when the mother's sapindikarana has taken place with the maternal grandfather.

The express view laid down in the Mitakshara on the Shraddha rites that sapinda-relationship with the deceased is wholly independent of his being benefited by the pindas or not, is decisive and is consistent only with the conclusion that propinquity must be judged without reference to the grades, number or quality of the funeral offerings.

The conclusion therefore is irresistible that the Mitakshara does not admit religious efficacy either as a basis of heirship or as a measure of propinquity. The rules governing the right to perform Shraddhas or the offering of pindas, though in part determined by propinquity, are also in part influenced by different considerations. Religious efficacy as deduced from these rules can therefore furnish no safe or satisfactory test as regards the order of succession.

The above discussion shows that Vijnaneshwara struck a totally new note in the development of Hindu law and made it secular. This has great importance for the 21st century when secularism is absolutely essential for the unity and progress of the nation.

India is a country with tremendous diversity, innumerable religions, castes, languages, ethnic groups, cultures, etc. Hence only secularism and respect for everybody can keep the country together and make it progress. That is also the mandate of the Constitution, vide Articles 25 to 30 of the Constitution.

Apart from the above, the Mitakshara of Vijnaneshwara liberalised the law with regard to women. He provided for maintenance not only of the chaste wife but also the unchaste wife and unchaste widow. Also, while earlier writers circumscribed women's property within the narrow limits prescribed by Manu, Vijnaneshwara included all property however acquired within the definition. In this connection his liberal views evoked protests from conservative scholars, one writer going so far as to say that a particular rule was evolved by Vijnaneshwara out of his brain (LodiksydfYir) and hence deserved no consideration. However, ultimately all scholars recognised and accepted his views. Due to his progressive views women became entitled to hold and inherit property.

Hence, even though the Mitakshara may not be in vogue today except in matters of Hindu coparcenary property, yet the path it has shown is the path which India should pursue for its progress and prosperity.

I will conclude by quoting the Mitakshara:

There neither was, nor is, nor will ever be a city like Kalyana, or a king like Vikrama or a pandit like Vijnaneshwara. May these three live for ever.

History of Vijnaneshwara

He wrote a law treatise in the 11th century, which is still in circulation. Serious efforts are now on to resurrect the greatness of Vijnaneshwara, the author of Mitakshara, gathers Anand V Yamnur

An emperor in the 11th century touched the feet of this man to salute him. The inscriptions on a stone plaque, dated 1124 AD, found at the Kalingeshwara Temple in Martur village, 18 kilometres from Gulbarga, reveal: “Ariraya Mukuta Tadhita Charanan-enalu Negabdi Vikramankana Ratnokara Nichita Mukuta Tadhita,” meaning “When Emperor Vikramaditya bent down to salute Vijnaneshwara, the Emperor's jewelled crown touched the feet of Vijnaneshwara”. Such was the respect Vijnaneshwara commanded during his time. The inscriptions state that Vijnaneshwara lived in the court of Emperor Vikramaditya (1076-1126 AD).

He wrote Mitakshara, a law treatise explaining the Yagnvalkya Smruthi, propounded by philosopher Yagnvalkya. Except for minor changes, the laws in India relating to Hindu Joint Family, distribution of property, property rights, stree dhana (women property), and succession are still governed by Mitakshara. Though written 10 centuries ago, the relevance of Mitakshara is greatly felt, especially in the courts all over the country.

Till 1932, little was known about when and where Vijnaneshwara lived, and where he wrote his Mitakshara. The credit of discovering the time and place of Vijnaneshwara goes to Prof P B Desai of Dharwad. In the journal Prachina Karnataka: Hosa Belaku (Historical Karnataka: New Light), dated February 1, 1932, he wrote about a stone inscription at Kalingeshwara Temple at Martur, which discloses that Vijnaneshwara was a Kannadiga, and was born at Masemadu village in the present Bidar district. It was only recently that the famous epigraphist Sitaram Jagirdar took out a paper impression of the Martur inscriptions, and published its contents. Dr Jagirdar points out that the stone inscriptions date back to 1124 AD. The inscriptions also disclose that Martur was the place of work of Vijnaneshwara, and in recognition of his merit and contribution, he was gifted lands and honoured by Emperor Vikramaditya the VI of the Chalukya Dynasty.

Vijnaneshwara’s original name was Kancha, and he was the son of Somaraj and Bhagyavanithe. His wife's name was Kethikabbe. Of his four sons, Beethiraja got the temples of Shiva and Mahadeva constructed at Martur, and for this, the land was donated to him on January 6, 1123. Through the inscriptions it is clear that Vijnaneshwara lived in Martur, where he also wrote his commentary Mitakshara. Until the inscriptions were deciphered, it was believed that Vijnaneshwara was born in the Kalyan region of Maharashtra. But, the Martur inscriptions prove that the legal luminary of the forgotten era was a Kannadiga born in the Kalyan region, which is now Basavakalyan in Bidar district.

In 1970 the present Bihar Governor M Rama Jois who served as the Chief Justice in Punjab began writing a book Legal and Constitutional History of India. At that time, he came across the earliest translations of Mitakshara by H T Cole Broke of the UK (1867), and by Prof J R Gharapure of Pune (1912). Greatly impressed by the work, Justice Jois erected a befitting memorial for this medieval India’s greatest jurist. The fact that Vijnaneshwara was a Kannadiga and hailed from the Gulbarga region was little known to the world. The need to create awareness about this great personality among the common people, and promote research on his works led to the establishment of Vijnaneshwara Souhardhaka Co-operative Society. The Society came into existence last year in Gulbarga with Justice Jois as its chief patron. The main aim of this Society is to construct a befitting memorial for Vijnaneshwara at Martur at a cost of Rs one crore, and start a full-fledged research centre to study the life and works of the man. The State Government has already allotted six acres of land for the purpose. A local farmer Gundappa Kambar has donated half-an-acre of his land as a tribute to this great personality of yesteryears.

Sage Yajnavalkya

Sage Yajnavalkya was son of Devarta. Mahamuni Vaishampayana was his guru. Maitreyi and Katyayani were his wives. Chandrakanta, Mahamegha and Vijaya were his sons. He learnt Taittiriya Smahita from his guru Vaishampayana. However, once his guru was angry on him and asked him to omit the entire knowledge he learnt from him. Then Sage Yajnavalkya decided to worship Sun god and acquired fresh Vedic knowledge from him directly. His discourses with his wife Maitreyi about absolute Self was called Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Sage Yajnavalkya was also the author of Yajnavalkya Smriti, Yajnavalkya Shakha, Pratijna Sutra, Satapatha Brahmana, and Yoga-Yajnavalkya.

I thank Unknown Rajesh for bringing up to my notice

Source
Sulekha
EBC
Payer

Karnataka 's Persian Affair

noreply@blogger.com (Moda Sattva) — Fri, 29 Jan 2010 12:09:00 +0000

Persia (Iran) and karnataka had intensive relations since ancient times. Each influenced each other to a great extend in all fields , let us explore the unique relationship.

King Darius I and Parashurama

The unfavorable condition of Northwestern part of India(Pakistan, Afghanistan), under Darius I is aptly described in Behistan Inscription. He describes how he captured the Magu king and killed. The Samkiccha Jataka describes the same story - 'Yo cha Raja Adhammattho Mago tapayitva Janpadam, Tapne pecca paccati'.

What is the relevance of this King Darius of Achaemenid Dynasty who ruled Iran(Persia) to Karnataka. Many people unable to bear harshrule migrated from these regions and settled in several colonies under parashuram leadership from Gujarat to Kerala. Thus was started the migration of Paisachi Prakrit speaking people into Karnataka radically altering the demographic and geo- political landscape. In fact satavahana inscriptions show many paisachi words. Many of them settled in Maharastra especially Aparanta(konkan) region and vidarba region. One Group went south through karnataka and one group through Andhra and another through western coast to kerala and Tamilnadu and eventually Lanka.

Ashoka Parthavi edict

In The Nittur Edict(Bellary) Ashoka Calls Himself The Ruler Of Parthia, "Mahalake hi vijitam" ('Vast is my empire'), proclaims Ashoka, but how extensive really was his dominion in the West? In the Nittur Edict he explicitly calls himself the king of Pathavi - an unmistakable allusion to Parthia or Parthava of the Achaemenian records of Darius. Writers like Romila Thapar attempt to explain this away by suggesting that Pathavi corresponds to Prithvi, or the Earth, and that the statement only demonstrates royal vainglory. A world emperor like Ashoka who sent missionaries to kings of many other parts of the Earth surely was not so foolish as to call himself the ruler of the Earth. The Edict shows he is also ruler of parthia (Persia – Modern Iran). This explains the wide contact between Karnataka and Persia since earliest times.Significance of Nittur Inscription reveals persia(Iran) was under Ashoka Rule.

Pulikesin II exchanges envoys with Sassanaid Khusro II

Around 625-26 AD , Chalukya King Pulakesin II (AD 610-42) exchanged envoys with Sassanian King Khusrau II (AD 596- 626). The same has been depicted in Ajantha Cave I. This information is also mentioned by persian historian Tabari, who says in the 35^th year of Khusrau perviz reign an Indian King Pharmeish or paramesa(parmeswara - title of pulakesin) sent to an ambassador carrying letters and presents to monarch and sons.The return embassy by Khusrau is depicted in Ajanta.

Vinayaditya gives protection to Persia

With the defeat of Harsha by pulikesin II and his successor Yasovarman by Vinayaditya the whole of India was under the chalukyas. Great ruler Vinayaditya realised the value of strong persia against the Arabs which was under Islamic Invasion. So he sent a battalion to protect the persia. The chalukya records show that the tribute was paid for protection by Kamera (Khamer or Combodia), Parasika (persia) and Simhala (Lanka). Visionary Vinayaditya sent a ambassdor to chinese Kao-Tsung as well. This is confirmed by Ma-Twan- Lin, who says Indian Emperor Tche-Leou-k'I-Pa-Lo(chi-lu-khi-pa-lo) or Chalukya Vallabha sent an ambassador (date 692AD). With the decline of persia, During Vikramaaditya II (733-745 AD) reign an Arab attempt to penetrate into the Deccan was thwarted by Avanijanashraya Pulakesi, the Chalukya general of Lata.

Rastrakuta , persia and Zorastrians

Persian travelers who visited Malkhed at the time of Rastrakuta's spoke of the monarchs of Rastrakutas Dynasty as 'the Emperors of Hindustan'- among the most powerful rulers of the period. The Rastrakuta's provided protection to Zorastrians fleeing persia in India. Records show large trade between persia and Rastrakuta Empire. The persian account Hudud al alam(982AD) mentions rastrakuta and chalukyas as the Bhallaraj(Srivallabha – Chalukyas and Rastrakutas) of kamkar (karnata). The persian account also claims that Rastrakuta and pratihara's were enemies of Pala. Kannauj was under poessision of Rastrakuta for a considerable time. And aptly it adds Rastrakutas as the Emperors of Hind.

Karnata vamsavali kings near Persia

Masudi calls even Khandahar as the country of Rahbut(Rajputs are of karnataka origin) , which puts karnata rulers in the neibhourhood of Persia. Masud calls them Chach (seems to be Rajputs of Chalukya origin). Curiously Rajputs of that area (Sindh and Baluchistan and Punjab of pakistan) call themselves Bhatti Rajputs, Janjuas have always claim descendancy from Pandavas. Name Bhatti(Bhatt) and pandavas(Matrilineal society) can be only be a community that is from Coastal Karnataka around Mangalore. May be the community developed out of chalukyan expedition against Arabs and settled there. Janjuas rajputs gave rise to famous Janjuas shahi dynasty (though they did not call themselves shahis, they are named shahis because they immediately succeeded shahi dynasty and resisted Ghaznavids invasions.

Western Chalukya trade with Persia

Aihole inscription gives vivid account of flourishing trade between karnata and persia. Travelling both land and sea routes, these merchants traded mostly in precious stones, spices and perfumes, and other specialty items such as camphor. Business flourished in precious stones such as diamonds, lapis lazuli, onyx, topaz, carbuncles and emeralds. Commonly traded spices were cardamom, saffron, and cloves, while perfumes included the by-products of sandalwood, bdellium, musk, civet and rose. These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on streets by local merchants in towns. While eastern Chalukyas controlled the eastern seaboard, The Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India's west coast and by the 10th century they had established extensive trade ties with the Tang Empire of China, the empires of Southeast Asia and the Abbasid Caliphate in Bhagdad, and by the 12th century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports. Exports included textiles, spices, medicinal plants, jewels, ivory, rhino horn, ebony and camphor to Dhofar, Aden and also Song dynasty in China. The final destinations for those trading with the west were Persia, Arabia and Egypt. The thriving trade center of Siraf, a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf, served an international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits. An indicator of the Chalukyan merchants' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them. In addition to this, Siraf received aloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood and condiments. The most expensive import to karnataka were Arabian horse shipments, this trade being monopolised by Arabs and local merchants. The Western coast was the responsibility of Gujarat Chalukyas, Silharas and later Kadambas. All the three took great care to cultivate good relations with persia and Middle east.

Persian envoy Abdul Razak visited during Krishnadeva raya regime

Awe-struck by the splendor and prosperity prevailing in the Vijayanagar Empire, Abdur Razaak said,- “The pupil of the eye has never seen a place like it and the ear of intelligence has never been informed that there existed anything to equal it in the world”. Abdur Razaak was the Persian ambassador who had visited Vijayanagara in 1446.

Trade during VijayNagar regime

Persian Ambassador Abdul Razak graphic discription of Mangalore, Bhatkal, Honavar is significant.

Mangalore, Bhatkal and Honavar were international ports in Vijayanagar times trading with Arabia and Persia. During the reign of Vijaynagar dynasty’s ‘Pepper Queen’ Ambakka, an ascription given by the Portuguese whom she had defeated. Indian spices including black pepper, cloth, rice, medicines, jaggery, sugar etc. were in great demand in Middle East, Europe and Mediterranean countries. These were produced in abundance in all the coastal belt. More than a dozen chiefs ruled in this region whose area at times, did not exceed more than 100 – 200 villages. Prominent among them were Santras (Bairaras) of Karkal, Bangas of Bangadi (Nandavar), Sawants of Mulki, Choutas of Mudbidri & Ullal, Ajilas of Venur, and Tolahas of Sura. These chiefs fought among themselves and with local administrators of Vijayanagar, most of the time, to become independent or for reduction fee in tributes and subsidies. But the strong Central Government of Vijayanagar had kept them under control, with overall supervision of Nayakas of Keladi. Over time, Some Persian-Arab traders decided to settle Bhatkal and that sect got the name ‘Navayaths’, or newcomers. Food – has an intricate relationship with the Navayath people and their culture, the cuisine from Bhatkal is just that. Rich in cultural history with strands of cuisine from the Arab and persian world which eventually have blended with the local dishes of the land.

Bahmani Kingdom and Persia

The sultanate was founded on 3rd of August 1347 by governor Ala-ud-Din Hassan Bahman Shah, possibly of Tajik-Persian descent, who revolted against the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughluq. Nazir uddin Ismail Shah who had revolted against the Delhi sultanate stepped down on that day in favour of Zafar Khan who ascended the throne with the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah with first Gulabarga and then Bidar as capital. His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Deccan. But soon the kingdom split into five sultanates. The Bahmani dynasty believed that they descended from Bahman, the legendary king of Iran. They were patrons of the Persian language, culture and literature. Some of the Bahmanid kings and princes took a personal interest in Persian, as well, and became well-versed in Persian language and literature. Hazrat Khwaja Syed Muhammad Gesu Draz, scholar of both kannada and persian, greatly encouraged the interaction between the two. Bahmani kings brought artisans from persia, Arabia and Turkey blending with local styles they built great many architectural wonders like Gol Gumbaz. The Bahamani army had soldiers from Turkey, Arabia and Persia.

Mahmud Gawan

Mahmud Gawan arrived in Bidarfrom Persia in 1453. A great scholar of Islamic lore, he founded the Madarassa (college) from his own funds on the line of Universities of Samarkhand and Khorasan. A selefless worker, he became a prime-minister of Bahamani king Mahmud III (1462- 82) whom he tutored in earlier days. But Gawan became a victim of the palace intrigue and was beheaded by the drunkern king. The later kings of the Bahamani dynasty were too weak to keep the kingdom in tact, and this led to the breakup. Bahmani kingdom survived until babur took over.

Adil Shah Origin

According to the historian Mir Rafi-uddin Ibrahim-i Shirazi, or Rafi', Yusuf's full name was Sultan Yusuf 'Adil Shah Sawa or Sawa-i, the son of Mahmud Beg of Sawa in Iran. Rafi's history of the 'Adil Shahi dynasty was written a the request of Ibrahim Adil Shah II, and was completed and presented to the patron in AH 1017. T.N. Devare mentioned that while Rafi's account of the Bahmani dynasty is filled with anachronisms, his account of the Adilshahi is "fairly accurate .

Rafi's account is less well known than that of the popular historian Firishta, the author of the Nawras- nama, also known as the Gulshan-i Ibrahim. Rafi's account of the life of Yusuf 'Adil Shah directly contradicts a fanciful legend related by Firishta on the origins of the Adil Shahi dynasty. According to him, Yusuf Adil Shah is said to have been the son of Murad II, Ottoman sultan and caliph of Islam, who was succeeded by one of his sons, Mehmed II. After his accession, the new sultan is said to have ordered the execution by strangling of all his brothers, including Yusuf. Yusuf's mother contrived to save him by replacing him with a slave boy; she then arranged to have Yusuf conveyed to Persia. Yusuf eventually came to India, where he took service under the Bahmani ruler of the Deccan, ultimately becoming a personage of importance at the court of Mahmud II.

kannada and persian as court languages in karnataka

Kannada, Persian and Arabic were court languages in Bahmani kingdom. Many of scholars in Bahmani court were well versed in both. During Mughal rule kannada elements were taken into persian by the local scholars when they went to Mughal Imperial court. Tipu sultan also made persian and kannada as court languges. The direct interaction between Kannada (and Telugu, Marathi) and Persian along with Arabic has given a unique blend of Urdu called Deccani and it has large number of Kannada, Telugu and Marathi words.

Persia accounts

Persian historian Tabari gives vivid accounts of Chalukyas under pulikesin.

In 1017 A.D., at the behest of Sultan Mahmud of Persia, Alberuni (a.k.a. Al-Biruni) traveled to India to learn about the Hindus, "and to discuss with them questions of religion, science, and literature, and the very basis of their civilization". He remained in India for thirteen years, studying, and exploring. Al beruni gives a vivid accounts of Rastrakutas and karnataka.

Persian historians give account of the glory of seunas of Devagiri. Persian accounts such Burhan-i-Ma'asi , Janjira Nawab , Riyazul Insha have greatly helped in the stitching together the history in south India and karnataka in particular.

Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara.

Famous historian Muhammad Qasim Firishta (1560 – 1620) lived in court of Adilshah and wrote Khulasatu-t Tawarikh. Firishta not only gives vivid account of extend of Gazni raids but also the ruthlessness with which local people, temples and property destroyed by muslim rulers. It gives the vivid accounts of Bahmani rulers.

Timurid Abdur Razzaq persian Ambassador to VijayNagar Empire court during the Great Krishna Deva Raya gives vivid account of the Empire and the Emperor.

Afanasy Nikitin Russian traveler of 15th century who visited Bahmani and VijayNagar kingdoms says, There were many people coming from Khorassan (north east of Iran) Bahmani kings kept close link with the region and scholars were invited to settle in Bidar by Muhammad Gawan.

Other Accounts
Cosmas Indicopleustes of the 6th century talks about Churches Persian bishop at Kalliana (Kalyan) then under Kadambas.

Ahbar as-Sin wa'l-Hind the Arab accounts of 9^th century speak of flourishing trade between Karnataka and persia (and Middle east). Al beruni pays glowing tributes to Rastrakuta regime saying that the only country where muslims were allowed to practice the religion unhindered. He also talks about the trade ties between persia and then Rastrakuta empire.

Inscriptions in Arabic and Persian

The Bahmani kings first started giving inscriptions in persian and Arabic along with local languages Kannada, Telugu and Marathi. Large number of Inscription have found of Bahmani rule, subsequent Mughal dynasty, also Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan regimes.

Music and Persian influence.

Some scholars say , Hindustani music is a rich combination of Carnatic music and traditional persian music in Bahmani rulers courts. While carnatic music flourished south of Krishna(VijayNagar Empire), Hindustani flurished in north of Krishna(Bahmani sultanates). Bijapur ruler Ibrahim II composed Kitabe Navras to introduce Hindu music to the Muslims and the book begins with an invocation to Saraswati and Ganapati. Thus started the Sufi tradition. When Mughals took over Bahmani kingdom, music went to North to Delhi Courts as well. Meanwhile Carnatic music was not insular to persian influences, Persian modes came to be grafted and the new ragas like Darbara and kalyana were evolved by saints like Purandara.

Persian influence in Architecture

The Bahamanis introduced the large scale use of paper in administration and began the Indo-Sarasenic architectural style, designed and constructed by Persian architects and artisans, (also known as Deccani architecture) with its local influences from Karnataka.The Sultanate monuments of Bidar and Gulbarga are testimony to their interest in architecture. The Bande Nawaz tombs and a Jama Masjid in Gulbarga which exhibits a persian influence are well known. In Bidar, their buildings have Persian, Turkish, Arabic and Roman influences (the Solah Khamba mosque being an example).Rangin Mahal, Gangan Mahal, Tarkash Mahal, Chini Mahal, Nagina Mahal and the Taqk Mahal are some of the palaces built by them that have retained their beauty. The Ahmad Shah Wali tombs are noted for their decor, and the school of learning (madrasa) built by Gavan in Bidar (1472), with its lecture halls, library, mosque and residential houses are also famous. The contributions of the Bijapur Sultanate in the Indo-Saracenic idiom to the architectural landscape of Karnataka is noteworthy. Their most famous monuments are the mausoleums called Ibrahim Rauza and the Gol Gumbaz apart from many other palaces and mosques. The elegance, finish and beauty of Mehtar Mahal is claimed by a historian to be equal to anything in Cairo. Their Kali Masjid at Lakshmeshwar is a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim styles. The Ibrahim Rauza built by Ibrahim II is a combination of a mausoleum and a mosque and is called the "Taj Mahal of the Deccan".The Gol Gumbaz built by Muhammad is the largest dome in India and the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia with an impressive "whispering gallery". Some historians consider this one of the architectural marvels of the world.

Kashida (Kasuti)
The word kashida is derived from the Persian word meaning embroidery. This shows that there were contacts between Persia and Karnataka since the reign of Chalukyas in the 6th century A.D. Traditionally designs are worked out on the web of black Irkal handloom saris-the warp and weft of the fabrics regulated stitches. It was worked by counting threads and without knots, hence is identical on both sides. This type of embellishment is usually done by four varieties of stitches namely Ganthi- line or backstitch, vertical, horizontal and diagonal. Murgi- zig zag, it runs up and down like steps of a ladder. Negi, weaving stitch and Menthe-forked branch or cluster stitch resembling fenugreek seeds.

Bidriware

According to one version, Abdullah-bin-Khaiser, an expert in bidriware, migrated to Bidar in the 11th century and joined hands with an equally proficient goldsmith familiar with the secrets of the trade. Together they gave impetus to the craft.

Another popular tale recounts that one of the Hindu kings of Bidar innovated the crafts of bidriware, using the articles thus decorated to hold flowers and other offerings in honor of his household Gods. Later, under the patronage of the Mughals, indigenous manufacturers were extended both co-operation and encouragement and in course of time, bidriwork reached its zenith in perfection, design and finesse.
The traditional art of damascening in silver or Koftgari work, as Bidri is popularly known, entails encrusting one metal into another in the form of a wire. It is akin to the ancient art of inlaying gold and silver in copper and steel, which was practiced in Persia and Arabia at one time. It is believed that the know-how was brought to India from these countries but took an altogether different form, which became the specialty of Bidar from where it derives its name

Process of Making Bidriware The origin of the technical aspect of bidriware is not definitely known. It appears that like other Persian articles of metal, this particular type of work was probably developed by experimenting with various alloys to guarantee brilliance by contrast. The resultant ingredient was an alloy of zinc and copper combined with other non-ferrous metals.

The new alloy, thus produced, is brittle but does not rust or corrode and has the additional advantage of allowing a better polish. Each bidri utensil has to pass through a long complicated process of casting, polishing, engraving, inlaying and blackening of the alloy before the final product is ready for the market.

Persian wheel in Karnataka

The Persian wheel is a mechanical water lifting device operated usually by draught animals like bullocks, buffaloes or camels. It is used to lift water from water sources typically open wells. In Sanskrit the word Araghatta has been used in the ancient texts to describe the Persian Wheel. The ‘ara-ghatta’ comes from the combination of the words ‘ara’ meaning spoke and ‘ghatta’ meaning pot. There is evidence to argue that this system of lifting water from open wells was probably invented in the India of the past. With its use also in Iran, the then Persia, and perhaps its discovery there, it came to be called the Persian wheel. The celebrated writer philosopher Ananda K Coomaraswamy in his monograph ‘The Persian Wheel’ argues that it is not justified to draw its origins to Persia as it finds mention in the Panchatantra (3rd Century BCE) and the Rajatarangini (12 th century CE) as the ‘cakka-vattakka’ or the ‘ghati yantra’.

Persian wheel represents a water culture and water heritage of India. It therefore seems imperative to document and preserve the knowledge base around this instrument which was both a function and an indicator of the ecological availability of water at shallow levels. The great water heritage still practiced in Karnataka should be preserved.

The Rastrakuta empire records while decribing Agriculture ,explains about Persian wheel technology. The Vijaynagar empire promoted both persian wheel and Ghanat system (originated in persia) for irrigation.

As you can see the relations is very vast and we need a chair either at Gulbarga, Bijapur or Bidar Universities with a counterpart in Iran to study each aspect in this long interaction between karnataka and Persia on the one hand and Kannada and Persian on the other.

Sources
The Persian Wheel in India by Srikantaiah VISHWANATH
Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami By D. P. Dikshit
Chronicles of Early Janjuas By Hussain Khan
Goa Through the Ages: An economic history By Teotonio R. De Souza
Bahamani Kings of Gulbarga and Bidar by Dr. (Mrs) Jyotsna Kamat
Indo-Persian Travels in the Age of Discoveries, 1400–1800 by Muzaffar Alam, Sanjay Subrahmanyam

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