Student Service

2011-02-17T09:36:00.001-08:00

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Hello Friends,
I am launching these blog for the students as a guiding aspect. In this blog you can clarify your doubts about c/c++,unix,os, DBMS, microprocessor. I am going to publish many complicated programs such as sjf preemptive algorithm and micro processor programs which will help you in lab programs. Here I have mentioned some part time jobs for student also. I referred some contents from other resources, So I should say thanks to them.

This blog will be updated by many programs like anna university question papers, c and c++ programs, Many projects on c,c+= and micro processor,etc. I hope that this will be a helpful blog for you. Especially this will help for the anna university students.
I need your cooperation and valuable feed backs, Which will help me to improve my self. You can send your suggestions to
studentsevice@gmail.com
.

"All the best"
Thank you.

Unix programms

2011-02-14T08:39:00.001-08:00

Basic Shell Programming – Appending Two Files
Program:

echo ‘enter the I file’
read a
echo ‘enter the II file’
read b
echo ‘enter the III file’
read c
cat $a $b > $c
cat $c

Output:

[mit27@mcettelnet ~]$ cat>aa
hi
[mit27@mcettelnet ~]$ cat>bb
how are you
[mit27@mcettelnet ~]$ sh append.sh
.enter the I file.
aa
.enter the II file.
bb
.enter the III file.
cc
hi
how are you
[mit27@mcettelnet ~]$

Basic Shell Programming – To perform Arithmetic Operations

Program:

Arithmetic Operation (case statement)
echo "Arithmetic Operation"
echo "********************"
echo "Enter the two numbers"
read a b
echo "1.ADD\n2.SUB\n3.MUL\n4.DIV\n5.EXIT\n"
echo "Enter the your option"
read op
echo "The result is"
case "$op" in
1)expr $a + $b;;
2)expr $a - $b;;
3)expr $a \* $b;;
4)expr $a / $b;;
5)exit;;
esac

Output:

[mit27@mcettelnet ~]$ nano arith.sh
[mit27@mcettelnet ~]$ sh arith.sh
Arithmetic Operation
********************
Enter the two numbers
5 2
1. ADD\n2.SUB\n3.MUL\n4.DIV\n5.EXIT\n
Enter the your option
3
The result is
10

Basic Shell Programming – To find the greatest of two numbers

Program:

echo Enter a Number
read num1
echo Enter a Number
read num2
if test $num1 -ge $num2
then echo $num1 is greater than $num2
else
echo $num2 is greater than $num1
fi

Output:

[mit27@mcettelnet ~]$ nano gretest.sh
[mit27@mcettelnet ~]$ sh greatest.sh
Enter a Number
10
Enter Number
8
10 is greater than 8

Basic Shell Programming – To find the sum of digits

Program:

echo "enter the number"
read a
b=`expr $a % 10`
c=`expr $a / 10`
d=`expr $b + $c`
echo "the sum of digit is $d"

Output:

[m08cs127@mcettelnet ~]$ sh digits.sh
enter the number
45
the sum of digit is 9

Basic Shell Programming – To Check a number is even or odd

Program:

echo Enter a Number to Find Even or odd
read num
b=`expr $num % 2 |bc`
if [ $b -eq 0 ]
then
echo Even number
else
echo Odd Number
fi

Output:

[m08cs114@mcettelnet ~]$ sh odd.sh
Enter any no:
58
58 is even

Basic Shell Programming – To find the Fibonacci series

Program:

echo "Enter the range"
read r
a=-1
b=1
i=1
while [ $i -le $r ]
do
c=`expr $a + $b`
echo $c
a=$b
b=$c
i=`expr $i + 1 `
done

Output:

[m08cs127@mcettelnet ~]$ sh fib.sh
enter the fib series range
4
0
1
1
2

Basic Shell Programming – To find the Factorial of a given number

Program:

echo "enter number"
read num
i=1
fact=1
while test $i -le $num
do
fact=`expr $fact \* $i`
i=`expr $i + 1`
done
echo $num! = $fact

Output:

[m08cs127@mcettelnet ~]$ sh fact.sh
enter number
4
4! = 24

Program to print variables from memory address.

Program:

#include
#include
main()
{
int *a, *n, size;
printf("Enter the size..");
scanf("%d",&size);
n=(int *)malloc(size * sizeof(int));
printf("Address or the first byte is...%d\n",n);
printf("Enter the values..");
for(a=n;ascanf("%d",a);
printf("Printing the values...\n");
for(a=n+size-1;a>=n;a--)
printf("%d is stored in address %d\n",*a,a);
}

Output:

Enter the size..5
Address or the first byte is...161255432
Enter the values..1
2
3
4
5
Printing the values...
5 is stored in address 161255448
4 is stored in address 161255444
3 is stored in address 161255440
2 is stored in address 161255436
1 is stored in address 161255432

Program to swap two numbers using pointers.

Program:

#include
int swap(int *i, int *j);
int main()
{
int a,b;
printf("Enter the 2 nos");
scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
printf("%d %d\n",a,b);
swap(&a,&b);
printf("%d %d\n",a,b);
}
int swap(int *i, int *j)
{
int t;
t = *i;
*i = *j;
*j = t;
}

Output:

Enter the 2 nos
5
9
5 9
9 5

Program to illustrate function without argument and no return value

Program:

#include
main()
{
void message(void);

message();
}
void message()
{
char str[100];
printf("\nenter a string name");
scanf("%s",str);
printf("welcome %s",str);
}

Output:

Enter a string.. CSE
WELCOME TO… CSE

Program to illustrate function with argument and no return value

Program:

#include
void add(int,int);
main()
{
int a,b;
printf("\nenter the two number");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
add(a,b);
}
void add(int a,int b)
{
int c;
c=a+b;
printf("%d",c);
}

Output:

Enter two numbers.. 10 20
The addition of two numbers 10 and 20 is 30

Program to illustrate function with argument and with return value.

Program:

#include
int add(int x, int y);
int main()
{
int a, b, c;
printf("Enter two numbers...");
scanf("%d %d", &a,&b);
c= add(a,b);
printf("The addition of two numbers %d and %d is %d", a, b, c);
}
int add(int x, int y)
{
int z;
z=x + y;
return(z);
}

Output:

Enter two numbers.. 5 6
The addition of two numbers 5 and 6 is 11

website park

2011-02-14T08:03:00.002-08:00

Top most websites:
yahoo.com
google.com
windows live.com
gmail.com
ymail.com
facebook.com
orkut.com
twitter.com
naukri.com
wikipidea

Search Engines:
google.com

ask.com

yahoo.com

bing.com

yebol.com

cuil.com

kosmix.com

Videos:

youtube.com

google video.com

yahoo video.com

bing videos.com

metacafe.com

megavideo.com

Mails:

gmail.com

ymail.com

windows live.com

hot mail.com

rediff mail.com

Aol mail.com

Rocket mail.com

Blogs:

blogger.com

blogscope.com

google blog search.com

bloglines.com

blogs.com

Jobs:

naukri.com

career.com

jobs.com

jobcenter.in

click.in

News:

google news.com

yahoo news.com

day life.com

news lookup.com

topix.com

Maps:

google maps.com

wiki map.com

bing maps.com

yahoo maps.com

Social Networks:

facebook

flickr

gather

google buzz

hi5

hotlist

linked in

myspace

ning

orkut

plaxo

tubely

twitter

windows live spaces

xing

zorpia

Business:

business.com

globalspec.com

genieknows.com(U S and canada)

Downloads:

download.com

brothersoft.com

softpedia.com

softonic.com

wareseeker.com

rapidshare.com

mediafire.com

dl4all.com

Colleges in Tamilnadu

2011-02-14T08:03:00.001-08:00

Fatima Michael College of Engineering & Technology, Madurai

Francis Xavier Engineering College, Palayamkottai

G.K.M. College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai
Government College of Engineering, Bargur
Government College of Engineering, Salem
Government College of Engineering, Tirunelveli
Government College of Technology, Coimbatore
G.G.R. College of Engineering, Vellore
Ganadipathy Tulsi's Engineering College, Vellore
Ganapathy Chettiar College of Engineering and Technology, Paramakudi
Global Institute of Engineering and Technology, Walajah
Gnanamani College of Engineering, Namakkal
Gnanamani College of Technology, Namakkal
Gojan School of Business and Technology, Chennai
Gopal Ramalingam Memorial Engineering College, Chennai
Greentech College of Engineering for Women, Attur

Hindustan University (Hindustan College of Engineering), Chennai

Hindustan Institute of Technology, Coimbatore

Hindusthan College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore

Holy Cross Engineering College, Thoothukudi

Infant Jesus College of Engineering, Tuticorin
Infant Jesus College of Engineering and Technology, Tuticorin
I.F.E.T. College of Engineering, Villupuram
Idhaya Engineering College for Women, Villupuram
Imayam College of Engineering, Tiruchirappalli
Immanuel Arasar J J College of Engineering, Kanyakumari
Indira Gandhi College of Engineering and Technology for Women, Chengalpattu
Indira Institute of Engineering and Technology, Thiruvallur
Indra Ganesan College of Engineering, Trichy
Indus College of Engineering, Coimbatore
Info Institute of Engineering, Kovilpalayam
Institute of Road and Transport Technology, Erode

Jerusalem College of Engineering, Chennai
J.C.T. College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore
J.J. College of Engineering and Technology, Srirangam
J.K.K. Muniraja College of Technology, Gobi
J.K.K. Nataraja College of Engineering and Technology, Komarapalayam
J.N.N. Institute of Engineering, Uthukottai Taluk
J.P. College of Engineering, Tenkasi
Jai Sriram College of Technology, Tiruppur
James College of Engineering and Technology, Kanyakumari
Jansons Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore
Jawaharlal Institute of Technology, Coimbatore
Jaya Engineering College, Tiruvallur
Jayalakshmi Institute of Technology, Thoppur
Jayam College of Engineering and Technology, Pennagaram
Jayaram College of Engineering and Technology, Thuraiyur
JEI Mathaajee College of Engineering, Kancheepuram
Jeppiaar Engineering College, Chennai
Jeyamatha Engineering College, Aralvaimozhi
Jeyaraj Annapackiam CSI College of Engineering, Nazareth
Joe Suresh Engineering College, Tirunelveli
John Bosco Engineering College, Tiruvallur

K.C.G. College of Technology, Chennai
K.L.N. College of Engineering, Madurai
K.L.N. College of Information Technology, Madurai
K.S. Rangasamy College of Technology, Thiruchengode
K.S.R. College of Engineering, Thiruchengode
Kamban Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai
Karpaga Vinayaga College of Engineering and Technology, Maduranthagam
Kings College of Engineering, Gandarvakottai
K. Ramakrishnan College of Engineering, Manachanallur
K. Ramakrishnan College of Technology, Samayapuram
K.G.I.S.L. Institute of Technology, Coimbatore
K.N.S.K. College of Engineering, Kanyakumari
K.P.R. Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore
K.R.S. College of Engineering, Vandavasi
K.T.V.R. Knowledge Park for Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore
Kalaignar Karunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore
Kalaivani College of Technology, Coimbatore
Kalasalingam Institute of Technology, Srivilliputhur
Kalasalingam University (Arulmigu Kalasalingam College of Engineering), Virudhunagar
Kalsar College of Engineering, Sriperambudur
Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology, Virudhunagar
Kanchi Pallavan Engineering College, Kancheepuram
Karpagam College of Engineering, Coimbatore
Karpagam Institute of Technology, Coimbatore
Karunya University (Karunya Institute of Technology), Coimbatore
Kathir College of Engineering, Coimbatore
King College of Technology, Nallur
Kings Engineering College, Sriperumbudur
Kingston Engineering College, Katpadi
Knowledge Institute of Technology, Salem
Kodaikanal Institute of Technology, Kodaikanal
Kongu Engineering College, Erode
Kongunadu College of Engineering and Technology, Trichy
Krishnasamy College of Engineering and Technology, Cuddalore
Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore
Kurinji College of Engineering and Technology, Manapparai

Maamallan Institute of Technology, Sriperumpudur
Meenakshi Sundararajan Engineering College, Chennai
MEPCO Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi
Muthayammal Engineering College, Rasipuram
M. Kumarasamy College of Engineering, Karur
M.A.M. College of Engineering, Mannachanallur
M.A.M. College of Engineering and Technology, Siruganur
M.A.M. School of Engineering, Trichy
M.A.R. College of Engineering and Technology, Pudukkottai
M.E.T. Engineering College, Kanyakumari
M.I.E.T. Engineering College, Trichy
M.N.S.K. College of Engineering, Alangudy
M.P.Nachimuthu M.Jaganathan Engineering College, Perundurai
M.R.K. Institute of Technology, Cuddalore
Madha Engineering College, Chennai
Madha Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chennai
Madurai Institute of Engineering and Technology, Manamadurai
Magna College of Engineering, Tiruvallur
Maha Bharathi Engineering College, Kallakurichi
Maha College of Engineering, Valapadi
Mahakavi Bharathiyar College of Engineering and Technology, Sivagiri
Maharaja Engineering College, Avinashi
Maharaja Engineering College for Women, Perundurai
Maharaja Institute of Technology, Coimbatore
Maharaja Prithvi Engineering College, Avinashi
Mahath Amma Institute of Engineering and Technology, Illupur
Mahendra Engineering College, Tiruchengode
Mahendra Engineering College for Women, Tiruchengode
Mahendra Institute of Engineering and Technology, Tiruchengode
Mahendra Institute of Technology, Tiruchengode
Mailam Engineering College, Tindivanam
Mar Ephraem College of Engineering and Technology, Nattalam
Maria Collge of Engineering and Technology, Thiruvattar
Marthandam College of Engineering and Technology, Veeyanoor
McGan's Ooty School of Architecture, Ooty
Measi Academy of Architecture, Chennai
Meenakshi College of Engineering, Chennai
Meenakshi Ramaswamy Engineering College, Ariyalur
Misrimal Navajee Munoth Jain Engineering College, Chennai
Mohamed Sathak A.J. College of Engineering, Chengelpet Taluk
Mohamed Sathak Engineering College, Kilakarai
Mookambigai College of Engineering, Kulathur
Mother Terasa College of Engineering and Technology, Pudukkottai
Mount Zion College of Engineering and Technology, Thirumayam

Nehru Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore
National Institute of Technology, Trichy
N.P.R. College of Engineering and Technology, Natham
Nandha College of Technology, Erode
Nandha Engineering College, Perundurai
Narasu's Sarathy Institute of Technology, Omalur
Narayanaguru College of Engineering, Kanyakumari
National College of Engineering, Nanguneri
National Engineering College, Kovilpatti
New Prince Shri Bhavani College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai
Noorul Islam University (Noorul Islam College of Engineering), Thuckalay

Odaiyappa College of Engineering and Technology, Periyakulam

Oxford College of Engineering, Thiruvannamalai

Oxford Engineering College, Trichy

P.S.N.A. College of Engineering and Technology, Dindigul
PET Engineering College, Vallioor
Prathyusha Institute of Technology and Management, Thiruvallur
P.S.G. College of Technology, Coimbatore
P.A. College of Engineering and Technology, Pollachi
P.B. College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur
P.G.P. College of Engineering and Technology, Namakkal
P.M.R. Engineering College, Chennai
P.P.G. Institute of Technology, Coimbatore
P.S.N. College of Engineering and Technology, Palayamkottai
P.S.N. Engineering College, Palayamkottai
P.S.N. Institute of Technology & Science, Palayamkottai
P.S.R. Engineering College, Sivakasi
P.S.R. Rengasamy College of Engineering for Women, Sivakasi
P.S.V. College of Engineering and Technology, Krishnagiri
P.T. Lee Chengalvaraya Naicker College of Engineering and Technology, Kancheepuram
P.T.R. College of Engineering and Technology, Madurai
Paavai  College of Engineering, Pachal
Paavai Engineering College, Pachal
Pallavan College of Engineering, Kancheepuram
Pandiyan Saraswathi Yadav Engineering College, Sivagangai
Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai
Panimalar Institute of Technology, Chennai
Pannai College of Engineering and Technology, Sivagangai
Pannaikadu Veerammal Paramasivam College of Engineering and Technology for Women, Dindugul
Parisutham Institute of Technology and Science, Thanjavur
Park College of Engineering Technology, Palladam
Park College of Technology, Coimbatore
Pavai College of Technology, Namakkal
Pavendar Bharathidasan Institute of Information  Technology, Tiruchirapalli
Paventhar Bharathidasan College of Engineering and Technology, Mathur
Periyar Maniammai University (Periyar Maniammai College of Technology for Women), Vallam
Podhigai College of Engineering and Technology, Tirupattur
Ponjesly College of Engineering, Agesteeswaram
Ponnaiyah Ramajayam College of Engineering and Technology, Thanjavur
Prince Dr. K. Vasudevan College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai
Prince Shri Venkateshwara Padmavathy Engineering College, Chengalpet
PRIST University (P.R. Engineering College), Thanjavur
Priyadarshini Engineering College, Vaniyambadi
Professional Educational Trust's Group of Institutions, Tiruppur

R.M.D. Engineering College, Gummidipoondi
R.M.K. Engineering College, Gummidipoondi
R.V.S. College Of Engineering and Technology, Dindugul
R.V.S. College of Engineering and Technology (Faculty of Engineering), Sulur
Raja Rajeswari Engineering College, Chennai
Rajiv Gandhi College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur
R.M.K. College of Engineering and Technology, Gummidipoondi
R.V.S. School of Architecture, Coimbatore
Rabidhranath Tagore College of Engineering for Women, Sankari
Raja College of Engineering and Technology, Madurai
Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Sriperumbudur
Rajalakshmi Institute of Technology, Sriperumbudur
Rajas International Institute of Technology for Women, Nagercoil
Ranganathan Engineering College, Coimbatore
Ranippettai Engineering College, Wallajah
Roever College of Engineering and Technology, Perambalur
Roever Engineering College, Perambalur
Rrase College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur

S.A. Engineering College, Thiruverkadu
S.K.R. Engineering College, Thiruvallur
S.M.K. Fomra Institute of Technology, Chengelput
S.S.M. College of Engineering, Komarapalayam
SACS M.A.V.M.M. Engineering College, AlagarKoil
Saveetha Engineering College, Sriperumbudur
Sethu Institute of Technology, Kariapatti
Sona College of Technology, Salem
Sree Sastha Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chennai
Sri Lakshmi Ammal Engineering College, Chennai
Sri Ram Engineering College, Tiruvallur
Sri Sai Ram Institute of Technology, Chennai
Sri Sairam Engineering College, Chennai
SRM University (S.R.M. Engineering College), Chengalpattu Taluk
St. Michael College of Engineering and Technology, Kalayarkoil
St. Peter's University (St. Peters Engineering College), Chennai
Syed Ammal Engineering College, Ramanathapuram
S. Veerasamy Chettiar College of Engineering and Technology, Sivagiri
S.B.M. College of Engineering and Technology, Dindigul
S.K.P. Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai
S.K.P. Institute of Technology, Tiruvannamalai
S.N.S. College of Engineering, Coimbatore
S.N.S. College of Technology, Coimbatore
S.R.G. Engineering College, Namakkal
S.R.R. Engineering College, Chengalpattu
S.R.S. College of Engineering & Technology, Salem
S.S.K. College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore
S.V.S. College of Engineering, Coimbatore
Sakthi Engineering College, Chennai
Sakthi Mariamman Engineering College, Sriperumbudhur
Salem College of Engineering and Technology, Salem
SAMS College of Engineering and Technology, Uthokottai Taluk
Sapthagiri College of Engineering, Palacode
Saranathan College of Engineering, Srirangam
Saraswathi Velu College of Engineering, Walajah
Sardar Raja College of Engineering, Tirunelveli
SASTRA University (Shanmugha Arts, Science, Technology and Research Academy), Thanjavur
Sasurie Academy of Engineering, Coimbatore
Sasurie College of Engineering, Perundurai
Sathyabama University (Sathyabama Engineering College), Chennai
Satyam College of Engineering & Technology, Aralvaimozhi
SCAD College of Engineering and Technology, Ambasamudram
Scad Engineering College, Tirunelveli
SCSVMV University (Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya), Kancheepuram
Selvam College of Technology, Namakkal
Sembodai Rukmani Varatharajan Engineering College, Nagappattinam
Sengunthar College of Engineering for Women, Tiruchengode
Sengunthar Engineering College, Tiruchengode
Shanmuganathan Engineering College, Thirumayam
Shivani Engneering College, Tiruchirappalli
Shivani Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli
Shree Venkateshwara Hi-Tech Engineering College, Gobichettipalayam
Shreenivasa Engineering College, Dharmapuri
Shri Andal Alagar College of Engineering, Madurantakam
Shri Angala Amman College of Engineering and Technology, Mannachanallur
Shri Sapthagiri Institute of Technology, Arakonam
Sivaji College of Engineering and Technology, Kanyakumari
Sree Sakthi Engineering College, Karamadai
Sree Sastha College of Engineering, Chennai
Sree Sowdambika College of Engineering, Aruppukottai
Sri Aravindar Engineering College, Vanur
Sri Balaji Chockalingam Engineering College, Arni
Sri Bharathi Engineering College for Women, Alangudi
Sri Eshwar College of Engineering, Kinathukadavu
Sri Jayaram Engineering College, Cuddalore
Sri Kalaimagal College of Engineering, Thiruvallur
Sri Krishna College of Engineering, Arakkonam
Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore
Sri Krishna Engineering College, Sriperumpudur
Sri Krishna Institute of Technology, Chennai
Sri Muthukumaran Institute of Technology, Chennai
Sri Nandhanam College and Technology, Tirupattur
Sri Padmavathy College of Engineering, Valarpuram post
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, Coimbatore
Sri Ramakrishna Institute of Technology, Coimbatore
Sri Ramanathan Engineering College, Nadupatti
Sri Ramanujar Engineering College, Chennai
Sri Rangapoopathi College of Engineering, Villupuram
Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore
Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai
Sri Subramaniya College of Engineering and Technology, Palani
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering and Technology, Thiruvallur
Sri Venkateswara Institute of Science and Technology, Thiruppachur Post
Sri Vidya College of Engineering and Technology, Virudhunagar
Sriguru Institute of Technology, Coimbatore
Srinivasa Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chennai
Srinivasan Engineering College, Perambalur
St. Anne's College of Engineering and Technology, Panruti
St. John's College of Engineering & Technology for Women, Vellore
St. Joseph College of Engineering, Sriperumpudur
St. Joseph’s College of Engineering and Technology, Thanjavur
St. Joseph's College of Engineering, Kanchipuram
St. Mother Theresa Engineering College, Thoothukudi
St. Peter's College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai
St. Xavier Catholic College of Engineering, Chunkankadai
Sudharsan Engineering College, Kolathur
Sun College of Engineering and Technology, Erachakulam
Surya College of Engineering and Technology, Vikravandi
Surya Engineering College, Erode

T.J. Institute of Technology, Chennai
Tagore Engineering College, Chennai
Thangavelu Engineering College, Chennai
Thanthai Periyar Govt. Institute of Technology, Vellore
Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai
T.J.S. Engineering College, Gummudipoondi
Tagore Institute of Engineering and Technology, Attur
Tamilnadu College of Engineering, Karumathampatti
Tamilnadu School of Architecture, Coimbatore
Tamizhan College of Engineering and Technology, Kanyakumari
Tejaa Shakthi Institute of Technology for Women, Karumathampatti
The Kavery College of Engineering, Mettur
The Kavery Engineering College, Mettur
The New Royal College of Engineering and Technology, Thirukkalukundram
The Rajaas Engineering College, Vadakkangulam
The Selvam Women Excellence Engineering Technology, Ramanathapuram
Theni Kammavar Sangam College of Technology, Theni
Thirumalai Engineering College, Krishnapuram
Thiruvalluvar College of Engineering and Technology, Vandavasi
Trichy Engineering College, Konalai
TRP Engineering College, Mannachanallur Taluk

University College of Engineering, Arni
University College of Engineering, Nagercoil, Anna University Tirunelveli
University College of Engineering, Tindivanam
University College of Engineering, Villupuram
University Departments of Anna University Chennai, ACT Campus, Chennai
University Departments of Anna University Chennai, CEG Campus, Chennai
University Departments of Anna University Chennai, MIT Campus, Chennai
University Departments of Anna University Tiruchirappalli, BIT Campus
University VOC College of Engineering,Thoothukudi, Anna University Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi
Udaya School of Engineering, Kanyakumari
Ultra College of Engineering & Technology for Women, Madurai
United Institute of Technology, Coimbatore
University Departments of Anna University Chennai, SAP Campus, Chennai
Unnamalai Institute of Technology, Thoothukudi

V.P.M.M. Engineering College for Women, Srivilliputtur
Valliammai Engineering College, Chengalpattu
Vel's Srinivasa College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai
Vickram College of Engineering, Madurai
Vinayaka Mission's Kirupanada Variyar Engineering College, Salem
Vivekanadha Institute of Engineering and Technology for Women, Tiruchengode
V.I. Institute of Technology, Chengalpet
V.K.K. Vijayan Engineering College, Sriperumbudur
V.K.S. College of Engineering and Technology, Karur
V.L.B. Janaki Ammal College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore
V.R.S. College of Engineering and Technology, Ulundurpet
V.S.A. Educational and Charitable Trust,s Group of Institutions, Salem
V.S.B. Engineering College, Aravakkurichi
Vandayar Engineering College, Thanjavur
Varuvan Vadivelan Institute of Technology, Dharmapuri
Vel Tech, Chennai
Vel Tech Dr.RR and Dr.SR Technical University (Vel Tech Engineering College), Chennai
Vel Tech High Tech Dr.Rangarajan Dr.Sakunthala Engineering College, Chennai
Vel Tech Multi Tech Dr.Rangarajan Dr.Sakunthala Engineering College, Chennai
Velalar College of Engineering and Technology, Erode
Velammal College of Engineering and Technology, Madurai
Velammal Engineering College, Chennai
Velammal Institute of Technology, Ponneri
Vetri Vinayaha College of Engineering and Technology, Tiruchirappalli
Vidhya Vikkas College of Engineering and Technology, Tiruchengode
Vins Christian College of Engineering, Kalkulam
Vins Christian Women's College of Engineering, Nagercoil
VIT University (Vellore Institute of Technology), Vellore
Vivekanadha College of Engineering for Women, Tiruchengode
Vivekanandha College of Technology for Women, Kumaramangalam

Student part time jobs

2011-02-14T08:02:00.001-08:00

Parttime Jobs for students

Its has been nearly 2 years since I started to use internet in my home. Since then I was very passionate to find some websites which would pay me reasonable money for a small work from home about 1 hour. This little dream took me to many sites where I learned all the possible ways of earning money in internet. Found many ways that were very interesting (mainly because of the amount they had specified). The various ways are PTC sites, Google adsense, Data entry work, blogging, websites, posting jobs, forex and logo designing.But all these ideas where really not that good. They help me made few bucks, but also made me to loose some. the final balance in my account was NIL.

Three Best methods Of Earning money through Internet are :

1) India study channel:

This is a new website which I found recently. The site is very interesting and a perfect site for students like us. This site has huge amount of information for students and job seekers. India study channel has various information regrading Resources, Entrance , Ask Experts, Exam Papers, Jobs, English, Projects, Universities, Colleges, Courses, Schools, Training, My India.

Join this site - Click here

JUST JOINING THE SITE WILL NOT EARN YOU MONEY. BE ACTIVE AND YOU CAN EARN LOTS OF MONEY.India study channel also allows us to earn some pocket money by posting articles, answering quires and posting your college information and question papers of exams, etc. The every thing you add in India study channel carries a cash award which they will bank transferred or send you DD. I earned Rs.500 in just 10 days into the site. Also they provide is adsense revenue sharing program where you can earn more money from google.

2.) PTC websites:

Earn money through PTC : CLICK HERE

You should also need to register in these sites for transferring money to your bank.

a) Paypal - CLICK HERE
b) Alertpay - CLICK HERE

This is the simplest of methods for earning for easy cash without doing much work. PTC is paid to click website where you have to click a Ad and waiting for few seconds and after confirmation you money will be credited into your account.

3) Money For reading Emails:

It’s really amazing! You get paid to open & read the contents of RupeeMail. You receive promotional offers & special discounts in RupeeMail.Interestingly RupeeMails will reach you based on the preference list you opted for. Create your RupeeMail Account & refer your friends to earn launch referral bonus on every new registration.

Try this... Click Here

4) Free gifts giving site:

This is not an money earning site. But gives you free gifts for just gaining points for answering small day to day life question. There are many electronic products that you can win like ipod, dvd player, iphone etc. You have to exchange your pionts for this. If you want to participate or join this site please send me a request at v.varuna77 (at) gmail (dot) com with your email address.

5) Google Adsense:

Google adsense - the name is very common to all internet user. This is a program run by Google, where Google will pay you money for placing Ads of Google in your website, blog or any revenue sharing website. For this you need a website which is 6 month old and should has good contents in it. Web pages with just picture, links and movie links will not be approved by the Google. The content should be original (some what). Once you are accepted by google you can earn more than $1/day (but this depends on the number of hits your website/blog receives per day).

6) BLOGGING:

This is one of the best ways you can make some money. But these is a very slow process and also depends on various other making scheme. You can post your adsense ads in blog and earn money. You can place your referrals/affiliated links in the blog and earn money through sign up's. This blog makes $2 daily from adsense and other sources.

unix a view

2011-02-14T02:01:00.001-08:00

Study of Unix Operating System

The UNIX Operating System:
UNIX is a popular operating system, developed by AT&T in 1969 and it has been very important to the development of the Internet. It is a multi-processing, multi-user, family of operating systems that run on a variety of architectures. UNIX allows more than one user to access a computer system at the same time.

The UNIX system is mainly composed of three different parts:
1 The Kernel
2 The File System and
3 The Shell.

The kernel is that part of the system which manages the resources of whatever computer system it lives on, to keep track of the disks, tapes, printers, terminals, communication lines and any other devices.

The file system is the organizing structure for data. The file system is perhaps the most important part of the UNIX operating system. The file system goes beyond being a simple repository for data, and provides the means of organizing the layout of the data storage in complex ways.

The shell is the command interpreter. Although the shell is just a utility program, and is not properly a part of the system, it is the part that the user sees. The shell listens to your terminal and translates your requests into actions on the part of the kernel and the many utility programs.
One can imagine the UNIX system as a series of three concentric circles, with the inner circle representing the kernel, the second circle representing the programming shell, and the last one representing application programs.

The Connection between Unix and C:

At the time the first Unix was written, most operating systems developers believed that an operating system must be written in an assembly language so that it could function effectively and gain access to the hardware. Not only was Unix innovative as an operating system, it was ground-breaking in that it was written in a language (C) that was not an assembly language. The C language itself operates at a level that is just high enough to be portable to variety of computer hardware. A great deal of publicly available Unix software is distributed as C programs that must be complied before use. Many Unix programs follow C's syntax. Unix system calls are regarded as C functions. What this means for Unix system administrators is that an understanding of C can make Unix easier to understand.

Why Use Unix?

One of the biggest reasons for using Unix is networking capability. With other operating systems, additional software must be purchased for networking. With Unix, networking capability is simply part of the operating system. Unix is ideal for such things as world wide e-mail and connecting to the Internet.

Unix was founded on what could be called a "small is good" philosophy. The idea is that each program is designed to do one job well. Because Unix was developed different people with different needs it has grown to an operating system that is both flexible and easy to adapt for specific needs.

Unix was written in a machine independent language. So Unix and unix-like operating systems can run on a variety of hardware. These systems are available from many different sources, some of them at no cost. Because of this diversity and the ability to utilize the same "user-interface" on many different systems, Unix is said to be an open system.

Basic Characteristics of Unix:

Unix is, at its base level, a multi-user, multitasking, virtual memory operating system that runs on a wide variety of hardware platforms. This means that Unix is able to do many things at the same time, for many different users, and using more memory than it really has physically installed. From a user's perspective this is very nice, and from an operating systems point of view, it is very interesting. But UNIX really is much more than just an operating system; it is a philosophy of using and programming a computer that gets its power from the relationships between programs rather than the programs themselves. This is evident from many of the design points of UNIX, which will be
mentioned later.

Let's look at each of the three characteristics of Unix listed above.

a) Unix is a multi-user system. This means that inherent to Unix is the idea that there are different users of the system, and that different users may have different sorts of privileges and types of access to different parts of the system. It allows for the idea that some users may want to protect some of their data from being accessed by other users on the system. So, in being a multi-user system, the basic ideas of system security and data privacy come up. Likewise, there must be some way to identify one user from another in a multi-user system. Unix uses a system of login names to identify users and passwords to authenticate that a user is, in fact, who she claims to be.

b) Unix is a multitasking system. This means that Unix has the ability to handle
more than one task at a time. These tasks might be several programs that any particular user wants to run, or they may be programs run by several users at once. Multitasking, combined with being a multi-user system, makes it possible for more than one person to be logged in and using a Unix system at once. This is true for any Unix system, not just large timesharing systems. Even small, desktop systems have the capability to support multiple concurrent users. Additionally, some of the tasks that the system could be doing, and probably is doing, can be system tasks related to keeping the system going and providing the services needed by the users.

c) Unix is a virtual memory operating system. The concept of virtual memory and
memory management is a bit beyond the scope of this seminar, but a few key concepts are important to note. In a virtual memory system, the system behaves as if it has much more memory than is physically installed. Some portion of the disk is used to simulate extra memory. This idea makes it possible to run large programs on a smaller system. Some tradeoff exists between the amount of memory that a program uses and how fast it will run, since if it is very large, it must access the disk a lot, but it will eventually run. In a multitasking environment, tasks that are not currently running can be moved out of memory and onto disk to free up memory for tasks that more urgently need it. The overall result is better use of the system resources for all involved.

The Unix operating system :

Unix is a time sharing operating system (OS), which consist of kernel, filesystem, shell and a collection of tools and
utilities.

The characteristic features of the Unix OS:

1. Written in C - easy understanding and portability of code i.e., can run on micros to mainframes
2. Interactive - has a consistently good user interface
3. Based on the philosophy of primitives to build complex programs
4. Easy to implement and maintain - hierarchical file system incorporating de-mountable volumes -
5. Easy application development - consistent format for byte streams/files
6. Simple and consistent interface to peripheral devices (treated as files ) - compatible file, device and interprocess I/O
7. Supports multi-user and multi-processor modes
8. Easier to write portable programs - hides machine architecture from the user -
9. Support any language that has an interpreter or compiler
10. Can initiate asynchronous processes

In general, like any OS, Unix provides the following two classes of services:

1. User services - shell, mail, text-processing, source code control system (SCCS)etc.
2. System calls - Operating system services for application development

Unix system architecture

Unix follows a layered approach that facilitates easy interaction between the different modules of the OS

Layer 1: This layer is the hardware over which the OS layers are built. This layer is not a part of Unix OS

Layer 2: This layer is the kernel part of OS which interacts directly with the hardware providing common services to programs and insulating them from hardware idiosyncrasy. It is a program that monitor and controls the resources of a computer and allocates them among its users in an optimal manner.

Layer 3: This layer contains programs that interact with the kernel by invoking a well-defined set of system calls. Typically, these programs are Unix commands like ex, wc, grep etc., and may include certain user-developed programs also.

Layer 4: This layer contains other application programs that have built on the lower levels like SCCS.

Basic Unix Commands

BASIC COMMANDS:

Date Command :

Displays the current day’s date and time

Syntax: date [option]
Output: Tue Jan 22 12:05:31 IST 2005

Who command :

Who command displays all list of users who have logged on
the systems.

Syntax: who [option]
Output: m04ee01 pts/48 Feb 22 11:16 <192.168.2.21>
m04ee02 pts/48 Feb 22 11:16 <192.168.2.21>

Who am I :

It shows the details of the user who have logged on the particular
machine

Syntax : whoami
Output : m04ee02 pts/48 Feb 22 11:16 <192.168.2.21>

echo command :

The command is used to display the output on the screen
Syntax : echo [option] string
Example: echo Unix Programming
Output : Unix Programming

Cal Command :

The command displays the calender details

Syntax: cal [month] [year]
Output: cal 2 2005
February 2005
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28

To Create a File:

Syntax: $ cat [option] >
Ex: $ cat > file1
Hello..
This is my first File
Have a Nice Day
Bye
Ctrl+d (Save)

To View an already existing File:

Syntax: $ cat
Ex: $ cat file1

To append data to an existing file:

Syntax: $ cat >>
Ex: $ cat >> file1

To Create a Multiple file with help of cat command:

Syntax: $ cat
Ex: $ cat >f1 >f2 >f3 >f4
Hello....
This is file number f4
We create multiple files
Ex: $ cat file1 file2>file3
File1 and file2 are concaténated in file3

Display the record number to the particular file:

Syntax: $ cat [option]
Ex: $ cat -n file1

To ignore the blank Records:

Syntax: $ cat [option]
Ex: $ cat -b file1

Create a Hidden file:

Syntax: $ cat [option]
Ex: $ cat >.file1

Create a Directory:

Syntax: $ mkdir [option]
Ex: $mkdir raju

To Display present working Directory:

Syntax: $ pwd
Ex: $ pwd
/home/m08cs272

To Change the Directory

Syntax: $ cd
Ex: $ cd raju

To Move parent Directory (root):

Syntax: $ cd /
Ex: $ cd /

To Create a Hidden Directory
Syntax: $ mkdir [option]
Ex: $ mkdir .venkat

To Remove a file:

Syntax: $ rm [option]
Ex: $ rm kiran

To Remove Multiple Files:
Syntax: $ rm [option]
Ex: $ rm f1 f2 f3 f4

To Remove Directory:

Syntax: $ rmdir [option]
Ex: $ rmdir sagar

To Remove all file:
Syntax: $ rm *
Ex: $ rm *

List Commends:

$ ls : It is a command to list the files and directories in
the present working Directory

$ ls - a : It is a command to display all files and
Directories including hidden files and Directories

$ ls * : List information about the Files (the current
directory by default). Sort entries alphabetically

$ ls -s : It Displays the sizes in blocks (Files &
Directories)

$ ls -l : It Displays the long listing files and
directories in present working directory

$ ls -m : It Displays all files and Directories with
separated by comma (,)

$ ls -ls : It Displays all long listing Directories

$ ls --full-time : It Displays files and Directories
with total information date and time

$ ls -nl : It Displays the long listing files and
Directories according to modification Time

$ ls -rtl : It Displays the file and Directories
with reverse order

$ ls -r : It Displays the all files and Directories
Regressively (order by order)

$ ls -l : It Displays the files and Directories in a
single column (vertical)

$ ls -x : It Displays the files and Directories with
multiple columns

Copy Commends :

1. File to a File
2. File to a Dictionary
3. Directory to Directory

1.File to File

Syntax : $cp
Ex : $cp venkat amar
..... New file
Ex : $cp venkat john
Existing file
Note: The content of john file overwrite with venkat

2. File to Directory

Syntax :$ cp
Ex : $ cp venkat ajay
.... ajay is Directory

3. Directory to Directory

Syntax : $ cp
Ex : $ cp -r Mody Venkat
Note : It copies the Directory to Directory (including all files and Directories)

Move commands

1. File to a File
2. File to a Dictionary
3. Directory to Directory

1. File to File

Syntax: $ mv [option]
Ex: $ mv file1 file2

2. File to Directory

Syntax: $ mv [option]
Ex: $ mv file1 Dir1
Note: The file1 moves to Directory (Dir1)

3. Directory to Directory

Syntax: $ mv [option] Directory>
Ex: $ mv Dir1 Dir2
Note: The content of Dir1 moves to Dir2

WC command:

The command is used to count the number of
Lines, characters, characters in the given file
Options:
l– Count the number of lines
w- Count the number of words
c-Count the number of characters

Syntax : wc [options] filename
Sample Input : wc pgm1
Output : 2 5 25 pgm1

Grep Command:

The command is used to search for a particular
pattern and displays the lines that has the particular pattern.

Syntax : grep [option] pattern filename
Sample Input : grep $a pgm1
Output : $a=10

The grep –v option will display the lines that does not
match the pattern

Sort Command:

The command is used to sort the contents of the
specified file

Syntax : sort [options] filename
Sample input: sort pgm
aa
bb

sort –r pgm
bb
aa

Cmp Command:

The command is used to compare the two files and displays the line and character where the first difference occurs.

Syntax : cmp filename1 filename2
Output: line 2 character 4

Head Command:

The command is used to display the first ten lines of the file.

Syntax : head [options] filename
Output : hello
world
Tail Command :
The command is used to display the last ten lines of the file.

Syntax : tail [options] filename
Output : Mon Mar 23 10:31:49 IST 2009
Diff command:

The command is used to the lines differing between
the file.

Syntax : diff file1 file2
Output : >hai

Input -Output Redirection, pipes, and file permissions

COMMENDS :

Input – Output Redirection :

• Redirecting standard output to a file

Instead of having the program output appear on the terminal we may direct the output to a file

Syntax : command > filename
Sample Input: date>temp

The output of date command is placed in the file temp.If the file already exists with some content it will be erased

Syntax : command >>filename
Sample Input : date>>temp

The output of the command is appended to the already existing file

• Redirecting standard Input from a file

The Input is taken from a file rather than the standard input device
Syntax : command < file
Sample Input :sort Output: anand
brindha
Examples:

1) who >temp
wc –l
Displays the list of current users working on

2) who>temp
grep 04ee25

Searches for particular user and displays the details
If logged on

Pipes

Unix allows to combine two or more commands together
using pipes.
The output of one command becomes the input for another
command
Syntax : command1|command2|command3
Sample Input: who|sort|grep m08bec263
Displays the details of user if logged on the system.
Syntax : date | cat > filename
Output: $date | cat >f1
$cat f1
Thu Mar 12 17:35:36 IST 2009
FILE PERMISSION
Chmod Command :
The command is used to change the file permissions of
files.

The first three bits (of file permissions)represents
permission for
owner,next three for group and last three for public

r – read permission
w - write permission
x - execute permission
+ - assign a permission
- - revoke a permission

Sample Inputs : Chmod –w pgm1
Chmod g –rw pgm1
Chmod +r pgm1

Output: chmod -w f6
cat >>f6
-bash: f6: Permission denied
Tee Commend :

TEE command
The command is used to store the intermediate
results while using pipes.

Output: sort frt | tee sorted_file
ewfohwf
ugejf
worhfjhrebrfke
Sed :
The sed utility copies the named filename to the standard output, edited according to a script of commands.
Syntax : sed -e script filename
Example: sed -e s/expression/replacement/g filename
$ cat >f6
dog
wolf
$ sed -e s/dog/wolf/g f6
wolf
wolf
In this example, sed will substitute all the occurances of
"dog" with "wolf" in the file called animals.
If the expression contains a space, surround it with quotation
marks as shown in the example below:
Example: sed -e s/"wild dog"/wolf/g f6
$ sed -e s/"wild dog"/wolf/g f6
dog
wolf
"wolf"
Here is another example of a script command:
sed -e y/string1/string2/ filename
Example: sed -e y/unix/UNIX/ f6
$sed -e y/wolf/WOLF/ f6
dOg
WOLF
"WiLd dOg"

In this example, sed will transform all the occurances of "unix"
into "UNIX". The variables string1 and string2 must have
same number of characters.
For more examples of script commands and for more
information on sed, type man sed.

Awk:

The awk utility scans each input file for lines that match any of a set of patterns specified. For each pattern specified there may be an
associated action performed.
awk 'pattern {action}' filename
The following example will print to the screen every line which
contains the pattern "dog" in the file named animals.

Example: awk '/dog/ {print}' animals

This next example will print "Found It" to the screen for every line
which starts with the pattern "Tiger" in the file named animals.

Example: awk '/^Tiger/ {print "Found It"}' animals

awk is a very powerful and complex utility. For more information
on awk, type man awk.

Output :$ awk '/dog/ {print}' f6
dog
"wild dog"
$awk '/^dog/ {print "found it"}' f6
found it

BC COMMAND :

[mit22@mcettelnet ~]$ bc
bc 1.06
Copyright 1991-1994, 1997, 1998, 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
This is free software with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY.
For details type `warranty'.
12+8
20
167*987
164829

CMP COMMAND :

The command is used to compare the two files and displays the line and character where the first difference occurs.

Output:
$ cat >f10
ddd
fff
ggg
$ cat >f11
ddd
fff
ggg
$ cmp f10 f11
$ cat >>f11
hhh
$ cmp f10 f11
cmp: EOF on f10
$ cat >>f10
yyy
$ cmp f10 f11
f10 f11 differ: byte 13, line 4

DIFF COMMAND :

The command is used to the lines differing between
the file.
[mit22@mcettelnet ~]$ diff f10 f11
4c4
< yyy
---
> hhh

Database management systems

2011-02-14T02:00:00.001-08:00

DATA DEFINITION, TABLE CREATION, CONSTRAINTS

The Data Definition Language (DDL) is used to create and destroy databases and database objects. These commands will primarily be used by database administrators during the setup and removal phases of a database project. Let's take a look at the structure and usage of four basic DDL commands:

The Data Definition Language (DDL) is used to create and destroy databases and database objects. These commands will primarily be used by database administrators during the setup and removal phases of a database project.

SYNTAX:
1. For Creating a Table:
SQL> create table (column name datatype (size), column name datatype (size),…….)
2. To describe a Table:
SQL>desc ;
3. To Alter a table:

SQL>alter table modify column name datatype (size));
4. To Drop the table:

SQL>drop table ;

4. Not null :
SQL>create table (fieldname datatype constraint not null);
5. Check:
SQL>create table (fieldname datatype constraint check (expression));
6. Primary key:
SQL>create table (fieldname datatype constraint primary key);
7. Foreign key:
SQL>create table (fieldname datatype constraint foreign key references < base table name> );
8. On Delete Cascade:
SQL>create table (fieldname datatype (size) constraint foreign key references base table name( on delete cascade);

INSERT, SELECT, UPDATE & DELETE COMMANDS
Procedure

1) Create a table student with the following schema

Student (rollno, regno, name, address and phone number)

2) Create a table course with the following schema

Course (courseid, name)

3) Create a table faculty with the following schema

Faculty (facultyid, facultyname, dept, address)

4) Create a table class with the following schema

Class (roomno, block)

5) use insert ,select, update, delete commands on the tables

SYNTAX:
1. To insert into a Table:

(a) SQL> insert into values ;
(b) SQL> insert into values (‘&column1 name’,’&column2 name’);
2. To display contents of a Table:
(a) SQL> select * from ;
(b) SQL> select column1,column2 from where ;

3. To update the Table:
(a) SQL> update set column1=expression, column2=expression…. where;
4. To delete the Table:
(a)SQL> delete from where ;

HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE EXTENSIONS WITH TRIGGERS

PL/SQL Triggers:

Triggers are basically PL/SQL procedures that are associated with tables, and are called
whenever a certain modification (event) occurs. The modification statements may include
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE. The general structure of triggers is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE]
TRIGGER trigger_name
BEFORE (or AFTER)
INSERT OR UPDATE [OF COLUMNS] OR DELETE
ON tablename
[FOR EACH ROW [WHEN (condition)]]
BEGIN
...
END;
The usual CREATE OR REPLACE we have already seen with procedures and functions... TRIGGER specifies just what type of object we are creating. The BEFORE (or AFTER) in the trigger definition refers to when you want to run the trigger, either before the actual database modification (update, delete, insert) or after. The list of various statements, INSERT OR UPDATE [OF COLUMNS] OR DELETE refers to statements that trigger this trigger. You can specify all three, or just one. Let’s say you wanted the trigger to fire only when you do a delete; well, then you’d only specify a DELETE in the list. On some table specifies that the trigger is associated with such table. As we shall see
later, this does not necessarily has to be a table, but could also be a view. There are several types of triggers; ones for each row and others per statement. For example, when you’re doing an update, you can have a trigger fire once for each thing being updated (if you update 20 rows, the thing would fire 20 times), or you can have it fire just once per statement (if a single update statement is updating 20 rows, the trigger would fire just once). This is what that FOR EACH ROW in the trigger definition means. The PL/SQL block (between BEGIN and END) is a usual code block where you can place PL/SQL commands. The only limitation is that you cannot use COMMIT (or ROLLBACK) for obvious reasons.

Permissions:

Just like with procedures and functions, creating triggers requires certain privileges which
are not part of the default privilege set. If you cannot create triggers from these notes because of permissions, you (or the admin) has to GRANT CREATE TRIGGER privilege on your username. For example, to allow user ‘alex’ to create triggers, I may do something like this:
GRANT CREATE TRIGGER TO alex;
Note that if you are accessing a public Oracle server you must ask the admin to setup these things for you.
Sample Table to be Triggered
Before we begin playing with triggers, let’s create a simple table with which we can experiment:
CREATE TABLE PERSON (
ID INT,
NAME VARCHAR(30),
DOB DATE,
PRIMARY KEY(ID)
);
The above creates a PERSON table with an ID, a NAME and a DOB columns (fields). Whatever triggers we define in these notes will relate to this table.
Also, let’s not forget to setup: SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;

Special IF statements:

Inside the PL/SQL block of a trigger we can use if statements to determine what statement caused the firing of the trigger. These are generally of the form: IF inserting THEN... where besides “inserting” you can also use updating and deleting. An example would be something like:
CREATE OR REPLACE
TRIGGER PERSON_BIUD
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OR DELETE ON PERSON
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
IF INSERTING THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’INSERTING PERSON: ’ || :NEW.NAME);
ELSIF UPDATING THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’UPDATING PERSON: ’ ||
:OLD.NAME || ’ TO ’ || :NEW.NAME);
ELSIF DELETING THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’DELETING PERSON: ’ || :OLD.NAME);
END IF;
END;
Working with Views:

CREATE OR REPLACE
VIEW PERSON_VIEW AS
SELECT NAME FROM PERSON;
Now, we know that updating (or inserting) into a view is kind of pointless; however, we can
provide this functionality using a trigger! For example:
CREATE OR REPLACE
TRIGGER PERSON_VIEW_INSERT
INSTEAD OF INSERT ON PERSON_VIEW
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(’INSERTING: ’ || :NEW.NAME);
-- we can also do
-- INSERT INTO PERSON(ID,NAME,DOB) VALUES (N,:NEW.NAME,SYSDATE);
END;
Trigger Exceptions :

Triggers become part of the transaction of a statement, which implies that it causes (or
raises) any exceptions (which we’ll talk about later), the whole statement is rolled back.
Think of an exception as a flag that is raised when an error occurs. Sometimes, an error (or exception) is raised for a good reason. For example, to prevent some action that improperly modifies the database. Let’s say that our database should not allow anyone to modify their DOB (after the person is in the database, their DOB is assumed to be static). Anyway, we can create a trigger that would prevent us from updating the DOB:
CREATE OR REPLACE
TRIGGER PERSON_DOB
BEFORE UPDATE OF DOB ON PERSON
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(-20000,’CANNOT CHANGE DATE OF BIRTH’);
END;
Notice the format of the trigger declaration. We explicitly specify that it will be called
BEFORE UPDATE OF DOB ON PERSON.The next thing you should notice is the procedure call RAISE APPLICATION ERROR, which accepts an error code, and an explanation string. This effectively halts our trigger execution, and raises an error, preventing our DOB from being modified. An error (exception) in a trigger stops the code from updating the DOB. When we do the actual update for example:
UPDATE PERSON SET DOB = SYSDATE;
We end up with an error, that says we CANNOT CHANGE DATE OF BIRTH.

SQL> UPDATE PERSON SET DOB = SYSDATE;
UPDATE PERSON SET DOB = SYSDATE
*

ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20000: CANNOT CHANGE DATE OF BIRTH
ORA-06512: at "PARTICLE.PERSON_DOB", line 2
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger ’PARTICLE.PERSON_DOB’
You should also notice the error code of ORA-20000. This is our -20000 parameter to
RAISE APPLICATION ERROR.
Viewing Triggers:

You can see all your user defined triggers by doing a select statement on USER_TRIGGERS.

For example:
SELECT TRIGGER_NAME FROM USER_TRIGGERS;
Which produces the names of all triggers. You can also select more columns to get more
detailed trigger information. You can do that at your own leisure, and explore it on your
own.

Dropping Triggers:

You can DROP triggers just like anything. The general format would be something like:
DROP TRIGGER trigger_name;

NESTED QUERIES AND JOINS

NESTED QUERIES :

A subquery is a query within a query. In Oracle, you can create subqueries within your SQL statements. These subqueries can reside in the WHERE clause, the FROM clause, or the SELECT clause

JOINS:
Join is a query in which data is returned from two or more tables.

How the join will be performed:
Step 1: Make the Cartesian product of the given tables.
Step 2: Check for the equality on common attributes for the given tables.

Natural join:
It returns the matching rows from the table that are being joined.
Syntax:
>select from TN where TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.
Eg:
> select emp.empname,city,salary from emp,empsalary where emp.empname=empsalary.empname;
Inner join:
It returns the matching rows from the table that are being joined.
Syntax:
>select from TN1 innerjoin TN2 on TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.
Eg:
>select emp.empname,city,salary from emp inner join empsalary on emp.empname=empsalary.empname;
Outer Join:
Left outer join:
It returns all the rows from the table1 even when they are unmatched.
Syntax:
1. select from TN1 left outer join TN2 on TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.
2. select from TN where TN1.attribute(+)=TN2.attribute.
Eg:
> select emp.empname,city,salary from emp left outer join empsalary on emp.empname=empsalary.empname;
Right outer join:
It returns all the rows from the table2 even when they are unmatched.
Syntax:
1. select from TN1 right outer join TN2 on TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.

2. select from TN where TN1.attribute=(+)TN2.attribute.
Eg:
> select emp.empname,city,salary from emp right outer join empsalary on emp.empname=empsalary.empname;
Full join:
It is the combination of both left outer and right outer join.
Syntax:
>select from TN1 full join TN2 on TN1.attribute=TN2.attribute.
Eg:
 select emp.empname,city,salary from emp full outer join empsalary on emp.empname=empsalary.empname;

VIEWS
VIEWS:

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real tables in the database.

SQL CREATE VIEW Statement
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real tables in the database.
SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

SQL CREATE VIEW Examples
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID,ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Current Product List]
Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the "Products" table with a unit price higher than the average unit price:
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice
FROM Products
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price]
Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category in 1997. Note that this view selects its data from another view called "Product Sales for 1997":
CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS
SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales
FROM [Product Sales for 1997]
GROUP BY CategoryName
We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]
We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale only for the category "Beverages":
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]
WHERE CategoryName='Beverages'
SQL Updating a View
You can update a view by using the following syntax:
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view. We will update the view with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
SQL Dropping a View
You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.
SQL DROP VIEW Syntax
DROP VIEW view_name

FUNCTION AND PROCEDURE

FUNCTION:

A function is a subprogram that computes a value. The syntax for creating a function is given below

Create or replace function[argument]
Return datatype is
(local declaration)
begin
(executable statements)
[Exception]
(exception handlers)
end
DESCRIPTION:

SQL>create table emp1(empno number,deptno number,sal number);

SQL>/

table created

SQL> desc emp1;
Name Nullf? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
EMPNO NUMBER
DEPTNO NUMBER
SAL NUMBER

SQL> insert into emp1 values(&empno,&deptno,&sal);
Enter value for empno: 7
Enter value for deptno: 2
Enter value for sal: 5000
old 1: insert into emp1 values(&empno,&deptno,&sal)
new 1: insert into emp1 values(7,2,5000)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from emp1;

EMPNO DEPTNO SAL
---------- ---------- ----------
1 1 1000
2 1 5000
3 2 1500
4 1 7000
5 2 7800
6 2 2000
7 2 5000

7 rows selected.

create or replace function deptsal(dno number) return number is
totsal number;
begin
totsal :=0;
for emp_sal in(select sal from emp1 where deptno = dno and sal is not null) loop
totsal := totsal + emp_sal.sal;
end loop;
return totsal;
end deptsal;

SQL> /

Function created.

declare
a varchar(5);
b number;
begin
a := &a;
b := deptsal(a);
dbms_output.put_line('TOTAL SALARY OF DEPARTMENT : '||b);
end;

PROCEDURE:

CREATE [ORREPLACE] PROCEDURE PROCEDURENAME
[PARAMETER[IN/OUT/IN/IN OUT] DATATYPE
[:=/DEFAULT EXPRESSION]
[(PARAMETER)]
IS/AS
DECLARATION
BEGIN
PL/SQL CODES
[EXCEPTION]
END
DESCRIPTION:

The details about the holiday is being present in the table holiday and the attributes are as follows :
Depcode
Depname
Startholiday
Endholiday
Semester

The details about the department holidays according to their semester is being given in this table according to their semester.

The procedure is being written. While executing the procedure by specifying the department code,semester and the date the procedure display whether the give day is holiday for that department in that semester

Before procedure creation:

sql>desc holiday;

Name Null? Type
-----------------------------------------
DEPCODE VARCHAR2(4) DEPNAME VARCHAR2(6)
STARTHOLIDAY DATE
ENDHOLIDAY DATE
SEMESTER NUMBER(2)

Inserting holiday details:

sql>insert into holiday values('&depco','&depname','&start','&end',&sem);

Enter value for depcode:101
Enter value for depname:EEE
Enter value for Starting:21-june-2005
Enter value for Ending:4-july-2005
Enter value for sem:2

Old 1:insert into holiday values('&depco','&depname','&start','&end',&sem);
New 1:insert into mark_trig values('101','EEE','21-june-2005','4-july-2005',2);

1 row created.

Enter value for depcode:103
Enter value for depname:MCA
Enter value for Starting:25-june-2005
Enter value for Ending:14-july-2005
Enter value for sem:2

Old 1:insert into holiday values('&depco','&depname','&start','&end',&sem);
New 1:insert into mark_trig values('103','MCA','25-june-2005','14-july-2005',2);

1 row created.

sql>select * from holiday

DEPC DEPNAM STARTHOLIDAY ENDHOLIDAY SEMESTER
------- ------------ ------------------ ------------------- ----------------
101 EEE 21-june-2005 4-july-2005 2
103 MCA 25-june-2005 14-july-2005 2

Stored procedure to check for the holiday

PROGRAM:

sql>create or replace procedure holidaycheck(dcode in char,sem in number,dat date)

1 is
2 begin
3 declare
4 n1 number
5 n2 number
6 cursor cur1 is select * from holiday;
7 cr cur1 % notfound
8 begin
9 open cur1
10 loop
11 fetch cur1 into cr;
12 exit when cur1%notfound;
13 if(cr.depcode=dcode)and (cr.semester=sem)then
14 n1:months_between(dat,cr.startholiday);
15 n2:months_between(cr.endholiday,dat);
16 if((n1>=0) and(n2>=0)) then
17 dbms_output.put_line('DEPARTMENT CODE:');
18 dbms_output.put_line(cr.depcode);
19 dbms_output.put_line('DEPARTMENT NAME:');
20 dbms_output.put_line(cr.depname);
21 dbms_output.put_line('IT IS A HOLIDAY');
22 else
23 dbms_output.put_line('IT IS NOT A HOLIDAY');
24 end if;
25 end if;
26 end loop;
27 end;
28 end;
29/

procedure created

SIMPLE PL/SQL PROGRAMS
PL/SQL:

PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language extension of SQL
PL/SQL is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features of programming languages. It was developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90’s to enhance the capabilities of SQL

PL/SQL Block

DECLARE
Variable declaration
BEGIN
Program Execution
EXCEPTION
Exception handling
END;
• A PL/SQL Block consists of three sections:
– The Declaration section (optional).
– The Execution section (mandatory).
– The Exception (or Error) Handling section (optional)

Program 1

Write a program to check greatest of two numbers :

declare
a number(3) :=20;
b number(3) :=10;
begin
if a>b then
dbms_output.put_line('a is the greatest : ' ||a);
else
dbms_output.put_line('B is the greatest : ' ||b);
end if;
end;
Program 2:
WRITE A PROGRAM TO INPUT 2 NUMBERS AND AN OPERATOR , AND DISPLAY THE RESULT.
declare
a number(3) ;
b number(3) ;
c number(3) ;
op char(1) ;
begin
a := &a ;
b := &b ;
op := &op ;
if op='+'
then
c:=a+b;
elsif op='-'
then
c:=a-b;
elsif op='*'
then
c:=a*b;
else
c:=a/b;
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('result='||c);
end;
Program 3:
Write a program to find the sum of the digits of the number:
DECLARE
N number ;
S NUMBER :=0;
R NUMBER;
begin
n:=&N;
WHILE N<>0 LOOP
R := MOD(N,10);
S := S + R;
N := TRUNC(N/10);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('THE SUM OF THE DIGITS = ' || S);
end;
Program 4:
Write a program to find the factorial of a number :
declare
n number(2);
i number(2);
f number(5):=1;
begin
n :=&n;
for i in 1..n loop
f := f * i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(' the factorial value = '||f);
end;
Program 5:

WRITE A PL/SQL CODE TO ACCEPT THE TEXT AND
1. REVERSE THE GIVEN TEXT.
2. CHECK THE TEXT IS PALINDROME OR NOT
DECLARE
G VARchar2(20);
r VARchar2(20);
BEGIN
G:='&g';
dbms_output.put_line('THE GIVEN TEXT :'||G);
for i in REVERSE 1.. length(G) loop
R:= R||substr(G,i,1);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('THE REVERSED TEXT :'||R);
IF R=G THEN
dbms_output.put_line('THE GIVEN TEXT IS PALINDROME ');
ELSE
dbms_output.put_line('THE GIVEN TEXT IS NOT PALINDROME ');
END IF;
end;
d.
Program 6:

Write a program to check the given no: is prime or not:
declare
n number;
i number;
pr number(2):=1;
begin
n:= &n;
for i in 2..n/2 loop
if mod(n,i) = 0 then
pr := 0;
end if;
end loop;
if pr = 1 then
dbms_output.put_line(' the given no: is prime: '||n);
else
dbms_output.put_line(' the given no: is not prime: '||n);
end if;
end;
.

OUTPUT

SQL> set serveroutput on;
Program 1:
program to check greatest of two numbers
SQL> /
a is the greatest : 20
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Program 2:
Program to input 2 numbers and an operator , and display the result.
Enter value for a: 5
old 7: a:=&a;
new 7: a:=5;
Enter value for b: 6
old 8: b:=&b;
new 8: b:=6;
Enter value for op: '*'
old 9: op:=&op;
new 9: op:='*';
result=30
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.completed.
Program 3:
program to find the sum of the digits of the number
SQL> Enter value for n: 375
old 7: n:=&N;
new 7: n:=375;
THE SUM OF THE DIGITS = 15
Program 4:
program to find the factorial of a number
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Enter value for n: 5
old 6: n:=&n;
new 6: n:=5;
the factorial value = 120
Program 5:
program to check whether the given word is palindrome or not
SQL> /
Enter value for g: MALAYALAM
old 5: G:='&g';
new 5: G:='MALAYALAM';
THE GIVEN TEXT :MALAYALAM
THE REVERSED TEXT :MALAYALAM
THE GIVEN TEXT IS PALINDROME
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> /
Enter value for g: HELLO
old 5: G:='&g';
new 5: G:='HELLO';
THE GIVEN TEXT :HELLO
THE REVERSED TEXT :OLLEH
THE GIVEN TEXT IS NOT PALINDROME
PL/SQL procedure successfully complete
Program 6:
program to check the given no: is prime or not:
SQL> /
Enter value for n: 7
old 6: n:=&n;
new 6: n:=7;
the given no: is prime: 7
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> /
Enter value for n: 25
old 6: n:=&n;
new 6: n:=25;
the given no: is not prime: 25
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.successfully

microprocessor 8086

2011-02-14T01:59:00.007-08:00

* It is a 16-bit Microprocessor(μp).It’s ALU, internal registers works with 16bit binary word.
* 8086 has a 20 bit address bus can access up to 220= 1 MB memory locations.
* 8086 has a 16bit data bus. It can read or write data to a memory/port either 16bits or 8 bit at a time.
* It can support up to 64K I/O ports.
* It provides 14, 16 -bit registers.
* Frequency range of 8086 is 6-10 MHz
* It has multiplexed address and data bus AD0- AD15 and A16 – A19.
* It requires single phase clock with 33% duty cycle to provide internal timing.
* It can prefetch upto 6 instruction bytes from memory and queues them in order to speed up instruction execution.
* It requires +5V power supply.
* A 40 pin dual in line package.
* 8086 is designed to operate in two modes, Minimum mode and Maximum mode.
o The minimum mode is selected by applying logic 1 to the MN / MX# input pin. This is a single microprocessor configuration.
o The maximum mode is selected by applying logic 0 to the MN / MX# input pin. This is a multi micro processors configuration.

* The Microprocessor 8086 is a 16-bit CPU available in different clock rates and packaged in a 40 pin CERDIP or plastic package.
* The 8086 operates in single processor or multiprocessor configuration to achieve high performance. The pins serve a particular function in minimum mode (single processor mode ) and other function in maximum mode configuration (multiprocessor mode ).
* The 8086 signals can be categorised in three groups.
o The first are the signal having common functions in minimum as well as maximum mode.
o The second are the signals which have special functions for minimum mode
o The third are the signals having special functions for maximum mode.
* The following signal descriptions are common for both modes.
* AD15-AD0 : These are the time multiplexed memory I/O address and data lines.
o Address remains on the lines during T1 state, while the data is available on the data bus during T2, T3, Tw and T4. These lines are active high and float to a tristate during interrupt acknowledge and local bus hold acknowledge cycles.
* A19/S6,A18/S5,A17/S4,A16/S3 : These are the time multiplexed address and status lines.
o During T1 these are the most significant address lines for memory operations.
o During I/O operations, these lines are low.
o During memory or I/O operations, status information is available on those lines for T2,T3,Tw and T4.
o The status of the interrupt enable flag bit is updated at the beginning of each clock cycle.
o The S4 and S3 combinely indicate which segment register is presently being used for memory accesses as in below fig.
o These lines float to tri-state off during the local bus hold acknowledge. The status line S6 is always low.
o The address bit are separated from the status bit using latches controlled by the ALE signal.

S4 S3 Indication

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

Alternate Data

Stack

Code or None

Data

Whole word

Upper byte from or to even address

Lower byte from or to even address

* BHE/S7 : The bus high enable is used to indicate the transfer of data over the higher order ( D15-D8 ) data bus as shown in table. It goes low for the data transfer over D15-D8 and is used to derive chip selects of odd address memory bank or peripherals. BHE is low during T1 for read, write and interrupt acknowledge cycles, whenever a byte is to be transferred on higher byte of data bus. The status information is available during T2, T3 and T4. The signal is active low and tristated during hold. It is low during T1 for the first pulse of the interrupt acknowledge cycle.

* RD – Read : This signal on low indicates the peripheral that the processor is performing memory or I/O read operation. RD is active low and shows the state for T2, T3, Tw of any read cycle. The signal remains tristated during the hold acknowledge.

* READY : This is the acknowledgement from the slow device or memory that they have completed the data transfer. The signal made available by the devices is synchronized by the 8284A clock generator to provide ready input to the 8086. the signal is active high.

* INTR-Interrupt Request : This is a triggered input. This is sampled during the last clock cycles of each instruction to determine the availability of the request. If any interrupt request is pending, the processor enters the interrupt acknowledge cycle. This can be internally masked by resulting the interrupt enable flag. This signal is active high and internally synchronized.

* TEST : This input is examined by a ‘WAIT’ instruction. If the TEST pin goes low, execution will continue, else the processor remains in an idle state. The input is synchronized internally during each clock cycle on leading edge of clock.

* CLK- Clock Input : The clock input provides the basic timing for processor operation and bus control activity. Its an asymmetric square wave with 33% duty cycle.

The following pin functions are for the minimum mode operation of 8086.

* M/IO – Memory/IO : This is a status line logically equivalent to S2 in maximum mode. When it is low, it indicates the CPU is having an I/O operation, and when it is high, it indicates that the CPU is having a memory operation. This line becomes active high in the previous T4 and remains active till final T4 of the current cycle. It is tristated during local bus “hold acknowledge “.

* INTA – Interrupt Acknowledge : This signal is used as a read strobe for interrupt acknowledge cycles. i.e. when it goes low, the processor has accepted the interrupt.

* ALE – Address Latch Enable : This output signal indicates the availability of the valid address on the address/data lines, and is connected to latch enable input of latches. This signal is active high and is never tristated.

* DT/R – Data Transmit/Receive: This output is used to decide the direction of data flow through the transreceivers (bidirectional buffers). When the processor sends out data, this signal is high and when the processor is receiving data, this signal is low.

* DEN – Data Enable : This signal indicates the availability of valid data over the address/data lines. It is used to enable the transreceivers ( bidirectional buffers ) to separate the data from the multiplexed address/data signal. It is active from the middle of T2 until the middle of T4. This is tristated during ‘ hold acknowledge’ cycle.

* HOLD, HLDA- Acknowledge : When the HOLD line goes high, it indicates to the processor that another master is requesting the bus access. The processor, after receiving the HOLD request, issues the hold acknowledge signal on HLDA pin, in the middle of the next clock cycle after completing the current bus cycle.

* At the same time, the processor floats the local bus and control lines. When the processor detects the HOLD line low, it lowers the HLDA signal. HOLD is an asynchronous input, and is should be externally synchronized. If the DMA request is made while the CPU is performing a memory or I/O cycle, it will release the local bus during T4 provided :

1.The request occurs on or before T2 state of the current cycle.
2.The current cycle is not operating over the lower byte of a word.
3.The current cycle is not the first acknowledge of an interrupt acknowledge sequence.
4. A Lock instruction is not being executed.

The following pin functions are applicable for maximum mode operation of 8086.

* S2, S1, S0 – Status Lines : These are the status lines which reflect the type of operation, being carried out by the processor. These become activity during T4 of the previous cycle and active during T1 and T2 of the current bus cycles.

* LOCK : This output pin indicates that other system bus master will be prevented fromgaining the system bus, while the LOCK signal is low. The LOCK signal is activated by the ‘LOCK’ prefix instruction and remains active until the completion of the next instruction. When the CPU is executing a critical instruction which requires the system bus, the LOCK prefix instruction ensures that other processors connected in the system will not gain the control of the bus.

The 8086, while executing the prefixed instruction, asserts the bus lock signal output, which may be connected to an external bus controller. By prefetching the instruction, there is a considerable speeding up in instruction execution in 8086. This is known as instruction pipelining.

S2 S1 S0 Indication

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

Interrupt Acknowledge

Read I/O port

Write I/O port

Halt

Code Access

Read Memory

Write Memory

Passive

* At the starting the CS:IP is loaded with the required address from which the execution is to be started. Initially, the queue will be empty an the microprocessor starts a fetch operation to bring one byte (the first byte) of instruction code, if the CS:IP address is odd or two bytes at a time, if the CS:IP address is even.

* The first byte is a complete opcode in case of some instruction (one byte opcode instruction) and is a part of opcode, in case of some instructions ( two byte opcode instructions), the remaining part of code lie in second byte.

* The second byte is then decoded in continuation with the first byte to decide the instruction length and the number of subsequent bytes to be treated as instruction data. The queue is updated after every byte is read from the queue but the fetch cycle is initiated by BIU only if at least two bytes of the queue are empty and the EU may be concurrently executing the fetched instructions.

* The next byte after the instruction is completed is again the first opcode byte of the next instruction. A similar procedure is repeated till the complete execution of the program. The fetch operation of the next instruction is overlapped with the execution of the current instruction. As in the architecture, there are two separate units, namely Execution unit and Bus interface unit.

* While the execution unit is busy in executing an instruction, after it is completely decoded, the bus interface unit may be fetching the bytes of the next instruction from memory, depending upon the queue status.

QS1 QS0 Indication

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

No Operation

First Byte of the opcode from the queue

Empty Queue
Subsequent Byte from the Queue

* RQ/GT0, RQ/GT1 – Request/Grant : These pins are used by the other local bus master in maximum mode, to force the processor to release the local bus at the end of the processor current bus cycle.

* Each of the pin is bidirectional with RQ/GT0 having higher priority than RQ/GT1. RQ/GT pins have internal pull-up resistors and may be left unconnected. Request/Grant sequence is as follows:

1.A pulse of one clock wide from another bus master requests the bus access to 8086.
2.During T4(current) or T1(next) clock cycle, a pulse one clock wide from 8086 to the requesting master, indicates that the 8086 has allowed the local bus to float and that it will enter the ‘hold acknowledge’ state at next cycle. The CPU bus interface unit is likely to be disconnected from the local bus of the system.
3.A one clock wide pulse from the another master indicates to the 8086 that the hold request is about to end and the 8086 may regain control of the local bus at the next clock cycle. Thus each master to master exchange of the local bus is a sequence of 3 pulses. There must be at least one dead clock cycle after each bus exchange. The request and grant pulses are active low.For the bus request those are received while 8086 is performing memory or I/O cycle, the granting of the bus is governed by the rules as in case of HOLD and HLDA in minimum mode.

* 8086 has two blocks Bus Interfacing Unit(BIU) and Execution Unit(EU).

* The BIU performs all bus operations such as instruction fetching, reading and writing operands for memory and calculating the addresses of the memory operands. The instruction bytes are transferred to the instruction queue.

* EU executes instructions from the instruction system byte queue.

* Both units operate asynchronously to give the 8086 an overlapping instruction fetch and execution mechanism which is called as Pipelining. This results in efficient use of the system bus and system performance.

* BIU contains Instruction queue, Segment registers, Instruction pointer, Address adder.

* EU contains Control circuitry, Instruction decoder, ALU, Pointer and Index register,Flag register.

BUS INTERFACE UNIT:

* It provides a full 16 bit bidirectional data bus and 20 bit address bus.

* The bus interface unit is responsible for performing all external bus operations.

* Specifically it has the following functions:

* Instruction fetch, Instruction queuing, Operand fetch and storage, Address relocation and Bus control.

* The BIU uses a mechanism known as an instruction stream queue to implement a pipeline architecture.

* This queue permits prefetch of up to six bytes of instruction code. When ever the queue of the BIU is not full, it has room for at least two more bytes and at the same time the EU is not requesting it to read or write operands from memory, the BIU is free to look ahead in the program by prefetching the next sequential instruction.

* These prefetching instructions are held in its FIFO queue. With its 16 bit data bus, the BIU fetches two instruction bytes in a single memory cycle.

* After a byte is loaded at the input end of the queue, it automatically shifts up through the FIFO to the empty location nearest the output.

* The EU accesses the queue from the output end. It reads one instruction byte after the other from the output of the queue. If the queue is full and the EU is not requesting access to operand in memory.

* These intervals of no bus activity, which may occur between bus cycles are known as Idle state.

* If the BIU is already in the process of fetching an instruction when the EU request it to read or write operands from memory or I/O, the BIU first completes the instruction fetch bus cycle before initiating the operand read / write cycle.

* The BIU also contains a dedicated adder which is used to generate the 20bit physical address that is output on the address bus. This address is formed by adding an appended 16 bit segment address and a 16 bit offset address.

* For example: The physical address of the next instruction to be fetched is formed by combining the current contents of the code segment CS register and the current contents of the instruction pointer IP register.

* The BIU is also responsible for generating bus control signals such as those for memory read or write and I/O read or write.

EXECUTION UNIT

* The Execution unit is responsible for decoding and executing all instructions.

* The EU extracts instructions from the top of the queue in the BIU, decodes them, generates operands if necessary, passes them to the BIU and requests it to perform the read or write bys cycles to memory or I/O and perform the operation specified by the instruction on the operands.

* During the execution of the instruction, the EU tests the status and control flags and updates them based on the results of executing the instruction.

* If the queue is empty, the EU waits for the next instruction byte to be fetched and shifted to top of the queue.

* When the EU executes a branch or jump instruction, it transfers control to a location corresponding to another set of sequential instructions.

* Whenever this happens, the BIU automatically resets the queue and then begins to fetch instructions from this new location to refill the queue.

General Bus Operation

* The 8086 has a combined address and data bus commonly referred as a time multiplexed address and data bus.
* The main reason behind multiplexing address and data over the same pins is the maximum utilisation of processor pins and it facilitates the use of 40 pin standard DIP package.
* The bus can be demultiplexed using a few latches and transreceivers, when ever required.
* Basically, all the processor bus cycles consist of at least four clock cycles. These are referred to as T1, T2, T3, T4. The address is transmitted by the processor during T1. It is present on the bus only for one cycle.
* The negative edge of this ALE pulse is used to separate the address and the data or status information. In maximum mode, the status lines S0, S1 and S2 are used to indicate the type of operation.
* Status bits S3 to S7 are multiplexed with higher order address bits and the BHE signal. Address is valid during T1 while status bits S3 to S7 are valid during T2 through T4.

Maximum mode

* In the maximum mode, the 8086 is operated by strapping the MN/MX pin to ground.
* In this mode, the processor derives the status signal S2, S1, S0. Another chip called bus controller derives the control signal using this status information .
* In the maximum mode, there may be more than one microprocessor in the system configuration.

Minimum mode

* In a minimum mode 8086 system, the microprocessor 8086 is operated in minimum mode by strapping its MN/MX pin to logic 1.
* In this mode, all the control signals are given out by the microprocessor chip itself.
* There is a single microprocessor in the minimum mode system.

Minimum Mode 8086 System

* In a minimum mode 8086 system, the microprocessor 8086 is operated in minimum mode by strapping its MN/MX pin to logic 1.

* In this mode, all the control signals are given out by the microprocessor chip itself.There is a single microprocessor in the minimum mode system.

* The remaining components in the system are latches, transreceivers, clock generator, memory and I/O devices. Some type of chip selection logic may be required for selecting memory or I/O devices, depending upon the address map of the system.

* Latches are generally buffered output D-type flip-flops like 74LS373 or 8282. They are used for separating the valid address from the multiplexed address/data signals and are controlled by the ALE signal generated by 8086.

* Transreceivers are the bidirectional buffers and some times they are called as data amplifiers. They are required to separate the valid data from the time multiplexed address/data signals.

* They are controlled by two signals namely, DEN and DT/R.

* The DEN signal indicates the direction of data, i.e. from or to the processor. The system contains memory for the monitor and users program storage.

* Usually, EPROM are used for monitor storage, while RAM for users program storage. A system may contain I/O devices.

Write Cycle Timing Diagram for Minimum Mode

* The working of the minimum mode configuration system can be better described in terms of the timing diagrams rather than qualitatively describing the operations.

* The opcode fetch and read cycles are similar. Hence the timing diagram can be categorized in two parts, the first is the timing diagram for read cycle and the second is the timing diagram for write cycle.

* The read cycle begins in T1 with the assertion of address latch enable (ALE) signal and also M / IO signal. During the negative going edge of this signal, the valid address is latched on the local bus.

* The BHE and A0 signals address low, high or both bytes. From T1 to T4 , the M/IO signal indicates a memory or I/O operation.

* At T2, the address is removed from the local bus and is sent to the output. The bus is then tristated. The read (RD) control signal is also activated in T2.

* The read (RD) signal causes the address device to enable its data bus drivers. After RD goes low, the valid data is available on the data bus.

* The addressed device will drive the READY line high. When the processor returns the read signal to high level, the addressed device will again tristate its bus drivers.

* A write cycle also begins with the assertion of ALE and the emission of the address. The M/IO signal is again asserted to indicate a memory or I/O operation. In T2, after sending the address in T1, the processor sends the data to be written to the addressed location.

* The data remains on the bus until middle of T4 state. The WR becomes active at the beginning of T2 (unlike RD is somewhat delayed in T2 to provide time for floating).

* The BHE and A0 signals are used to select the proper byte or bytes of memory or I/O word to be read or write.

* The M/IO, RD and WR signals indicate the type of data transfer as specified in table below.

Minimum Mode Interface

* When the Minimum mode operation is selected, the 8086 provides all control signals needed to implement the memory and I/O interface.

* The minimum mode signal can be divided into the following basic groups :

1. Address/data bus
2. Status
3. Control
4. Interrupt and
5. DMA.

Each and every group is explained clearly.

Address/Data Bus :

* These lines serve two functions. As an address bus is 20 bits long and consists of signal lines A0 through A19. A19 represents the MSB and A0 LSB. A 20bit address gives the 8086 a 1Mbyte memory address space. More over it has an independent I/O address space which is 64K bytes in length.

* The 16 data bus lines D0 through D15 are actually multiplexed with address lines A0 through A15 respectively. By multiplexed we mean that the bus work as an address bus during first machine cycle and as a data bus during next machine cycles.
* D15 is the MSB and D0 LSB. When acting as a data bus, they carry read/write data for memory, input/output data for I/O devices, and interrupt type codes from an interrupt controller.

Status signal:

* The four most significant address lines A19 through A16 are also multiplexed but in this case with status signals S6 through S3. These status bits are output on the bus at the same time that data are transferred over the other bus lines.
* Bit S4 and S3 together from a 2 bit binary code that identifies which of the 8086 internal segment registers are used to generate the physical address that was output on the address bus during the current bus cycle.Code S4S3 = 00 identifies a register known as extra segment register as the source of the segment address.
* Status line S5 reflects the status of another internal characteristic of the 8086. It is the logic level of the internal enable flag. The last status bit S6 is always at the logic 0 level.

S4
S3 Segment Register

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

Extra

Stack

Code / none

Data

Memory segment status codes

Control Signals :

* The control signals are provided to support the 8086 memory I/O interfaces. They control functions such as when the bus is to carry a valid address in which direction data are to be transferred over the bus, when valid write data are on the bus and when to put read data on the system bus.

* ALE is a pulse to logic 1 that signals external circuitry when a valid address word is on the bus. This address must be latched in external circuitry on the 1-to-0 edge of the pulse at ALE.

* Another control signal that is produced during the bus cycle is BHE bank high enable. Logic 0 on this used as a memory enable signal for the most significant byte half of the data bus D8 through D1. These lines also serves a second function, which is as the S7 status line.

* Using the M/IO and DT/R lines, the 8086 signals which type of bus cycle is in progress and in which direction data are to be transferred over the bus. The logic level of M/IO tells external circuitry whether a memory or I/O transfer is taking place over the bus. Logic 1 at this output signals a memory operation and logic 0 an I/O operation.

* The direction of data transfer over the bus is signaled by the logic level output at DT/R. When this line is logic 1 during the data transfer part of a bus cycle, the bus is in the transmit mode. Therefore, data are either written into memory or output to an I/O device. On the other hand, logic 0 at DT/R signals that the bus is in the receive mode. This corresponds to reading data from memory or input of data from an input port.

* The signal read RD and write WR indicates that a read bus cycle or a write bus cycle is in progress. The 8086 switches WR to logic 0 to signal external device that valid write or output data are on the bus.

* On the other hand, RD indicates that the 8086 is performing a read of data of the bus. During read operations, one other control signal is also supplied. This is DEN ( data enable) and it signals external devices when they should put data on the bus. There is one other control signal that is involved with the memory and I/O interface. This is the READY signal.

* READY signal is used to insert wait states into the bus cycle such that it is extended by a number of clock periods. This signal is provided by an external clock generator device and can be supplied by the memory or I/O sub-system to signal the 8086 when they are ready to permit the data transfer to be completed.

Interrupt signals :

* The key interrupt interface signals are interrupt request (INTR) and interrupt acknowledge ( INTA).
* INTR is an input to the 8086 that can be used by an external device to signal that it need to be serviced.
* Logic 1 at INTR represents an active interrupt request. When an interrupt request has been recognized by the 8086, it indicates this fact to external circuit with pulse to logic 0 at the INTA output.
* The TEST input is also related to the external interrupt interface. Execution of a WAIT instruction causes the 8086 to check the logic level at the TEST input.
* If the logic 1 is found, the MPU suspend operation and goes into the idle state. The 8086 no longer executes instructions, instead it repeatedly checks the logic level of the TEST input waiting for its transition back to logic 0.
* As TEST switches to 0, execution resume with the next instruction in the program. This feature can be used to synchronize the operation of the 8086 to an event in external hardware.
* There are two more inputs in the interrupt interface: the nonmaskable interrupt NMI and the reset interrupt RESET.
* On the 0-to-1 transition of NMI control is passed to a nonmaskable interrupt service routine. The RESET input is used to provide a hardware reset for the 8086. Switching RESET to logic 0 initializes the internal register of the 8086 and initiates a reset service routine.

DMA Interface signals :

* The direct memory access DMA interface of the 8086 minimum mode consist of the HOLD and HLDA signals.
* When an external device wants to take control of the system bus, it signals to the 8086 by switching HOLD to the logic 1 level. At the completion of the current bus cycle, the 8086 enters the hold state. In the hold state, signal lines AD0 through AD15, A16/S3 through A19/S6, BHE, M/IO, DT/R, RD, WR, DEN and INTR are all in the high Z state.
* The 8086 signals external device that it is in this state by switching its HLDA output to logic 1 level.

Maximum Mode Interface

* When the 8086 is set for the maximum-mode configuration, it provides signals for implementing a multiprocessor / coprocessor system environment.
* By multiprocessor environment we mean that one microprocessor exists in the system and that each processor is executing its own program.
* Usually in this type of system environment, there are some system resources that are common to all processors.They are called as global resources. There are also other resources that are assigned to specific processors. These are known as local or private resources.
* Coprocessor also means that there is a second processor in the system. In this two processor does not access the bus at the same time. One passes the control of the system bus to the other and then may suspend its operation.
* In the maximum-mode 8086 system, facilities are provided for implementing allocation of global resources and passing bus control to other microprocessor or coprocessor.

8288 Bus Controller – Bus Command and Control Signals:

* 8086 does not directly provide all the signals that are required to control the memory, I/O and interrupt interfaces.

* Specially the WR, M/IO, DT/R, DEN, ALE and INTA, signals are no longer produced by the 8086. Instead it outputs three status signals S0, S1, S2 prior to the initiation of each bus cycle. This 3- bit bus status code identifies which type of bus cycle is to follow.

* S2S1S0 are input to the external bus controller device, the bus controller generates the appropriately timed command and control signals.

S2

S1

S0
Indication 8288 Command

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

Interrupt Acknowledge

Read I/O port

Write I/O port

Halt

Instruction Fetch

Read Memory

Write Memory

Passive

INTA

IORC

IOWC , AIOWC

None
MRDC

MRDC

MWTC, AMWC

None

*
The 8288 produces one or two of these eight command signals for each bus cycles. For instance, when the 8086 outputs the code S2S1S0 equals 001, it indicates that an I/O read cycle is to be performed.
*
In the code 111 is output by the 8086, it is signaling that no bus activity is to take place.
*
The control outputs produced by the 8288 are DEN, DT/R and ALE. These 3 signals provide the same functions as those described for the minimum system mode. This set of bus commands and control signals is compatible with the Multibus and industry standard for interfacing microprocessor systems.
*

The output of 8289 are bus arbitration signals:

Bus busy (BUSY), common bus request (CBRQ), bus priority out (BPRO), bus priority in (BPRN), bus request (BREQ) and bus clock (BCLK).

* They correspond to the bus exchange signals of the Multibus and are used to lock other processor off the system bus during the execution of an instruction by the 8086.
* In this way the processor can be assured of uninterrupted access to common system resources such as global memory.
* Queue Status Signals : Two new signals that are produced by the 8086 in the maximum-mode system are queue status outputs QS0 and QS1. Together they form a 2-bit ueue status code, QS1QS0.
* Following table shows the four different queue status.

QS1 QS0 Queue Status
0 (low) 0

Queue Empty. The queue has been reinitialized as a result of the execution of a transfer instruction.
0 1

First Byte. The byte taken from the queue was the first byte of the instruction.
1 0

Queue Empty. The queue has been reinitialized as a result of the execution of a transfer instruction.
1 1

Subsequent Byte. The byte taken from the queue was a subsequent byte of the instruction.
Table - Queue status codes

*
Local Bus Control Signal – Request / Grant Signals: In a maximum mode configuration, the minimum mode HOLD, HLDA interface is also changed. These two are replaced by request/grant lines RQ/ GT0 and RQ/ GT1, respectively. They provide a prioritized bus access mechanism for accessing the local bus.

microprocessor 8085

2011-02-14T01:59:00.005-08:00

Add two 16-bit numbers - Source Program 1

Sample problem:

(4000H) = 15H
(4001H) = 1CH
(4002H) = B7H
(4003H) = 5AH
Result = 1C15 + 5AB7H = 76CCH
(4004H) = CCH
(4005H) = 76H

Source Program 1:
LHLD 4000H : Get first I6-bit number in HL
XCHG : Save first I6-bit number in DE
LHLD 4002H : Get second I6-bit number in HL
MOV A, E : Get lower byte of the first number
ADD L : Add lower byte of the second number
MOV L, A : Store result in L register
MOV A, D : Get higher byte of the first number
ADC H : Add higher byte of the second number with CARRY
MOV H, A : Store result in H register
SHLD 4004H : Store I6-bit result in memory locations 4004H and 4005H.
HLT : Terminate program execution

SUBTRACTING TWO 16 BIT NUMBERS:

Sample problem

(4000H) = 19H
(400IH) = 6AH
(4004H) = I5H (4003H) = 5CH
Result = 6A19H - 5C15H = OE04H
(4004H) = 04H
(4005H) = OEH

Source program:

LHLD 4000H : Get first 16-bit number in HL
XCHG : Save first 16-bit number in DE
LHLD 4002H : Get second 16-bit number in HL
MOV A, E : Get lower byte of the first number
SUB L : Subtract lower byte of the second number
MOV L, A : Store the result in L register
MOV A, D : Get higher byte of the first number
SBB H : Subtract higher byte of second number with borrow
MOV H, A : Store l6-bit result in memory locations 4004H and 4005H.
SHLD 4004H : Store l6-bit result in memory locations 4004H and 4005H.
HLT : Terminate program execution.

2's complement of the number
(4200H) = 55H
Result = (4300H) = AAH + 1 = ABH

Source program:

LDA 4200H : Get the number
CMA : Complement the number
ADI, 01 H : Add one in the number
STA 4300H : Store the result
HLT : Terminate program execution

SUM OF THE SERIES:

4200H = 04H

420lH = 9AH

4202H = 52H

4203H = 89H

4204H = 3EH

Result = 9AH + 52H + 89H + 3EH = H

4300H = B3H Lower byte

4301H = 0lH Higher byte

Source program 2

LDA 4200H

MOV C, A : Initialize counter

LXI H, 4201H : Initialize pointer

SUB A :Sum low = 0

MOV B, A : Sum high = 0

BACK: ADD M : Sum = sum + data

JNC SKIP

INR B : Add carry to MSB of SUM

SKIP: INX H : Increment pointer

DCR C : Decrement counter

JNZ BACK : Check if counter 0 repeat

STA 4300H : Store lower byte

MOV A, B

STA 4301H : Store higher byte

HLT :Terminate program execution

MULTIPLY TWO 8 BIT NUMBERS:
(2200H) = 03H

(2201H) = B2H

Result = B2H + B2H + B2H = 216H

= 216H

(2300H) = 16H

(2301H) = 02H

Source program :

* LDA 2200H
* MOV E, A
* MVI D, 00 : Get the first number in DE register pair
* LDA 2201H
* MOV C, A : Initialize counter
* LX I H, 0000 H : Result = 0
* BACK: DAD D : Result = result + first number
* DCR C : Decrement count
* JNZ BACK : If count 0 repeat
* SHLD 2300H : Store result
* HLT : Terminate program execution

Divide a 16 bit number by a 8-bit number
(2200H) = 60H

(2201H) = A0H

(2202H) = l2H

Result = A060H/12H = 8E8H Quotient and 10H remainder

(2300H) = E8H

(2301H) = 08H

(2302H= 10H

(2303H) 00H

Source program :

* LHLD 2200H : Get the dividend
* LDA 2202H : Get the divisor
* MOV C, A
* LXI D, 0000H : Quotient = 0
* BACK: MOV A, L
* SUB C : Subtract divisor
* MOV L, A : Save partial result
* JNC SKIP : if CY 1 jump
* DCR H : Subtract borrow of previous subtraction
* SKIP: INX D : Increment quotient
* MOV A, H
* CPI, 00 : Check if dividend < divisor
* JNZ BACK : if no repeat
* MOV A, L
* CMP C
* JNC BACK
* SHLD 2302H : Store the remainder
* XCHG
* SHLD 2300H : Store the quotient
* HLT : Terminate program execution

Arrange in ascending order
* MVI B, 09 : Initialize counter
* START : LXI H, 2200H: Initialize memory pointer
* MVI C, 09H : Initialize counter 2
* BACK: MOV A, M : Get the number
* INX H : Increment memory pointer
* CMP M : Compare number with next number
* JC SKIP : If less, don't interchange
* JZ SKIP : If equal, don't interchange
* MOV D, M
* MOV M, A
* DCX H
* MOV M, D
* INX H : Interchange two numbers
* SKIP:DCR C : Decrement counter 2
* JNZ BACK : If not zero, repeat
* DCR B : Decrement counter 1
* JNZ START
* HLT : Terminate program execution

Add two decimal numbers of 6 digit each
* LXI H, 6000H : Initialize pointer l to first number
* LXI D, 6l00H : Initialize pointer2 to second number
* LXI B, 6200H : Initialize pointer3 to result
* STC
* CMC : Carry = 0
* BACK: LDAX D : Get the digit
* ADD M : Add two digits
* DAA : Adjust for decimal
* STAX.B : Store the result
* INX H : Increment pointer 1
* INX D : Increment pointer2
* INX B : Increment result pointer
* MOV A, L
* CPI 06H : Check for last digit
* JNZ BACK : If not last digit repeat
* HLT : Terminate program execution

basic computer tutor

2011-02-14T01:59:00.003-08:00

As I mentioned earlier, the computer without software (or firmware) is essentially useless. For most of our day to day use, the main operating system (Windows, Linux...) determines the capabilities of a computer. Before the computer can access the main OS, it's going to need a little help. The basic instructions that a computer uses to get up and running are contained in the BIOS (basic input/output system). The information in the BIOS allows the computer to interface with the monitor, keyboard and mouse (among other things) until the OS can take over. The BIOS is stored on a small IC that has a small amount of flash memory. That memory is used to store the values entered when you set up the computer's BIOS parameters. This page shows some of the various setting and will tell, briefly what the setting affect in the computer's operation.

Notes:
Before I go any further, I should tell you that you should not go into the BIOS unless you either know what you're doing or you're working on a computer that is unimportant to you or anyone who may need it. While it's relatively difficult to destroy data by changing values in the BIOS, it IS easy to make changes that would prevent the computer from booting.

There is no mouse capability in the BIOS. Most all interaction uses the up/down arrows, the page up/down buttons and the ENTER key.

To get to the BIOS screen, you have to follow the instructions when the computer just starts to boot. For many motherboards, you hit the delete key to enter the BIOS. Other BIOS' use F1, F2 and F10 just to mention a few.

As you can see, this BIOS is for a motherboard purchased in 2005. Both newer and older motherboards will have different options/features. This motherboard uses a Phoenix BIOS. Others may have a different type of BIOS and may look significantly different. For most motherboards, the owner's manual is available online at the manufacturer's web site. The BIOS section of the manual will tell you what you need to know about the BIOS settings. If you're unsure, you can almost always find help on one of the computer forums like the Major Geeks forum.
This is the first page you'll see when you get into this particular BIOS. The appearance and features of the various BIOS configurations from various manufacturers vary significantly. This is a Phoenix/Award BIOS. Some computers use an AMI BIOS. Other computer manufacturers produce their own BIOS software/firmware.

Above, you can see that the 'Standard CMOS Features' is selected. If you hit the ENTER key, you get the screen below. This is the screen where you set the system clock and set several of the drive parameters. Luckily, most of the newer BIOS' set/read the drive parameters automatically.

On the screen above, I scrolled down to the 'Primary IDE Drive' and hit ENTER. The next screen is the result. In this machine, the primary IDE drive is a 40GB Samsung drive. The screen shows the various drive parameters. Here, we want to let the BIOS set the parameters if the drive is capable. Some older drives don't have the capability to communicate that information to the BIOS and the parameters have to be set manually. Thankfully, most of the older drives have been taken out of service.

Next, we scroll down to what is simply labeled 'BIOS Features' and click ENTER.

Here you can see some relatively new/unique BIOS features. Super-boot allows the computer to start faster by storing certain basic system information in memory. The Super BIOS protect protects the computer's BIOS information from malicious software that tries to destroy the BIOS data. If the BIOS information is completely destroyed, the computer can not be booted and, if the BIOS IC isn't replaceable (installed in a socket vs soldered in place), the motherboard has to be replaced. The SuperRecovery allows you to partition off the drive in a way that nothing can access it from the OS (nothing -- not partitioning software or malware -- nothing). It is supposed to offer the highest level of protection for your data. The

The next feature is the SuperSpeed feature. It allows you to increase the speed of the processor but you have to be careful. If you set it too high, your computer may become unstable, it may be unable to boot and/or it could overheat. If you ever make a BIOS change that prevents the computer from booting, you can clear the CMOS memory with the 'clear CMOS' jumper. Generally, this presents no serious problem (except for all of the settings going back to the default settings). However, in some cases where a RAID array is set up in the BIOS, the recovery takes longer. If you're working with a RAID, it may take several trips through the BIOS and several reboots to get things back in order (don't ask me how I know :).

Below is the 'clear CMOS' jumper (inside the dotted yellow line). It's generally very near the BIOS IC. If you ever need to clear the cmos memory, you simply remove power from the computer, move the jumper from pins 1 and 2 to pins 2 and 3. After a second, return the jumper to pins 1 and 2 and restart the computer. The BIOS settings will now be as they were when you initially powered up the machine.

There are too many features here to cover them all but you should notice a few. At the top, you can see that the virus warning is ENABLED. The 'quick POST' is enabled (allowing even faster booting). Below that, you can see that you have options for the boot order of the various drives. Here, we have told the computer to boot to the CD ROM first and if you don't find a boot record, boot from the hard drive. To shave a few seconds off of the boot time, you can have it boot to the hard drive first but if you need to run something like True Image recovery, you will need to go into the BIOS and set it to boot from the CD ROM first.

Next, we enter the 'Advanced Chipset Features'.

And on the 'Advanced Chipset Features' page, we enter the DRAM control page.

Here, we can control the FSB (Front Side Bus) clock frequency. If we set it higher than the CPU's rated FSB clock frequency, the system may run somewhat faster but it may also become unstable (crashing/locking up). You may also notice the SPD entries. SPD stands for Serial Presence Detect. The SPD is information about the memory. This information is used by the BIOS to set the proper memory parameters.

In the DRAM clock section, you can see that there are three choices. In some situations, you may want to overclock/underclock the memory. Here, there is no overclocking. For the best stability, you should set it to 'By SPD'.

Below, you can see the 'DRAM Timing' dialog box. The 'timing' is the number of clock pulses between certain events in the memory's operation. When overclocking, these numbers become important in getting the best possible performance. For this computer, the best setting is 'Auto By SPD'.

The 'Integrated Peripherals' page deals with the parameters of the drive and PCI controllers.

Below, you can see several of the choices. Some drives have to operate in PIO (Programmed Input/Output) mode and others can operate in DMA mode. All of the settings are set to auto here. When a drive operates in PIO mode, all of the data passes through the processor. In DMA (Direct Memory Access), the processor is bypassed and the drives can communicate with the memory directly. This is much more efficient and it frees up the processor.

This page allows you to enable/disable several functions. The specific functions that you'll need are dependent on the system you're building.

The Super IO IC is the interface between the southbridge and the serial, parallel and IR (InfraRed) ports.

Below, we enter the 'Power Management' section.

Here, we can determine how/when the computer shuts down after a period of inactivity. This page allows you to control the way the computer shuts down. There are options for when you use the power button to shut the computer down and when the computer is shut down automatically.

Here we enter the PNP (Plug and Play) page.

On this page you can see a setting that needs to be changed. The PNP OS should be set to no. This seems counterintuitive (it is actually, if you ask me). When set to yes, the BIOS leaves it to the OS to resolve IRQ conflicts. This is better done outside of the OS so the proper setting should be no.

Here we enter the 'PC Health Status' page.

This page tells you several things including the processor's core temperature, the system temperature, the operating speed of two fans and two of the power supply voltages. The CPU core voltage is not produced directly by the computer's switching power supply. It is converted from one of the power supply outputs by a switching regulator. You should remember the pictures earlier of the PWM FETs that were located near the CPU socket.

Note:
When starting a newly assembled system, it's a good idea to visit this page (above) as soon as you boot the system. If the CPU temperature is above ~60c, there is very likely you haven't properly mated the heatsink to the CPU. While it's possible for a processor to run at 60c (60 degrees celcius) under a heavy load, it should not run that hot at idle. If your processor is running hot, shut it down and check the heatsink mounting. If you can't see it directly, a small mirror and a flashlight will usually help. Be sure that the computer is unplugged from the wall outlet when you are working inside the cabinet. While there is only low voltage present, if you accidentally short anything with the system powered up, you may do serious damage. Remember that there is at least one 5 volt supply that has voltage even when the computer is off.

Here we enter the 'Frequency/Voltage Control' page.

The 'auto Detect' setting determines whether the system clock (oscillator not time clock) is on or off when there is no memory or PCI card in the slot. The 'Spread Spectrum' setting controls whether the clock frequency is constant or varying. When the clock frequency remains constant, more energy is concentrated at one frequency and therefore more likely to produce interference in other devices.

The 'Load Fail-safes' option will set all of the BIOS parameters to the settings that are least likely to cause problems. If set to the fail-safes, the system will not perform up to its full potential.

This is similar the the fail-safes settings but it sets the BIOS parameters to those which are most likely to provide the most stable operation.

To save the new values and exit, you can either scroll to here and hit ENTER or you can hit F10.

When it asks you if you want to exit and save, you must enter 'Y' instead of 'N'.

Flashing the BIOS:
Most motherboard manufacturers offer a way to update the programming/features (called firmware) of the BIOS. Updating the BIOS is referred to as 'flashing' the BIOS. It's often necessary when a new line of processors comes on line or when a new, larger hard drive becomes available. Remember that some motherboards stay in service for a very long time. Having the ability to update the BIOS' firmware prevents you from having to replace a motherboard when the next generation of peripherals becomes available.

Note: Flashing the BIOS can be dangerous. If power fails or you get a 'bad flash', your motherboard could be rendered useless. It's only advisable to update the firmware when absolutely necessary. Even then, you should use a UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply) to protect against power failure.

Raid Setup
The following is not exactly a step_by_step tutorial but it will show you basically what's involved with a raid setup. If Windows (or any operating system) is to be installed on the RAID array, this must be done BEFORE the installation of the OS. On the 'XP Installation page', I show how the SATA RAID drivers are installed but this is different. This sets up multiple drives to act as one drive (in the case of a RAID 0 configuration). The driver installation on the XP installation page gives Windows the information it needs to operate the SATA interface. In this case, the SATA interface is where the RAID drives will be connected to the motherboard. There are some boards where the IDE drives can also be used in the RAID array but that's not possible with this board.

Notes:
This setup is for a different computer than the one used above. It has a different BIOS (AMI instead of Phoenix).
Your RAID setup will likely be different than this unless you're using the same chipset/BIOS.
When setting up a pair of drives in RAID 0, the Windows will no longer see them as two drives. As far as Windows is concerned, they are a single drive. The only way it will show up as two drives is if you partition the drive.
When your computer boots, it will get to a screen that allows you to enter the RAID setup utility. If it doesn't, you may have to enable it in the BIOS. This one was set up to automatically display the option to enter the utility. It doesn't stay on this page for long so you have to be ready to hit whatever key is required to enter the utility. Here, the 'tab' key is used.

When you enter the utility, you will see something similar to the following screen. Here, you will select the drives you want to use in the array and you will choose the type of array (RAID 0 was chosen for this array). When you finish here, you will need to reboot.

After rebooting, on this computer, I had to go into the BIOS (after setting up the RAID array) and set the boot priority. I couldn't select the array BEFORE it was set up. That's why we had to reboot to setup this option. Here, I went to the BOOT tab and scrolled down (arrow keys) until I selected the 'Boot Device Priority' option. Then I hit the enter key to enter the boot priority page.

I want it to boot to the array so I set it as the first on the list. As you can see, the array is listed twce. It doesn't matter but ideally it would only be shown once. The third selection should be CD ROM (if that's what you want) and the fourth would be blank or disabled. When booting, the computer looks for the OS on the top drive. If it's not found, it continues looking for a bootable OS until it finds one or until it runs out of choices.

After making the desired changes, make sure you save them. You will exit the BIOS as we did on the previous BIOS example (F10). Be sure that you choose the 'Y' option instead of the 'N' option.

Notes:
If you don't see a RAID array listed and instead you see the individual drives that you set up (or tried to set up) as an array, the array is not properly configured and you need to go through the procedure again.
If you're installing the system with only one drive or array and there is only 'one' copy of the OS, the computer will probably select the proper drive as the boot drive. In my case, I had the OS previously installed on a single drive (the Maxtor listed) and then installed it on the array. Having two copies of the OS confused the BIOS and caused it to boot to the wrong drive (until I went to the page below and set it to boot to the correct drive).

Getting Powered Up
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Turning the Computer On...

OK, if you're reading this right now, you've obviously successfully powered up your computer. This page is for the times when something goes wrong.

As you probably already know, you use the front power button to switch on the computer. If it does not power up, you should check to see that the rear power supply switch is set to the '1' position. The '0' position is OFF. If the computer still fails to power up, you should check the see that it's plugged into a working outlet and make sure that the power strip's main power switch is in the ON position (if you have a power strip). Most power strips have an indicator lamp to let you know that they're on AND that the strip is plugged into a working outlet. Assuming that your computer is in good working order, it will come on when you push the main power button. When it powers up, the 'power' light will be lit and the hard drive activity light will be flashing/flickering. You will also hear the hard drives 'spin up' and you'll likely hear at least one fan turn on.

More On Booting Up:
In general, a computer is nothing more than a processor of ones and zeros. Without some basic instructions, it is essentially useless. When you power up your computer, the information on a small programmable IC is accessed. When this basic code (known as the BIOS -- which I will cover later) is executed, only then can the computer do anything useful. After this basic information is used, the computer then looks for instructions on the hard drive (and/or other drives). When it finds the appropriate information, it then pulls that information from the hard drive and produces what's known as a GUI (Graphical User Interface). Not so long ago (in the early 1980's), there was virtually no graphical interface (other than text), no mouse, no icons. It was very different from today. Computers were little more than number-crunchers. There was essentially no music or video (nothing like what we have today). When you wanted to make a selection, you typically had to enter a number from a list (even up/down arrow selection from a list was almost non-existent). OK, enough of that....

What if You Have No Display?
If you can see that the computer is working to 'boot up' after you press the power button but you have no display, make sure the monitor is on and is plugged into the VGA port on your computer (I'll assume that you checked to see if it was plugged into a working output). If you get a message on the monitor's screen that there is no input signal, it's likely that the VGA cable isn't plugged in well. If the monitor had no power, there would be no display. There are screws on each side of the d-sub connectors. Plug the cable in and tighten the screws. If the screws are to be tightened by fingers alone (no screw slot), push the plug in after you believe that the screws are tight. If you can not turn the screws after pushing the connector in the second time, it's likely that you have properly seated the connector. The next 2 images show the 'no video' error message from 2 different monitors. As you can see, they're essentially the same.

Note:
On some computers there will be 2 or more VGA connectors. It's very common to have 'two' VGA connectors. Many motherboards (the main circuit board that serves as the interface for most of the computer's electronics) have on-board video processors but the on-board video processors (also known as 'integrated video cards' or 'integrated video processors') slow down the rest of the computer. For this reason, the computer may have a second, dedicated video card installed. If you see a second VGA port, it's likely that the second port is the one you need to use. When you have a dedicated video card, the integrated video processor will be disabled.

As you can see on the computer below, there are 2 blue (VGA) connectors on this computer. When the monitor is connected to this computer, it has to be connected to the blue connector on the video card in the expansion slot. You should notice that there are two other connectors on the video card. They are for other video formats. I will cover their function on an upcoming page.

The Start Menu
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Overview:
In Windows XP, the 'start' button is used to access programs and support documentation. It also has links for the most commonly used folders, 'my computer' and 'my network places'. Below this image, I will give short explanations of each of the menu items.

'MY' Items:
These are the folders where most people store their documents, music files and image files. Although this is fine for most, the actual location in the file system makes them harder to access if you're on a network. If you don't plan on having a network, then this is probably the best place to store your items. I'll cover networks and the file system later.

My Computer:
This link allows you to browse, access and manage the files on your computer. This will be covered in detail later in the tutorial.

My Network Places:
This is similar to My Computer but it provides access to the files, folders and other computers on your network. If you don't have a network installed, this may not be displayed on your computer.

The Control Panel:
This provides access to the various settings of your computer. If you're new to computers, you should probably not access this area. I'll try to cover some of the various settings later in the tutorial.

The 'Set Program Access and Defaults' Panel:
This allows you to tell Windows whether you want to use Microsoft or third-party programs for various file types. You will rarely use this panel.

Programs and Faxes:
This is where you install new printers, set the default printer, setup faxing and can check on the status of documents that were sent to the printer...

Help and Support:
Here you can access the help database to solve problems that you're experiencing. It is somewhat helpful for common questions/problems but I've found it easier to find solutions for strange problems by logging onto the internet and searching in Google. I'll cover internet basics and Google later.

Search:
This allows you to search for files on your computer. The searches can be customized to look in various folders, hard drives or network places. You can search using part of a file name or by a word in the file. You can even narrow the search to look only in a given range of dates. If you have saved a file and don't know where, this can help find it. Later in the tutorial, I'll show you how to save documents in a place where you can find them.

Run:
This is for relatively advanced users. I'd think that most casual users have never used this and never will use it. You will not use this until you become more familiar with the operation of the computer.

Log Off:
If your computer has multiple user accounts, you can use this to exit your account or to log on as a different user.

Turn Off Computer:
This is how you shut your computer down. If you select 'restart', the computer will shut down and restart. This is often used if the computer gets some sort of glitch that prevents it from working properly. If you tell it to 'turn off', it will shut down and will not restart unless you press the power button. If you select, 'stand by', the computer goes into a sleep mode where it shuts down the monitor and hard drives. If your computer is in standby, you can wake it by pressing a key on the keyboard or pressing the power button. Before allowing your computer to go into standby, you should save all open documents that were in the process of being edited.

Expanding the Start Menu:
Below, you can see what happens when you place your mouse over a menu item. The example software suite below has a relatively extensive set of sub-menus. Most software will have only one or two sub-menus. I chose this program to show how it will look if you have a large suite of software. Any of the menu items that have an arrow at the right will expand if you click on them or hold your mouse over them for about a second.

The most Frequently Used Programs:
The list at the lower left of the dialog box contains the most frequently used programs. They are arranged in the order of most used to least used. The total number of items to be displayed in the list can be set by RIGHT-clicking on a clear area of the start menu and selecting PROPERTIES. From there, select the 'start menu' tab. You will see a dialog box similar to the following:

Here, click the 'customize' button.

On this tab, you can set the maximum number (limited by the area available in the menu). You can set the size of the icons. I suggest that they should be set to small unless you have vision problems. You can also tell it whether you want links to the your internet browser and email client. If you use the pull-down menu for the browser/email programs, you can select the link that will be displayed. When you finish making your selections, click the OK buttons to save your settings and to close the dialog boxes. The 'clear list' button here will clear the list of the most frequently used programs. If you will regularly be clearing the frequently used programs menu but you'd like to keep a couple of programs to permanently reside on the start menu, you can right-click the program and select 'pin to start menu'.

On the 'advanced' tab, you have more selections. If you're unsure about any of the choices, you should leave them as they are. If, at any time, you change something and you can not remember how to set it back as it was, simply click 'cancel' on all of the open dialog boxes and no setting will be changed. The 'clear list' button here will clear the list of the most frequently opened documents.

c/c++ programs

2011-02-14T01:59:00.001-08:00

QUEUE:

#include "iostream.h"
class que
{
int size;
int arr[5];
int rear,front;
int data;
char a;
public:
que()
{
size=2;
rear=-1;
front=-1;
}
void enque(int data)
{
if(rear+1 >=size)
{
throw i;
else
{
if(rear==-1&&front==-1)
{
front++;
}
rear++;
cout<<"rear"<arr[rear]=data;
cout<}
}
int deque()
{
if(front>rear)
{
throw
}
return(arr[front++]);
}
};
int main()
{
que q;
char choice;
clrscr();
do
{
cout<<"1.Insert\n2.Delete"<cout<<"enter the choice:";
int ch;

cin>>ch;
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
//try
{
cout<<"\nenter the element to insert\n";
int item;
cin>>item;
q.enque(item);
cout<<"\nItem inserted";
}
catch(int j)
{cout<<"queue is full";
}
break;
case 2:
//try
{
cout<<"the deleted item from queue"<}
catch(char b)
{
cout<<"\nqueue is empty\n";
}
break;
}
cout<<"continue(y/n)";
cin>>choice;
}while(choice=='y');
}

LINKED LIST:

#include
#include
#include
class emp
{
private:
char name[20];
int age;
float sal;
public:
emp(char*n="",int a=0,float s=0.0)
{
strcpy(name,n);
age=a;
sal=s;
}
friend ostream&operator<<(ostream &s,emp &e);
};
ostream&operator<<(ostream &s,emp &e)
{
cout<return s;
}
template
class linklist
{
private:
struct node
{
T data;
node*link;
}*p;
public:
linklist();
void append(T);
void addatbeg(T);
void addafter(int,T);
void del(int);
void display();
int count();
~linklist();
};
template
linklist::linklist()
{
p=NULL;
}
template
void linklist::append(T num)
{
node*q,*t;
if(p==NULL)
{
p=new node;
p->data=num;
p->link=NULL;
}
else
{
q=p;
while(q->link!=NULL)
q=q->link;
t=new node;
t->data=num;
t->link=NULL;
q->link=t;
}
}
template
void linklist::addatbeg(T num)
{
node*q;
q=new node;
q->data=num;
q->link=p;
p=q;
}
template
void linklist::addafter(int c,T num)
{
node*q,*t;
int i;
q=p;
for(i=1;i{
q=q->link;
if(q==NULL)
{
cout<return;
}
}
t=new node;
t->data=num;
t->link=q->link;
q->link=t;
}
template
void linklist::del(int n)
{
node*q,*r;
int i=1;
q=p;
if(n==1)
{
p=q->link;
delete q;
return;
}
r=q;
while(q!=NULL)
{
if(i==n)
{
r->link=q->link;
delete q;
return;
}
r=q;
q=q->link;
i++;
}
cout<}
template
void linklist::display()
{
node*q;
cout<for(q=p;q!=NULL;q=q->link)
cout<data<}
template
int linklist::count()
{
node*q;
int c=0;
for(q=p;q!=NULL;q=q->link)
c++;
return(c);
}
template
linklist::~linklist()
{
node*t;
while(p!=NULL)
{
t=p;
p=p->link;
delete t;
}
}
void main()
{
linklistl1;
cout<emp e2("sachin",33,3500.00);
emp e3("sourav",24,2400.00);
emp e4("sanket",25,2500.00);
emp e5("sandeep",26,2600.00);
l2.append(e1);
l2.append(e2);
l2.append(e3);
l2.append(e4);
l2.append(e5);
l2.display();
l2.del(3);
l2.display();
cout<
VIRTUAL CLASS:

#include
#include
class shape
{
public:
int x,y;
public:
void getdata(int a,int b=0)
{
x=a;
y=b;
}
virtual void area()
{cout<<"shape";
}
};
class square:public shape
{
public:
void area()
{
cout<<"area of square"<}
};
class rectangle:public shape
{
public:
void area()
{
cout<<"area of rectangle:"<}
};
class circle:public shape
{
public:
void area()
{
cout<<"area of circle:"<<(3.14)*x*x<}
};
class triangle:public shape
{
public:
int area1;
void area()
{
cout<<"area of triangle";
area1=(0.5)*x*y;
cout<}
};
class polygon:public shape
{
public:
int area1;
void area()
{
area1=(0.5)*x*y;
cout<<"area of polygon:"<<6*area1<}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
shape *s;
triangle t;
square sq;
rectangle rt;
polygon p;
circle c;
s=&t;
s->getdata(3,2);
s->area();
s=&sq;
s->getdata(4);
s->area();
s=&c;
s->getdata(3);
s->area();
s=&rt;
s->getdata(2,4);
s->area();
s=&p;
s->getdata(3,2);
s->area();
getch();
}

DYNAMIC OVERLOADING:

#include
const int asize=10;
class vector
{
int*a;
public:
void*operator new(size_t)
{
vector*v;
v=::new vector;
v->a=new int[asize];
return v;
}
void operator delete(void*vec)
{
vector*v;
v=(vector*)vec;
delete(int*)v->a;
::delete vec;
}
void read()
{
for(int i=0;i{
cin>>a[i];
}
}
int sum()
{
int sum=0;
for(int i=0;i{
sum+=a[i];
}
return sum;
}
};
void main()
{
vector*v=new vector;
cout<<"enter the vector element";
v->read();
cout<<"the sum of vector element"<sum();
delete v;
}

SORTING ALGORITHMS:

#include
#include
enum Boolean{false,true};

template
void swap(T &x,T&y)
{
T t;
t=x;
x=y;
y=t;
}
template
void bubb(T &s,int size)
{
Boolean swapped=true;
for(int i=0;(i{
swapped=false;
for(int j=0;j<(size-1)-i;j++)
if(s[j]>s[j+1])
{
swapped=true;
swap(s[j],s[j+1]);
}
}
}
template //INSERTION SORT
void insertionsort(T numbers[], int array_size)
{
T i, j, index;

for (i=1; i < array_size; i++)
{
index = numbers[i];
j = i;
while ((j > 0) && (numbers[j-1] > index))
{
numbers[j] = numbers[j-1];
j = j - 1;
}
numbers[j] = index;
}
}

template//Quick Sort
int Partition(int low,int high,T arr[])
{ T pivot,high_vac,low_vac;
pivot=arr[low];
while(high>low)
{
high_vac=arr[high];
while(pivot {
if(high<=low) break;
high--;
high_vac=arr[high];
}
arr[low]=high_vac;
low_vac=arr[low];
while(pivot>low_vac)
{
if(high<=low)
break;
low++;
low_vac=arr[low];
}
arr[high]=low_vac;
}
arr[low]=pivot;
return low;
}
template
void Quick_sort(int low,int high,T arr[])
{
int Piv_index;
if(low {
Piv_index=Partition(low,high,arr);
Quick_sort(low,Piv_index-1,arr);
Quick_sort(Piv_index+1,high,arr);
}
}
void main()
{
int num[25],temp[25];
char charnum[25];
float floatnum[25];
int i,size,ch,c1,c2,c3;
clrscr();
cout<<"Program to sort.."<cout<<"enter the size of interger and float and char:";
cin>>size;
cout<<"Enter the integer element"<for(i=0;icin>>num[i];
cout<<"Enter the float element"<for( i=0;icin>>floatnum[i];
cout<<"Enter the char"<for( i=0;icin>>charnum[i];
do
{
cout<<"Sorting"<cout<<" \n1.quick sort\n2.bubble sort\n3.insertion sort \n4.Exit\n"<cout<<"Enter your choice:";
cin>>ch;
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
do
{
cout<<"\nsorting\n";
cout<<"\n1.int sort 2.float sort 3.char sort 4.exit\n ";
cout<<"\nenter your choice:\n";
cin>>c1;
switch(c1)
{
case 1:
Quick_sort(0,size-1,num);
cout<<" int sorted vector:"<for(i=0;icout<break;
case 2:
Quick_sort(0,size-1,floatnum);
cout<<"float sorted vector:"<for(i=0;icout<break;
case 3:
Quick_sort(0,size-1,charnum);
cout<<"char sorted vector:"<for(i=0;icout<break;
case 4:
cout<<"exit";
break;
}
}while(c1<4);
break;
case 2:
do
{
cout<<"\n1.int sort 2.float sort 3.char sort 4.exit\n";
cout<<"enter your choice";
cin>>c2;
switch(c2)
{
case 1:
bubb(num,size)
;
cout<<"\nint sorted vector:\n"<for(i=0;icout<break;
case 2:
bubb(floatnum,size);
cout<<"\nfloat sorted vector:\n"<for(i=0;icout<break;

case 3:
bubb(charnum,size);
cout<<"\nchar sorted vector:\n"<for(i=0;icout<break;
case 4:
cout<<"exit";
break;
}
}while(c2<4);
case 3:
do
{
cout<<"\n1.int sort 2.float sort 3.char sort 4.exit\n";
cout<< "enter your choice";
cin>>c3;
switch(c3)
{
case 1:
insertionsort(num,size);
cout<<"\nint sorted vector:\n"<for(i=0;icout<break;
case 2:
insertionsort(floatnum,size);
cout<<"\nfloat sorted vector:\n"<for(i=0;icout<break;
case 3:
insertionsort(charnum,size);
cout<<"\nchar sorted vector:\n"<for(i=0;icout<break;
case 4:
cout<<"exit";
break;
}
}while(c3<4);
break;
case 4:
break;
}
}while(ch<4);
getch();
}

KRUSKAL ALGORITHM:

#include
#include
class kruskal
{
private:
int n;
int noe;
int graph_edge[100][4];
int tree[10][10];
int sets[100][10];
int top[100];
public:
void read_graph();
void initilize_span_t();
void sort_edges();
void algorithm();
int find_node(int);
void print_min_span();
};
void kruskal::read_graph()
{
cout<<"Enter the no of nodes in undirected weighted graph::";
cin>>n;
noe=0;
cout<<"Enter the weights for follwing edges::\n";
for(int i=0;i<=n;i++)
{
for(int j=i+1;j<=n;j++)
{
cout<<"<"<::";
int w;
cin>>w;
if(w!=0)
{
noe++;
graph_edge[noe][1]=i;
graph_edge[noe][2]=j;
graph_edge[noe][3]=w;
}
}
}
cout<<"\n\n the edges in the given graph::\n";
for(i=1;i<=noe;i++)
cout<<"<"<::"<}
void kruskal::sort_edges()
{
for(int i=1;i<=noe-1;i++)
{
for(int j=1;j<=noe-1;j++)
{
if(graph_edge[j][3]>graph_edge[j+1][3])
{
int t=graph_edge[j][1];
graph_edge[j][1]=graph_edge[j+1][1];
graph_edge[j+1][1]=t;
t=graph_edge[j][2];
graph_edge[j][2]=graph_edge[j+1][2];
graph_edge[j+1][2]=t;
t=graph_edge[j][3];
graph_edge[j][3]=graph_edge[j+1][3];
graph_edge[j+1][3]=t;
}
}
}
cout<<"\n\n after sorting edges in given graph are::\n";
for(i=1;i<=noe;i++)
cout<<"<"<::"<}
void kruskal::algorithm()
{
for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sets[i][1]=i;
top[i]=1;
}
cout<<"\n the algorithm starts::\n\n";
for(i=1;i<=noe;i++)
{
int p1=find_node(graph_edge[i][1]);
int p2=find_node(graph_edge[i][2]);
if(p1!=p2)
{
cout<<"The edge includes in the tree is::"<<"<"<<
graph_edge[i][1]<<","<"<tree[graph_edge[i][1]][graph_edge[i][2]]=graph_edge[i][3];
tree[graph_edge[i][2]][graph_edge[i][1]]=graph_edge[i][3];
for(int j=1;j<=top[p2];j++)
{
top[p1]++;
sets[p1][top[p1]]=sets[p2][j];
}
top[p2]=0;
}
else
{
cout<<"inclusion of the edges"<<"<"<"<<"forms a cycle so it is removed\n\n";
}
}
}
int kruskal::find_node (int n)
{
for(int i=1;i<=noe;i++)
{
for(int j=1;j<=top[i];j++)
{
if(n==sets[i][j])
return i;
}
}
return -1;
}
int main()
{
clrscr();
kruskal obj;
obj.read_graph();
obj.sort_edges();
obj.algorithm();
getch();
return 0;
}

OPERATOR OVERLOADING:

#include
#include
#include
class complex
{
float real,img;
char real2,img2;
public:
complex()
{
img=real=0;
real2=img2=0;
}
complex(int a)
{
img=0;
real=a;
}
complex(double a1)
{
img=0.0;
real=a1;
}
complex(char a3)
{
img2='b';
real2=a3;
}
void outdata()
{
if(img>=0.0)
{
cout<else
{
cout<}
void outdata1()
{
cout<}
complex operator+(complex c)
{
complex temp;
temp.img=img+c.img;
temp.real=real+c.real;
return(temp);
}
complex operator-(complex c)
{
complex temp1;
temp1.img=img-c.img;
temp1.real=real-c.real;
return(temp1);
}
complex operator*(complex c)
{
complex temp2;
temp2.img=real*c.img+img*c.img;
temp2.real=real*c.real-img*c.img;
return(temp2);
}
complex operator/(complex c)
{
complex temp3;
temp3.img=((img*c.img)+(real*c.real))/((c.img*c.img)+(c.real*c.real));
temp3.real=((real*c.img)-(img*c.real))/((c.img*c.img)+(c.real*c.real));
return(temp3);
}
operator double()
{
double magnitude;
magnitude=sqrt(pow(real,2)+pow(img,2));
return magnitude;
}
operator float()
{
float addr;
//double real1;
addr=real+img;
return addr;
}
};
void main()
{
clrscr();
complex c1,c2,c3,c4,c5,c6,c7;
int real;
double real1;
char real2;
cout<<"Enter the integer real number:";
cin>>real;
c1=real;
cout<<"Integer to complex conversation"<cout<<"Enter the double real number"<cin>>real1;
c2=real1;
cout<<"double to complex conversation"<cout<<"Enter the char real number";
cin>>real2;
c7=real2;
cout<<"char to complex conversation"<//cout<<"complex to double conversation"<c3=c1+c2;
c4=c1-c2;
c5=c1*c2;
c6=c1/c2;
cout<<"\n\n";
cout<<"the addition result is:";
c3.outdata();
cout<<"\n\n";
cout<<"the subtraction result is:";
c4.outdata();
cout<<"\n\n";
cout<<"the multiplication result is:";
c5.outdata();
cout<<"\n\n";
cout<<"the division result is:";
c6.outdata();
cout<<"\n\n";
cout<<"conversion from complex to double"<double mag=c3;
cout<<"magnitude of a complex number"<//float addr=real+real1;
cout<<"The char complex number is:"<c7.outdata1();
float dd=c4;
cout<cout<getch();
}

CONSTRUCTOR:

#include
#include
class matrix
{
private:
int row;
int col;
int **p;
public:
matrix()
{
row=col=0;
p=NULL;
}
matrix(int r,int c);
~matrix();
void read();
void show();
void add(matrix &a,matrix &b);
void sub(matrix &a,matrix &b);
void operator=(matrix &m1)
{
row=m1.row;
col=m1.col;
p=new int*[m1.row];
for(int i=0;i{
p[i]=new int[m1.col];
}
}
matrix(matrix &m2)
{
row=m2.row;
col=m2.col;
p=new int*[m2.row];
for(int i=0;i{
p[i]=new int[m2.col];
}
for(i=0;ifor(int j=0;j{
p[i][j]=m2.p[i][j];
}
}
};
matrix::matrix(int r,int c)
{
row=r;
col=c;
p=new int *[row];
for(int i=0;ip[i]=new int[col];
}
matrix::~matrix()
{
for(int i=0;idelete p[i];
delete p;
}
void matrix::add(matrix &a,matrix &b)
{
int i,j;
row=a.row;
col=b.col;
for(i=0;ifor(j=0;jp[i][j]=a.p[i][j]+b.p[i][j];
}
void matrix::sub(matrix &a,matrix &b)
{
int i,j;
row=a.row;
col=b.col;
for(i=0;ifor(j=0;jp[i][j]=a.p[i][j]-b.p[i][j];
}
void matrix::read()
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;ifor(j=0;j{
cout<<"Matrix["<cin>>p[i][j];

}
}
void matrix::show()
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i{
cout<for(j=0;j{
cout<}
}
}

void main()
{
int m,n,p,g,q;
clrscr();
cout<<"Enter the Amatrix "<cout<<"how many rows";
cin>>m;
cout<<"how many col";
cin>>n;
matrix a(m,n);
a.read();
matrix b;
b=a;
cout<<"overloading assignment operator invoke"<cout<<"enter the Bmatrix";
b.read();
cout<<"matrix a is";
a.show();
cout<b.show();
matrix c(m,n);
c.add(a,b);
cout<c.show();
matrix d(m,n);
d.sub(a,b);
cout<d.show();
cout<<"\n copy constructor invoke"<matrix e(c);
e.show();
getch();
}

STACK:

#include
#include
#define MAX 5
class stack
{
int arr[5];
public:
int item;
int top;
stack()
{top=0;
}
//class overflowexception{};
void push(int a)
{
cout<if(top{
top++;
arr[top]=a;
}
else
{
cout<<"Stack is full";
//throw overflowexception();
}}
//class underflowexception{};
int pop()
{
/*if(top==0)
{
//throw underflowexceptions();
cout<<"Stack is empty";
}
else
{*/
int data=arr[top];
top--;
cout<<"the item is poped";
return data;
}};
int main()
{
char ch;
int choice;
stack a;
clrscr();
do
{
cout<<"1.Push 2.Pop"<cout<<"Enter your choice";
cin>>choice;
switch(choice)
{
case 1:
cout<<"Enter the item";
cin>>a.item;
a.push(a.item);
if(a.top<5)
cout<<"Item pushed";
//catch(stock::overflowexception)
//{cout<<"Stack overflow";}
break;
case 2:
if(a.top==0)
{cout<<"Stack is empty";}
//catch(stack::underflowexception)
else
{cout<<"Item Popped:"<}
cout<<"\ny or n :";
cin>>ch;
}while(ch=='y');
return 0;
}