Swim Sci

Friday Interview: Trevor Higgins Discusses Hydrotherapy

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Fri, 24 May 2013 13:38:00 +0000

1. Please introduce yourself to the readers (how you started in the profession, education, credentials, experience, etc.).

After working in the health and fitness industry as a personal trainer/gym instructor for a number of years, I found insufficient answers to a number of areas in regards to exercise and health. To enhance my own knowledge I applied and was accepted into the Bachelor of Exercise Science; Australia Catholic University at a young 36 years of age. My university studies were followed with an additional year obtaining my honours by research.

At this stage I had also begun working in professional rugby union as a Strength and Conditioning Coach. In line with this work, I commenced my PhD, examining adaptation and recovery from competition and training in rugby union. Primarily, my PhD focused on evaluating cold water immersion and contrast baths for recovery from exercise induced muscle damage in rugby union.

2. You recently published an article different forms of hydrotherapy and performance, can you please discuss your findings?

I have had 3 papers from the major study of my PhD published in the past 12 months. These papers have been published in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. We examined the 2 forms of hydrotherapy over the acute phase, and the weekly cycle of games and training in rugby union. The major findings we reported included that when examining recovery of power via a CMJ and 10m and 40m sprints there was little benefit in using either of the interventions as a recovery modality, when compared with passive rest, for the period of the study (1 week).

When examining metabolic fluid shifts and flexibility as markers of recovery, again there was little benefit in using either of the interventions as opposed to passive rest. When examining muscle soreness (DOMS) however we identified a beneficial effect in attenuating muscle pain with the use of cold water immersion (ice baths). Surprisingly, we found contrast baths to be the least effective method in attenuating the effects of muscle pain, in fact, we found passive recovery to offer more than contrast baths.

On further investigations we found supporting literature detailing that short durations of immersion in cold water could lead to increases in free-radial production and subsequent increases in oxidative stress, which would have led to greater stress on muscle than exercise activity alone. This increase in stress
On further investigations we found supporting literature detailing that short durations of immersion in cold water could lead to increases in free-radical production and subsequent increases in oxidative stress, which would have led to greater stress on muscle than the exercise activity alone. This increase in stress on muscle would have a corresponding increase with the inflammatory response and overall recovery time, providing the underlying mechanism responsible for results indicating contrast baths to be the least effective recovery intervention, specifically with DOMS.

We also reported that psychologically, contrast baths led to greater perception of effort doing similar volume and intensity of training when compared with ice baths and passive rest. Our overall recommendations were the discontinued practice of contrast baths for recovery from rugby union. We also reported that ice baths were more beneficial for recovery than either contrast baths or passive recovery, when there was insufficient time (< 48hrs) for recovery between games and/or training sessions.

3. Based on the findings, which form of hydrotherapy do you feel is most beneficial?

Our findings indicated that when you have multiple sessions during the week, with reduced time between sessions, ice baths of 2 X 5 min immersion at 10 degrees Celsius is the most beneficial recovery protocol. However, if an athlete has 48 hours between sessions, then irrespective of interventions applied, recovery in tests of power will occur without significant difference between protocols.

4. What is the physiology behind cold-water immersion?

The mechanisms supporting cryotherapy to accelerate recovery has included the reduction in blood flow through vasoconstriction of the arterioles and venules (Arnheim & Prentice) and a reduction in the inflammation response after exercise induced muscle damage (Burke, et al., 2001; Ingram, Dawson, Goodman, Wallman, & Beilby, 2009). Vasoconstriction of blood vessels occurs within the first 15 minutes of cold been applied, at a temperature of 100C (Arnheim & Prentice). After the application of cold of between 15 to 30 minutes, an intermittent period of vasodilatation will occur for four to six minutes, which generates the return of oxygen to the area via increased blood flow aiding in recovery (Arnheim & Prentice).

In addition cryotherapy reduces tissue temperature which leads to slower rates of chemical reactions (Hubbard, et al., 2004; Peiffer, Abbiss, Nosaka, Peake, & Laursen, 2009). The reduction in the rate of chemical reactions leads to a reduction in the demand for ATP, which reduces the requirement for oxygen (Hubbard, et al., 2004). Following trauma, majority of damage occurring to the cells is a result of hypoxia, a result of compromised circulation resulting from excessive oedema (Arnheim & Prentice; Wilcock, et al., 2006). Cryotherapy acts to decrease the extent of hypoxic, by firstly restricting excessive oedema which restricts the flow of oxygen by compressing capillaries (Yanagisawa, et al., 2003). Secondly, cryotherapy reduces cell metabolism leading to a decrease in oxygen demand, subsequently reducing secondary tissue injury peripheral of the primary injury, resulting in decreased damage of tissue (Arnheim & Prentice; Hubbard, et al., 2004; Wilcock, et al., 2006; Yanagisawa, et al., 2003).

Cryotherapy also reduces the permeability of capillary vessel walls leading to a decrease in metabolic disturbances which may limit performance or reduce recovery. One such metabolic by-product attributed to decreases in performance and delaying recovery is lactic acid (Yanagisawa, et al., 2003). In reducing lactic acid accumulation after exercise, positive effects within intracellular buffering systems including hydrogen ion extrusion mechanisms have been demonstrated with cryotherapy (Yanagisawa, et al., 2003).

Further mechanisms in which hydrotherapy aides recovery from fatiguing exercises, include a significant reduction in core temperature and an associated anticipatory regulatory response to exercise in the heat (Vaile, Halson, Gill, & Dawson, 2008; Peiffer, Abbiss, Nosaka, Peake, & Laursen, 2009). Furthermore cold water temperatures may decrease peripheral blood flow, leading to an increase in blood delivery to working muscles via enhanced central blood flow (Vaile, et al., 2008). Further increases to blood flow by aiding the muscle pump may also be provided with cold and hot water contrast treatment (Vaile, et al., 2008).

5. Do you think there is any psychological component?

Simply put, Yes there probably is a psychological component in any recovery protocol/intervention applied. To what extent that component is I will defer that to the sport psychologists. There are concepts such as the Central Governor theory. Simply put it describes fatigue as occurring as a result of neural commands when physiological overload is approaching.

6. How would you recommend hydrotherapy for swimmers during intense training periods?

In regards to using hydrotherapy for swimmers as a recovery intervention, I am not in a position to clarify one way or the other. My research involved examining cryotherapy as recovery from sport that induces high levels of exercise induced muscle damage. As swimming does not include an eccentric phase the levels of muscle damage occurring would be less. The effect cryotherapy has needs to be investigated fully before claims can be made.

Although swimmers use hydrotherapy for recovery, it is in line with active recovery, or active cool downs. They are generally supported for removal of metabolic waste products and a controlled return of body temperature to resting levels. Only concerns raised have been in regards to glycogen replenishment, when athletes are focussing on restoring glycogen, active recovery may have a negative effect as the athlete burns fuel (glycogen) whilst performing active recovery. Therefore, staging it at the appropriate time with all matters important for recovery considered is fine.

7. How about in between sessions at a competition?

Concerns with cryotherapy between sessions have been raised due to the reduction in body/muscle temperature and the effect that has on neural commands, specifically electrical impulse transmissions to working muscles. The signals have been shown to slow down or reduced, leading to loss of muscle activation and strength/power decrements.

8. Do you think people acclimate to forms of hydrotherapy?

I think athletes may get use to climbing into ice baths, but I don’t see the body adapting to the cold and subsequently making it less effective in reducing body temperature. It is more likely if athletes are competing in varying environments eg: cold climates or hot climates, that their body temperatures post exercise may be different leading to slower or faster responses of the body/muscle temperature to the ice baths.

9. Who is doing the most interesting research hydrotherapy? What are they doing and what do you think of it?

Perhaps I’m biased, but I believe the Australian Institute of Sport recovery centre is leading the way in hydrotherapy research into recovery. Although, I attended the ECCS conference in Brugge last year and met with a number of fellow sport scientists evaluating hydrotherapy for recovery. In general, the majority are looking into cycling and recovery. I think it is easier to control the variables in a study when the participants are on bikes. This allows for tighter control and more definitive answers. However, we have to remember that when looking at any research, do the activities in the study reflect what we do (run, swim, cycle, weights etc etc).

10. Do you know of any athletes using extreme forms of hydrotherapy? If so, what are they doing?

I have only heard general comments by other people that they know such and such does this. One internet blog stated that Paula Radke (English Marathon runner) conducted 30 min ice baths after a marathon. If this was the case, I would be concerned about her developing Hypothermia if that was the case.

11. What mistakes still exist in professional athletes and rehabilitation clinics for hydrotherapy?

Firstly, with hydrotherapy there is a difference between using it as a recovery tool and in rehabilitation. As recovery we look to minimise micro-damage that occurs as a result of exercise activity. In rehabilitation they are working with acute traumatic injury. That is a totally different position to athletes looking at recovery. From the athletes use of hydrotherapy as a recovery, I think the biggest mistake they make is the use of anecdotal support to justify it. There appears that in sport, anecdotal support is better than using evidenced based practices. To further add to the problem, athletes and coaches may use the recommendation from another athlete from a different sport, without considering the differences between sports.

It may sound obvious but I believe athletes and coaches need to look for scientific papers on any topic that directly reflect their sport or activity. This isn’t just for recovery, but for anything associated with sport performance. Swimmers need to examine research into swimming, cyclists need to examine cycling research and footballers need to look at football.

12. What research or projects are you currently working on or should we look from you in the future?Future research I’m looking into, in the near future includes management of residual fatigue across extended football seasons, multiple repeat tests to measure recovery in rugby union and possibly “old school vs small sided games for anaerobic conditioning.

ACTN3 and Swimming Performance

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Wed, 22 May 2013 08:00:00 +0000

If you stay current with the scientific literature, you've undoubtedly noticed an increase in publications on genetics and performance, specifically ACTN3.

ACTN3 and ACTN2 are major components of the skeletal muscle Z-disks. These components act as cross-linkers of actin thin filaments. ACTN3 is strictly found in fast twitch muscle fibers and is responsible for rapid contraction. ACTN3 may provide fast twitch fibers a higher capacity to absorb force at the Z-line during rapid contraction.

Previous studies report no cases of Olympic sprint athletes had a ACTN3 deficiency. It seems clear ACTN3 is an important protein for sprint and power success. However, the effects of ACTN3 R577x polymorphism on human performance is not known. A recent study by Pimenta (2013) looked at the ACTN3 R577x polymorphism on human performance in elite soccer players.

This study had these soccer players perform a group of agility and power exercises, in combination of receiving an extraction of their genomic DNA from the peripheral blood samples.

Results

Individuals with RR presented with lower times in the 10m and greater jump tests than the XX genotype. The XX genotypes presented higher values for VO2max compared to the RR genotype.

Discussion

The main finding is those with RR genotype have better power, while those with the XX genotype have higher VO2max.

Practical Implication

In swimming, those predisposed with a RR or RX genotype are likely more genetically predisposed to sprint events and those with the XX genotype are more suited for endurance events. However, swimming requires various distances, making it minimally beneficial for swimmers to determine their genetic makeup.

Moreover, as more studies surmount, it is necessary to remember genes are only part of a larger equation.

Reference

Pimenta EM, Coelho DB, Barros Coelho EJ, Cruz IR, Morandi RF, De Azambuja Pussieldi G, Santos Carvalho MR, Silami-Garcia E, De Paz Fernández JA. EFFECT OF GENE ACTN3 ON STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE IN SOCCER PLAYERS. J Strength Cond Res. 2013 Mar 27. [Epub ahead of print]

By Dr. G. John Mullen received his Doctorate in Physical Therapy from the University of Southern California and a Bachelor of Science of Health from Purdue University. He is the founder of the Center of Optimal Restoration, head strength coach at Santa Clara Swim Club, creator of the Swimmer's Shoulder System, and chief editor of the Swimming Science Research Review.

Lactate is a Scapegoat for Fatigue

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Tue, 21 May 2013 08:00:00 +0000

In swimming and sports, many coaches associate lactate and lactic acid with fatigue. Unfortunately, lactate is a scapegoat! During a fatiguing event, many physiological processes occur (and increase in lactate being one), yet little is mentioned about the other processes.

Lactate may get a bad wrap, as it is currently the standard for measuring fatigue, but lactate is likely associated, not the cause of fatigue. For swimming, Dr. Ernest Maglischo has written an excellent piece about the pitfalls in the lactate theory. He even breaks down many of the possible causes of fatigue (find this article in VO2max is not Important for Competitive Swimmers).

One point Dr. Maglischo discusses is how lactate is actually a substrate used to create energy. This small piece of the puzzle is the topic of today.

A recent study from the University of Hull in the United Kingdom looked at the effects of giving cyclist sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or lactate prior to a 40-km cycling time trial. This study by Northgraves et. al. (2013) had
"[s]even recreationally active males (age, 22.3 ± 3.3 years; height, 182.5 ± 6.5 cm; body mass, 79.2 ± 6.3 kg) completed five 40 km cycling time trials, including a familiarization trial in a randomized blind double placebo design. Subjects ingested either 1.) 300 mg per kg body mass NaHCO3 (BICARB), 2.) 45 mg per kg sodium chloride (PL-BICARB) as the placebo for the NaHCO3 trial, 3.) 21.5 mg per kg body mass lactate supplement (LACTATE) and 4.) plain flour as the placebo for the lactate trial (PL-LACTATE) 60 minutes before exercise."

The results of this study showed no differences in performance between groups, only a higher heart rate in the lactate supplementation group. Though this is one study, it highly suggests an increase in lactate does not cause fatigue (no improve performance). Therefore, more variables are involved in the role of fatigue. This multivariable process requires much more research, but it seems lactate is not the main culprit of fatigue.

Reference

Northgraves MJ, Peart DJ, Jordan C, Vince RV.Effect of lactate supplementation and sodium bicarbonate on 40 km cycling time trial performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2013 May 8. [Epub ahead of print]

Reliability Rating of Perceived Exertion in Swimming. Part II

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Mon, 20 May 2013 08:30:00 +0000

The best swimmers are renowned for knowing their bodies well. Whether it’s an internal clock to hit exact splits, or understanding the limits of one’s physical capacity, there’s no doubt that internal perception is a valued athletic skill. In general, ratings of perceived exertion have been shown to correlate with actual output both in swimming and other sports as we noted in this prior post on Reliability Rating of Perceived Exertion in Swimming.

Most research on perceived exertion has looked at the correlation between subjective assessment and objective data of specific exertion levels. If a swimmer rates their effort as an 18 on the 20 point RPE scale, we’d expert their actual output to be near 90% physical capacity. One recent study (Barroso 2013) examined perceived exertion at the workout level among young swimmers.

Barroso (2013) asked the simple question: how did swimmers perceive whole workouts as compared with their coaches’ perceptions? Coaches rated the session before the workout, and swimmers were asked to rate the workout 30 minutes after. Workouts could be classified as easy (RPE less than 3), moderate (3-5), and difficult (5 or greater). For analysis, authors divided athletes into three age brackets: 11-12, 13-14, 15-16.

Results indicated that age and swimming experience increased the correlation between coach and athlete ratings of perceived exertion. This finding should not be surprising as we’d anticipate age, experience, and maturity to improve this area. It’s also likely that knowing your body is an important trait for swimming success and that attrition may remove swimmers who lack this skill.

Though the correlations improved with age, they were not perfectly aligned….younger swimmers (11-12, and 13-14) rated training intensity differently from coaches in all three categories (easy, moderate and difficult) while the older group rated workouts differently in only the “difficult” category. Swimmers and coaches perceived workouts more closely as swimmers got older, but we all know from experience that each swimmer is different. A similar inconsistency was present in Wallace (2006) in which coaches’ RPE estimates were lower than athletes for low intensity swimming, but higher than athletes for high intensity swimming.

Recently, Dr. John proposed that swimmers be given chances to self-regulate workload in Do You Want to Do Another?. “[E]ncouraging swimmers to do more is a method of increasing internal motivation. Moreover, allowing swimmers to determine the volume of their training associates swimming volume with success.” Along with improving motivation, it may also reveal whether coaches and athletes perceive workouts the same.

Further, based on the correlation between age and coach/athlete RPE values, it would also suggest that self-regulation can be administered as a privilege to swimmers as they age and show the maturity to handle the responsibility.

Practical Implication

Despite all the fancy ways to quantify workload, subjective perception should not be ignored. It’s critical that coach and athlete are on the same page. Coach Sweetenham has noted that athletes often know the coach better than the coach knows the athlete, as the coaching staff is usually far outnumbered by swimmers. The athlete only has to know a few coaches, but the coach must know dozens, if not hundreds of athletes. What we as coaches see as “hard” or “easy” might diverge from what the athlete perceives, particularly at the younger ages.

References

Barroso R, Cardoso RK, do Carmo EC, Tricoli V. Perceived Exertion in Coaches and Young Swimmers With Different Training Experience. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013 Apr 23. [Epub ahead of print]
Wallace LK, Slattery KM, Coutts AJ. The ecological validity and application of the session-RPE method for quantifying training loads in swimming. J Strength Cond Res. 2009 Jan;23(1):33-8.

By Allan Phillips. Allan and his wife Katherine are heavily involved in the strength and conditioning community, for more information refer to Pike Athletics.

Weekly Round-up

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Sun, 19 May 2013 07:30:00 +0000

Friday Interview: Takanobu Okamoto Ph D Discusses Foam Rolling and Arterial Mobility

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Fri, 17 May 2013 07:30:00 +0000

1. Please introduce yourself to the readers (how you started in the profession, education, credentials, experience, etc.).
I'm Takanobu Okamoto, professor of nippon sport science university. I'm scientist of exercise physiology.

2. You recently published an article on arterial function and foam rolling, could you briefly explain your pertinent findings?
The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effect of self-myofascial release using a foam roller on arterial stiffness and vascular endothelial function. We examined the effects of this technique on the adductors, hamstrings, quadriceps, iliotibial band and upper back including trapezius. Self-myofascial release (SMR) using a foam roller reduced arterial stiffness and improved vascular endothelial function.

3. Based on the findings, how do you think athletes should use foam rolls?
Because SMR reduces arterial stiffness and improves vascular endothelial function, it might be an effective component of a warm-up and/or cool down. Therefore, this technique might aid conditioning and/or promote cardiovascular health in athletes.

4. Do you think there is any difference between foam rolls, baseballs, or tennis balls?
I think that there is not great difference between foam rolls, baseballs, or tennis balls.

5. How long can someone perform this self soft tissue? Is there a point of diminishing return?
About 1 min. I think that there is not a point of diminishing return.

6. With improved range of motion and now arterial mobility, what other benefits may self soft tissue mobility have?
Flexibility of muscle, joint and/or tendon may improve.

7. Any possible negative effects (lying on a nerve)?
If user emphasize too much, muscle or nerve may damage.

8. Who is doing the most interesting research on foam rolling in the field? What are they doing? Scientific research to support SMR using a foam roller is scanty. Recently, two studies were published.

Healey KC, Hatfield DL, Blanpied P, Dorfman LR, Riebe D. The Effects of Myofascial Release with Foam Rolling on Performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2013 Apr 12. [Epub ahead of print]
MacDonald GZ, Penney MD, Mullaley ME, Cuconato AL, Drake CD, Behm DG, Button DC. An acute bout of self-myofascial release increases range of motion without a subsequent decrease in muscle activation or force. J Strength Cond Res. 2013 Mar;27(3):812-21.

10. What research or projects are you currently working on or should we look from you in the future?
I am studying on relationship between exercise training arterial function.

I want to apply the result to condition.

Thanks Dr. Okamoto

Abnormal MRIs in Tennis Players

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Thu, 16 May 2013 08:00:00 +0000

The association between diagnostic imaging abnormalities and pain has been discussed before. However, more research on this subject continues to surmount. Remember, structural abnormalties do not equal pain! Now, this doesn't suggest an acute rotator cuff tear will not cause pain, instead it means overuse of any joint (from sport or life) will result in structural defects, but not necessarily pain.

A recent study by Alyas (2013) analyzed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the lumbar spines of elite adolescent tennis players who did not have pain. This study took MRIs of 33 players (mean age 17.3) and found only five of the players showed no structural abnormalities! This small sample implies a mere 15% adolescent tennis players without pain had no structural abnormalities. The most common structural change were facet joint arthopathy in 23 of the 33 players. Synovial cyst formation was seen in 10 of the subjects. Thirteen of the subjects showed disc degeneration. Pars injuries occurred in nine of the subjects.

This high rate of abnormalities suggest the high stresses of the low back with tennis result in structural changes. Alyas (2013) implies in their study that these structural changes may be predictors of pain later in an athletes career, but as we've discussed if you have proper surrounding muscular support and muscle length, strength, and timing the body can adapt and handle the stress and work with the structural changes.

Summary
It is clear every sport has excess stress at one joint or another. These stresses often damage structures in even youth athletes. However, if an athlete has proper length, strength, and timing they are likely able to handle the demands of the sport and have a healthy career. Make sure you are taking care of your body and understanding the importance of muscle length, strength, and timing, even in your young swimmers!

Reference

Alyas F, Turner M, Connell D. MRI findings in the lumbar spines of asymptomatic, adolescent, elite tennis players. Br J Sports Med. 2007 Nov;41(11):836-41; discussion 841. Epub 2007 Jul 19.

By Dr. G. John Mullen received his Doctorate in Physical Therapy from the University of Southern California and a Bachelor of Science of Health from Purdue University. He is the founder of the Center of Optimal Restoration, head strength coach at Santa Clara Swim Club, creator of the Swimmer's Shoulder System, and chief editor of the Swimming Science Research Review.

Differences Between Training Men and Women: Part I Motivation

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Wed, 15 May 2013 07:30:00 +0000

Do you want to do Another?). However, differences in motivation exist between men and women. From anecdotal experience, many elite coaches imply relationships are a more important factor for female swimmers. This was discussed in Dr. Rushall's book, Swimming Pedagogy:

Rushall, B. S. (in preparation). Swimming pedagogy and a curriculum for stroke development (2nd Edition). Spring Valley, CA: Sports Science Associates [Electronic book].

Swimming Science Research Review May 2013

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Tue, 14 May 2013 08:00:00 +0000

The newest edition of the Swimming Science Research Review will be released tomorrow morning. Below is the content of this edition.

This edition contains vital information about swimming biomechanics and potential avenues for increasing swimming strength.

Make sure you pick your copy up today to enhance your swimming and evidence-based coaching.

Contents

Overspeed Training Enhances Performance in Trained Runners
Beta – Alanine Doesn’t Improve Swimming
Muscle Fiber Adaptation to Exhaustive Training
Cortical Changes with Gluteus Maximus Activation
Measurement of Scapular Motion
Plasticity of Arm Movement
Latent Trigger Points Impair Shoulder Strength
MRI of Asymptomatic Tennis Players
Reliability of the Functional Movement Screen
Inter- and Intrarater Reliability of the Functional Movement Screen
Warm-up and Sprint Performance
Effecdt of Rhythm on Recovery
Acute Effect of Passive Stretching
Integrated and Isolated Training on Neuromuscular Control
Effects of Hydrotherapy on Power
Effects of ACTN3 Gene and Performance
Self-Myofascial Release and Arterial Function

FORWARD
Summer and long-course training is off and running in the United States.

During this time, many programs are ramping up the intensity of training. Asthe intensity increases, keep in mind the other side of training, recovery. Many do not discuss recovery or the importance of this training variable. However, the amount of recovery does directly influence training intensity and without proper recovery, inadequate intensity occurs.

Ice baths are not a new modality, but emerging evidence indicates cold water immersion (CWI) is a possible modality for improved recovery. CWI also appears more beneficial than contrast baths, another common immersion method.

Foam rolling is another modality which can aide recovery. As more evidence arises it seems self myofascial methods (like foam rolling) improve recovery by increasing range of motion, strength, and arterial mobility. These modality may also help relax the sympathetic system, which is essential for recovery, as heart rate variability (HRV) is likely the future of monitoring overtraining and overreaching.

One forgotten modality of recovery is sleep. This overlooked necessity is a simple, cost-effective method for recovery and elite performance. Make sure you are considering recovery methods for each swimmer, but not overcomplicating the issue before looking at simple aspects, like sleep, during the long-course season.

$10/month

Dehydration and Summer Weather

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Mon, 13 May 2013 08:30:00 +0000

Summer brings long course season, a break from school, and more time outside. Summer also brings heat and also the risk of dehydration. Water is essential for general health and survival. No one needs a study to accept that conclusion. But what does demand closer scrutiny is the effect that water has on performance, as some theorize that minor dehydration is a natural part of exertion.

As Dr. Noakes, one of the leaders of this thinking has stated,

"[t]he dangerous component of marketing was that the industry developed a false “science of hydration” which holds that any weight loss during exercise impairs performance and increases the risk that heat stroke will develop. The zero percent dehydration rule was purely a commercially-driven initiative since it encouraged everyone to start drinking the moment they began any exercise regardless of its duration or intensity. This massively increased the potential market for the sale of sports drinks to include the casual gym exerciser, the real target of their attention."

One dilemma with dehydration, particularly in the summer, is separating dehydration from heat stress. Athletes and general population exercisers have been implored to consume copious amounts of water, lest they reach a dehydrated state. However, it is also possible that heat causes the brain to enter somewhat of a “safe mode” to prevent overheating (like your iphone!) and this may be mistakenly attributed to a loss of water.

Periard (2012) confronted this issue by comparing the effects of heat, dehydration, and combinations of the two on performance. In this study, force production and muscle endurance were measured by single and repeated voluntary isometric contractions respectively. Tests occurred prior to walking in the heat (35°C), immediately following exercise, and the next morning (dehydration). The protocol was also performed in a euhydrated state.

Authors found: “Moderate dehydration, isolated from acute exercise-heat stress, does not appear to influence strength during a single contraction or enhance fatigability.” In other words, dehydration combined with heat stress results in negative effects on performance but dehydration alone did not. Now, most swimmers don’t compete in severely hot conditions (nothing near 35 C) but dryland on a hot deck or simply sitting on deck for an all-day meet may create lingering heat stress (this is also worth noting for the winter if your team practices in a hot indoor facility).

So if the effects of acute dehydration on performance are questionable, should be still be concerned about drinking during workouts? Some believe that hydration may enhance recoverability by helping to deliver healing agents and remove waste products from working muscles. Cleary (2006) tested this theory by asking subjects to perform a downhill running experiment in both a dehydrated and euhydrated state (Downhill running, as many know, is a great way to make your quadriceps sore!). Authors found “The signs and symptoms of [Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness] after an eccentric exercise perturbation were not exacerbated by moderate dehydration of 2.7% body mass after rest and return to the normothermic condition.”

Conclusion
Unfortunately, the literature on swimmers in this area is limited, in part because swimming is typically in a climate controlled environment (78-82 degree water). Despite this limitation, the current research would suggest that we must refine our thought process to achieve optimal hydration, rather than guzzling water in a paranoid fear to avoid the slightest dehydration. The main caveat from these studies is they studied only acute effects of dehydration. It could be that by maintaining hydration during your 2-3 hour practice, you are not only hydrating for the current practice, but instead preparing your body for many subsequent practices.

References

Périard JD, Tammam AH, Thompson MW. Skeletal muscle strength and endurance are maintained during moderate dehydration. Int J Sports Med. 2012 Aug;33(8):607-12. doi: 10.1055/s-0032-1306327. Epub 2012 Apr 12.
Cleary MA, Sitler MR, Kendrick ZV. Dehydration and symptoms of delayed-onset muscle soreness in normothermic men. J Athl Train. 2006 Jan-Mar;41(1):36-45.
Dr. Timothy Noakes, Lava Magazine Interview

By Allan Phillips. Allan and his wife Katherine are heavily involved in the strength and conditioning community, for more information refer to Pike Athletics.

Weekly Round-up

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Sun, 12 May 2013 08:00:00 +0000

Friday Interview: Giacomo Crivelli on Asthma and β2-Agonists

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Fri, 10 May 2013 08:00:00 +0000

1. Please introduce yourself to the readers (how you started in the profession, educa-tion, credentials, experience, etc.).
Giacomo Crivelli, PhD student at the Institute of Sport Sciences at the University of Lausan-ne, Switzerland. My research is focused on the effects of the β2-adrenoceptor agonists on the skeletal muscle contraction in humans, under supervision of Dr. Fabio Borrani1 and Dr. Nicola A. Maffiuletti2. We use direct non-invasive techniques, which involve the application of percutaneous electrical stimulation to the motor nerve or directly to the muscle, for in vivo assessment of changes in contractile functions of individual muscles.

1Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.

2Neuromuscular Research Laboratory, Schulthess Clinic, Zurich, Switzerland.

2. You recently published an article on the role of β2-agonists and exercise, could you please explain the pertinent findings?
β2-Adrenergic agonists are powerful bronchodilators that are widely used for treating asthma and exercise-induced asthma (EIA). In addition to their bronchodilatory action, β2-agonists, when administered acutely, have been shown to modulate the contractility of the slow skeletal muscle fibers in the animal models. Thus, we investigated central and peripheral neuromuscular adjustments induced by an acute oral therapeutic administration of the β2-agonist terbutaline (8 mg) on a predominantly slow human muscle, the soleus. We found that acute oral intake of terbutaline diminished the contractile function of the human slow soleus muscle in vivo. The reduction of half-relaxation time in terbutaline condition indicates an ac-celerated muscle relaxation. Moreover, under terbutaline treatment, the force associated to evoked submaximal tetani was decreased, suggesting the presence of a weakening effect in the slow muscle fibres. The increased central motor drive (as estimated from changes in soleus surface EMG activity) to the soleus muscle during submaximal voluntary contractions was interpreted as a compensatory adjustment of central nervous system to counter the weakening action elicited by terbutaline on the slow muscle fibres3.
3Crivelli G, Borrani F, Capt R, Gremion G, Maffiuletti NA. Actions of β2-Adrenoceptor Agonist Drug on Human Soleus Muscle Contraction. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013 Jan 4 [Epub ahead of print].

3. A lot of swimmers have exercise induced asthma and use β2-agonists, so what should swimmers take from the results?
The maximal force generation capacity of the muscle is not impaired by β2-agonists, even though an enhanced neural drive to the muscle would be required to develop submaximal force. The latter effect may increase the energetic cost of the contraction and accelerate muscle fatigability. On the other hand, the faster relaxation rate of the muscle induced by β2-agonists could improve the switch between agonist-antagonist muscles in rapid alternating movements, thus increasing exercise performance in short-lasting and rapid tasks. However, it is important to emphasize the following considerations:
i) The weakening effect on slow muscle fibres can be attributed to the specific action elicited by β2-agonists at the skeletal muscle level. Nevertheless, this weakening action would most likely be influenced by the concomitant and widespread effects that β2-agonists exert at the whole-body level (i.e., on the metabolism activity, cardiac output, blood flow, ions transport).

ii) Asthmatic athletes commonly use inhaled β2-agonists to prevent and treat asthmatic sympoms. To date, however, there is no human evidence of modulation of the contractile function after β2-agonists inhalation. Doses of inhaled β2-agonists are 10- to 20-times smaller than oral doses and mainly act locally within the airway. Thus, the amount of β2-agonist reaching the peripheral muscle may be insufficient after acute inhalation of therapeutic doses to potentially diminish the muscle function, as opposed to an oral administration.

4. Why measure half-relaxation time in muscles as opposed to full relaxation?
Half-relaxation time, defined as the time to obtain half of the decline in peak force, is widely used to assess changes in rate of force relaxation. This parameter is determined in a mathematical way from the force signal with a high repeatability of the measurements. Conversely, “full relaxation” presents several drawbacks, which could potentially affect its validity. From a methodological standpoint, the exact location of the complete relaxation is hard to define on the force signal. Furthermore, this part of the force signal is strongly influenced by artifacts induced by the discomfort generated from the percutaneous electrical simulations, thus com-promising this measurement.
5. Do β2-agonists occur naturally in any foods?
β2-Agonists do not occur naturally in any foods. Nevertheless, the β2-agonist clenbuterol, due to its anabolic property, has been used in the livestock industry to improve muscles growth in animals and hence promoting the efficiency of meat production. Clenbuterol has been banned in the meat industry in the U.S. since 1991 and in the EU since 1996 because of health concerns about symptoms noted in consumers (e.g., increased heart rate, muscular tremors, headache and nausea). Although clenbuterol was banned in the last decade, several professional athletes (including Alberto Contador during the Tour de France race 2010) were tested positives in urines to this drug resulting from a possible food contamination. A recent study by the German Sport University Lab in Cologne confirmed that humans can inadvertently ingest clenbuterol from eating meat. Current reports indicate that food contamination with clenbuterol is a serious problem especially in China and Mexico, which had a problem with illegal substance for animal feeding. Therefore, athletes visiting those area take a risk of an inadvertently clenbuterol contamination with food and consequently, unintended doping4.
3 Guddat S, Fußhöller G, Geyer H, Thomas A, Braun H, Haenelt N, Schwenke A, Klose C, Thevis M, Schänzer W. Clenbuterol – regional food contamination a possible source for inadvertent doping in sports. Drug Test Anal 4: 534-8, 2012.
Furthermore, it must be emphasized that to date there is no human evidence of force potentiation in fast muscle fibres induced by administration of β2-agonists.

6. What sorts of activities would benefit from having increased rate of slow twitch muscle relaxation?
The switch between agonist-antagonist muscles in rapid alternating movements should be increased by faster relaxation rate of the slow muscle fibres. Nevertheless, this would only be effective in a short-lasting exercise, because the compensatory adjustment of the central nervous system during submaximal voluntary contractions would be disadvantageous in term of metabolic cost and fatigability. It is not surprising that improvement in exercise performance after acute intake of β2-agonists has been reported almost only in anaerobic and explosive tasks. Therefore, acute oral administration of β2-agonists could potentially have an ergogenic benefit for sprint performance (e.g., 50 m free-style swimming).
7. Given that β2-agonists are restricted via WADA/USADA, how long would it take for these to exit the system? Are there any recommended protocols that can derive benefits of this research while remaining in compliance with doping rules?
According to the Prohibited List 2013 published by WADA, “all β2-agonists are prohibited except inhaled salbutamol (maximum 1600 micrograms over 24 h), formoterol (maximum 54 micrograms over 24 h) and salmeterol when taken by inhalation in accordance with the ma-nufacturers’ recommended therapeutic regime. For the use of other β2-agonists, that are not one of the three exceptions listed above, athletes can apply for a Therapeutic Use Exemption. The presence in urine of salbutamol in excess of 1000 ng/mL or formoterol in excess of 40ng/mL is presumed not to be an intended therapeutic use of the substance and will be considered as an Adverse Analytical Finding unless the athlete proves, through a controlled pharmacokinetic study, that the abnormal result was the consequence of the use of the therapeutic inhaled dose up to the maximum indicated above”.
Even though our recent investigation demonstrated a weakening effect of β2-agonists on the contractile function of human slow muscle fibres, such result doesn’t justify any loosening of the restrictions for β2-agonists use by WADA. Indeed, we showed that β2-agonists, after an acute oral therapeutic intake, reach the systemic circulation in a sufficient amount capable to affect the human skeletal muscle contractility. Moreover, our study didn’t investigate the act-ion of chronic therapeutic administration of β2-agonists on contractile function, which could also differ from the effects induced by acute intake. Thus, the restriction for oral administration of this class of drugs must be preserved.

Conversely, on the basis of scientific evidence, inhaled β2-agonists don’t have any relevant ergogenic effect on exercise performance in non-asthmatic competitive athletes. Thus, from the ergogenic standpoint, inhaled β2-agonists should not be prohibited for athletes.

Considering the possibility to analyze in the urine the quantity of β2-agonists, the current regulation is appropriate to detect misuse of this substance. In addition, it would make sense to include β2-agonists in the Monitoring List of the WADA anti-doping program. The inclusion of β2-agonists in the Monitoring List would permit WADA to detect eventual increase in misuse of this substance, and thus bring back this class of drugs to the Prohibited List. Furthermore, it could significantly reduce the complicated administrative process for athletes and physicians (who are responsible for the treatment) to obtain TUE and diminish the administrative expenses for the handling of these substances by WADA5.

5Wolfarth B, Wuestenfeld JC, Kindermann W. Ergogenic Effects of Inhaled β2-agonists in Non-asthmatic Athletes. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 39: 75-87, 2010.

8. Any different recommended protocols for those with asthma already taking β2-agonists?
The current guidelines for the treatment and prevention of asthma and exercise-induced asthma (EIA) in athletes are valid. According to these recommendations, inhaled short-acting β2-agonists are used before exercise, when bronchoconstriction occurs with exercise, to prevent of attacks of EIA. Instead, long-acting β2-agonists (combined with corticosteroids) are inhaled as a basic treatment for severe cases of asthma.
It is important to raise awareness in the athletes of the risk for the misuse of administration of high doses of β2-agonists, to avoid adverse effects (such as tachycardia, tremors, headache, hyperglycemia, hypokalaemia) and the weakening action on human skeletal muscle function, which both may affect negatively exercise performance.

9. What mistakes still exist in professional athletes and medical clinics in regards to β2-agonists?
I think a common mistake is to believe that use of β2-agonists will have a positive ergogenic action on performance in non-asthmatic competitive athletes. Despite β2-agonists administration has been shown to induce a small bronchodilation in healthy athletes, the improved lung function does not induce any enhancement in performance. From my point of view is import-ant to raise awareness in all athletes, trough prevention and education programs, on the appropriate use of β2-agonists to avoid overuse of non-performance enhancing medications. This will ensure that athletes know health consequences of what they put in their bodies, not only for asthma treatment, but also for the adverse effects on physical performance.

It is important to raise awareness in the athletes of the risk for the misuse of administration of high doses of β2-agonists, to avoid adverse effects (such as tachycardia, tremors, headache, hyperglycemia, hypokalaemia) and the weakening action on human skeletal muscle function, which both may affect negatively exercise performance.

9. What mistakes still exist in professional athletes and medical clinics in regards to β2-agonists?
I think a common mistake is to believe that use of β2-agonists will have a positive ergogenic action on performance in non-asthmatic competitive athletes. Despite β2-agonists administration has been shown to induce a small bronchodilation in healthy athletes, the improved lung function does not induce any enhancement in performance. From my point of view is import-ant to raise awareness in all athletes, trough prevention and education programs, on the appropriate use of β2-agonists to avoid overuse of non-performance enhancing medications. This will ensure that athletes know health consequences of what they put in their bodies, not only for asthma treatment, but also for the adverse effects on physical performance.

10. What research or projects are you currently working on or should we look from you in the future?
I am currently concluding an experiment to determine the effects of acute administration of β2-agonists on human skeletal muscle during a fatiguing exercise. The results of the latter study would be divulged in the coming months.

Thanks Dr. Crivelli

Do you want to do Another?

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Thu, 09 May 2013 08:30:00 +0000

Building internal motivation and drive is essential for long-term success and elite performance. Internal motivation has been suggested to improve performance more than external motivation (Broedling 1975; Andrisani 1976). Internal motivation also has been shown as an important variable between championship caliber and non-championship caliber teams (Blegen 2012).

In swimming, most swimmers are asked to perform a specific amount of repetitions. This typically forces swimmers to be content or pleased with simply finishing the requested amount or even failing the workout, but finishing the amount of yards.

Looks like punishment fly to me!

Another commonality in swimming is the use of exercise or extra swimming as a punishment, associating the punishment and pain with swimming. I know everyone has heard of a coach making a group of young swimmers perform 20 x 25 fly. No wonder fly is likely the "hardest" and most "hated" stroke in the sport!

Instead, encouraging swimmers to do more is a method of increasing internal motivation. Moreover, allowing swimmers to determine the volume of their training associates swimming volume with success.

Now, don't get me wrong, I know this method won't work for certain swimmers, as they must be taught proper methods of self interpretation, but at the end of a repeat set, instead of having your swimmers perform countless repetitions, simply ask, "do you want to do another?" at the end of a good set! This can change the mindset of an athlete and build motivation and confidence within a swimmer.

Reference:

Blegen MD, Stenson MR, Micek DM, Matthews TD. Motivational differences for participation among championship and non-championship caliber NCAA division III football teams. J Strength Cond Res. 2012 Nov;26(11):2924-8. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182719123.
Broedling, L. A., (1975). Relationship of internal-external control to work motivation and performance in an expectancy model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 65-70.
Andrisani, P. J., & Nestel, G., (1976) Internal-external control as contributor of work experience. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 156-165.

Ubiquinol Improves Olympic-Level Athlete Performance

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Wed, 08 May 2013 08:30:00 +0000

With any supplement, a simply warning is necessary. The contents of every supplement are uncertain, as they are not highly regulated. If considering use of the discussed supplement, consider having it tested by a third-party laboratory.

Ubiquinol is a form of coenzyme-Q10 and is thought to increase mitochondrial energy. Unfortunately, the use of this supplement on performance is not known (especially at this dose, previous studies only supplemented with 150 mg). Moreover, the results of coenzyme-Q10 on performance is mixed. Yet, a recent study had elite German Olympic athletes take 300 mg Ubiquinol daily for 6 weeks or a placebo.

"This study demonstrates that daily supplementation of 300 mg Ubiquinol for 6 weeks significantly enhanced physical performance measured as maximum power output by +0.08 W/kg bw (+2.5%) versus placebo in young healthy trained German Olympic athletes. While adherence to a training regimen itself resulted in an improvement in peak power output, as observed by improvement in placebo, the effect of Ubiquinol supplementation significantly enhanced peak power production in comparison to placebo (Alf 2013)".

These results clearly imply Ubiquinol is a helpful ergogenic aid for increasing power. Unfortunately, increases in power don't always correlate with improved swimming performance! More specific swimming research is necessary, but these results are extremely promising! However, this research and supplement do show potential, especially in aging athletes, as the author notes older adults have a lower mitochondrial density.

References

Alf D, Schmidt ME, Siebrecht SC. Ubiquinol supplementation enhances peak power production in trained athletes: a double-blind, placebo controlled study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2013 Apr 29;10(1):24. [Epub ahead of print]

Blood-flow Reistance (BFR) Training Improves Elite Athletes

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Tue, 07 May 2013 08:00:00 +0000

A lot of research suggests blood-flow resistance (BFR) training increases strength, hypertrophy, and testosterone. At Swim Sci, we first broke down this phenomenon in 2010 (Blood-Flow Resistance Training)!. Since then, a lot more research has been published, even research on swimmers (see Swimming Science Research Review)! We have also been fortunate to have interviews with experts on the subject (Friday Interview: Dr. Alan Mikesky, and soon Zach Pope). Now, the benefits discussed have mostly been found in elderly or non-athletic populations.

However, a recent study looked at BFR training in elite rugby players and note:
"[g]reater improvements were observed (occlusion training vs control) in bench press (5.4±2.6 vs 3.3±1.4kg), squat (7.8±2.1 vs 4.3±1.4kg), maximum sprint time (-0.03±0.03 vs -0.01±0.02s) and leg power (168±105 vs 68±50W). Greater exercise-induced salivary testosterone (Effect Size: 0.84 to 0.61) and cortisol responses (ES: 0.65 to 0.20) were observed following the occlusion intervention sessions compared to the non-occluded controls; however the acute cortisol increases were attenuated across the training block (Cook 2013)".

This study adds evidence of performing BFR for sports enhancement. Now, the applicability for swimming is uncertain, as these benefits may simply have occurred from an improvement in ground reaction force (GRF). However, the possibilities of BFR are swimming performance, as well as health parameters (potential increased hypertrophy and bone mineral density, both two necessities for the aging swimmer) exist.

Recently, I started a training blog (selfishly to help track my progress and motivate me as I strive for my swimming goals). In a recent post, I describe how I use BFR. This new form of training still has many uncertainties, so please consult a physician before use. Lastly, if you are interested on being on a remote swim team which includes monthly Skype discussions and daily written workouts, contact us for more information!

References

Cook CJ, Kilduff LP, Beaven CM. Three Weeks of Occlusion Training Can Improve Strength and Power in Trained Athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013 Apr 23. [Epub ahead of print]

Breathing and Swimmers' Posture

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Mon, 06 May 2013 08:30:00 +0000

Breathing is obviously important to swimming. We've discussed breathing multiple times on this site with topics from breathing patterns, Armpit breathing, Swimmer's Lung Capacity, and Inspiratory Muscle Fatigue. Most recently, Dr. Mitch Lomax discussed his recent findings in this area noting that "[Inspiratory Muscle Fatigue] occurs during swimming, even in very well trained swimmers. It can negatively affect stroke characteristics, and has the potential to speed up the occurrence limb muscle fatigue. The good news is that we can do something about it."

One concept that we've also addressed has been breathing’s effect on spinal mechanics. Breathing is often overlooked as a movement pattern, but plays a vital role in shaping movement. Virtually everything we do involves breathing, whether we realize it or not. As Hodges (2001) notes, “[r]espiratory activity of the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles is normally coordinated with their other functions, such as for postural control of the trunk when the limbs move.”

Postural abnormalities such as kyphosis (hunchback) and lordosis (swayback) are commonly associated with shoulder and back problems in swimming. It has been well established that hyperactive upper trapezius activity, shortness of the pectoralis minor, and weakness in the lower trapezius are linked to shoulder maladies and to thoracic kyphosis. Given what we know about respiratory mechanics, might breathing be an avenue to effect change in this area?

One study to explore the link between breathing, posture and movement involved swimmers. Obayashi (2012) studied twenty six healthy swimmers evenly divided into an exercise group and a control group. Authors sought to determine the effect that breathing exercises could have on spinal curvature of the thoracic and lumbar spines. The exercise group performed respiratory muscle exercises ten minutes per day three times per week over four weeks. The control group only performed their normal swim training. Findings included:

Significant a decrease in the thoracic kyphosis by 13.1% in the exercise group (less hunchback)
Lumbar lordosis reduced by 17.7% in the exercise group (less swayback)
Compared to the non-exercise group, the exercise group had 8.6% less thoracic curve and 20.9% less lumbar curvature than the control group
forced vital capacity and forced expiratory volume in 1.0 s were significantly increased after four weeks in the exercise group

Authors offered the following explanation for their findings:

"[A] rise in intra-abdominal pressure presses the rib cage upward and effectively allows the extension of the thoracic vertebrae. In addition, we attribute the decrease of thoracic curvatures to a stretching effect on the thorax. In a previous study, Izumizaki et al reported that thoracic capacity and rib-cage movement were changed by thixotropy, which is the exercise of maximal expiration from maximum inspiration. The stiffness of the rib cage leads to thoracic kyphosis. In this study, repetitive deep breathing resolved the stiffness of the rib cage and straightened thoracic kyphosis. This process may be responsible for altering the spinal curvature."

Similarly, we wrote last year, "The rib cage is more than a passive protector of internal organs and a mere puppet of respiration. Though it’s not a body part amenable to cueing in the water, better rib cage function can free the swimmer of restrictions. Most importantly, optimal rib cage function via breathing, posture, and movement can improve shoulder health." (See, Forgotten Rib Cage) In sum, consider not just the shoulder itself, but the structure and function of all areas around it. Breathing is a key part of that consideration.

CONCLUSION

The findings in this study make intuitive sense to anyone who observes breathing in a training environment. Yet training the breath is often seen as a wasted activity more properly reserved for quiet meditation and not of sufficient importance for “serious” dryland training.

Even if you don’t set aside time for breathing exercises, attention to respiratory mechanics should be a part of any dryland program to optimize spinal function and develop healthy shoulders. Though more study is needed in this area, this research does lend support to the connection between respiration and shoulder mechanics in competitive swimmers.

REFERENCES

Hodges PW, Heijnen I, Gandevia SC.J Physiol. 2001 Dec 15;537(Pt 3):999-1008.
Postural activity of the diaphragm is reduced in humans when respiratory demand increases.
Ludewig PM, Reynolds JF. The association of scapular kinematics and glenohumeral joint pathologies. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2009 Feb;39(2):90-104. doi: 10.2519/jospt.2009.2808.
Obayashi H, Urabe Y, Yamanaka Y, Okuma R. J Sport Rehabil. 2012 Feb;21(1):63-8. Epub 2011 Nov 15. Effects of respiratory-muscle exercise on spinal curvature.
Izumizaki M, Ohshima Y, Iwase M, Homma I. Chest wall motion after thixotropy conditioning of inspiratory muscles in healthy humans. J Physiol Sci. 2006;56:433–440.

By Allan Phillips. Allan and his wife Katherine are heavily involved in the strength and conditioning community, for more information refer to Pike Athletics.

Friday Interview: Dr. Aymeric Guillot Discusses Dynamic Motor Imagery

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Fri, 03 May 2013 08:00:00 +0000

1. Please introduce yourself to the readers (how you started in the profession, education, credentials, experience, etc.).I have a Ph.D. in Sport Sciences and I am currently a full Professor in the Center of Research and Innovation in Sport in Lyon (France, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Performance Mentale, Motrice et du Matériel (P3M)). Using notably the techniques of autonomic nervous system recordings, functional magnetic resonance imaging, mental chronometry and electromyography recordings, my colleague Pr. Christian Collet and I have worked on numerous motor imagery studies since more than 10 years, investigating primarily the effect of motor imagery in motor learning and motor performance in athletes, but also in motor recovery after stroke or motor disorders. To date, I have published over 70 scientific journal articles and book chapters, including extensive reviews and meta-analyses of the motor imagery literature. I also recently published 2 books specifically focusing on mental training and motor imagery.

2. You recently published an article on the dynamic mental imagery (DMI), could you please explain what this is?Understanding the optimal way for athletes to use imagery and achieve peak performance is a critical aspect of our imagery research. Among the prerequisites that have been discovered within the two last decades, we know that the efficacy of imagery practice is greater when athletes perform mental training in an environment which is very close to that of the actual practice. As well, the body position in which athletes mentally rehearse a movement should ideally match the one observed during competition, at least be congruent with the corresponding movement. Finally, we are familiar with athletes moving while imagining their movement during their pre-competitive routine. For instance, skiers frequently move while simulating their subsequent slalom course, or high jumpers move their arms when mentally imagining their jump. For this reason, we investigated whether using such kind of dynamic imagery, where athletes slightly move while imagining their subsequent movement, was likely to improve the quality of their mental representation, and, consequently, the effectiveness of their actual performance. Another important key is to perform imagery at a level of physiological activation comparable to that required by actual practice. Too many people, including sport trainers, tend to believe that mental practice should be performed while being relaxed. Experimental research has now provided evidence that this belief is wrong.

3. What does the research suggest is the benefit of DMI vs. MI?As few other sport researchers, we provided evidence that performing dynamic imagery improved the dimensions of the mental representation of the movement (more particularly imagery vividness and exactness, and its temporal features), as well as the subsequent motor performance. Moving while imagining the jump helped athletes to form a more accurate mental representation of the approach-run. The technical efficacy of the jump (i.e., take-off, bar clearance) was also improved, along with an increased number of successful trials. Dynamic imagery further contributed to achieve temporal congruence between imagined and actual movement times, which is known to be an important aspect of imagery ensuring its efficacy. In other words, dynamic imagery brings temporal boundaries, and thus has a temporal function to facilitate calibration of time. Taken together, these results support the benefits of dynamic imagery over motionless motor imagery, at least in some circumstances. Practically, it means that moving while imagining may help athletes to improve the quality of their mental training. While this aspect is interesting and important to consider when scheduling mental practice, we do think that athletes should not systematically use dynamic imagery, but might rather alternate dynamic and motionless motor imagery.

4. How does DMI potentially improve performance?
Coupling motor imagery with some movements provides actual feedback, thus offering an effective solution to the main limitation of imagery, that is, the absence of proprioceptive feedback. Accordingly, dynamic imagery is likely to improve the individual ability to adequately perform kinaesthetic imagery. A second aspect is that dynamic imagery emphasizes the degree of behavioral matching with the physical performance of the same movement. Another important point is that dynamic imagery contributes to improve the ability to achieve temporal congruence between motor imagery and actual performance. In the case of high jump, this is particularly effective for the run-up. Interestingly, we further showed that dynamic imagery is beneficial even in high skilled athletes, not only in novices, hence providing fruitful practical applications of mental training.

5. How can swimmers best utilize DMI?Swimming is a sport where motor imagery can be very easy and cost-effective to use in different situations. For instance, swimmers can use imagery not only to improve self-confidence and motivation or reduce pre-competitive anxiety, but also to enhance their technical motor skills. In particular, dynamic imagery may be used to help swimmers forming the mental representation of a subsequent motor performance (e.g., diving, flip/dolphin turn, dolphin kicks, arm/leg movements…). Practically, dynamic imagery might be used both during training to perfect/correct a technique and during the pre-performance routine. In the former case, the aim is to rehearse a correct movement; To do this, the best option is to mentally imagine the movement just after/before its actual execution, having in mind that the imagined movement must be correct. In the latter case, the objective is more to improve self-confidence and decrease anxiety before competing. In both cases, however, dynamic imagery is likely to facilitate the accuracy and efficacy of imagery. All swimming skills are cyclical (continuous) and motor imagery is one of the best candidate to integrate swim rhythm. It can be easily rehearsed, even with tapping. This is another example of dynamic imagery use in swimming. One can also easily modulate the swim rhythm and find the best rhythm corresponding to the distance to swim and to the own features of each swimmer.

6. Can DMI be taken too far, perhaps performing full movements or actions?
This is an excellent question and you are totally right. Actually, we believe that dynamic imagery should not be used while performing the full corresponding movement, which may be counterproductive. In our study, athletes were asked to mimic the actual movement using simple upper-limb movements (a kind of “pseudo-movement”), but without engaging in the actual motor act and while keeping the lower limbs motionless. The fact that MI and action can occur simultaneously raises some theoretical concerns, and performing full movement would mean that imagery is an epiphenomenon during the motor execution process. Basically, one must keep in mind that moving while imagining is conceptually different from imagining while moving.

7. What do you see in the future of MI, perhaps electrical stimulation of motor programs?There is a great body of research in this topic and several fruitful orientations are currently developed. Electrical stimulation of motor programs seems probably difficult to consider. My view is that neuroscientists will continue to understand in greater details the neural underpinnings of imagery, which is very important for its use. Practically, for athletes and coaches, I do think that the future of motor imagery is to consider in greater details the relationship between motor imagery and observation, and even virtual reality situations. To date, very few studies considered the use of dynamic or static imagery and observation/imitation concurrently. Both techniques are very compatible and complementary and I believe that adequately combining these two forms of practice might contribute to significantly affect motor performance. As well, virtual reality is very attractive. You can for instance create a very realistic movie of an athlete performing a movement he/she is not yet able to execute, and then use the visual feedback as a way to prime its mental representation during mental practice.

8. How can a coach stay up-to-date with the mental process of training?This is a real issue, thank you very much for this question. Actually, there are not a lot of books/articles easily accessible to athletes and practitioners, and/or researchers do not always make the effort to adequately disseminate their results. One thing coaches should make is looking at the main scientific sport literature databases to see the novel results in their sport, or look at experimental studies dealing with the use of mental practice. Contacting researchers to read the corresponding paper and/or discuss about the practical applications with athletes directly in the field is then possible and easy. An alternative welcome and useful approach is to facilitate the discussion between researchers and coaches through specific journals, websites, and interviews, just as you are proposing here in Swimming Science.

9. Who is doing the most interesting and/or controversial research on MI? What do you think of it?This is a difficult question as there are a very important number of researchers investigating motor imagery. I personally appreciate when both fundamental underpinnings and practical applications of imagery are together considered. Then, in order to have a great overview of what is done in the field, one must focus on one or two specific aims of imagery research. For instance, one may look for imagery guidelines and applications in sport athletes to improve motor performance or facilitate motor recovery after injury. Alternately, one may be interested by the recent use and efficacy of imagery in brain computer interface research. Anyway, each kind of research is interesting and provides fruitful possible applications of imagery use, so staying up-to-date with the imagery research depends on the expectations of the reader.

10. What research or projects are you currently working on or should we look from you in the future?As I mentioned earlier, my work aims at considering both the theoretical investigation of imagery and its practical applications. Accordingly, a part of my research is designed to determine the optimal way to use imagery during mental training in order to develop more effective imagery interventions with athletes. Another important part of my research aims at investigating the efficacy of motor imagery practice to improve motor recovery in injured athletes and people with motor disorders. In parallel, we also explore the neural underpinnings of the imagery experience, and more specifically look at the inhibition of the motor command during imagined actions. Finally, a more recent line of research we are currently beginning to explore is dealing with motor imagery based brain computer interface systems.

Thanks Dr. Guillot and if you want to learn more on this subject, check out Dr. Guillot's book:

Functional Movement Screen Predicts Performance?

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Thu, 02 May 2013 08:00:00 +0000

If you are a frequent reader of this website, you are well aware that the functional movement screen is a method primarily used in ground-based sports for predicting injuries (Functional Movement Screen Research: 2011 Summary and Review). The applicability of this screening is questionable for swimmers, as swimmers don't have the same stresses on the body as most ground-based sports, nonetheless a screening tool is likely beneficial for swimming, if only we knew what to look at!

Researchers at the University of Washington (specifically Dr. Brian Krabak) are looking at some factors which influence injury prevention in swimming. This vital research can likely help prevent injuries, but as a recent study indicates, this screening (functional movement screen] may also predict performance in track and field athletes.

Chapman (2013) notes:
"[H[iFMS [high functional movement screen score] had a significantly different change in performance from 2010 to 2011 (+0.41±2.50%, n=80) compared to LoFMS [low functional movement screen score] (-0.51±2.30%, p=0.03, n=41). Athletes with no asymmetries had a longitudinal improvement in performance (+0.60+2.86%, n=50) compared to athletes with at least one asymmetry (-0.26±2.10%, p=0.03, n=71). Athletes who scored 1 on the deep squat movement had a significantly different change in performance (-1.07±2.08%, n=22) vs. athletes who scored 2 (+0.13±2.28%, p=0.03, n=87) or 3 (+1.98±3.31%, p=0.001, n=12".

These results suggests improving asymmetries and the deep squat for track and field athletes, but is the functional movement test truly applicable for swimmers. Moreover, is the squat a determinant for success in swimming? We've discussed squats on Swimming Science (Dryland Mistake: Squat, More on Squatting), questioning the applicability. How much the squat transfers to swimming is still uncertain, but these results do imply a screening exercise (which we currently do not know) may help predict injuries as well as performance improvements in swimming. At Swimming Science, we are constantly perfecting our screening tools, as this is likely an important area in the future of swimming.

References:

Chapman RF, Laymon AS, Arnold T. Functional Movement Scores and Longitudinal Performance Outcomes in Elite Track and Field Athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013 Apr 23. [Epub ahead of print]
Krabak BJ, Hancock KJ, Drake S. Comparison of dry-land training programs between age groups of swimmers. PM R. 2013 Apr;5(4):303-9. doi: 10.1016/j.pmrj.2012.11.003. Epub 2013 Jan 29.

Bonus Interview: Jacob Reed Discusses Concurrent Training

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Wed, 01 May 2013 08:30:00 +0000

1. Please introduce yourself to the readers (how you started in the profession, education, credentials, experience, etc.).
My name is Jacob Reed and I am a PhD student in Spot Performance at East Tennessee State University. I earned my Bachelors of Arts in Exercise Science from the University of Northern Iowa (UNI), after which I went to the University of Memphis to pursue my Masters of Science in Health and Sport Science. I started in the profession, as a sport scientist and strength coach in 2011 (I had various experiences in the weight room prior but my formal career began at that time) and it was through playing sports in high school that I first developed the passion to coach. As an undergraduate student I began my first study assessing the recovery modalities of placing your hands on your head or hands on your knees after finishing a bout of exhaustive exercise (Reed et al, 2010). After graduating from UNI, I went to Memphis to continue my research where I worked with recreationally active males as well as men and women over the age of 60 in a variety of research studies. It was during this time that I also earned my Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS, NSCA) credentials. As graduation drew near, I knew I wanted to continue into the collegiate or professional strength and conditioning field, which is how I ended up at ETSU. While at ETSU I have trained Army ROTC cadets and currently serve as the head strength and conditioning coach and sport scientist for ETSU Women’s Volleyball and the head coach of our club rugby team.

2. You recently published an article on concurrent training, could you please discuss your findings?
In this study titled “Acute Metabolic and Neuromuscular Responses to Concurrent Endurance and Resistance Exercise”, we sought to determine some potential mechanisms for the interference effect (Reed, 2013). Briefly, this effect was first studied by Hickson et al in 1980 in which they observed a significant decline in the gains in strength when aerobic exercise proceeds resistance exercise. This topic is very important to me as it applies directly to all sports as, generally coaches will program practices (typically aerobic to anaerobic in nature) and resistance training in the same day. Though we know the minimal time difference between training sessions thanks to the work of Sporer et al 2003 (8-24 hours), the reasoning behind this is still relatively unknown. For our study, we wanted to use practical exercises (the bench press and squat), a typical endurance program found in the concurrent training literature (typical is aerobic exercise for ~45 minutes at ~75% max heart rate using various modalities) and individuals who could be considered moderately strong to strong (hence the 1.25x body weight bench press and 1.5x body weight back squat minimal requirement for inclusion). Of even greater importance to us was to see if the effect of fatigue from aerobic exercise was localized, thus the separate back squat and bench press protocols. Finally in order to determine possible mechanisms of the interference effect, we assessed the activity of the muscles through electromyography (EMG), maximum force generating capacity (isometric squat and bench), lactate, and one’s ability to perform work (6 sets to failure at 80% 1RM for bench press and back squat). Our results showed that the interference effect seems to be localized in nature as the ability to perform back squats to failure was hindered (at set 1 and cumulatively to set 3) with preceding aerobic exercise, however bench press sets to failure did not differ. Our goal was to determine the potential mechanisms for the interference effect and we found that with 45 minutes of cycle ergometry at 75% max heart rate, the interference effect seemed to be local. This is potentially due to central fatigue but mostt likely occurs because of acute metabolic factors (ie: glycogen depletion).

3. Would you expect any different results with highly trained athletes in aerobic sports (Running, cycling, swimming, etc)? Different results with highly trained lifters doing aerobic training? Might there be a habituation for high level or high experience athletes that changes the effect?
I believe that the interference effect exists regardless of your training status or activity. One of the potentially primary reasons for its existence is because of the relationship between the cellular signaling pathways of AMPK (AMP-acivated protein kinase) and mTOR (mamilian target of rapamycin). Essentially, AMPK results in aerobic adaptations to training whereas mTOR results in muscle hypertrophy (thus increases in strength, power, size, etc). When you train aerobically, AMPK is activated and whereas with resistance training mTOR is activated. The kink in the system exists in that when AMPK is activated, mTOR is shut off. So the net result is an increase in your body’s ability to perform aerobic work. This is great for aerobic athletes but can provide a problem when they are also resistance training as those adaptations are not optimized. In theory if they were to resistance train prior to aerobic exercise, they would lose the potential for increases in muscle mass, strength, or power. What is interesting though is that if the training is switched around (aerobic first) there do not seem to be any differences in aerobic adaptations (Dudley, et al 1985)(Bell et al, 2000). Keep in mind though that this is only theory and that while a current study by Tiapale shows that hormonally, there is an order effect when endurance exercise follows strength exercise. One must always consider the overall plan in the training process (Tiapale et al, 2013).

In regards to high level athletes, the interference effect would be most pronounced, regardless of training mode. The reason being that high level athletes are almost at the top of their genetic limit and there is not much more room for improvement. Because of this, proper application of the training stimulus is important as is the annual plan. There will be some points of a season where for an endurance athlete for instance, improving endurance through traditional aerobic activity isn’t 100% necessary (ex: a four month offseason) but rather focusing on strength could be the main goal (while still maintaining endurance as best as possible of course). It is in this time that the coach has to program the training appropriately in order to obtain the best possible benefits from the resistance training. For example, during the beginning of the spring semester our volleyball team focus on adaptations in the weight room. They still play volleyball but the volume of training is incredibly low and occurs at least four hours before weights (usually eight). As the semester progresses we change our focus to high volume in both the weight room and court then to lower volume in the weight room and relatively high volume on the court during their competitive season. The main point being, we have a plan to ensure the athletes are getting the best possible adaptation out of the training stimulus for that specific time period, while managing accumulative fatigue. For more information on the AMPK-mTOR relationship I will refer the reader to the reviews of Baar 2006, Hawley et al 2009, Hennessy et al 1994, Kimball 2006, Nader 2006 and Winder 2006 whose full citations are listed below.

4. Would you expect a learning effect (either getting better or worse) of the interference effect if this training is continued over longer period than in the study?
I would expect the detriments in performance to exponentially increase if this exact study were to continue over time. I do not believe in training to failure for a prolonged period of time as it can result in overuse injuries and overtraining. The reason we chose training to failure in the study was because many of the concurrent training studies perform similar protocols and we wanted to stay as close to the literature as possible while still providing some novelty. In terms of learning, if the training stimulus (resistance or aerobic) is not increased, the athlete may appear to have learned to overcome the training stimulus by being able to complete the desired work. However all coaches strive to push their athletes to the limit. This facilitates many physiological responses, of primary importance is the AMPK-mTOR relationship. In other words, as long as the coach is pushing the limits of the athletes, the body will have to decide where to use its energy and as building muscle is energy costly and aerobic adaptations result in a conservation of energy, the body will most likely choose the way of aerobic adaptation.

5. Would you expect any different results at different durations/intensities than what were studied in the study?
This study was my Master’s thesis and during the comments portion at the end, these questions provided the most discussion. I thoroughly believe that the results of our study are primarily intensity dependent, on both aerobic and resistance components (high volume of resistance training will result in a response from AMPK but that is outside the scope of our investigation). Essentially, increasing the intensity in aerobic exercise (velocity or power output, depending on your mode) results in an increased metabolic response. This will result in an increase in intramuscular blood lactate, which if large enough will cause a physiological inability of the sarcomeres to contract, thus hindering the ability to produce work in resistance exercise, though this is not the only reason (Carins, 2007). Conversely on the resistance training side, we noted differences in volume load cumulatively at the third set for back squat only. These volume loads were incredibly high for the given exercise and given that the individuals were asked to go to failure we expected differences between the no aerobic exercise and aerobic exercise protocols. However, I believe that if the load were increased to 90% of one repetition maximum for 3x2, I would not expect to find a difference as the energy requirement is very low, but this is purely speculation.

6. What makes your research different from others?
One of my primary goals in designing this study was to design the methods in a similar manner as the previous research in the field. This was the reasoning behind choosing 45 minutes of cycling at 75% max HR and a lower body test to failure. Where we differed from most was that we used the back squat instead of other lower body exercise modes and most importantly, had a standard of training status before inclusion. It is well known that untrained people will adapt positively to any stimulus and as I wanted to apply this to a trained audience, it was necessary to use trained individuals. While it did limit my sample size (we pre-tested 15 and only kept 9 individuals), I feel it strengthened our results. Personally I believe this standard is absolutely necessary to continue research in concurrent training as this mode, while applicable to the recreationally active population, is most often used in the collegiate and professional sports setting. With more knowledge we will better be able to program appropriate recovery strategies thus ensuring optimal performance at both practice and resistance training sessions.

7. Which teachers have most influenced your research?
I have had a number of influential teachers throughout my collegiate career. First, is Dr. Robin Lund from the University of Northern Iowa. He is the one who first taught me about research methods and helped to develop and complete my first study, the hands on head vs. hands on knees recovery study (Reed et al, 2010). At Memphis, I must credit both Dr. Brian Schilling and Dr. Zsolt Murlasits. Both of these professors kept pushing me forward with quality research and experiences. At ETSU, I have had the pleasure of working with a multitude of professors in Dr. Mike Stone, Dr. Bill Sands, Dr. Kimitake Sato, Dr. Michael Ramsey, Dr. Hugh Lamont and Meg Stone. This list of individuals has been crucial to my professional development as a research, sport scientist, strength and conditioning coach and person.

8. In a highly technical sport with no ground reaction force (swimming), how do you think resistance training can be utilized?
This is an interesting scenario, mainly because the research in resistance training for swimming is primarily neutral. While there are a number of studies which support this claim, one review by Tanaka et al, 1998 summarizes the current research for the time quite nicely. Essentially, dry-land resistance training did not help to improve swimming performance. However, I have a problem with these studies. Mainly because, if it didn’t work why are we still doing it? The modern Olympic swimmers (Michael Phelps and Ryan Lochte) train with weights and that alone I believe provides enough support to perform some resistance training. The bigger question is, how to train on dry land so that the adaptations are transferred to better performance. In regards to swimming, I believe there are three aspects to consider when training: the flip turn as well as maintaining stroke and kick technique and power. It has been noted that spending more time underwater from the turn and the better the push is advantageous for performance (Mason et al, 2008). This being the case, it would stand to reason to replicate the push off the wall on dry land. One of the best ways to do this is to ensure strong legs with the squat or deadlift and, more importantly, to generate high forces quickly (also known as rate of force development) through the Olympic movements and their derivatives (snatch and clean and jerk). Doing this will not only help develop a strong push but also strengthens the legs, thus providing a stronger kick in all the techniques. As far as the upper body is concerned, I still believe a typical strength training regimen will provide positive results. After all, water does provide some resistance and the stronger you are (assuming proficient technique) the faster you will be able to pull yourself through the water.

It all comes down to this: muscular power in the upper and lower body (measured by Wingate and maximum power output tests) has been shown to positively correlate with swim performance (Hawley et al, 1992). As power is a factor of force and velocity it would make sense to train that attribute with similar means. Now, in order to increase power you can either increase force and maintain velocity, increase velocity and maintain force, or increase both simultaneously. The best way to do this is to move high loads quickly (ie: the Olympic movements). If power endurance is a goal, you can do the same movements but provide more volume (think 5 sets of 5 reps of a power clean compared to 3 sets of 5). Regardless, increasing muscular strength and power should result in improved performance, as long as technique stays the same.

9. For technical sports where biomechanics are pertinent (pitching, golf, swimming) should resistance training be used before or after practice?
The timing of resistance training is highly dependent on how long before or after practice you can train as well as the goal of the day. Resistance training before can influence the performance of the individual by eliciting pre-fatigue. This could obstruct technique as well as cause a lack of focus. However, one could consider this distraction training as it would simulate the last day of a weekend golf tournament or weekend meet. By doing this, the coach could help train the athlete in these fatigued scenarios by focusing on technique and making the correct decisions. I must note that this technique of coaching be used sparingly as excessive fatigue can not only] result in poor performance but also potentially injury. Also, you will risk losing the strength associated adaptations by performing the endurance training after resistance. On the flip side, if
you want the best possible resistance training adaptations, the coach needs to plan the training at a minimum of four hours after practice, thus allowing some recovery. For another option, resistance training can be completed in the morning prior to practice as long as the minimum four hours of rest is provided. The strength adaptations will be sub-optimal but can allow for more flexible scheduling on part of the coach.

10. What research or projects are you currently working on or should we look from you in the future?
My current research has taken a slight turn from concurrent training but in an area of great interest to me. Taking the education I have learned from Dr. Sands and others, I am working on quantifying the daily training load and monitoring of athletes. With the volleyball team at ETSU, I have instituted a daily questionnaire, similar to that used in Dr. Sands 1993 study on yearly monitoring of gymnasts, daily volume load monitoring in the weight room as well as weekly flight times and body weights. The premise behind my doing this it three fold: 1) I want to quantify the training process as best as I can so that I can better predict when optimal performance will occur 2) by use of the questionnaire we can provide the head coach with information on the daily physiological status of her athletes and 3) we can see the potential signs of over training/ under recovery (ex: increasing resting heart rate with decreasing body weight) before they become a problem. As it stands this research takes quite a while to complete (a minimum of one year) so it will be a while before I publish anything I have found. However, this method has been embraced by our coach and her staff and as such, we work very well together and are able to make daily modifications as we see necessary to ensure the athletes are where we want them to be, which is paying off greatly.

References:

Baar K. Training for endurance and strength: lessons from cell signaling. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 38: 1939-1944, 2006.
Bell GJ, Syrotuik D, Martin TP, Burnham R, and Quinney HA. Effect of concurrent strength and endurance training on skeletal muscle properties and hormone concentrations in humans. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 81: 418-427, 2000.
Cairns SP. Lactic acid and exercise performance: culprit or friend? Sports Med. 36: 279-291, 2006.
Dudley GA, and Djamil R. Incompatibility of endurance- and strength-training modes of exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 59: 1446-1451, 1985.
Hawley JA. Molecular responses to strength and endurance training: are they incompatible? Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 34: 355-361, 2009.
Hennessy L, and Watson A. The Interference Effects of Training for Strength and Endurance Simultaneously. J. Strength and Cond. Res. 8: 12, 1994.
Hickson RC. Interference of strength development by simultaneously training for strength and endurance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 45: 255-263, 1980.
Kimball SR. Interaction between the AMP-activated protein kinase and mTOR signaling pathways. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 38: 1958-1964, 2006.
Nader GA. Concurrent strength and endurance training: from molecules to man. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 38: 1965-1970, 2006.
Reed, Jacob; Anderson, Stephanie; Brons, Bradly; Drumheller, Chelsea; Kirkenberg, Jill Comparison of Two Strategies on Recovery After Exhaustive Exercise. J. Strength Cond. Res. Jan; 24(supplement 1): 2010.
Reed JP, Schilling BK, Murlasits Z. Acute Neuromuscular and Metabolic Responses to Concurrent Endurance and Resistance Exercise. J. Strength Cond. Res. Mar; 27(3): 793-801. 2013
Sands WA, Shultz BB, Newman AP. Women’s gymnastics injuries: a 5-year study. Am J Sports Med; 21:2: 271–276, 1993.
Sporer BC, and Wenger HA. Effects of aerobic exercise on strength performance following various periods of recovery. J. Strength Cond Res. 17: 638-644, 2003.
Taipale RS, Häkkinen K. Acute Hormonal and Force Responses to Combined Strength and Endurance Loadings in Men and Women: The “Order Effect”. PLoS ONE 8(2), 2013.
Winder WW, Taylor EB, and Thomson DM. Role of AMP-activated protein kinase in the molecular adaptation to endurance exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 38: 1945-1949, 2006.
Hawley, John A., et al. "Muscle power predicts freestyle swimming performance." British journal of sports medicine 26.3 (1992): 151-155.
Mason, Bruce R., and Jodi M. Cossor. "Swim turn performances at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games." XIX International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports. Proceedings of Swim Sessions, San Francisco. 2001.
Tanaka, Hirofumi, and Thomas Swensen. "Impact of resistance training on enduranceperformance." Sports medicine 25.3 (1998): 191-200.

Are Warm Downs Necessary in Swimming?

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Mon, 29 Apr 2013 07:30:00 +0000

In previous articles Perfect Swimming Warm Down and Warm Down Durations, Dr. John covered many key issues for warm downs and swimming. But perhaps there’s a more fundamental issue to be addressed first…do we even need to warm down? That question may seem heretical, as the importance of the warm down (or cool down as it is also called) has long been assumed, not only in swimming but in all exercise. However, a recent New York Times article has reenergized warm down opponents, with multiple studies casting doubt on the efficacy of warming down after workouts.

The seminal study for the anti-cool down theory was by Lay (2007). This study involved fifty two healthy adults of both genders. Subjects walked backwards downhill for 30 minutes on a treadmill. This unfamiliar exercise was designed to remove any training effect that might taint the results. Experimental groups included 1) warm up only, 2) cool down only, 3) warm up and cool down, and 4) neither warm up nor cool down. Warm ups and cool downs were both ten minutes. Authors found, “Warm-up performed immediately prior to unaccustomed eccentric exercise produces small reductions in delayed-onset muscle soreness but cool-down performed after exercise does not.”

Olsen (2012) had similar findings with subjects performing front lunges in the gym. The control group (no warm up or cool down) experienced increased muscle sensitivity in the first two days post-exercise, which is another way of saying more soreness. The warm up group, who performed twenty minutes of cycling prior to exercise, saw no difference in sensitivity on either day. The cool down group performed twenty minutes cycling after the lunge set. The cool down group saw increased muscle sensitivity the first day but not the second day after exercise.

Rey (2012) studied professional soccer players with two groups: an active recovery group (cool down of 12 minutes easy jogging followed by 8 minutes static stretching) and a passive recovery group (twenty minutes seated on a bench). Before training, athletes were tested on jumping, sprinting, agility, and lower limb flexibility. Authors also tracked heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion, neither of which differed regardless of recovery strategy. As for performance measures, sprinting, agility, and flexibility had no difference between groups but there was a significant improvement in Countermovement Jump in the cool down group.

In a companion study involving 31 professional soccer players in the same protocol as above, authors found no difference in muscle soreness or muscle contractility between the active (cool down) and passive recovery (non-cool down) groups. (Rey 2012)

A related issue is incorporating cool downs within a meet, as swimmers frequently race multiple events at each meet. We discussed this issue previously in Swimming Warmup Timing

“Toubekis (2008) studied swimmers in two 100-m time trials separated by fifteen minutes. After experimenting with several active and passive recovery variations, results showed that five minutes active recovery during this fifteen minute period was the superior strategy compared to ten minutes active recovery and any duration of passive recovery.

Similarly, Felix (1997) studied ten female D-III swimmers in two 200m time trials separated by fourteen minutes with three different recovery conditions: active swimming, rowing, and passive recovery. Active recovery lasted ten minutes separated by two minute blocks from the first and second time trial. Both active recovery conditions yielded better performance in the second time trial as compared to passive recovery.”

Based on these studies, an active recovery between events (which was essentially a cooldown from the first race), resulted in improved performance versus the passive recovery. These results would support the common practice of cooling down after each race within a meet and would support the traditional routine of cooling down after each practice.

CONCLUSION

Though the tangible benefits of cool downs are still open to challenge, there has been no research to suggest cool downs are harmful. However, based on this research, making athletes do a formal cool down after dryland appears less important, but again, there’s nothing to suggest it is harmful. Further, modern practice has evolved more enlightened cool down methods than those used in the studies (submaximal running or cycling followed by static stretching were among the cool downs used). Swimming studies did show improved performance when cooling down between races, which would seem more relevant than non-athletes walking on a treadmill or performing lunges in the gym.

REFERENCES

Law RY, Herbert RD. Warm-up reduces delayed onset muscle soreness but cool-down does not: a randomised controlled trial. Aust J Physiother. 2007;53(2):91-5.
Olsen O, Sjøhaug M, van Beekvelt M, Mork PJ. The effect of warm-up and cool-down exercise on delayed onset muscle soreness in the quadriceps muscle: a randomized controlled trial. J Hum Kinet. 2012 Dec;35:59-68. doi: 10.2478/v10078-012-0079-4. Epub 2012 Dec 30.
Rey E, Lago-Peñas C, Casáis L, Lago-Ballesteros J. The effect of immediate post-training active and passive recovery interventions on anaerobic performance and lower limb flexibility in professional soccer players. J Hum Kinet. 2012 Mar;31:121-9. doi: 10.2478/v10078-012-0013-9. Epub 2012 Apr 3.
Rey E, Lago-Peñas C, Lago-Ballesteros J, Casáis L. The effect of recovery strategies on contractile properties using tensiomyography and perceived muscle soreness in professional soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2012 Nov;26(11):3081-8. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182470d33.
Toubekis, A. G., Douda, H. T., & Tokmakidis, S. P. (2005). Influence of different rest intervals during active or passive recovery on repeated sprint swimming performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 93, 694-700.
Felix, S. D., Manos, T. M., Jarvis, A. T., Jensen, B. E., & Headley, S.A. (1997). Swimming performance following different recovery protocols in female collegiate swimmers. Journal of Swimming Research, 12, 1-6.

By Allan Phillips. Allan and his wife Katherine are heavily involved in the strength and conditioning community, for more information refer to Pike Athletics.

Weekly Round-up

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Sat, 27 Apr 2013 14:55:00 +0000

Friday Interview: Dr. Mitch Lomax

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Fri, 26 Apr 2013 08:00:00 +0000

1. Please introduce yourself to the readers (how you started in the profession, education, credentials, expertise, etc) I’m a Sport and Exercise Scientist and a Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Physiology at the University of Portsmouth, UK. I gained both my PhD (2007) and MSc (with distinction, 2001) from Brunel University, UK, and my BSc (Hon) from Luton University (1998). I’m an accredited Sport and Exercise Scientist with the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES), and an advisor to both the Amateur Swimming Association of England and the English pistol Shooting squad.

Most of my childhood was either spent in or around water and when I stopped competing I began coaching. The unique environment of swimming and its effects on the body have always interested me. For example, swimmers must breathe in (and hence expand the chest) against the hydrostatic pressure of water, which is greater than that of air. This increase in pressure has a number of negative effects on the body and coupled with a horizontal position it increases the work of breathing. On top of this breathing must be coordinated with stroke cycle and therefore cannot occur truly ad libitum.

When I first started investigating the breathing muscle demands of swimming I was amazed that the occurrence and consequences of breathing muscle fatigue in swimming had been overlooked. The rest as they say is history.

2. You recently published a couple of articles related to swimming, could you briefly explain the practical results? Most of my work focuses on the occurrence and consequences of inspiratory muscle fatigue (otherwise known as IMF) in swimming. We have found that IMF occurs in all swimming strokes and that being very fit does not prevent it. Also, swimmers do not need to be swimming flat out for IMF to develop. For example, swimming above critical velocity (or critical swimming speed) during 200m front crawl will cause it. Typically this equates to a swimming speed at, or in excess of, 90% of 200m race time.

If the amount of IMF is large enough, blood flow to the working muscles is compromised causing a faster rate of fatigue. Our earlier work suggested that inspiratory muscle strength must fall in excess of 19% for this to happen. As the magnitude of IMF reported in trained swimmers can exceed 19%, an accelerated rate of limb muscle fatigue is a real possibility.

We have also shown that swimming front crawl with IMF (we induced it before swimming) increases stroke rate and breathing frequency, and reduces stroke length during evenly paced swimming over a distance of 200m. As these changes are the opposite of those sought by coaches and swimmers, they have implications for training sets designed to improve stroke characteristics. Interestingly, we have found similar changes during flat out arms only front crawl swimming too.

The take home message is that IMF occurs during swimming, even in very well trained swimmers. It can negatively affect stroke characteristics, and has the potential to speed up the occurrence limb muscle fatigue. The good news is that we can do something about it.

3. Are there any ways coaches can measure IMF without high tech equipment? Without purchasing specialist kit, which can be expensive, it is not possible to verify the presence of IMF - swimmers will not necessarily be aware that they have it. Nevertheless, it is typically associated with an increase in the unpleasant sensation of breathing as well as an increase in breathing frequency and stroke rate. A word of warning here though, stroke rate and breathing frequency naturally increase with swimming speed independently of IMF. So an increase in stroke rate and breathing frequency should not automatically be taken as proof of IMF, even if swimmers are finding breathing unpleasant. IMF should be confirmed by a more direct measure and I would say that investing in a mouth pressure metre of some sort is worthwhile.

4. Any conclusions from the study to suggest whether an optimal breathing pattern exists for the 200 freestyle? The question of an optimal breathing pattern is an interesting one. One study suggested that breathing less frequently causes more IMF than breathing more frequently (one breath taken every fourth stroke instead of every second stroke). However, our research has been unable to support a relationship between breathing frequency and IMF. We have found that if IMF is induced before swimming, breathing frequency can increase as a result. But when we compared the magnitude of IMF between the four different strokes over a distance of 200m, we found no relationship between the magnitude of IMF and ad libitum breathing frequency occurring once every first, second or third stroke.

It is important not to ignore the relationship between breathing frequency, stroke rate and stroke length here. All three can change in the presence of IMF and we have found relationships between IMF and stroke rate, and IMF and stroke length. If IMF is shortening stroke length and stroke rate is increasing to compensate, breathing frequency will also increase because breathing is coordinated with stroke cycle, especially during front crawl.

The best we can say at present is that the magnitude of IMF is not affected by breathing frequency when swimmers take a breath no less frequently than once every third stroke during a competitive 200m swim. Clearly, more work is needed to understand the interactions between IMF, breathing frequency, stroke rate and stroke length. Focusing just on breathing frequency is likely to be too simplistic.

5. Can we draw any conclusions for other events (200 strokes, and all events of other distances?)
IMF is not just restricted to front crawl. In a recent paper we reported that the magnitude of IMF is similar between backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly and front crawl (range of 18-22%) following 200m race-paced swimming. Similarly, IMF has been observed after swimming distances of 100m, 300m and 400m front crawl. This indicates that it is not the distance per se that determines whether or not the inspiratory muscles fatigue, but the demands being placed upon them. This is what we would expect to see.

6. Any evidence that IMF can be cumulative, not just from one event (i.e. event hard training in high volumes induce IMF?) Typically research has examined the occurrence and impact of IMF in response to a single swim rather than a training set, or when competing in multiple events over the course of a day or two. How long IMF persists will depend on the type of fatigue experienced. It can take hours, maybe even days, to recover from low frequency fatigue, but only minutes to recover from high frequency fatigue (both of which are types of peripheral fatigue).

If the demands being placed on the inspiratory muscles continue to reduce their functional capacity, it would be illogical if IMF didn't accumulate. Indeed, we know that the magnitude of IMF is linked to swimming speed and hence exercise intensity. However, a fatigue limit would at some point be reached. It is also possible that the inspiratory muscles might start to recover during a subsequent swim. How this scenario would affect overall swimming performance we don't yet know. It is conceivable that swimming speed would need to be reduced in this situation. Alternatively the magnitude of fatigue, in for example the arm muscles, might be greater yet speed maintained. At present we simply don't know enough about IMF in swimming.

7. What do you think is the best way to strengthen the inspiratory muscles?
It is clear that swim training alone is not sufficient to protect against IMF. Targeted training of these muscles is my advice i.e. inspiratory muscle training (IMT). There are various devices that can be purchased to train the breathing muscles, some are relatively inexpensive and others more so. These devices target either the inspiratory muscles or permit both the inspiratory and expiratory muscles to be trained (expiratory muscle fatigue is less frequently reported in the scientific literature but there is evidence that it too can negatively impact exercise).

There are also different types of respiratory muscle training e.g. pressure threshold training, flow resistive training and voluntary isocapnic hyperpnoea. Regardless of the type used, IMT is easy to incorporate into a training programme and can be undertaken by swimmers at home or could be integrated into a training session by a coach - typically the kit used is light and most devices are hand held. The type of IMT we administer (pressure threshold training) takes about 5 minutes to complete twice a day and consists of 30 breaths with a force equivalent to ~50% of maximum. We have seen that inspiratory muscle strength improves in as little as four to six weeks with such a programme, and so too does performance. However, the benefits appear to plateau after around six weeks and begin fade entirely after a few months if IMT is stopped. We are currently investigating how to incorporate IMT into a swimming training programme for long term benefits i.e. IMT periodization.

It is also relevant to note that a targeted inspiratory muscle warm-up can improve swim time. This can be done using the same IMT device immediately before a competitive event. Typically such a warm-up consists of 2, 30-breath sets at a load equivalent to ~40% of maximum. Importantly, whether undertaking IMT or an inspiratory muscle warm up, hyperventilation must be avoided as this can result in fainting. We always medically screen individuals before administering this training programme or warm-up, and I would suggest that anyone thinking of undertaking either checks with an appropriately qualified medical practitioner before doing so.

8. What are your thoughts on purging and controlled exhalation? As purging expels carbon dioxide and therefore prolongs the time before the urge to breathe sets in, it can be dangerous. This is more likely to be an issue for free divers though who may be several meters under water when the urge to breathe becomes over whelming.

Although purging can reduce breathing frequency and consequently the disruptive influence of breathing on stroke mechanics, swimmers do need to ensure that they are breathing frequently enough to meet the oxygen requirements of the working muscles. Performance of distances that rely heavily on the aerobic system to provide energy (I mean the re-synthesis of ATP here, which is the energy currency of cells) will be compromised if breathing frequency is too infrequent. So, there is a balance to be had.

With regards to controlled versus explosive breathing, I personally prefer controlled exhalation or trickle breathing. I find it more natural, less disruptive and less demanding.

9. What research or projects are you currently working on or should we look from you in the future?

We have a number of swimming projects going on at present as well as some non-swimming breathing muscle projects. In a study soon to be published (International Journal of Swimming Kinetics) we present our findings linking the development and magnitude of IMF to swimming speed. Other swimming projects include how to incorporate IMT into swimming training programmes for long term benefits, the activity patterns of those muscles which have a dual function in aiding breathing and propulsion, and the impact of different breathing frequencies on muscle activity.

Thanks Dr. Lomax

Swimming Science Podcast Episode 2: Daniel López-Plaza Palomo Discusses Hand Paddles

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Wed, 24 Apr 2013 08:00:00 +0000

Hand paddles are common on each pool deck. Unfortunately, the kinematics associated with paddles is not understood. Dani recently published The Influence of Different Hand Paddle Size on 100-m Front Crawl Kinematics and was kind enough to participate in the second episode of the Swimming Science Podcast.

For more information on hand paddles, check out The Science Behind Hand Paddles

Enjoy!

Beets and nitrates for Sporting Improvement?

noreply@blogger.com (G. John Mullen) — Tue, 23 Apr 2013 08:30:00 +0000

I knew he was doping, but beeting too...

As the use of nitrate drinks increases, most notably with beetroot juice, a quick review and recommendation seems imperative. First, it is necessary to state, it seems no negative health benefits result from the consumption of nitrate drinks. However, it seems nitrate drinks only appear beneficial for untrained athletes. First, let us consider the potential benefits of nitrates.

Lactate Reduction
Some hypothesize lactate reduction would occur with nitrate consumption. However, Nezmar (2011) notes no reduction in lactate, but a reduction in [K+] in untrained individuals.

NO Alterations
Now this doesn't mean no alterations, but nitric oxide alterations. Totzeck et al., noted baseline NO2(-) correlates with lactate threshold and predicts exercise capacity during an incremental cycle test in highly trained athletes, Wiley and his colleagues argue that it is more than likely that the ability to produce more NO quasi 'on demand' is the underlying cause of the performance increases (Dreissigacker. 2010; Totzeck. 2012). However, these baseline levels are higher in trained vs. untrained athletes, suggesting the NO are more likely in untrained populations (Dreissigacker 2010).

VO2 Max
Lansley (2011) provided 0.5 L of 6.2 mmol nitrate two and a half hours prior to maximal cycling output. This study noted no alteration in VO2max in untrained cyclists.

Conversely, another study notes a lower O2 cost at a sub-maximal task. This suggests improved mitochondrial efficiency (Jones 2013). Once again, this was performed in an untrained population.

Lastly, Peacock (2012) noted no alterations in oxygen uptake after consuming a potassium-nitrate drink in elite cross-country skiers.

Prevents Creatine Phosphate Depletion
In swimming, specifically short course, the creatine phosphate system or alactic system is

commonly used. The physiology of nitrates for preventing creatine phosphate depletion is still being studied, but this hypothesis suggests NO increases skeletal muscle glucose uptake, the correspondingly lower blood glucose levels the researchers observed in the active arm. This indicates readily available glucose will spare the PCr stores.

Prevent Potassium Leakage
Lactic Acid and Muscular Fatigue by Dr. Ernest Maglischo is a great read about the myths and facts of lactate and fatigue in swimming. One area not discussed by Dr. Maglischo is the possibility of electrical imbalances contributing to fatigue. As postponed fatigue may result if the the distribution of K and Na ions inside and respectively outside of the muscle cell are maintained.
Maximal Power

Not sure this has the best nitrate ratio...

In this same study, an improvement in maximal power occurred (Lansley 2011). In another study providing 2x250 mL/day of beetroot juice, Kelly (2013) did not note an improvement in maximal power in recreationally trained cyclist.

Performance
The same Kelly study notes an improvement in performance (Kelly 2013), unfortunately no alterations in power or watts were noted.

Conclusion
It is clear, more research is needed on elite and trained athletes. Moreover, the reason for potential improvement is still muddy even in un- or moderately trained athletes. Personally, for trained populations, I don't see nitrates or beets providing any ergogenic benefit. However, if you wish to try beetroot juice, simply try consuming beetroot juice 3 hours before a workout/performance, there is no harm in that!

References:

Nemzer B, Pietrzkowski C, Spórna A, Stalica P, Thresher W, Michałowski T, Wybraniee, S. Betalainic and nutritional profiles of pigment-enriched red beet root (Beta vulgaris L.) dried extracts. Food Chemistry. 2011; 127:42–53.
Wylie LJ, Mohr M, Krustrup P, Jackman SR, Ermιdis G, Kelly J, Black MI, Bailey SJ, Vanhatalo A, Jones AM. Dietary nitrate supplementation improves team sport-specific intense intermittent exercise performance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013 Feb 1.
Kelly J, Vanhatalo A, Wilkerson DP, Wylie LJ, Jones AM.Effects of Nitrate on the Power-Duration Relationship for Severe-Intensity Exercise.Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013 Mar 7. [Epub ahead of print]
Jones AM, Bailey SJ, Vanhatalo A. Dietary nitrate and O₂ consumption during exercise. Med Sport Sci. 2012;59:29-35. doi: 10.1159/000342062. Epub 2012 Oct 15.
Peacock O, Tjønna AE, James P, Wisløff U, Welde B, Böhlke N, Smith A, Stokes K, Cook C, Sandbakk O.Dietary nitrate does not enhance running performance in elite cross-country skiers.Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012 Nov;44(11):2213-9. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182640f48.
Dreissigacker U, Wendt M, Wittke T, Tsikas D, Maassen N. Positive correlation between plasma nitrite and performance during high-intensive exercise but not oxidative stress in healthy men. Nitric Oxide; 2010; 23:128–135
Totzeck M, Hendgen-Cotta UB, Rammos C, Frommke LM, Knack-stedt C, Predel HG, Kelm M, Rassaf T. Higher endog-enous nitrite levels are associated with superior exercise capacity in highly trained athletes. Nitric Oxide. 2012; 27:75–81

The Science of Fins

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Mon, 22 Apr 2013 08:00:00 +0000

Walk on any pool deck, and you’re sure to find plenty of fins. Unfortunately, formal study on fins for competitive swimming is limited, which is perhaps one reason you don’t find many fin related posts on this site. You can find ample literature on fin usage by divers and competitive fin swimmers, but the effectiveness of fins in pool swimming is largely based on observation and anecdote.

Though formal research on the transfer of fin use into competitive swimming is limited, one fairly relevant study was Zamparo (2006) studying ten male college swimmers. (see also, Swim Sci Interview with Dr. Paola Zamparo) Athletes were studied kicking with a monofin, small flexible fin, large stiff fin, and barefoot kicking. Barefoot kicking required the highest energy expenditure, and energy expenditure decreased significantly in relation to kick frequency. A large stiff fin, small flexible fin, and monofin all resulted in greater distance per kick, lower kick frequency, and lower energy expenditure.

Authors noted, “No single fin characteristic can predict a swimmer's performance, rather the better fin (i.e. monofin) is the one that is able to reduce most [kick frequency] at any given speed and hence to produce the greatest distance per kick.”

Zamparo (2002) noted general findings on how fins effect swimming:

At comparable speeds, the energy cost (C) when swimming with ﬁns was about 40 % lower than when swimming without them
when compared at the same metabolic power, the decrease in C allowed an increase in velocity of about 0.2 m s–1.
Fins only slightly decrease the amplitude of the kick (by about 10 %) but cause a large reduction (about 40 %) in the kick frequency.
No difference in the power to overcome frictional forces was observed between the two conditions at comparable speeds.
Mechanical efficiency was found to be about 10 % larger when swimming with ﬁns

The caveat with this study is that fins are not standardized, as many different commercial models are available. Nonetheless, this information is useful to quantify the exact changes that occur with fin use.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Fin use presently remains more an art form than a known science. That alone doesn’t invalidate its inclusion as a training aid, but compared to other common swim practices relies more on anecdote than formal evidence. Ultimately, the reliability of fins depends on individual factors and its intended uses.

For beginners, fins may allow them to complete a higher volume of quality swimming than they otherwise could complete, as unassisted swimming may simply teach them to “struggle more effectively” rather than ingrain sound habits. However, for elites, some theorize that fins may disturb an elite swimmer’s highly refined race-specific motor patterns. A gray area exists for everyone in between, but can possibly be reconciled with other rationale.

Perhaps the least controversial is using fins to aid swimmers returning from injury, though in my personal opinion, fins are sometimes misused in return-to-swim protocols if they encourage swimmers to continue swimming with injury-inducing biomechanics, rather than making necessary stroke changes for shoulder health.

Using fins surely improves distance per kick while using the fins, but whether this transfers to finless swimming is unclear. (for discussions on Distance per kick see, Groin Kick Syndrome and Double Leg Dolphin Kick Basics) However, overuse may also lead to poor habits such as excessively increasing kick amplitude and reducing kick frequency to produce long, slow and lazy kicking.

The theorized effect on ankle mobility is plausible yet unproven, but ankle mobility has been established as an important factor for kicking (McCollough 2009). One interesting topic for future study would be the effect of fins on ankle mobility. We know that many swimmers use fins at a young age later demonstrate flexible ankles, but do we know if the fins aided that quality or if the swimmer developed flexible ankles through genetics, dryland mobility work, or by simply swimming a lot.

REFERENCES

McCullough AS, Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Solomon-Hill GF Jr, Hatfield DL, Vingren JL, Ho JY, Fragala MS, Thomas GA, Häkkinen K, Maresh CM. Factors affecting flutter kicking speed in women who are competitive and recreational swimmers. J Strength Cond Res. 2009 Oct;23(7):2130-6. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31819ab977.
Zamparo P, Pendergast DR, Termin A, Minetti AE. Economy and efficiency of swimming at the surface with fins of different size and stiffness. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006 Mar;96(4):459-70. Epub 2005 Dec 10.
Zamparo P, Pendergast DR, Termin B, Minetti AE. How fins affect the economy and efficiency of human swimming. J Exp Biol. 2002 Sep;205(Pt 17):2665-76.

By Allan Phillips. Allan and his wife Katherine are heavily involved in the strength and conditioning community, for more information refer to Pike Athletics.