The kldconfig utility displays or modifies the search path used by the
kernel when loading modules using the kldload utility or the
kldload syscall. You can also use sysctl command (the sysctl utility retrieves kernel state). Try any one of the following command as a root user:

1) To get PATH (or directories name) type command:

# sysctl kern.module_path

OR

# kldconfig -r

2) The path can modified in /boot/loader.conf file, open this file and look for entry called module_path:

# grep “modile_path” /boot/loader.conf

module_path=”/boot/kernel;/boot/modules;/modules;/new/path”

Note you must open /boot/loader.conf file to change path settings using text editor:

# vi /boot/loader.conf

And make changes to file.

3) Reboot system to take effect.

4) Or on fly, you can add/append path using kldconfig utility, read man page for more info.

Nginx (pronounced “engine x”) is a free, open-source, high-performance HTTP server. Nginx is known for its stability, rich feature set, simple configuration, and low resource consumption. This tutorial shows how you can install Nginx on a Debian Squeeze server with PHP5 support (through FastCGI) and MySQL support.

I do not issue any guarantee that this will work for you!

1 Preliminary Note

In this tutorial I use the hostname server1.example.com with the IP address 192.168.0.100. These settings might differ for you, so you have to replace them where appropriate.

2 Installing MySQL 5

In order to install MySQL, we run

apt-get install mysql-server mysql-client

You will be asked to provide a password for the MySQL root user – this password is valid for the user root@localhost as well as root@server1.example.com, so we don’t have to specify a MySQL root password manually later on:

New password for the MySQL “root” user: <– yourrootsqlpassword
Repeat password for the MySQL “root” user: <– yourrootsqlpassword

3 Installing Nginx

Nginx is available as a package for Debian Squeeze which we can install as follows:

apt-get install nginx

Start nginx afterwards:

/etc/init.d/nginx start

The default nginx document root is /var/www which does not exist yet; therefore we must create it as follows:

mkdir /var/www
chown www-data:www-data /var/www

Type in your web server’s IP address or hostname into a browser (e.g. http://192.168.0.100), and you should see the following page:

You get a 403 forbidden error because there’s no index page in /var/www.

4 Installing PHP5

We can make PHP5 work in nginx through FastCGI. Fortunately, Debian Squeeze provides a FastCGI-enabled PHP5 package which we install like this (together with some PHP5 modules like php5-mysql which you need if you want to use MySQL from your PHP scripts):

apt-get install php5-cgi php5-mysql php5-curl php5-gd php5-idn php-pear php5-imagick php5-imap php5-mcrypt php5-memcache php5-ming php5-pspell php5-recode php5-snmp php5-sqlite php5-tidy php5-xmlrpc php5-xsl

Then open /etc/php5/cgi/php.ini and uncomment the line cgi.fix_pathinfo=1:

vi /etc/php5/cgi/php.ini

[...]
; cgi.fix_pathinfo provides *real* PATH_INFO/PATH_TRANSLATED support for CGI.  PHP's
; previous behaviour was to set PATH_TRANSLATED to SCRIPT_FILENAME, and to not grok
; what PATH_INFO is.  For more information on PATH_INFO, see the cgi specs.  Setting
; this to 1 will cause PHP CGI to fix its paths to conform to the spec.  A setting
; of zero causes PHP to behave as before.  Default is 1.  You should fix your scripts
; to use SCRIPT_FILENAME rather than PATH_TRANSLATED.
; http://php.net/cgi.fix-pathinfo
cgi.fix_pathinfo=1
[...]

There’s no standalone FastCGI daemon package for Debian Squeeze, therefore we use the spawn-fcgi program from lighttpd. We install lighttpd as follows:

apt-get install lighttpd

You will see an error message saying that lighttpd can’t start because port 80 is already in use:

Starting web server: lighttpd2011-02-24 01:43:18: (network.c.358) can’t bind to port:  80 Address already in use
failed!
invoke-rc.d: initscript lighttpd, action ”start” failed.

That’s how it’s supposed to be because nginx is already listening on port 80. Run

update-rc.d -f lighttpd remove

so that lighttpd will not start at boot time.

We’ve installed lighttpd because we need just one program that comes with the package, /usr/bin/spawn-fcgi, which we can use to start FastCGI processes. Take a look at

spawn-fcgi –help

to learn more about it.

To start a PHP FastCGI daemon listening on port 9000 on localhost and running as the user and group www-data, we run the following command:

/usr/bin/spawn-fcgi -a 127.0.0.1 -p 9000 -u www-data -g www-data -f /usr/bin/php5-cgi -P /var/run/fastcgi-php.pid

Of course, you don’t want to type in that command manually whenever you boot the system, so to have the system execute the command automatically at boot time, open /etc/rc.local…

vi /etc/rc.local

… and add the command at the end of the file (before the exit line):

[...]
/usr/bin/spawn-fcgi -a 127.0.0.1 -p 9000 -u www-data -g www-data -f /usr/bin/php5-cgi -P /var/run/fastcgi-php.pid
[...]

5 Configuring nginx

The nginx configuration is in /etc/nginx/nginx.conf which we open now:

vi /etc/nginx/nginx.conf

The configuration is easy to understand (you can learn more about it here: http://wiki.codemongers.com/NginxFullExample and here: http://wiki.codemongers.com/NginxFullExample2)

First (this is optional) increase the number of worker processes and set the keepalive_timeout to a reasonable value:

[...]
worker_processes  5;
[...]
    keepalive_timeout   2;
[...]

The virtual hosts are defined in server {} containers. The default vhost is defined in the file /etc/nginx/sites-available/default – let’s modify it as follows:

vi /etc/nginx/sites-available/default

[...]
server {

        listen   80; ## listen for ipv4
        listen   [::]:80 default ipv6only=on; ## listen for ipv6

        server_name  _;

        access_log  /var/log/nginx/localhost.access.log;

        location / {
                root   /var/www;
                index  index.php index.html index.htm;
        }

        location /doc {
                root   /usr/share;
                autoindex on;
                allow 127.0.0.1;
                deny all;
        }

        location /images {
                root   /usr/share;
                autoindex on;
        }

        #error_page  404  /404.html;

        # redirect server error pages to the static page /50x.html
        #
        #error_page   500 502 503 504  /50x.html;
        #location = /50x.html {
        #       root   /var/www/nginx-default;
        #}

        # proxy the PHP scripts to Apache listening on 127.0.0.1:80
        #
        #location ~ \.php$ {
                #proxy_pass   http://127.0.0.1;
        #}

        # pass the PHP scripts to FastCGI server listening on 127.0.0.1:9000
        #
        location ~ \.php$ {
                fastcgi_pass   127.0.0.1:9000;
                fastcgi_index  index.php;
                fastcgi_param  SCRIPT_FILENAME  /var/www$fastcgi_script_name;
                include         fastcgi_params;
        }

        # deny access to .htaccess files, if Apache's document root
        # concurs with nginx's one
        #
        location ~ /\.ht {
                deny  all;
        }
}
[...]

server_name _; makes this a default catchall vhost (of course, you can as well specify a hostname here like www.example.com).

In the location / part, I’ve added index.php to the index line. root /var/www; means that the document root is the directory /var/www.

The important part for PHP is the location ~ \.php$ {} stanza. Uncomment it to enable it. Please make sure that you change the fastcgi_param line to fastcgi_param SCRIPT_FILENAME /var/www$fastcgi_script_name; (replace /var/www with your vhost’s document root) because otherwise the PHP interpreter won’t find the PHP script that you call in your browser.

Make sure that there are some spaces between include and fastcgi_params; – in the default file this is written as one word which is a bug.

Now save the file and restart nginx:

/etc/init.d/nginx restart

Now create the following PHP file in the document root /var/www:

vi /var/www/info.php

<?php
phpinfo();
?>

Now we call that file in a browser (e.g. http://192.168.0.100/info.php):

As you see, PHP5 is working, and it’s working through FastCGI, as shown in the Server API line. If you scroll further down, you will see all modules that are already enabled in PHP5, including the MySQL module:

6 Links

• nginx: http://nginx.net/
• nginx Wiki: http://wiki.codemongers.com/Main
• PHP: http://www.php.net/
• MySQL: http://www.mysql.com/
• Debian: http://www.debian.org/

If you get the error:
Windows could not start because the following files is missing or corrupt
\WINDOWS\SYSTEM32\CONFIG\SYSTEM or \WINDOWS\SYSTEM32\CONFIG\SOFTWARE

1. Insert and boot from your WindowsXP CD.
2. At the first R=Repair option, press the R key
3. Press the number that corresponds to the correct location for the installation of Windows you want to repair.
   Typically this will be #1
4. Enter in the administrator password when requested
5. cd \windows\system32\config
6. Depending on which section was corrupted:
   ren software software.bad or ren system system.bad
7. Depending on which section was corrupted
   copy \windows\repair\system
   copy \windows\repair\software
8. Take out the CD ROM and type exit

This parameter defines how many simultaneous request can be served. Any connection request from browsers that come in after that will be queued.

Apache prefork, StartServers, MaxSpareServers and MinSpareServers

In the most common case, you will be using Apache in the prefork mode, meaning one process per connection, with a pool of processes pre-forked to standby for connections. The number of spare processes is defined by the values MaxSpareServers, MinSpareServers, while the number to start is defined by StartServers.

Maxclients default

By default, the MaxClients parameter has a compiled in hard limit of 256. This can be changed by recompiling Apache however. Some distributions, or hosting companies raise this limit to a very high value, such as 512 or even 1024 in order to cope with large loads.

While this makes sense when the web server is serving static content (plain HTML, images, …etc.), it can be detrimental to a dynamic web application like Drupal. So often, we have clients calling because their web server has grind to a halt, and the reason would be a too high MaxClients value.

A web site’s nemesis: Excessive Thrashing

The reason is that if your web site experiences a traffic spike, or if there is a bottleneck in the database, incoming requests cause new processes to be forked at a rate higher than old processes can service the older connections. This causes a condition where the system keeps creating new processes that overflow the available memory and starts to use the swap space. This almost always causes thrashing, where the system is just swapping pages from physical memory to virtual memory (on disk), and vice versa, without doing any real work. You can detect if thrashing has occurred by using the vmstat command.

A simple calculation for MaxClients on a system that does only Drupal would be:

(Total Memory – Operating System Memory – MySQL memory) / Size Per Apache process.

If your hosting company configured your server with all sorts of bells and whistles (like mod_perl, mod_python, in addition to mod_php), then Apache can easily be 21 MB per process. If your server has 512MB, then you can fit some 20 Apache processes. If you tune Apache well, and remove all the unneeded modules, and install a PHP op-code cache/accelerator, then you can make each Apache process take as little as 12 MB. These figures depend on how many modules you have loaded, how big they are, so there is no hard and fast rule. Even if one has 1GB of memory, and leaves 250 MB for the system and MySQL, with an Apache process of 15MB, this means 50 Apache processes can fit in the remaining 750MB.

Remember that you need memory for the operating system, as well as for MySQL. The more you give the system and MySQL memory, the more caching of the file system they do for you and avoid hitting disk, so do not use the very last available memory for MaxClients.

Tuning the ServerLimit

On some systems, there is another parameter that  sets an upper limit if MySQL. So for example, if ServerLimit is set by default to 256, and you want to increase MaxClients to 300, you will not be able to do so, until you set ServerLimit to 300 as well. Normally, you would see a warning message from Apache when you restart it to tell you that this needs to be done.

Conclusion

If you cannot do a proper calculation, then it is safest to start with a conservative number, e.g. 60 to 150 on a 2GB system, and then increase it as you monitor the usage of the system over a few weeks. By all means, do not keep it at the 512 value that came with your server/distribution until you know how much load you can handle.

In case you remove a lot of data from the tables OR change the database structure, a de-fragmentation/optimizing of the database is necessary to avoid performance loss, especially while running queries. The above changes results in a performance loss, so make sure you run the “optimizer” on the database.

SSH to your server and execute:

mysqlcheck -o <databasename>

where, -o stands for optimize which is similar to defragmentation. You should look to defragment the tables regularly when using VARCHAR fields since these coloumns get fragmented too often.

Add panic=10 to the kernel command line to reboot with 10 seconds of a kernel error. Be careful with this when setting up new kernels.

It’s possible to change it later with sysctl, or by writing to /proc:

To make it permanent, edit /etc/sysctl.conf and add the below line:

`sysctl -p` to load the conf file and make permanent.

Incoming search terms:

• centos reboot server (1)

One of the things I like about Linux is the command line. I have used nautilus, gnome-commander, konqueror, kommander, dolphin and thunar to manage files in Linux and these file managers are great for what they do. But there are times when one simply wants to find a file when working on the command line without having to open a GUI application.

From the find man page:

GNU find searches the directory tree rooted at each given file name by evaluating the given expression from left to right, according to the rules of precedence until the outcome is known at which point find moves on to the next file name.

Find empty directories:

find /path -depth -type d -empty

Find empty files:

find /path -depth -type f -empty

Find a file with a specific name:

find /path -name name_of_file

Find a files with specific extensions:

find /path -name “*.given_extension”

Find files with specific permissions which have a “.txt. file extension:

find /path -name ‘*.txt’ -perm 644

Find files with some given permissions:

find /path -perm -permision_bits

Find files with a given name and any extension:

find /path -name ‘given_name.*’

Find files modified in the latest blocks of 24 hours:

find /path -mtime n

Where n is:

• 0 for the last 24 hours
• 1 for the last 48 hours
• 2 for the last 72 hours

Find files that were accessed in the latest blocks of 24 hours:

find -atime n

Where n is:

• 0 for the last 24 hours
• 1 for the last 48 hours
• 2 for the last 72 hours

Find files according to owner:

find /path -user root

One can also pipe find commands to the xargs command to execute commands on files.

Find and delete files:

find /path -name mytestfile | xargs rm

See man find and man xargs for more information about these powerful commands.

Many new Linux users are intimidated by the command line and this feeling should be overcome from the onset because the command line can be faster and more powerful than most GUI applications.

Instructions for installing a very clean Debian GNU/Linux system that boots from RAID 1, and has RAID 1 or RAID 5 root and data filesystems.

The examples assume two identical harddrives, sda and sdb, on which after a small boot partition, 1 GB is used for swap, 25 GB is used for the root filesystem and everything else is for a big “data” partition that will hold non-system stuff.

Although I personally prefer /boot to be readonly, this guide doesn’t add the ro flag in /etc/fstab, because that’ll only lead to complaints about lilo upgrades not going smoothly. (Which is exactly the point of having it readonly in the first place…)

They also assume some specific tools that you may or may not like, and a kernel without module support. This is how I prefer to do things for servers. Please don’t try to persuade me to use kernel packages, grub, modules, or whatever.

General knowledge is required. Don’t begin unless you understand each step.

Raidthingy

The 42nd time you do all this, it gets rather boring. So I decided to automate steps 4..19, excluding 15 (kernel), using a simple Perl script.

This script assumes you have equal and empty (unpartitioned) drives, and provides very little flexibility.

wget http://juerd.nl/files/raidthingy.pl
vim raidthingy.pl # Learn what it does.
perl raidthingy.pl # Follow instructions

The guide

1. Get a bootable cd with debootstrap and RAID support, like KNOPPIX, and boot from it.

2. Find a root shell.

If your drives are hdx instead of sdx, ensure that DMA is enabled for both drives:

hdparm -d1 /dev/hda
hdparm -d1 /dev/hdc

The rest of this guide assumes sda and sdb, because S-ATA devices are presented as SCSI devices in recent kernels.

3. Get networking up and running, if you don’t have DHCP:

ifconfig eth0 123.123.123.123 up
route add default gw 123.123.123.1
echo nameserver 123.123.123.1 > /etc/resolv.conf

4. Partition the drives, paying no attention to partition types yet:

fdisk /dev/sda
# n <CR> p <CR> 1 <CR> <CR> +64M <CR>
# n <CR> p <CR> 2 <CR> <CR> +1G <CR>
# n <CR> e <CR> 3 <CR> <CR> <CR>
# n <CR> l <CR> <CR> +25G <CR>
# n <CR> l <CR> <CR> <CR>
# a <CR> 1 <CR> w <CR>
fdisk /dev/sdb
# n <CR> p <CR> 1 <CR> <CR> +64M <CR>
# n <CR> p <CR> 2 <CR> <CR> +1G <CR>
# n <CR> e <CR> 3 <CR> <CR> <CR>
# n <CR> l <CR> <CR> +25G <CR>
# n <CR> l <CR> <CR> <CR>
# a <CR> 1 <CR> w <CR>

5. For every partition, create a RAID 1 array:

mdadm –create /dev/md0 -n 2 -l 1 /dev/sda1 /dev/sdb1
mdadm –create /dev/md1 -n 2 -l 1 /dev/sda2 /dev/sdb2
mdadm –create /dev/md2 -n 2 -l 1 /dev/sda5 /dev/sdb5
mdadm –create /dev/md3 -n 2 -l 1 /dev/sda6 /dev/sdb6

If you plan on installing sdb later, use missing instead of the second device.

For RAID 5, use -l 5 instead of -l 1, and just specify more disks. Make sure the boot volume is RAID 1, not 5 (/dev/md0 here, and yes, you can have RAID 1 with more than 2 disks). Also, increase the number of disks (-n) accordingly.

6. Create filesystems and initialize swap space:

mkfs.ext3 /dev/md0
mkswap /dev/md1
mkfs.ext3 /dev/md2
mkfs.ext3 /dev/md3 -O dir_index

7. Create a target mountpoint and mount your new filesystem(s) there:

mkdir /target
mount /dev/md2 /target

mkdir /target/boot
mount /dev/md0 /target/boot

mkdir /target/data
mount /dev/md3 /target/data

mkdir /target/data/home
mkdir /target/home
mount –bind /target/data/home /target/home

mkdir /target/data/var
mkdir /target/var
mount –bind /target/data/var /target/var

mkdir /data/share # for samba shares
mkdir /data/www # for mod_vhost_alias sites

8. Install a basic Debian system using debootstrap:

debootstrap sarge /target http://ftp.nl.debian.org/debian

9. Delete symlinks to the outside world in the target’s etc:

cd /target/etc
rm hostname resolv.conf localtime

10. Get some real things there:

cp /etc/resolv.conf .
ln -s /usr/share/zoneinfo/Europe/Amsterdam localtime
echo newboxthingy > hostname
vim default/rcS # FSCKFIX=yes

11. Set up the file system table:

# This is /etc/fstab
/dev/md0 /boot ext3 defaults 0 1
/dev/md1 none swap swap
/dev/md2 / ext3 defaults,errors=remount-ro 0 1
/dev/md3 /data ext3 defaults,errors=remount-ro 0 1
/data/home /home bind bind
/data/var /var bind bind
proc /proc proc

12. Get a working sources.list:

cd apt
rm sources.list
wget http://juerd.nl/sources.list

13. Change the current root directory to enter the new system:

chroot /target

14. Get the system up to date and install some useful packages:

apt-get update
apt-get dist-upgrade
apt-get install less wget w3m vim libncurses5-dev make gcc
mbr bzip2 lilo mdadm ssh

When asked to start RAID arrays automatically, answer “No”, as this is not needed with RAID built into the kernel and autodetected arrays.

15. Download a kernel, configure it, compile it, copy it:

cd /usr/src
wget http://ftp.nl.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.6/linux-2.6.12.tar.bz2
tar -jvxf linux-2.6.12.tar.bz2
ln -s linux-2.6.12 linux

# grsecurity (optional)
wget http://www.grsecurity.net/grsecurity-2.1.6-2.6.11.12-200506141713.patch.gz
cd linux
zcat ../grsecurity-2.1.6-2.6.11.12-200506141713.patch.gz | patch -p1

cd /usr/src/linux
make menuconfig
# Don’t forget to compile in RAID 1/5 and ext3 support.
make bzImage
cp arch/i386/boot/bzImage /boot/vmlinuz-2.6.11.9
cp System.map /boot/System.map-2.6.11.9

16. Configure LILO:

# This is /etc/lilo.conf
boot=/dev/md0
root=/dev/md2
compact
lba32
read-only
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.6.11.9
label=Linux

17. Install the boot records:

lilo
install-mbr /dev/sda
install-mbr /dev/sdb

18. Configure networking:

# This is /etc/network/interfaces
auto lo
iface lo inet loopback

auto eth0
iface eth0 inet static
address 123.123.123.123
netmask 255.255.255.0
gateway 123.123.123.1
network 123.123.123.0
broadcast 123.123.123.255
# Alternatively:
# iface eth0 inet dhcp

19. Secure things a little:

shadowconfig on
passwd
adduser foo

20. Exit the chrooted environment:

exit

21. Wait until synchronization is complete:

watch cat /proc/mdstat

22. Set the partition types to 0xFD:

fdisk /dev/sda
# t <CR> 1 <CR> fd <CR>
# t <CR> 2 <CR> fd <CR>
# t <CR> 5 <CR> fd <CR>
# t <CR> 6 <CR> fd <CR> w <CR>
fdisk /dev/sdb
# t <CR> 1 <CR> fd <CR>
# t <CR> 2 <CR> fd <CR>
# t <CR> 5 <CR> fd <CR>
# t <CR> 6 <CR> fd <CR> w <CR>

23. Reboot and bring your favourite god(s) sacrifices:

reboot

24. Consider donating:

• Software in the Public Interest, Inc. (Debian)
• Free Software Foundation (GNU)
• Apache Software Foundation
• Perl Development Fund

You may receive the following error message while accessing Webmail on a Plesk server:

A fatal error has occurred
DB Error: connect failed

You need to make sure the ‘horde’ user is able to connect to the ‘horde’ database using the password mentioned in the file “/etc/psa/.webmail.shadow”. You have to create the file and specify a random password if the file is missing.

To set the password for user ‘horde’ , go to the mysql prompt.

#mysql -uadmin -p`cat /etc/psa/.psa.shadow` mysql

On the mysql prompt, execute:

mysql> update user set password=password(password-from-.webmail.shadow) where user=’horde’;

Also make sure sql.safe_mode is set to off in /etc/php.ini file:

sql.safe_mode=Off

Restart Apache server once you save the file.

If the problem persists, use the password from “/etc/psa/webmail/horde/.horde.shadow” file. Go through the following steps:

#cp /etc/psa/webmail/horde/.horde.shadow /etc/psa/.webmail.shadow

#mysql -uadmin -p`cat /etc/psa/.psa.shadow` mysql

mysql> update user set password=password(password-from-/etc/psa/webmail/horde/.horde.shadow) where user=’horde’;

You should now be able to access Webmail client.

LogView Install Instructions

• Login to your server as a root user
• wget http://www.logview.org/logview-install
• chmod +x logview-install
• ./logview-install
• Wait for install complete message
• rm -f logview-install

LogView is now installed on your server!

• Login to WHM
• Go to Add-Ons >> LogView – File System Log Viewer
• Start using LogView