Southern Africa

There are few greater places to start our trip than Southern Africa. This diverse portion of the continent features not only an opportunity to see the big 5 but is home to one of the world’s largest salt flats, the 5th largest non-polar desert and several interesting monkey species.

Left: Zebras in Makgadikgadi Pans National Park in Botswana / Shutterstock & Right: Lion cubs in Kruger National Park / Shutterstock

Vervet | Chlorocebus pygerythrus

Vervets are found mostly on the savanna where they navigate carefully to avoid leopards, birds of prey and even their fellow primates, yellow baboons. These monkeys are semi-terrestrial but at no more than 18 lbs (8.2 kg) trees play an important role in the life of the vervet, especially at night. Their most interesting physical characteristic is the bright blue scrotum of males, which is thought to be part of their sexual display with larger more vibrant scrota leading to a higher success rate. This is not an uncommon characteristic for old world monkeys with several other species also displaying colourful genitalia. Once mating has occurred, infants are born after 160 days or roughly 5 months and will grow up in a multi-male multi-female group numbering between 10 to 40 members. Males then leave their natal group upon maturity whereas females stay in theirs for life and will often inherit their place in the dominance hierarchy from their mother. Due to recent reclassification, the name vervet can either refer to the single species we’re currently discussing or to all of the members of its genus, which contains 6 very similar monkeys with a much wider combined distribution.

Left: Young vervet monkey / Shutterstock & Right: Group of vervet monkeys / Shutterstock

Surprisingly, aside from Chacma baboons and vervets, there are relatively few monkey species found in Southern Africa. One species whose range does overlap with that of the vervet, however, is the blue monkey, which is much more common in our next destination found to the north.

Left: Vervet range & Right: Blue monkey range

East Africa

East Africa is perhaps best known for the great migration, which takes place every year as millions of wildebeest and zebra trek in a loop between Kenya’s Massai Mara in the north and Tanzania’s Serengeti in the south in search of lush green grass. Although the savanna is the most well-known biome here, East Africa is also home to swaths of tropical forest and woodland, which are the perfect habitat for its spectacular arboreal monkey species.

Left: Mount Kilimanjaro in morning light, Amboseli, Kenya / Shutterstock & Right: Wildebeest leaping into river during migration / Shutterstock

Blue Monkey | Cercopithecus mitis

To say the classification of the blue monkey is complicated would be an understatement. It is currently defined as one species with between 10-17 subspecies some of which are or have been referred to as Sykes monkeys, the Samango monkey, and other names but for the purpose of this video we’ll discuss them all as a single species, the blue monkey. It is these subspecies, however, that make this primate so interesting with noticeable differences in pelage; some individuals have a thick white collar line around their necks, which is present to a varying degree in others or not present at all. The brow band also varies from a distinct white line in some individuals to a more subtle colouration in others and the colour of the back ranges from a light grey to a reddish-brown that extends onto the top of the tail. These monkeys are referred to as arboreal guenons, a distinction we’ll explore later on in Central Africa, and are found high in the forest canopy where they feast on fruit, other vegetation and small mammals such as rodents and their fellow primates, galagos.

Left: Blue monkey in Jozani Forest in Zanzibar, Tanzania / Shutterstock & Right: Blue monkey in the Rwenzori mountains / Shutterstock

The range of the blue monkey extends onto an idyllic island found just 30 km (19 mi) off the Tanzanian coastline where we bump into a species indigenous to the island of Unguja, the largest of the Zanzibar archipelago and several neighbouring islands.

Zanzibar Red Colobus | Piliocolobus kirkii

The Zanzibar red colobus is quite different to the species previously discussed. Their skin is mostly black with lighter areas present around the nose and mouth and sometimes on the nipples and the soles of the feet. Their characteristic red pelage, which is present on the dorsal side of their bodies and tail, develops with age; Infants are born with only black and white hair, which transitions to a deep red colour between 3 to 11 months of age. Found mostly in scrub forests and mangrove swamps, their diet is made up mostly of leaves, which they supplement with fruit and to a lesser degree, flowers, buds and other types of vegetation. These monkeys are unfortunately classified as endangered, which was supported by a fascinating 2017 study which found there to be just under 6,000 individuals in the wild split between 342 groups. This puts the average group size at 17 members. Of the 6,000 individuals, 54% were adult females or 9 per group (9.29), 16% were adult males, roughly 3 per group (2.71) another 16% were infants (2.71) and 13.5% were sub adults or juveniles, which is closer to 2 per group (2.32). All red colobuses are part of the same genus, Piliocolobus, which is part of a group that also contains olive colobuses and black and white colobuses, including the Mantled Guereza.

Left: Mother and infant Zanzibar red colobus / Shutterstock & Right: Zanzibar red colobus through the canopy / Shutterstock

To visit this species, we need to head back to the mainland and prepare ourselves for the longest portion of the trip, exploring the monkeys of the Congo.

Central Africa

There are few areas of the world more adventurous than Central Africa. This tropical region sits on the equator where its geography is dominated by the great Congo River, which boasts the second largest drainage basin in the world. The rainforests of the Congo contain some of the world’s lesser known and more peculiar animals.

Left: Bonobo in the Democratic Republic of Congo / Shutterstock & Right: The Okapi, native to northeastern DRC / Shutterstock

Mantled Guereza | Colobus guereza

The Mantled Guereza, also known as the eastern black-and-white colobus, is named so for its long cloak-like mantle, which begins in black and transitions to white as it drapes across the sides of the body. Their tail is also a distinguishing feature with a large, white tuft towards the end. Although this adult pelage is impressive, one of their most interesting traits is the natal coat of infants, which is short and entirely white and begins to transition to black after just a few weeks. At 175 days, gestation is a little longer than the vervet monkey and the single offspring is cared for by both the male and female. Group size is quite small, usually numbering no more than 15 members which contains just one adult male, with his male offspring leaving the group upon maturity.

Left: Group of mantled guereza with infants / Shutterstock & Right: Mantled guereza profile / Shutterstock

The next species on our journey has a much smaller range, being found only on the eastern side of Central Africa at elevations between 3,000 and 8,000 ft (900 to 2,500 m).

Left: Range of the mantled guereza & Right: Range of L’Hoest’s monkey

L’Hoest’s monkey | Allochrocebus lhoesti

L’Hoest’s monkey, also known as the mountain monkey, is found in montane tropical forests and is quite striking with jet black fur, which is broken by a large white collar around the neck, an area of chesnut-coloured hair on the back and a lighter section on the top of their long tails. At no more than 13 lb (6 kg / 13.22 lb) they are not particularly large and are sometimes preyed upon by chimpanzees and birds of prey. L’Hoest’s monkeys are referred to as terrestrial guenons spending most of their time on the ground hunting for invertebrates, which can make up between 10-50% of their diet. There are only three species of terrestrial guenon, a number that is dwarfed by the 20+ arboreal guenons, including the previously discussed blue monkey and our next colourful Congolese species.

Left: L’Hoest’s monkey profile / Shutterstock & Right: L’Hoest’s monkeys in the rainforest / Shutterstock

Wolf’s mona monkey | Cercopithecus wolfi

Wolf’s mona monkey is by far my favourite African monkey and, unfortunately, has a conservation status of near threatened and only a few available photos. Regardless, they exhibit vibrant golden-yellow hair on their legs, which bleeds onto the underside of their belly and has matching bright yellow ears and faded yellow cheeks. One of their most interesting behavioural traits is their tendency to exist in multi species groups, most commonly associating with black mangabeys and other species such as red-tailed guenons.

Left: Wolf’s mona monkey portrait / Shutterstock & Right: Wolf’s mona monkey with bright yellow legs / Shutterstock

These monkeys are found on the western side of this region and share their range with another colourful guenon, found to the north.

De Brazza’s | Cercopithecus neglectus

De Brazza’s monkeys are especially unique and interesting for two reasons. The most obvious being their orange brow line, which is present to a much lesser degree in infants and becomes more defined with age. The less obvious being their group structure; although they are most commonly found in small one-male units numbering no more than 10, these monkeys have been observed, specifically in Gabon, in monogamous pairs, which is uncommon for non-human primates but is a trait exhibited by gibbons in Asia and titi monkeys in the New World. De Brazza’s monkeys are highly sexually dimorphic with males weighing up to 15.4 lb (7 kg) and females not far off half at no more than 9 lb (4 kg / 8.8 lb), which is still over double the weight of our next species.

Left: Adult De Brazza’s monkey / Shutterstock & Right: Baby De Brazza’s Monkey / Shutterstock

Talapoins | Miopithecus talapoin/ogouensis

At little over 4 lbs (1.9 kg / 4.2 lb) talapoins are the smallest Old World monkeys. For reference, the smallest monkey on earth is the New World’s pygmy marmoset, which is, almost unbelievably, just a touch over 4 oz (124 g / 4.37 oz), or 15 times smaller than a talapoin! The largest monkeys are mandrills, which have been recorded up to 119 lbs (54 kg) or 435 times the size of a pygmy marmoset! There are two species of talapoin, which are difficult to distinguish visually so for the purpose of this video, we’ll discuss them together. Although these relatively small monkeys would be difficult to spot individually, they are commonly found in large groups numbering up to 100 individuals, which help protect them from predators such as Nile monitors or one of the many African cats. Like many species of monkey, females develop a swelling of the perineum during estrus, which signals to males she is ready to mate. Gestation is around 160 days and infants, who weigh just a few ounces at birth (50 – 80 g), develop rapidly once born.

Left: Baby Gabon talapoin / Shutterstock & Right: Pair of Gabon talapoins sleeping / Shutterstock

The two species are also referred to as northern and southern talapoins; due to their ranges being split by the Congo river with that of the Gabon talapoin coming very close to entering our next destination found to the north.

West Africa

West Africa is another unique region featuring a diverse collection of habitats; a band of tropical forest hugs the coastline followed by a large expanse of tropical grassland underneath the Sahara. The species-rich rainforests of West Africa stretch from The Gambia and Senegal in the west, through Sierra Leone and Liberia and into Nigeria in the eastern portion of the region and play host to some of the most interesting African monkeys.

Left: Aerial view of mangrove forest in Gambia / Shutterstock & Right: Chimpanzee in Sierra Leone / Shutterstock

Collared Mangabey | Cercocebus torquatus

The red-capped mangabey is one such species, and is contained in a genus whose members are referred to as the white-eyelid mangabeys. Although these monkeys are thought of as arboreal, they are more than comfortable on the forest floor, fleeing from predators more often in this environment. Like many species on this list, red-capped mangabeys have cheek pouches, which allow them to store food during collection and consume it later on; as omnivores, they feast on fruit, nuts, leaves and other vegetation in addition to invertebrates.

Left: Red-capped or collared mangabey / Shutterstock & Right: Young collared mangabey foraging for food / Shutterstock

Their range stretches from Central Africa, around the Gulf of Guinea and terminates in Nigeria where we hop two countries to visit our next monkey in Ghana.

Diana Monkey | Cercopithecus diana

The Diana monkey is another arboreal guenon, which, in addition to its striking white chest, is deceptively colourful depending on your angle of sight. On the dorsal side, the area from the base of the tail to the upper back is a deep red colour and the backs of the legs a vibrant orange colour. These monkeys are medium in size, with males weighing no more than 15.5 lb (7 kg). There is one other species of guenon that looks almost identical to the Diana monkey but with a noticeably longer beard; at one point, the roloway monkey was considered a subspecies of Diana but has since been given full species status and the two are split geographically, with the roloway to the east and the Diana to the west, which has an almost identical range to another species of red colobus.

Left: Pair of Diana monkeys / Shutterstock & Right: Roloway monkey / Shutterstock

The two are split geographically, with the roloway to the east and the Diana to the west, which has an almost identical range to another species of red colobus.

Western Red Colobus | Piliocolobus badius

The Western Red Colobus is from the same genus as its Zanzibar cousin and, although the pelage is quite different, also has lighter skin around the nose and mouth. These monkeys are almost strictly arboreal, being found high up in the forest canopy and rarely descend to the forest floor. They live in large multi-male multi-female groups numbering between 20 to 80 individuals but unlike some of the species we’ve explored it is the females that leave the natal group and males that remain in theirs for life. These monkeys are hunted both by chimpanzees and leopards as well as being part of the bushmeat trade and are currently listed as endangered.

Left: Baby western red colobus / Shutterstock & Right: Western Red Colobus in the trees / Shutterstock

The Western Red Colobus is the last monkey we’ll discuss that is found in tropical forest as we move further north into the tropical grasslands that border the Sahara.

Patas Monkey | Erythrocebus patas

Given this ecological preference, the Patas Monkey is classed as terrestrial and well-adapted for life on the ground, although they can and do climb trees to sleep and to find food such as birds’ eggs. Their long limbs are more suited to terrestrial locomotion and facilitate surprisingly fast running speeds of up to 55 km per hour (34.2 mph). The colouration of their pelage is also quite unique with a mixture of red, which and black fur and, although I barely found a photo to support this, is yet another species of primate with a blue scrotum. Patas monkeys are one of the largest animals on this list and are highly sexualy dimorphic with females weighing up to 15 lbs (6.8 kg) and males almost double the weight at just under 30 (13.2 kg / 29 lbs).

Left: Adult patas monkey / Shutterstock & Right: Patas monkeys in the grasslands of West Africa / Shutterstock

The range of the Patas monkey is one of the largest on this list, stretching almost the width of the continent and sits just below one of the most spectacular areas in Africa.

North Africa

North Africa is arguably the most unique region of the continent, characterised ecologically by the largest non-polar desert in the world, the Sahara, measuring 9,200,000 sq km (3,552,140 sq mi), which is larger than the entire contiguous United States. This area is not completely uninhabitable however, with many species of animal calling this barren land their home.

Left: Mountainous landscape in Morocco / Shutterstock & Right: Fennec Fox in the desert / Shutterstock

This region also features the Atlas mountains, which rise over 13,500 ft (4,167 metres / 13,671 ft) and play host to our final African monkey species.

Barbary Macaque | Macaca sylvanus

The Barbary macaque is the only monkey species on the continent to abide north of the Sahara and the only non-human primate present in the wild in Europe, with a small introduced population residing in Gibraltar. At up to 35 lbs (16 kg) they are larger than any species previously discussed and have thick fur, allowing them to live at altitudes of up to 8,530 ft (2,600 m). Another distinguishing characteristic is the almost total lack of a tail, which is more of a stump in this species and referred to as a ‘vestigial’ tail. These monkeys mate in November and December and after a gestation period of 160 days, give birth, usually to a single offspring, between April and June. Once mature, females have an interbirth interval of between 13 to 36 months and live on average 22 years in the wild.

Left: Barbary macaque infant suckling / Shutterstock & Right: Barbary macaque with infant in winter / Shutterstock

Sources

New England Primate Conservancy, Animal Diversity, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Encyclopaedia Britannica, IUCN Red List, Wikipedia, Vervet monkey scrotum colour, Blue monkey pelage variation, Zanzibar red colobus study, De Brazza’s monkey social structure, Monkey monogamy, Talapoins, Western red colobus & Barbary macaque.

Dusky Langur | Trachypithecus obscurus

The dusky langur, also known as the spectacled langur, is one of Asia’s smaller species, weighing no more than 20 lb (9 kg / 19.8 lb) and is part of a genus, which I refer to as the golden baby genus. Adults are mostly dark in colour with white rings around the eyes and mouth and lighter hair on the limbs, underside and tail. Their infants, on the other hand, who are born after a gestation period of just under 5 months, have light faces and exhibit golden-orange hair, which fades to adult colouration within 6 months. These lovable primates spend their time in medium size groups of up to 20, which usually contain just 1 or 2 adult males. They live in various kinds of tropical forest, high up in the canopy, where, as langurs or leaf monkeys, they feast mainly on leaves, fruit, shoots and other vegetation. 

Left: Dusky langur male and female with baby & Right: Dusky langur with golden babies! / Shutterstock (both photos)

Dusky langurs are found on the Kra Isthmus between Malaysia, Thailand and Myanmar.

Javan Langur | Trachypithecus auratus/mauritius

The Javan langur also has golden babies but their most noticeable fur-related characteristic is the variation in adult colouration. Some adults never lose their natal coat, which does change slightly with age but remains a dark orange colour. This species was split geographically by two subspecies but as of 2020, they are now defined as two separate species. The larger eastern population is now referred to as the spangled ebony langur and is the only one of the two species to exhibit this rare colour morph, which itself is only found in a restricted range. Like the dusky langur, these monkeys are diurnal and spend much of the day eating leaves and other vegetation all while avoiding predators like the Javan leopard.

Left: Javan langurs with their golden baby & Right: Javan langurs with normal and orange colour morph / Shutterstock (both photos)

The range of the Javan Langur on the Indonesian islands of Java, Bali and Lombok.

Gee’s golden langur | Trachypithecus geei

Gee’s golden langur also lives high up in the canopy and can be found in various types of tropical and temperate forest as well as at varying elevations. They exhibit a light pelage which contrasts sharply with their dark skin, which is most visible on their face, hands and feet. The coat of juveniles is an even lighter cream colour that darkens to a golden rust with age. While the two previous monkeys are classified as endangered and vulnerable respectively, the golden langur is one of the most endangered species in this video, frequently appearing in The World’s 25 Most Endangered Primates list.  They are considered sacred by Himalayan locals and tragically there are estimated to be just 6,000 individuals left in the wild, which are now split between two populations in Bhutan and India. These monkeys weigh up to 24 lbs (10.8 kg) and can be found in groups numbering up to 40 but generally number no more than 8.

Left: Gee’s golden langur profile & Right: Gee’s Golden langur resting on a tree near Guwahati, Assam, India / Shutterstock (both photos)

The range of Gee’s Golden Langur is found at the foothills of the Himalayas.

All three of these species are part of the same genus, which is part of a group known as the langur or leaf monkey group. Grey langurs are also part of this group but are quite different in appearance.

Northern plains grey langur | Semnopithecus entellus

The Northern plains grey langur is one of the best examples of this genus and is often referred to as the Hanuman langur. Alarmingly, It is one of only two species in this video with a conservation status of Least Concern. These monkeys are also regarded as sacred, specifically by Hindus, and although they are typically found in the forest, they often live in close proximity to humans, being commonplace in many Indian temples. In contrast to leaf monkeys, these animals are thought of as semi-arboreal, spending 50-80% of their time on the ground. One of their most interesting physical characteristics is their long tails, which at up to 3 ft (102 cm) in length, are even longer than their bodies. Newborns exhibit a natal coat but instead of being brightly coloured it is black and lightens with age. Hanuman langurs live in larger social groups that usually number 20 to 30 but can be as many as 100. Their group structure varies from one-male units to larger multi-male multi-female units and can also be found in exclusively male bachelor groups.

Left: Hanuman langur family & Right: Hanuman langurs with their long tails / Shutterstock (both photos)

These monkeys are found almost entirely in India.

Kashmir grey langur | Semnopithecus ajax

The Kashmir grey langur lives in the foothills of the Himalayas between 6,560 – 13123 ft (2000 – 4000 m). Their fur is much thicker and darker in colour, especially on their arms and legs and they’ve even developed a natural version of the classic parka jacket to stave off the cold. There is some debate as to whether this monkey deserves species status or whether it is just a subspecies of the northern plains grey langur. Regardless, both of these species are on the larger side when it comes to monkeys, with the burliest males topping out just under 40 lbs (17.7 kg / 39 lbs).

Left: Himalayan grey langur perched in a snowy tree & Right: Himalayan grey langur foraging in the snow / Shutterstock (both photos)

Like the Gee’s golden langur, the range of the Kashmir langur is found in the Himalayas but much closer to Pakistan.

Nilgiri langur | Semnopithecus johnii

The Nilgiri langur, also known as the Indian hooded leaf monkey, has wonderful jet black fur, with matching black skin and one of the most unique hairstyles on this list with a grey, often golden-looking hood of hair around the head. Like the rest of their genus, they exhibit almost unbelievably long tails that exceed the length of their bodies. Their group structure is most commonly a one-male unit averaging between 10-15 members, however, they can also be found in multi-male multi-female units numbering up to 27 individuals. The majority of their diet is made up of leaves, which they spend up to half of their day gathering and have only one known predator, the Indian wild dog also known as the Dhole.

Left: Beautiful Nilgiri Langur & Right: Nilgiri Langur with long tail / Shutterstock (both photos)

The Nilgiri langur is found at the very southern tip of India in the Nilgiri Hills, after which it is named.

All of the species mentioned so far are part of the Langur group, which is one of three groups within the Colobinae subfamily. There is one other located in Asia, which contains monkeys with odd noses.

Golden snub-nosed monkey | Rhinopithecus roxellana

The golden snub-nosed monkey is another primate well-equipped for cooler temperatures, being found in temperate forests at elevations between 4,000 – 13,000 ft (1,200 – 4,000 m). They have thick eye-catching multi-coloured fur, which varies from a deep golden colour to areas of black and a lighter cream. One of their most interesting features is the variation in skin colour. The skin around the eyes is blue and transitions to a lighter shade around the muzzle. The scrotum of males is also blue whereas other areas of skin including the hands, feet and penis are black. Males are particularly large, weighing almost 45 lbs (19.9 kg / 44 lbs) and develop growths at the side of their mouths as they mature. Group structure is complex and varies by season; In summer, they congregate in bands of up to 600 monkeys but diverge into smaller units in the winter, which can number anywhere from 10 to 70 individuals. 

Left: Golden Snub-nosed Monkeys & Right: Male Golden Snub-nosed Monkey / Shutterstock (both photos)

Golden snub-nosed monkeys are found in central China on and to the east of the Tibetan plateau.

Black snub-nosed monkey | Rhinopithecus bieti

The black snub-nosed monkey, also known as the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey, lives at slightly higher elevations, usually venturing no lower than 9,800 ft (3,000 m). They are mostly found in cool coniferous forests, where temperatures drop below freezing in the winter. Their diet varies by season, eating leaves when available, fruit in the summer, and lichen in the winter. Group structure is very similar to their golden cousins and although still large for monkeys, they are a little smaller, weighing no more than 37.5 lbs (17 kg) and the face is much lighter with lips that are pink in colour. Infants are born with a light coat that darkens in certain areas with age and will cling to their mother’s chest while she searches for food and moves around the canopy. Both of these species are endangered with the number of mature black snub-nosed monkeys down to just 1,000-2,000 individuals.

Left: Yunnan Black Snub-Nosed Monkey & Right: Young Yunnan Black Snub-Nosed Monkey / Shutterstock (both photos)

The range of the black snub-nosed monkey is found to the southwest of their golden cousins.

The first of two hops southeast takes us into Southeast Asia to visit another odd-nosed monkey from a different genus.

Red-shanked douc | Pygathrix nemaeus

In a video based on colourful stylish primates, the red-shanked douc exhibits perhaps the most incredible pelage of any monkey on this list. The dark areas on the upper portions of their limbs transition to lighter areas with bands of white on each individual hair producing a natural gradient. The area from the knee to the ankle, referred to as the shank, is a regal reddish-brown, which is also present in a necklace-like ring on the upper torso. The skin of the face is a vibrant orange colour with a lighter muzzle, whereas the hands and feet are black. These slender primates are much smaller than snub-nosed monkeys, with the largest males weighing just under 30 lbs (12.6 kg / 28 lbs). Group size is also smaller, usually numbering around 10-15 members and can contain multiple males. Larger groups can number up to 50 but are much less common. They are found in tropical forests where leaves can make up to 80% of their diet and, sadly, are critically endangered.

Left: Red shanked douc family & Right: The colourful red-shanked douc / Shutterstock (both photos)

The range of the Red-shanked Douc is located on mainland Southeast Asia.

Heading southeast once again, the island of Borneo plays host to the last odd-nosed member we’ll discuss and has arguably the oddest nose of any monkey.

Proboscis Monkey | Nasalis larvatus

The proboscis monkey is one of the largest species of monkey, with the stockiest males weighing close to 50 lbs (22 kg / 48.5 lbs) and females around half. This weight, however, does not make them less agile as they can often be seen skillfully hurling themselves through the canopy of the tropical mangrove forests they inhabit. Although they are also quite stylish, with deep orange fur on their head and torso that transitions to grey on their limbs and tail, their enormous nose—or proboscis—is by far their most defining physical characteristic. The nose of males is much larger than that of females and is used both for making loud vocalisations and as part of their sexual display to females. Although I couldn’t find any supporting photos, another defining characteristic of this species is their ability and tendency to swim. They are rarely found far from water and have webbing between some of their digits to assist with swimming.

Left: Male and female proboscis monkey & Right: The incredible pelage of the proboscis monkey / Shutterstock (both photos)

The Proboscis monkey is found only on the island of Borneo.

All of the species mentioned so far are contained within the same subfamily, Colobinae. The other side of this family lives mainly in Africa, with the exception of all but one species of macaque.

Celebes crested macaque | Macaca nigra

The Celebes crested macaque is the first species we’ll discuss and is one of just a few macaques that exhibit an entirely black coat. They are often referred to as the crested black macaque, referencing the mohawk-like crest of hair on the tops of their heads and also have a somewhat creepy smile. All Old World monkeys have sitting pads or ischial callosities but in all of the species discussed so far, they are difficult to see. This is not the case for Celebes macaques who have bright red skin around theirs and exhibit a stub rather than a tail. This species lives in multi-male multi-female units, usually numbering no more than 25 but can reach as many as 75. At no more than 23 lbs (10.4 kg), they are one of the smaller monkeys on this list.

Left: Celebes crested macaque with visible ischial callosities & Right: Crested black macaque with a creepy smile / Shutterstock (both photos)

These monkeys are located on the north-easternmost tip of Sulawesi—also known as Celebes—and on two smaller neighbouring islands.

To view our next macaque, we need to travel due north to the island nation of Japan.

Japanese macaque | Macaca fuscata

The Japanese macaque may not be one of the most visually impressive species in Asia but the setting some of these monkeys are found in is the definition of spectacular. Also referred to as snow monkeys, these macaques have the most northerly range of any non-human primate and at the northernmost tip of that range have developed a strategy of relaxing in Japanese hot springs, known as onsens, to handle the frigid Japanese winters. Not all of their time is spent in the water, however; these monkeys spend time both on the ground and in the trees, which is where they sleep at night. Troop size is usually 20-30 individuals but can be much larger and, with males leaving the troop upon puberty, the core of the group is matrilineal. These monkeys are omnivores and in addition to eating leaves and other vegetation will also snack on eggs and various types of invertebrates. Japanese macaques have a few known predators including the cheeky raccoon dog aka the tanuki and the mountain hawk-eagle.

Left: A group of Japanese macaques taking a bath in a hot spring & Right: Mother Japanese macaque carrying baby / Shutterstock (both photos)

The Japanese Macaque is located on several islands in Japan.

There is one more species of macaque to discuss that is not only found in a very similar range to the Nilgiri langur of Southern India but is also locked in a fierce battle for the best haircut.

Lion-tailed macaque | Macaca silenus

The Lion-tailed macaque resides in various types of tropical forest where it is found high up in the canopy. This species is named so for both its thick lion-like mane but also the lion-like tuft at the end of its long tail, which is not present in many macaque species. The ischial callosities are also clearly visible in this species. Newborns have light skin, which darkens with age and as you might expect are not born with such a magnificent head of hair, which is more magnificent in some individuals than it is in others.

Left: A Magnificent lion-tailed macaque & Right: Funny not-so magnificent lion-tailed macaque / Shutterstock (both photos)

The range of the lion-tailed macaque is very similar to that of the Nilgiri langur.

Sources

New England Primate Conservancy, Animal Diversity, Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Encyclopaedia Britannica, IUCN Red List, Wikipedia, Dusky leaf monkey, Dusky langur, Gee’s golden langur, Kashmir grey langur, Kashmir langur, Nilgiri langur, Golden snub-nosed monkey & Proboscis Monkey.

Baboon Physical Characteristics & Distribution

There are several physical characteristics that all 6 species of baboons share. Perhaps their most distinguishing feature is a long pointed muzzle, which is often described as dog-like and is in sharp contrast to the flat facial profile of many other primates. As quadrupeds, baboons bear weight on all four limbs and have a particularly interesting tail, which is not prehensile and is erect at the base but then droops towards the middle and end. Like all Old World monkeys, baboons have sitting pads known as ischial callosities, which amount to thick layers of tissue on their rumps allowing them to sit for long periods of time and rest in an upright position. The skin surrounding these callosities is hairless and varies in colour and size between species. Baboons are also highly sexually dimorphic; males are much larger with particularly long canines and in some species display various differences in pelage. One of their most interesting physical characteristics is the appearance of their young; in many species, infants are born with a black natal coat, which lightens within 6 months as well as exhibiting light skin, which darkens with age.

Left: Male chacma baboon side profile / Shutterstock & Right: The ischial callosities of the hamadryas baboon / Shutterstock

Olive/Anubis baboon

The Olive or Anubis baboon is one of the most well-known species and, as its name suggests, sports an olive-coloured coat, which features rings of black and yellowish-brown on each individual hair giving them an intricate, multi-coloured appearance. Olive baboons are one of the larger members of this genus with females weighing up to 30 lb (14 kg / 30.9 lb) and males topping out around 55 lb (25 kg) although this varies by location and access to food. The males have a lion-like mane which runs across the shoulders and along the back. Positioned mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa, this species has a wide distribution, spanning almost the entire width of the continent.

Left: Olive baboon, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania / Shutterstock & Right: Anubis baboon distribution

Chacma baboon

The largest of these monkeys is the chacma baboon, males can weigh just under 70 lbs (31 kg / 68 lb) and some sources list them even heavier. These baboons generally have a darker pelage with a single yellow-brown band on each individual hair, however, their colouration varies geographically with some members of this species being referred to as grey-footed baboons, which are smaller with lighter fur. In contrast to the olive baboon, the skin of chacmas is described as purple-black and males do not have a mane. This species is found in Southern Africa, extending no further than Southern Angola and parts of Zambia.

Left: Chacma baboon side profile / Shutterstock & Right: Chacma baboon distribution

Yellow baboon

The appearance of the yellow baboon is exactly as you might expect; hairs are a wonderful yellow-brown colour with black tips and, like the chacma baboon, males do not generally exhibit a mane, although this varies by geography with some males showing noticeably longer hair than others. This species is one of the smaller baboons with females weighing no more than 26.5 lbs (12 kg) and males no more than 50 (23 kg / 50.7 lbs). Geographically they are positioned between the olive and chacma populations with hybridization occurring in areas of overlap with the olive baboon. As of 2013 this distribution is now segmented with the Kinda baboon, found to the west, now considered a separate species.

Left: Yellow Baboon walking along Lake Ruaha, Tanzania / Shutterstock & Right: Yellow & Kinda baboon distribution

Guinea baboon

The Guinea baboon is roughly the same size as an olive baboon (29 – 57 lb / 13 – 26 kg) and is the last species that is not drastically different from those previously mentioned, sporting a reddish-brown coat, although this can also vary considerably throughout their range. The mane of males is present in Guinea baboons and interestingly, prior to pregnancy, females have dark skin on their rump, which can turn permanently pink once pregnant. This species is located on the far western tip of Africa and, unfortunately, is the only species with a conservation status of Near Threatened.

Left: Guinea baboons with infant / Shutterstock & Right: Guinea baboon distribution

Hamadryas baboon

Switching gears, the Hamadryas is the last baboon species to discuss in this genus and is by far the most unique visually. They are the smallest of the baboons with females weighing no more than 20 lbs (9.4 kg / 20.7 lbs) and males just under 50 (21.5 kg / 47.4 lbs). In addition to being sexually dimorphic by size, they are also sexually dichromatic with males displaying a spectacular greyish-white pelage with a large mane whereas the coat of females is a darker brown. Their skin is also drastically different to other species being light rather than dark and the skin around the ischial callosities is noticeably larger and more pronounced in a deep pink colour. As we’ll discover later on, this species is unique in almost every way. They are found on the far eastern tip of Africa and across the Red Sea on the Arabian Peninsula and also hybridise with olive baboons where their ranges overlap in Ethiopia.

Left: Hamadryas male and female / Shutterstock & Right: Hamadryas baboon distribution

Baboon Ecology & Diet

Baboons are generally thought of as savanna monkeys, roaming the tropical grasslands of Africa alongside the various other spectacular animals of the continent. However, the ecosystems they inhabit can be much more diverse, ranging from other types of grassland and wooded areas to full-on tropical forest. The Hamadryas baboon is also found in arid areas as well as the Ethiopian highlands.

All species of baboon are terrestrial, spending much of the day foraging on the ground although they are no stranger to the arboreal environment. Trees provide a safe haven for monkeys when it’s time to sleep, offering protection from predators such as large cats and snakes. Hamadryas and some olive baboons will also sleep on cliff faces.

Baboons are considered some of the hardiest monkeys, possessing the ability to survive off a low-quality diet made up of grasses and other vegetation with low nutritional value. In addition to these low-quality sources, when food is plentiful, baboons will, amongst other things, eat fruits, flowers and leaves as well as a wide variety of animals from termites and bird eggs all the way up to small antelopes and even other primates such as vervet monkeys.

Left: Olive baboon in the trees in Kenya / Shutterstock & Right: Infant baboon feasting / Shutterstock

Baboon Social Structure

One of the most interesting aspects of baboon life is their group structure and associated behaviours. Baboons use two contrasting social strategies; One Male Units known as OMUs and Multi-male Multi-female units known as MMUs.

One-male Units / OMUs

One Male Units are used predominantly by Hamadryas and Guinea baboons although this group structure is also seen in mountain populations of chacmas and infrequently in other species. These units are made up of a single adult male and multiple adult females with both female and male juveniles. Hamadryas OMUs average 7 individuals but can range from 2 to 23 members. Because there is only one adult male, he is able to mate with the adult females of the group with little to no competition. Movement of the OMU is controlled by the male and in Hamadryas baboons, herding is done aggressively to prevent females from socialising with other males.

These baboons can still be part of a large troop, however. This kind of social structure is referred to as a fusion-fission society. Fission refers to the larger group splitting up into smaller units, for example, when foraging for food, whereas fusion refers to these small units banding together for protection or, for example, if they need access to a watering hole.

Multi-male Multi-female Units / MMUs

In contrast, the Multi-male multi-female unit is most characteristically used by olive or Anubis baboons. Mating in these societies is polygynandrous, which sees both males and females copulating with multiple partners. In this type of society, there is frequent competition between males and a subsequent dominance hierarchy, which can sometimes be circumvented by an alliance between males to secure better mating access. In MMUs, males leave the troop upon puberty and so the social core of the group is described as matrilineal, being made up of closely related females with a more stable dominance hierarchy.

Baboon Communication & Reproduction

Another essential part of any monkey society is communication. Vocalisations are often described as barks and are used for a wide range of purposes from making threats to warning others of predators. Baboons also use physical signals to communicate such as displaying their hindquarters, which is used as a submissive signal or staring, which is aggressive. Grooming also plays an important role and is used to strengthen bonds between individuals.

Finally, it would be a travesty to move on to the next genus without quickly discussing babies! Mating is done throughout the year and, once successful, gestation for baboons lasts around 6 months. Newborns cling to their mother’s chest where they suckle milk while she forages and moves around and then progress to her back as they become older. By three to four months, infants will begin to eat solid food but won’t be fully weaned until just over 1 year of age. Sexual maturity is reached in anywhere from 3 to 6 years depending on sex and species, with females reaching maturity before males. Lifespan is around 25 to 30 years in the wild and once sexually active, the interbirth interval of females ranges from 18 to 27 months.

Left: Chacma baboon mother and infant in Moremi, Okavango Delta, Botswana / Shutterstock & Right: Hamadryas baboon babies / Shutterstock

Gelada Baboon

There is one animal that is perhaps more spectacular than the species covered so far and is often referred to as a baboon but is from a separate genus. The gelada is found only in the Ethiopian highlands at elevations between 5000 ft (1500 m / 4921.3 ft) and 15,000 ft (4500 m / 14763.8 ft). Visually, they are quite similar to the members of the Papio genus but have noticeably shorter muzzles with nostrils much closer to the eyes. The mane of the male is particularly magnificent and by far the largest of any species in this article, however, this does give them a deceptively large appearance. Males weigh no more than 46 lbs (21 kg), which is a fraction smaller than Hamadryas males, whereas females are a little larger than their Arabian counterparts at 30.8 lbs (14 kg). These animals are also referred to as the bleeding heart baboon, referencing the hourglass-shaped bare patch of bright pink skin on their chests. In females, the patch becomes more pronounced when she is ready to mate.

Left: Female bleeding heart baboon / Shutterstock & Right: Gelada baboon distribution

With the vast majority of their feeding done on the ground and night time spent on the side of cliffs, geladas are one of, if not the most terrestrial non-human primates. In contrast to their cousins who eat meat, these monkeys are herbivorous and spend up to 10 hours per day grazing on grass, which can make up to 90% of their diet depending on the season. Their group structure is most similar to that of the Hamadryas baboon, being found in One Male Groups, although Geladas are more placid and not territorial. Several of these smaller units joined together form a band, which can number well over 100 and look quite incredible roaming the highlands of East Africa.

Left: Male gelada with large mane / Shutterstock & Right: Troop of gelada baboons on a cliff face / Shutterstock

Mandrill and Drill

All of the species featured so far are large when it comes to monkeys but there is one final genus to discuss that contains the two largest monkeys on the planet.

The drill is certainly lesser known than its colourful cousin, which, at least in my opinion, makes it even more fascinating. In terms of size, males usually weigh just north of 70 lb (32.3 kg / 71.2 lb) which is a fraction larger than a chacma baboon. The females are much smaller weighing only 25 lb (11.5 kg) on average. Both males and females are similar in colour, exhibiting a dark brown pelage with white highlights around the face and belly and a bright pink lower lip. Their wide faces are shiny black in colour with prominent ridges that run along the snout, making them quite distinct from both baboons and the mandrill, whose ridges are smaller but more numerous and brightly coloured. The rump is quite colourful in this species, especially when the male becomes excited and the genital area is bright red and blue.

Left: Male drill with pink lip / Shutterstock & Right: Female drill with infant / Shutterstock

If you thought this colouration was impressive, I’d like to introduce to you the mandrill! This species is the largest monkey on the planet and one of the most visually impressive. Large males usually weigh up to 82 lbs (37 kg), although they have been recorded at a staggering 120 lbs (54 kg). They display the most extreme form of sexual dimorphism of all species covered with females weighing around a third of the weight of an average male at 25 lb (11.5 kg). The pelage of mandrills is also dark brown but with beautiful orange highlights, which are particularly vibrant in males who also exhibit a bright blue and red snout and long canine teeth. This facial colouration is much more subtle in females and in juvenile males. The anogenital area of the mandrill is also vibrantly coloured with arguably the most colourful rump in the animal kingdom.

Left: Mandrill family / Shutterstock & Right: Colourful male mandrill / Shutterstock

The members of this genus are found only in West and Central Africa. The drill is found in two separate locations; one subspecies on mainland West Africa and another on Bioko Island. The Mandrill is found to the southeast of this range and is separated from the drill by the Sanaga River.

These monkeys are found in rainforest habitats where they spend much of their time harvesting fruit and other vegetation as well as snacking on invertebrates, eggs and even small mammals. They are mostly terrestrial but, like baboons, will retreat into trees at night to avoid predators such as leopards. 

Both of these species live in medium-sized multi-male multi-female groups that number up to 20 for drills and 40 for mandrills all of which are led by a dominant male. In typical fusion-fission fashion, these groups will link up to form a troop, sometimes numbering 600-800 members for mandrills.

Although there is much less known about the reproductive and parental tendencies of this genus when compared to baboons, young mandrills are some of the most heart-warming primate infants and like baboons are born after a gestation period of 6 months.

Left: Adorable mandrill baby / Shutterstock & Right: Drill infant in mother’s arms / Shutterstock

Sources

Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, New England Primate Conservancy, Animal Diversity, Encyclopaedia Britannica, National Geographic, IUCN Red List, Wikipedia, Ischial callosities of primates, Consortships, Baboon menstrual cycle, Baboon natal care & Primate group size.

Standard Cup

The cup is arguably the quintessential bird’s nest. They are woven with soft, pliable materials such as grasses and twigs and feature a deep depression in the centre to house the eggs or young. 

At just 1-2 inches in diameter, hummingbird nests are the smallest and some of the most visually impressive, often camouflaged with chips of lichen and bark. The nests of broad-tailed hummingbirds are built by females in around 4 to 5 days and are bound together with spider webs. This is also the case for Anna’s hummingbirds who use the soft fluff from cattails to construct theirs.

Cup nests are used frequently by passerine birds. The American robin is a great example and a type of bird whose young are referred to as altricial, those who are born underdeveloped and rely on their parents to nurture them. This is in contrast to precocial young, which we’ll cover later on.

The black-hooded oriole has a particularly interesting variation of the cup nest; instead of resting on top of branches, this species uses a hanging cup, which is woven by the females in 3 to 6 days.

Adherent Cup

A slight variation on the standard cup is those that adhere to walls. These nests are similar in shape but their construction varies considerably.

The most famous of these adherent nests are those of the white-nest swiftlet also known as the edible nest swiftlet. These nests are constructed by the males of the species over a period of around 35 days and are made entirely of the bird’s saliva, which dries to form a hard cement-like material. These nests are considered a delicacy in some countries, where they are used to make soup.

The barn swallow also adheres its nest to walls but, perhaps wisely, uses mud as a construction material, which is not a popular soup ingredient. Nests are built by both males and females over a period of around two weeks and can take hundreds of trips during construction. Once the mud structure is complete, the nest is lined with soft materials such as grasses and feathers.

Dome / Sphere

Unlike a cup nest, which is exposed to the elements, dome or sphere nests can be crafted from a wide range of materials and are fully enclosed, offering a greater amount of protection.

One of the most impressive domes is that of the ovenbird, also known as the Rufous hornero. This species begins construction by creating a cup and then continues to mould thousands of mud pellets eventually creating a neat oven-shaped nest, hence the name, with a slit at the front and soft bedding inside. The entire process takes about 2 weeks.

It’s not just mud that is used to create dome nests. Birds such as the white-throated dipper create their domes from soft vegetation such as moss and grass. These birds are water specialists and position their nests next to streams or rivers where they hunt aquatic insects and worms.

Africa’s hamerkop bird is also no stranger to the water and is famous for its gigantic dome-shaped nests, which take up to 6 weeks to construct and can measure almost 5 ft (4’ 11” / 1.5 m) in diameter.

Pendant

Pendant nests are also fully enclosed but are suspended from trees and make for some of the most intricate structures. Advantages include increased protection from predation although they are more susceptible to the wind.

One particularly interesting design is that of the Eurasian penduline tit who construct theirs with a tube-shaped opening at the top. These nests are built by both sexes over a period of 2-3 weeks and are made from soft plant fibres, wool and grasses.

Montezuma oropendolas live in polygynous colonies where a dominant male performs most of the copulation. The females of this species build the nests, which are found in groups of up to 100 and have a particularly long shape when compared to some of the other pendant nests.

Some of the most well-known pendant-building birds are the members of the weaver family. The male baya weaver builds its nest in several stages; the “helmet” takes around 8 days to construct at which point they advertise it to the females. Once paired, the entrance tunnel is added and the nest is completed in a total of 18 days.

Colonial

There are many species of bird that nest together in colonies but the vast majority of them have separate nests. Colonial nests that host multiple mating pairs are rare but are some of the most impressive.

Sociable weavers are found in Southern Africa and have perhaps the most unique nest on this entire list. These gigantic structures are made from sticks and dry grasses and are built in trees or sometimes utility poles and can house upwards of 400 – 500 birds. Like the nests of the baya weaver, entrances are located at the bottom of the nest where its inhabitants can enter one of the many chambers within. Although these nests are perched in trees to avoid predation, they are not totally immune to snakes such as the cape cobra. Colonial nests are also excellent at regulating temperature, staying warm in the cold savanna nights and keeping cool during the day.

The only other nest I could find that is even remotely similar is that of the monk parakeet, which is a member of the parrot family and the only species to nest colonially. These large stick nests usually contain around 20 chambers and like those of the sociable weaver are most often built in trees but are not uncommonly found on utility poles. 

Cavity

The term cavity nest refers both to holes excavated by their inhabitants and existing cavities used for nesting. Some of the most common locations for cavity nests include trees, cacti and rocks. The inside of these nests is lined with soft materials such as mosses and feathers.

The first cavity nest we’ll look at is that of the resplendent quetzal. These spectacular birds don’t possess beaks strong enough to excavate their own holes so both sexes pitch in to continue abandoned cavities made by woodpeckers in rotted tree trunks. This behaviour makes them secondary cavity nesters.

Woodpeckers, who bore their own cavities over multiple weeks, are referred to as primary cavity nesters and not only drill their holes into trees but cati as well. The Gila woodpecker is found in the Sonoran desert and often uses the Saguaro cactus as its nesting site. Holes are excavated by both males and females and are reused by the elf owl.

The most unique cavity nester I could find is the Lear’s or indigo macaw which are found only in eastern Brazil and use natural cavities in the area’s sandstone cliffs to make their homes.

Platform

Platform nests are the last elevated nest type we’ll cover before moving to the ground. They are large structures made from sticks and twigs and are typically flat with a saucer-shaped surface.

Some of the easiest to observe, at least in Afro-Eurasia, are those of the white stork which can be seen on the tops of buildings or utility poles. Nests, which can measure 6.5 ft (2 m) wide and 10 ft (3 m) deep, are built by males and are often reused for multiple years.

In the Americas, great blue herons usually build their platforms in trees, which can take up to 2 weeks to construct. With this species, it is the male who collects the material and the female who weaves the nest, lining it with soft materials such as moss and dried grass.

Platform nests are also popular with raptors such as ospreys and eagles for whom they are referred to, specifically, as aeries. Golden eagles build theirs on the side of cliffs with spectacular views of the surrounding forest. Nests are lined with mosses, lichens and conifer branches and can be used year-round by resident birds.

Floating

Floating nests are another interesting category, which are very similar to platforms but instead of being built high in the trees, they rest in the shallows of waterways.

One of the best examples of a floating nest are those of the great crested grebe, which are built by both the male and female. They are made out of aquatic plant matter such as waterweed and only take a few hours to build. Grebe nests are usually positioned in the shallows of lakes or reservoirs just out of reach of terrestrial predators.

Swans are also aquatic nest builders and while some pairs build their nests on land, most are assembled a few feet from the shore in shallow, calm water. Construction is also shared by the pair with males collecting the material while the female does the crafting. Nests are built from aquatic vegetation such as bulrushes and reeds as well as twigs and sticks.

Burrow

Moving to the shore, the first of our terrestrial nest types is another form of cavity but is excavated from soil and classed instead as a burrow

The burrowing owl will either create a burrow itself or use those of ground squirrels, prairie dogs or other burrowing animals. Interestingly, these kinds of burrows are also used by rattlesnakes, the sound of which the owls mimic to ward off predators, a tactic known as acoustic Batesian mimicry.

Puffins are other birds who excavate their nests from soil. This responsibility is shared between the male and female and once dug, burrows are lined with grass and twigs. These birds spend the winter on the ocean and will often return to the same nest the following year.

Not all burrow nests are found in the ground. Bee eaters are highly sociable birds and excavate their burrows in the side of sandbanks. Nests take up to 3 weeks to build and consist of a tunnel, which can be over 3 ft (1 m) long and culminates in an unlined nesting chamber. Colonies of these beautiful birds can number as many as 1000.

Mound

Another nest type related to soil is the mound nest. There are several types of mound that we’ll split into 2 different categories. The first are simple structures built from mud and serve to raise the egg or young off the floor, keeping it clean and safe.

Mudflats are a popular habitat for flamingos who use the abundant supply of mouldable mud to build their nests. Males begin work on the nest, which is finished by both birds and will stand approximately 12 in (30.5 cm) once complete. The upper surface is saucer-shaped to house the egg and their young once hatched.

Another bird that utilises the mound nest is the albatross, specifically the black-browed albatross. These birds are monogamous and breed in colonies on cliffs overlooking the ocean. The shape and structure of these nests is almost the exact same as that of a flamingo.

The wandering albatross also uses mound nests, although breeding takes place on subantarctic islands where peat is the dominant soil type and their mounds appear to be much softer.

Self-incubating

The birds of the Megapodiidae family are known as megapodes or incubator birds. Their nests are also referred to as mounds but look and function in a completely different manner to those previously discussed so I’ve categorised them separately.

The construction of the mallee fowl nest is done mostly by the male who creates a ginormous mound of sandy soil over a period of many months that can measure 13 ft (4m) wide and 3 ft (1 m) high. The female then lays the egg into a cavity dug into the top of the mound, which is covered with vegetation and topped with a final layer of sand. The vegetation generates heat as it decomposes, incubating the eggs.

Maleo use only sand to construct their nests, which are really more of a hole than a mound. Males dig the hole into which the female then lays the egg. The pair then bury it and, like mallee fowl, never return. The hot sand incubates the egg and the precocial chick emerges entirely self-sufficient, complete with the ability to feed itself and fly!

Scrape

Not all nests are as elaborate as the ones covered so far. A scrape nest is pretty much exactly as it sounds; birds will scratch a depression in the ground with their feet where they lay their eggs and nurture their young.

The common ringed plover nests on the rocky beaches of Northern Eurasia and Greenland. Females make a shallow scrape, which is lined with pebbles and vegetation. Considering predation, these nests are vulnerable so both the adults, eggs and chicks are well camouflaged for this environment, making them harder to detect.

The peregrine falcon is another bird that creates a shallow depression for its eggs, which are often positioned on ledges and sometimes have a light lining of vegetation. Males will create multiple scrapes for the female to choose from before she decides on the final nesting location.

Gentoo penguins have slightly more substantial scrapes than the other species we’ve discussed. They will often pile up stones and other materials to the point where some of these nests could be considered a mound rather than a simple scrape.

No Nest

Finally, there are a few birds for whom a nest is not necessary whatsoever.

One of the best examples is king penguins who live in huge colonies of almost 40,000 breeding pairs and build no nest at all. Once the female has laid the egg it is passed on to the male who positions the egg on his feet and incubates it using a brood pouch, which amounts to a patch of bare skin on their bellies. Once the egg is hatched, the parents take turns incubating the chick until spring when the weather is warmer and the chick can survive on its own. This behaviour is shared by only one other penguin species, the emperor penguin which holds the Guinness world record for the longest egg incubation for a penguin at 67 days.

Left: King penguin with egg / Shutterstock & Right: King penguin with young chick / Shutterstock

Honourable Mention

The last structure we’ll look at is visually very similar to many of those we’ve covered so far but I discovered is not actually a nest. The male bowerbird builds an intricately decorated display known as a bower to attract females. This consists of a woven structure, which varies by species and is decorated with colourful items, which can include both organic material and things like bottle caps and straws. Upon choosing her mate, the female will build the actual nest where she lays her eggs.

Sources

Bird Nest Identification, All About Birds, Wikipedia, Types of Bird Nest, Types of Bird Nests, How to Spot Bird Nests, Bird Nests, Nest Type Identification, Beautiful Bird Nests, Remarkable Bird Nests, Unusual Bird Nests, Nidifugous vs Nidicolous, Altricial vs Precocial, White Stork, Eagle Facts, Edible Nest Swiftlet, Barn Swallow, Dome Nests, White Throated Dipper, Hamerkop Nests, Montezuma Oropendolas, Study on Nest Construction, Sociable Weavers, Analysis of Nest Sites, Resplendent Quetzals, Macaw Breeding, Carmine Bee Eater, Wandering Albatross, Maleo Nests, Malleefowl, Largest Bird Nests, Common Ringed Plover, Penguin Architecture, Falcon Scrape, King Penguin, Longest Egg Incubation, Swan Nests, Great Crested Grebe & Bowerbird.

Reproduction & Life Span/Cycle

Chimpanzees and bonobos are born after a gestation period of 8 months and, sharing a powerful bond with their mother, will cling to her chest for the first 6 months. The baby is then carried on its mother’s back until around 2 years of age but will not become fully weaned until 4 or 5. Independence occurs after 7-9 years but chimpanzees won’t reach sexual maturity until 13 for females and 15 for males. Upon reaching maturity, females will venture off to find another community, preventing inbreeding, whereas males will stay with theirs for life. Chimps live for 40-50 years in the wild and an adult female gives birth once every 5 years.

Left: Baby bonobo clinging to mother’s chest / Shutterstock & Right: Baby chimpanzee hanging with mum / Shutterstock

The reproductive cycle of a gorilla is shorter, producing offspring every four years after a slightly longer gestation period of 8.5 months. Like chimpanzees, gorilla offspring are helpless when born and cling to their mother’s chest until around 4 months old. At this point, a young gorilla will ride on its mother’s back until around 2-3 years of age. Independence is reached after just 3-4 years but sexual maturity takes 10 for females and 15 for males. Gorillas will also live for 40+ years in the wild but with this species, it is usually the males who leave to establish new troops. Some males will stay, however, and queue for dominance of the troop, which some take over from their father.

Left: Baby gorilla with mother / Shutterstock & Right: Young gorilla / Shutterstock

Lifespan is a similar story for orangutans at 35-40 years but their reproductive cycle is quite different to that of the African apes; at 8 years, they have the longest interbirth interval of any land mammal, meaning females usually have no more than 3 babies during their lifetime. Gestation is around the same as a gorilla at 8.5 months and like the other great apes, their offspring, who have white patches on their face and bodies, will be carried everywhere by their mother for the first 4 months and will remain by her side until 6-8 years of age. Sexual maturity depends on gender and species and can range anywhere from 6 to 11 years for Bornean females all the way up to 15 to 24 years for Sumatran males.

Left: Proud mother orangutan / Shutterstock & Right: Baby orangutan climbing / Shutterstock

The life cycle of a gibbon is also quite different from other apes. Gibbons produce offspring every 2-3 years normally bearing a single child after a shorter gestation period of around 7 months. Depending on species, weaning is usually complete within 18 to 24 months, around half that of the great apes but independence is still not reached until 6 to 8 years of age when they will leave their family unit to start their own. The lifespan of a gibbon is also shorter than that of the great apes at around 25-30 years.

Left: Yellow cheeked gibbon family / Shutterstock & Right: Baby silvery gibbon / Shutterstock

Taxonomy, Location, Population & Conservation

Gibbons are classed as lesser apes and are found in a separate family to the greater apes, Hylobatidae. It is by far the most diverse group of apes with 20 of the 27 species being found within this family. Most of their population is found on mainland Southeast Asia but like orangutans, are present on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. Their range is split geographically between their four genera with the range of hylobates overlapping with that of the monotypic.

Of the 20 species of gibbon, 1 has a conservation status of vulnerable, 14 are endangered and a further 5 are critically endangered. Some of the species most at risk are the newly discovered Skywalker hoolock gibbon, with just 150 individuals and the eastern black crested gibbon, who number no more than 50. Like other apes, poaching and habitat destruction are both to blame for much of their population decline but the latter is even more of an issue for gibbons and orangutans who spend the vast majority of their time in the trees.

Orangutans are the most distant of the great apes from humans and although they are found in the same family as gorillas and chimpanzees, they are contained within their own subfamily, Ponginae, which contains a single genus, Pongo. Bornean and Sumatran orangutans are found on their respective islands with a 3rd species identified in 2017, the Tapanuli orangutan, being found to the south of the Sumatran population.

All three of these species are critically endangered. The Bornean orangutan has the highest numbers, with a population of around 100,000 but this drops off significantly on the other side of the Javan sea with the Sumatran orangutan down to just 7,500 individuals and the Tapanuli orangutan down below 800.

Gorillas are the first of the apes we’ll discuss in the subfamily, Homininae. There are two species found in separate locations on either side of Central Africa, divided by the Congo river and its tributaries. Each of these species is split further, geographically, by their respective subspecies; the Cross River gorilla, the western lowland gorilla, the eastern lowland gorilla and the mountain gorilla.

Habitat destruction and the bushmeat trade also pose a threat to gorillas, in addition to being hunted for game. Both species of gorilla are critically endangered; the most at threat is the eastern gorilla, whose combined numbers are estimated to be around 5,000, with just 1,000 mountain gorillas remaining. On the other side of the continent, there are estimated to be around 100k western gorillas but the Cross River gorilla is the subspecies most at risk with an estimated 200-300 individuals remaining.

Finally, the genus Pan is found in the same tribe as humans and contains two species; the bonobo is found to the south of the river Congo in the heart of the DRC and the common chimpanzee, which is located on the northern side of the river and, geographically, is also split further by its 4 subspecies found as far west as Senegal and as far east as Tanzania.

While the 150 – 250 thousand chimpanzees found in the wild is significantly higher than the 10 – 50 thousand bonobos, both of these species are classified as endangered with threats coming from habitat loss and hunting for meat.

Physical Characteristics

The smallest of these animals are gibbons, which thanks to their high number of species, are also the most diverse in appearance. These apes have exceptionally long arms—sometimes up to 2.6 times the length of their bodies—that help them navigate their arboreal habitat with ease.

The Siamang is contained in its own monotypic genus and, physically, is quite different to other gibbons. At up to 26.5 lb / 12 kg it is the largest species and is also fairly easy to distinguish visually with its thick black fur surrounding a nearly hairless, light grey face and a large throat sac they use to produce loud vocalisations. Interestingly, their Latin name Symphalangus syndactylus refers to the fused 2nd and 3rd toes on their feet, similar to those of a koala.

There are many examples of gibbons that exhibit sexual dichromatism, where males display a different colour to their female counterparts. The Lar or White-handed gibbon is one such species and belongs to the Hylobates genus, also referred to as the dwarf gibbons, whose members usually weigh between 8.8 lb – 17.6 lb / 4 to 8 kg. Both males, who are black and females, who are cream or buff, have a white circle around the face. This genus also contains the silvery gibbon, which exhibits a beautiful silvery-grey pelage.

Other species include the northern white-cheeked gibbon, which don’t look too dissimilar to the Lar gibbon but are from the Nomascus genus. Males are black with white fur around their cheeks and females are buff with a black patch on the top of their heads. Finally, members of the hoolock genus are also quite unique, exhibiting a white brow across the forehead.

Like gibbons, orangutans also have bodies built for the trees; their enormous arm span can measure up to 7ft long, which when combined with their incredibly flexible legs and opposable thumbs on all four extremities, allows them to move gracefully through the trees.

Orangutans display sexual dimorphism; adult males are around twice the size of females and usually weigh around 200 lb / 91 kg but can be found closer to 300 lb / 136 kg. They measure around 4-5 ft (1.2m – 1.5m) in height, which is roughly the same as a chimpanzee but shorter than a gorilla.

Males also develop large cheek pads as they age, which are through to be associated with increased levels of testosterone and appeal to the opposite sex, with females more often mating with adult males who have the cheek pads over subadult males who have yet to develop them.

Their bright orange fur is, oddly enough, thought to be for camouflage; in direct sunlight, it is distinct and obvious but in the shadows of the forest canopy their dark tan skin absorbs the light and makes orangutans difficult to see.

Bornean orangutans can be distinguished by the white hairs on their face and longer fur, including their beards, as well as exhibiting a more slender build. Tapanuli orangutans differ from other species by their dental structure and the structure of the skull, including but not limited to a shallower face depth.

Left: Sumatran Male / Shutterstock & Right: Bornean Male / Shutterstock

Even bigger than orangutans, Gorillas are the largest of the apes with adult males usually topping out around 5.5 ft tall (1.7m) and close to 500lbs (485 lbs / 220kg) with the largest specimens recorded at well over 6 ft (1.8 m). They are also sexually dimorphic; females measure just under 5 ft (1.5 m) in height but are half the weight due to the stocky build of the adult males who are referred to as silverbacks, a reference to the grey or silver hairs they develop on their backs as they age.

Gorillas also have opposable digits on their hands and feet, allowing them to manipulate objects with all four extremities. Although their arms are proportionately shorter than those of orangutans and gibbons, they are still 15-20% longer than their legs.

Eastern gorillas are slightly larger than their western counterparts and have darker longer fur. Specifically, the western lowland gorilla is often sighted as the smallest of the four subspecies and the eastern lowland gorilla as the largest. Mountain gorillas also have the longest hair, which they use to keep warm at higher altitudes and, like the Tapanui orangutan, the Cross River gorilla exhibits noticeable differences in skull and dental structure.

Left: Silverback with long arms / Shutterstock & Right: Cross River Gorilla / Shutterstock

Chimps and bonobos are the smallest of the great apes but at 4 – 5ft (1.2 – 1.5m) and no more than 130 lb (59 kg) are much larger than gibbons. Chimpanzees tend to be slightly larger than bonobos, who were referred to as ‘pygmy chimps’ until they were found to be a separate species, and have a more stocky build, with shorter legs but wider chests.

While chimps and bonobos are sexually dimorphic, this is to a much lesser extent than the other great apes; the size difference between males and females is a ratio of roughly 1.3, which, for the sake of comparison, is still greater than humans, who are closer to 1.15.

Both chimps and bonobos have long black hair that covers their bodies but one of the most interesting differences between species is the appearance of their young. Chimpanzees are born with white skin on their faces and ears, which darkens with age, whereas bonobos are born with this dark skin. As both species age, some of their hair also tends to turn grey and the forehead can also become bald.

Ecology, Diet & Movement

In terms of ecology, bonobos are found only in lowland tropical forests whereas the habitat of the chimpanzee extends into grassland and woodland areas. Both species use arboreal and terrestrial locomotion to move around their territory. Each night, they make a nest in the trees before rising early to find breakfast, which ideally is made up of nutritious fruits. Unlike some of the other apes, chimps will cover long distances on the ground where they use a type of locomotion referred to as knuckle-walking—bearing their weight on the knuckles of their hands—and are also able to move in an upright posture.

The diet of both chimpanzees and bonobos is made up mostly of vegetation such as fruits, leaves, roots and seeds, however, both species are omnivores and, although a lot less frequently, will also consume invertebrates and mammals such as duiker—a small antelope. Chimpanzees eat more meat than bonobos and have been observed pinching eggs and chicks as well as hunting pigs and even other primates such as colobus monkeys.

Both species typically consume their food in the trees and do so at two times during the day; once in the morning followed by a midday rest and then a longer session of eating follows in the afternoon and evening. Tool usage is a particularly interesting trait that was first observed by Jane Goodall in the 1960s at Gombe Stream Game Reserve in Tanzania. These primates use sticks to fish termites out of their mounds and leave sponges to soak up water.

Gorillas are also found in the tropical forests of Central Africa but the elevation at which they live varies by subspecies. The western lowland gorilla, which commands the largest range of any subspecies, lives at the lowest average altitude, mostly preferring lowland tropical forests whereas the Cross River gorilla lives in the mountainous border region between Cameroon and Nigeria. Likewise, on the other side of the Congo, the eastern lowland gorilla lives in lowland tropical forests but can also be found at higher altitudes, and as you might expect, the mountain gorilla is found at the highest elevations up to 14,100 ft / 4,300 m.

The diet of a gorilla is more strictly vegetarian than that of a chimp or bonobo; they mostly gorge on leaves, stalks and fruit although they will also feast on ants and termites as well as their larvae. The makeup of their diet depends on subspecies, for example, fruit trees and termites are much more common in lowland tropical forests and thus are consumed a lot more by western lowland gorillas than they are by mountain gorillas who eat larger amounts of leaves, stems and other similar vegetation. Like chimps and bonobos, they eat in two intervals per day and a large silverback can consume up to 60 lb (27 kg) in one day.

Although gorillas can and do climb trees, they are mostly terrestrial and, like chimps, will move around using knuckle-walking. Females and young climb more than adult males whose weight is simply not supported by the canopy. As such, gorillas will sleep in nests in the trees or on the ground on a bed of foliage.

Moving to Asia, the ecological preferences of the orangutan are much simpler than that of the gorilla; all three species live in the lush tropical forests of Borneo and Sumatra and none of them ventures above 4,600 ft (1,500 m). Orangutans spend the vast majority of their time in trees where they build their nests to sleep and move about with ease thanks to their long arms and hook-like hands. They can often be seen high up in the forest canopy, which is quite incredible for such a large ape. On the occasion they do spend time on the forest floor, they do so on all fours but usually do not use knuckle-walking like gorillas and chimps.

Like the western lowland gorilla, fruit makes up a large portion of their diet at around 50%, which is supplemented with other types of vegetation in addition to small amounts of insects such as ants and termites. Very occasionally, orangutans have been observed eating meat when fruit is scarce, specifically their fellow primates, slow lorises. Like chimps and gorillas, orangutans have also been observed using sticks as tools to extract insects from trees as well as using leaves as umbrellas when it rains!

Gibbons are also thought of as arboreal, in fact, hylobates, one of the four genera can be translated to either “forest walker” or “dweller in the trees”. They are perhaps the most efficient ape in the trees and use their long arms and flexible shoulder joints to brachiate through the forest. On the ground, gibbons walk in a fully upright posture and will also use their long arms to balance when walking along a branch.

All species are found in various types of tropical forests, however, the altitude at which they are found varies by species. The northern white-cheeked gibbon is found at low altitudes of between 985 – 1970 ft (300 – 600 m) in Laos, Vietnam and Southern China. The Black-crested gibbon, which is very similar in appearance, is found at higher elevations between 1805 – 8822 ft (550 – 2690 m). Unlike great apes, gibbons choose to sleep on open branches and rarely sleep in the same place more than once to reduce predation by animals such as pythons or birds of prey.

They are also thought of as frugivorous, with ripe fruit often making up a large portion of their diet, which they will supplement with leaves and other vegetation as well as insects and less frequently bird eggs. Of the fruits available, figs are a particularly popular food source; 26% of a pleated gibbon’s diet is made up of this nutritious fruit. Siamangs eat a higher proportion of leaves than any other gibbon, making up 40-50% of their diet.

Behaviour

Chimps and bonobos have by far the largest group structure and territory; they live in communities of between 30-100 but spend most of their time split into smaller groups known as parties with whom they forage for food. Chimpanzee communities are led by a dominant male and a coalition of allied males who are notoriously violent and use aggression to assert their dominance. Their territory ranges from 5 sq km (1.9 sq mi) in the forest to 500 sq km (193 sq mi) on the savanna. Bonobo communities on the other hand are female-dominated and are thought of as more peaceful societies with female members controlling the aggression of males, often with intercourse. The group size of bonobos is roughly the same but the territory is limited to just under 30 sq km (11.6 sq mi) as they are found only in tropical forests.

Intergroup relationships are quite different between chimps and bonobos. Chimpanzees are hostile and aggressive while defending their territory while bonobos have been observed sharing food with other communities as well as spending time with other groups.

Grooming is an important part of life in the pan genus and is used to bond with other members. Both species use a collection of gestures and facial expressions to communicate face to face and have a repertoire of vocalisations to do so over both long and short distances.

A group of gorillas is known as a troop and are smaller than chimpanzee communities at between 6 to 30 individuals. Troops consist of a dominant silverback male and several adult females with their offspring. Eastern gorilla troops are usually larger than that of the western species and can accommodate multiple males who are closely related. Troops of mountain gorillas in particular have been known to support up to 8 silverbacks. Their territory is also smaller than that of a chimpanzee community at between 2 to 40 sq km (0.8 – 15.5 sq mi).

Grooming plays less of a role in gorilla societies than it does in that of chimps and bonobos, nevertheless, it does take place and is also used to strengthen bonds between individuals and usually occurs between males and females or females with their young.

Gorillas are often portrayed as aggressive creatures in popular culture but they are reserved by nature and silverbacks will usually only display aggression in the form of roaring and chest beating when defending other troop members or maintaining dominance within the troop.

This social group behaviour is not mirrored by Asian apes; Orangutans are mostly thought of as solitary, especially adult males who roam the forest on their own and will usually only spend time with a mating female. Females are more social than males, travelling with their offspring and coming together to feed with other adults in their range when there is an abundance of fruit. The territory of a male orangutan is around the same as a gorilla troop at up to 40 sq km (15.5 sq mi) and will overlap with those of multiple females whose ranges are smaller at around 9 sq km (3.5 sq mi). Like gorillas, orangutans are thought of as placid and confrontation usually only occurs between adult males competing for females or territory.

Orangutans use both verbal and non-verbal communication. The latter is used more often for long-distance signalling, in particular, a “long call” is used by males both to signal their presence to other males and also to attract females. A wide range of gestures are commonly used face to face, however, as the most solitary of the great apes, the extent to which these have been studied in the wild is much less.

Although gibbons are the least closely related apes to humans, they have the most similar social structure found in family groups made up of a monogamous mating pair and their immature offspring. Territory size is quite small, usually between 0.1 to 0.5 sq km (0.04 – 0.19 sq mi). The Hainan black crested gibbon has the largest territory of any gibbon species at 2 to 5 sq km (0.8 – 1.9 sq mi).

Unfortunately, gibbons are the least studied of the ape species however, they also have one of the most interesting and heartwarming forms of communication. The male and female will sing a duet known as the “great call” used to mark their territory which is often joined by their young

Sources

Chimpanzee Breakfast, Chimpanzee Diet, Chimps vs Bonobos, Chimp Social Hierarchy, Chimp Bonobo Comparison, Chimp Facts, Bonobo Communities, Chimpanzee Baby Care, Gorilla Social Groups, Gorilla Social Structure, Gorilla Species, Gorilla Diet, Gorilla Social Bonding, Orangutan ecology, Orangutan colour, Tapanuli Orangutan Morphology, Orangutan social behaviour, Orangutan territory, Orangutan breeding, Orangutan communication, Orangutan tool usage, Gibbon social structure, Nuclear Families, Gibbon reproduction, Gibbon sleeping, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Animal Diversity, National Geographic, WWF, IUCN Red List & Wikipedia.

Triglav National Park, Slovenia

The defining feature of Europe’s geography is, of course, its mountains and no range is more iconic than the Alps. Some of the most well-known peaks include Mont Blanc in France, the Matterhorn, which sits on Switzerland’s southern border and the dark grey granite peaks of the Italian Dolomites. One of the smaller subranges on the southeastern-most tip of the Alps is known as the Julian Alps, whose highest peak is Triglav after which Slovenia’s Triglav National Park is named. Aside from the mountainous terrain, one of the park’s most notable features is its crystal-clear emerald green waterways. The River Soča winds its way through a series of narrow gorges and is a renowned location for both fishing and white water sports such as kayaking.

Left: Ibex in Triglav National Park / Shutterstock & Right: Walkway in Triglav National Park / Shutterstock

The river exits the park on its western boundary flowing into Italy where it terminates in the Mediterranean. Surprisingly, Triglav is Slovenia’s only national park but is part of one of the country’s 4 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves, a concept we’ll explore later on, and features several picturesque lakes. Although Lake Bohinj is the largest permanent lake in the country, it is overshadowed by a much more famous body of water found to the east. Just a few kilometres outside of the park boundary sits one of the most famous lakes in all of Europe, Lake Bled, known for its church-topped island and Bled Castle, which is perched on a cliff overlooking the northern banks.

Left: River Soca / Shutterstock & Right: Lake Bled / Shutterstock

Prielbrusye National Park, Russia

While the Alps is certainly the most well-known range in Europe, it doesn’t contain the continent’s highest peak. This accolade goes to Mount Elbrus of the Caucasus mountains, which sits not only on the border of Russia and Georgia but that of Europe and Asia. Elbrus is contained within Prielbrusye, which translates to Elbrus region and is one of Russia’s 64 National Parks. Elbrus, a dormant volcano that formed more than 2.5 million years ago, stands at 5,642 m / 18,510 ft making it the highest stratovolcano in Eurasia. It is also known for its prominence and towers over the surrounding mountains. Elbrus is home to over 20 glaciers and features two cones, the smallest of which was first summited way back in 1829 and the taller of the two in 1874.

The surrounding forests and meadows are home to an impressive collection of animal species; some of the smaller mammals include the Caucasus ground squirrel, which is endemic to the North Caucasus and the least weasel, which is always fun to mention! Larger mammals include wild boars, which can be found in groups of up to 15, and the brown bear, of which there are several subspecies found throughout Europe. Amphibians include the common newt, a type of salamander and several species of frog including the European tree frog.

Left: Least Weasel / Shutterstock & Right: Wild Boars with Young / Shutterstock

Thingvellir National Park, Iceland

Another country found on the border of two continents, although not as obviously, is Iceland, which sits on the boundary of the North American and Eurasian plates. To truly appreciate what is on display at our next national park, we need to take a quick look at plate tectonics. As plates separate, heat generated by the earth’s mantle contorts their edges upwards, creating a mountainous ridge line. In fact, it may interest you to know that Iceland is part of the largest mountain range in the world, you just can’t see most of it. As these plates continue to separate, this ridgeline cracks and magma spills onto the seafloor where it is cooled by the ocean, creating new oceanic crust; this map shows the newest crust present at the plate boundaries and older crust further away. Occasionally these ridges rise high enough to break the surface, as is the case with Iceland.

As such, one of the best places to see these forces in action is Thingvellir National Park, which sits just 40 km from the capital, Reykjavík, roughly 70 km from Vatnsleysustrandarhreppur and a mere 45 km from Gullberastaðaselsbringur. This park is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site but instead of being inscribed for its geological features is a cultural site representing the home of the Icelandic parliament from 930 to 1798. Thingvellir is part of Iceland’s Golden Circle, a popular tourist route that also includes geysers, volcanic craters, and epic waterfalls.

Left & Right: Thingvellir National Park / Shutterstock

Abruzzo National Park, Italy

If we follow the Eurasian plate through the Atlantic and into the Mediterranean we end up in Italy where some of Europe’s most famous and active volcanoes exist. Mount Etna is the tallest active volcano on the continent, and second only to Elbrus if we include dormant volcanoes. It is part of Etna National Park but is not why we’ve come to Italy. 450 km due north is the central Apennines, which are home to one of the rarest bears in the world and Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park. The Marsican or Apennine bear is a subspecies of brown bear and with most of the 50 individuals remaining in the wild being found in the park, is the pride and joy of this Italian paradise. The park was created in 1922 in order to protect this subspecies and celebrates its centennial anniversary this year. Males of the species weigh around 220 kg (485 lbs) and spend most of their time munching on roots, fruit and berries but will take on medium-sized mammals such as sheep.

Left: Marsican Bear / Shutterstock & Right: Marsican Bear Cubs / Shutterstock

Other predators include the Italian wolf, a subspecies of grey wolf whose range covers almost all of mainland Italy. Like the Marsican bear, their conservation status is currently set to threatened, highlighting the importance of national parks such as Abruzzo. One of the most beautiful plant species found within the park is the Yellow Lady’s Slipper orchid. The slipper part of the flower acts as a trap for insects such as bees; once lured into the sweet-smelling trap, to exit, the bee must brush past the female part of the flower, depositing any pollen from a previous plant before reaching the male part of the flower where it collects pollen from the current plant and the cycle is then repeated. This process is known as pollination.

Left: Italian Wolf / Shutterstock & Right: Yellow Lady’s Slipper Orchid / Shutterstock

Oleshky Sands National Park, Ukraine

Looking at the other mountain ranges in Europe, the Carpathians deserve to be covered, however, having already explored a few of these ranges, I dug a little deeper and found the oldest steppe reserve in the world and a desert national park under 60km from each other in the south of Ukraine. At first glance, Askania-Nova seems like something that should be classed as a zoo or a safari park but, in fact, is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. These areas are similar to national parks but are less heavily restricted and promote learning opportunities, the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development. Askania-Nova was established way back in the late 19th century and is located at the westernmost tip of the Eurasian steppe just north of the Crimean peninsula. Fauna from similar environments was brought in from all over the world and still today houses animals such as zebras, wildebeest and the Przewalski’s horse, which is critically endangered and in the wild is found only in Mongolia.

Left: Antelope at Askania-Nova / Shutterstock & Right: Zebra at Askania-Nova / Shutterstock

Just 60 km (37 mi) west of Askania-Nova sits one of the most unique national parks not just in Ukraine but the entire continent. Oleshky Sands National Nature Park is often cited as either the first or second largest desert in Europe measuring up to 15 km (9.3 mi) in width. It is thought to have formed at the end of the last ice age and is now contained by the pine forests that have been planted around it. This environment is home to several species of reptile including the Caspian whipsnake and the Steppe-runner, a species of lizard found as far east as China.

Left: Caspian whipsnake / Shutterstock & Right: Oleshky Sands / Shutterstock

Białowieża National Park, Poland/Belarus

Our journey into the wondrous world of European wildlife continues just north of Ukraine in the 9th largest country in Europe. Like Ukraine, Poland contains around 10% of the Carpathian Mountain Range but most of the country is relatively flat with areas of temperate forest. Białowieża National Park is located on the border of Poland and Belarus and is home to one of the most impressive creatures on the continent, the European Bison. These animals are from the same genus as the American bison, who tend to be a little heavier but fractionally shorter than their European counterparts, who have longer legs. These creatures became extinct during the first World War but were reestablished from zoo populations into several areas including and especially Białowieża forest where the largest population now resides.

Left & Right: Bison at Białowieża / Shutterstock

The entire forest was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979, the criteria for which not only mentions the population of bison but other animals such as wolves and lynx as well as the forest itself, which contains extensive old-growth forest and is highly valued for its diversity of fungi as well as being home to many species of moss and lichen. Poland is also home to my favourite building in all of Europe, Malbork Castle, which was built by the Teutonic order during the 13th century and features eye-catching red brick walls.

Left: Białowieża Forest / Shutterstock & Right: Malbork Castle / Shutterstock

Oulanka National Park, Finland

The Baltic Sea shares its coastline with both Poland and our next stop further north, which boasts arguably the most spectacular wildlife of any European country. Or at the very least, tied with Sweden and Norway! Finland is unique from all other countries we’ve touched on so far thanks to its ecological make-up being almost entirely boreal forest. Oulanka National Park is located in the heart of the boreal zone, close to the Arctic Circle and the border with Russia and is one of Finland’s 40+ national parks. This kind of habitat plays host to animals that don’t venture further south such as moose, who do not fare well in warmer climates, as well as wolverines, the largest of the terrestrial mustelids.

Left: Eurasian Brown Bear / Shutterstock & Right: Wolverine / Shutterstock

Other animals include the lynx who thrive in Finland’s snowy wilderness alongside reindeer whose antlers are grown by both sexes, unlike most other deer species which are grown only by males. The birds of the Finnish boreal forests include the northern hawk owl, which preys on small mammals such as shrews and snowshoe hares as well as game birds such as the black grouse, which comes from the same family as the capercaillie, which is also present in Finland. A 2019 study by the Natural Resources Institute Finland estimated there to be just over 2,000 brown bears within the country’s borders, which is significantly more than their dwindling wolf population which is now under 200 individuals.

Left: Eurasian Lynx / Shutterstock & Right: Northern Hawk Owl / Shutterstock

Jostedalsbreen National Park, Norway

For nature enthusiasts, there are few areas of the world that compete with Scandinavia and our next stop features another of Europe’s epic mountain ranges, which runs down the western side of the Scandinavian peninsula and is named simply the Scandinavian Mountains. One of the most well-known features of this area is the gigantic glacier-cut fjords that start far inland and lead into the Norwegian Sea. The most well-known and photographed is Geirangerfjord, which is 15 km long, and at parts 1.5 km wide, often playing host to large cruise ships, which turn around with ease in its ice-cold waters.

Left: Geirangerfjord / Shutterstock & Right: Jostedalsbreen / Shutterstock

The most inland point of Geirangerfjord is less than 50 km from the centre of the largest glacier in mainland Europe, Jostedalsbreen, which makes up half of the surrounding national park. At its thickest, the Jostedalsbreen glacier is 570 m and drops from an elevation of almost 2000 m (1957 m ) to just 60. The total volume is 73 km², which according to Visit Norway’s website is enough to fill 300 billion bathtubs of water! Norway is quite unique in its geography with several other famous sites found further south including Trolltunga, a famous rocky outcrop that extends precariously over the 700 m drop below and Pulpit Rock, which is again further south and looks ever so slightly less precarious!

Left: Trulltunga / Shutterstock & Right: Pulpit Rock / Shutterstock

Cairngorms National Park, UK

The freezing North Sea separates Scandinavia from the United Kingdom, specifically the coastline of Scotland which is home to the highest peak in the U.K. Ben Nevis and its only population of reindeer! At 4,528 km² / 1,748 sq mi, Cairngorms National Park is the largest in the U.K. and is named after the Cairngorms Mountain Range, the highest in the U.K. In addition to the mountainous ecosystems, there are several habitats that make the Cairngorms an incredibly unique location; Moorlands are maintained by the park authority through burning and in addition to displaying wonderful blooms of purple heather in the autumn months, are home to populations of grouse and other species such as blue hares, also known as the mountain hare.

Left: Scottish Moorlands / Shutterstock & Right: Reindeer / Shutterstock

Peatlands form in very wet conditions and are named after their soil known as peat. These ecosystems are fragile due to their slow growth but are home to many species of colourful mosses. Finally, the woodlands and forests of the Cairngorms, known as Caledonian Forest, are home to tracts of Scots pine, birch and aspen trees. Among many other creatures, the Scottish wildcat can be found roaming the park alongside the beautiful European pine marten, which can weigh 1,800 g / 63.5 oz. Perhaps most surprisingly, the Cairngorms is home to the U.K’s only herd of reindeer. One of the most frequently asked questions on the park’s website is “can I cuddle the reindeer” to which the park rangers have gently pointed out that these animals enjoy their personal space and it is therefore advised not to cuddle the reindeer!

Left: European Wild Cat / Shutterstock & Right: Mountain Hare / Shutterstock

De Hoge Veluwe National Park, Netherlands

There is one more creature that the Cairngorms is famous for, the red deer, but we’ll save this species for our next stop, found 800 km back across the North Sea in the Netherlands. Veluwezoom National Park was established in 1931 and is the oldest national park in Holland. It is home to one of the best examples of heath, a shrubland habitat, similar to the moors of Scotland, dominated by species of heather, grasses and herbs. The nearby De Hoge Veluwe National Park, has very similar terrain, home to arid areas known as sand drifts, which mix with the heath and look particularly incredible at sunset.

Left: Deer in Veluwezoom / Shutterstock & Right: Sand drifts at De Hoge Veluwe / Shutterstock

Both parks host populations of red deer, which mate during the months of September and October, a period known as rutting reason. The male deer, known as stags, will compete for females by roaring and battling other stags by clashing antlers. Other impressive wildlife includes wild boars who will often graze alongside the deer. Most of the piglets are born in March and are much lighter in colour with white stripes that stretch along the length of their bodies. The sand lizard is one of the most interesting reptiles of the region; the males of the species are bright green in colour whereas the females are brown. They can be found in the sand drifts at De Hoge Veluwe.

Left: Squirrel / Shutterstock & Right: Wild Boar / Shutterstock

Doñana National Park, Spain

If you thought the landscape of the Netherlands was impressive, I’d like to introduce you to a country called Spain. The Pyrenees separate this Mediterranean country from its northern neighbour, France. However, its highest peak, Mulhacén is found in the Sierra Nevada range in the south of the country, which is also home to the Alhambra, a palace built during the 13th and 14th centuries during the rule of the Nasrid dynasty. It is one of a handful of UNESCO world heritage sites in southern Spain, which also includes an important wetland 360 km southwest.

Left: The Alhamba / Shutterstock & Right: Greater Flamingos / Shutterstock

Doñana National Park was established in 1969 and is home to wild horses, deer, and more than 400 species of birds including and especially the greater flamingo. These social animals live in flocks of thousands of birds called colonies. They are filter feeders and get their pink colour from carotenoids in the algae they consume. Doñana also plays host to one of the two major populations of Iberian Lynx, an endangered wildcat found only in the south of Spain. The wetland is separated from the ocean by an extensive set of dunes, the national park includes these dunes and a 30 km stretch of Mediterranean coastline.

Left: Sand Dunes at Doñana / Shutterstock & Right: Iberian Lynx / Shutterstock

Zakynthos National Marine Park, Greece

This Mediterranean is one of the most revered and unique features in Europe and is shared by over 10 European countries including Greece. The territory of Greece includes thousands of islands dotted around the eastern part of the Mediterranean. Some of the most famous include Santorini or Thira in Greek with its bright white and blue painted buildings and Zakynthos, which is home to the towering white cliffs of Navagio Beach. On the other side of the island sits Zakynthos National Marine Park, which is one of the most unique national parks in all of Europe.

Left: Santorini / Shutterstock & Right: Kerakas Beach at Zakynthos National Marine Park / Shutterstock

The park includes a stretch of idyllic coastline which wraps around from the Cape of Marathia on the western peninsula to Gerakas Beach on the eastern peninsula and all of the water in between known as the Bay of Laganas. The park was founded to protect two species, in particular; the loggerhead sea turtle, for whom the island represents one of the most important breeding locations in the Mediterranean with up to 80% of their nest sites and the Mediterranean monk seal, which are quite large, weighing up to 315 kg (694 lbs). This species feeds mostly in shallow coastal waters and their diet can include octopuses, sardines and lobsters.

Left: Loggerhead sea turtle / Shutterstock & Right: Mediterranean monk seal / Shutterstock

Sources

Alp Facts, Triglav National Park, Travel Slovenia, Wild Russia, Seafloor Spreading, Mid Atlantic Ridge, Thingvellir National Park, Abruzzo National Park, Marsican Bear, Apennine Bear, Pollination, Lady’s Slipper Orchid, Biosphere Reserves, Askaniya Nova, Ukraine’s Serengeti, Oleshky Sands, Oleshky Sands National Nature Park, Białowieża National Park, Reindeer, Brown Bear, Finland, Oulanka, Norweigan Fjords, Jostedalsbreen, Cairngorms, Cairngorm Reindeer, De Hoge Veluwe, Veluwezoom, Veluwe, Doñana Wetland, Flamingos, Why Are Flamingos Pink, Greater Flamingo, Doñana National Park, Zakynthos Marine Park, Zakynthos, Encyclopaedia Britannica, UNESCO, Animal Diversity & Wikipedia

Early Primates

First, let’s talk about dinosaurs. Through the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, dinosaurs ruled the world for 165 million years before going extinct around 65 million years ago. It is at this point the first primates arose. The ancestors of primates are thought to be small terrestrial mammals who adapted to life in the trees to feast on the increasing supply of fruit and insects. Tree shrews, a close relative to primates are often used as an example of what these early primates, known as plesiadapiformes, are thought to have looked like. From here, we evolved into arboreal specialists, developing a wide range of adaptations for life in the trees before eventually returning to the ground.

Although the majority of species alive today can be found in the world’s equatorial regions, Eocene fossil sites position the early, now extinct species at a more northerly latitude. It is worth noting that the theory of plate tectonics suggests the world was a very different place 65 million years ago, prior to North America’s migration away from Eurasia and the collision of the Indian subcontinent, which created the Himalayas.

Prosimians

The most primitive extant primates are a paraphyletic group known as prosimians, which includes lorises and lemurs on one side and tarsiers on the other whose ancestors split off to become higher primates or siemens including monkeys, apes and humans. One of the first characteristics that separate even the most primitive of primates is an increase in the dexterity and sensitivity of the hands and the introduction of nails in place of claws allowing them to grip and manipulate objects. The first split in the order primates likely occurred early on, just over 60 million years ago leaving the members on either side with several common characteristics. Lorises and lemurs, known as Strepsirrhines have wet noses, facilitating an excellent sense of smell while all other primates, known as Haplorhines have dry noses and rely more heavily on other senses such as sight.

Left: Ring-tailed lemur | Jearu / Shutterstock & Right: Philippine Tarsier | R.M. Nunes / Shutterstock

After exploring mainland Africa for a few million years, the ancestors of modern-day lemurs arrived in Madagascar, where they evolved separately from other primates after migrating across the Mozambique channel on a large mat of vegetation. This concept is known as oceanic dispersal whereby terrestrial organisms are transferred across the ocean from one landmass to another. It is prudent to consider this now in a more realistic setting before we discuss the hypothesis of how new world monkeys reached the Americas.

Madagascar is the fourth largest island in the world and is home to a staggering number of endemic species. Collectively, the five families of lemur contain over 100 species including some of the most beautiful primates. One of the five families contains various species of dwarf and mouse lemurs and includes the smallest of all primates, Madame Berthe’s mouse lemur, which weighs around 30 g (1.06 oz).

All prosimians have nails on most of their digits but exhibit grooming claws on some of their toes. In addition, lemurs and lorises have incisors that extend forward creating a tooth comb, which is also used for grooming. This is also present in close relatives such as tree shrews and colugos but not in tarsiers or any other haplorhine. While lemurs are found only on the island of Madagascar, the other Strepsirrhines have a much wider range, being found throughout Africa and Southeast Asia. They are separated into two families that differ by locomotion; the members of Lorisidae are methodical climbers, whereas those in Galagidae are more agile and are known to jump.

Lorisoids, like all primates, have forward-facing eyes. The ability to combine information from both eyes is known as binocular vision and facilitates better depth perception. There are various hypotheses for why primates have forward-facing eyes. For those who spend most or all of their time in the trees, depth perception is vital for survival in this environment. Predatory animals also have forward-facing eyes as it makes targeting and catching their prey much easier. Prey animals on the other hand such as zebras or squirrels for that matter, which are arboreal, have eyes on the side of their face. This gives them a much wider range of vision to spot predators but they compromise on the precision of their eyesight. It is likely a combination of our ancestors’ arboreal lifestyle and insectivorous diet that lead to our forward-facing eyes.

Another interesting difference between Strepsirrhines and Haplorhines is the anatomy of the skull. In lemurs and Lorisoids, the eye sockets are not fully enclosed, rather the eyes are supported by a postorbital bar. In tarsiers and all other Haplorines, there is less reliance on smell and a stronger reliance on vision leading to fully enclosed eye sockets. The fossil record indicates that Tarsiiforme primates once roamed North America, Europe, North Africa and Asia but the 13 extant species that remain are all located in Southeast Asia. They are named so for their unusually large ankle bones known as tarsals and are the only entirely carnivorous primate, preying on insects and larger animals such as snakes and lizards.

Left: Lemur Skull | Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova / Shutterstock & Right: Monkey Skeleton | Sukpaiboonwat / Shutterstock

New World Monkeys

The next split in the primate family tree occurred between 60 to 40 million years ago and is arguably one of the most interesting separating prosimians from the higher primates or simians. In a similar fashion to how lemurs reached Madagascar, it is thought that some of the early anthropoid monkeys migrated across the Atlantic on a large mat of vegetation either in one stretch or in multiple hops if sea levels were low enough to create islands or land bridges.

Admittedly, this theory can seem a little far-fetched so let’s explore fossils, how they’re dated, and why this evidence leads to the current hypothesis. Fossils are the remains of organisms that have been preserved in layers of rock. When an animal dies, the soft parts of the body decompose, leaving behind the hard parts such as the skeleton. Layers of sediment build up on top of the skeleton and eventually compact and turn into rock. The bones are then dissolved by water seeping through the rock and minerals in the water fill the space the bones once occupied creating fossils. There are a few different ways that scientists calculate the age of the fossils, one of which is dating the surrounding rock using an absolute dating technique known as radiometric dating.

Volcanic layers contain radioactive isotopes that have a known half-life. By measuring the breakdown of these isotopes, scientists can calculate the age of certain layers and thus the approximate age of fossils contained in the rock. They are then able to determine where and when extinct species of animals lived and by studying their morphology, how they are related. This is known as the fossil record.

All this to say, even with significantly older primate fossils found in 2015, there is no evidence to suggest that primates were present in South America earlier than 32 million years ago. On top of this, fossil evidence suggests that the continents of North and South America were not connected until around 2.7 million years ago so there was no land route for the early primates to reach South America. It is therefore hypothesised that the ancestors of New World monkeys crossed the Atlantic ocean, the distance of which would have been significantly shorter 30-40 million years ago, on a floating mat of vegetation.

There are five families of New World monkeys almost all of which are exclusively arboreal, living in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America; Callitrichidae contains marmosets and tamarins, which are the smallest of the monkeys and are also thought of as the most primitive. Their thumbs are not opposable nor are their tails prehensile and with the exception of the big toe on each hind foot, they possess claws on all digits, allowing them to grip tree trunks with their tiny hands. Cebidae contains capuchins and squirrel monkeys, Aotidae contains the only truly nocturnal monkeys known as night monkeys, Pitheciidae contains titis, sakis and uakaris and Atelidae contains woolly, howler and spider monkeys, which are particularly unique exhibiting only four fingers and strong prehensile tails.

Left: Western pygmy marmoset | Pharo / Shutterstock & Right: Black or Guatemalan Howler Monkey | reisegraf.ch / Shutterstock

Old World Monkeys

This is one trait that no old-world monkey processes, in fact, macaques exhibit almost no tail at all. There are several additional characteristics that separate these two groups. New World monkeys are typically smaller, even the largest howler monkeys, which usually average no more than 25 lb (11.4 kg) are dwarfed by mandrills, the largest of the old world monkeys, which usually average no more than 55 lb (25 kg) but have been recorded at almost 120 lb (54 kg / 119 lb). Perhaps the most interesting difference is the structure of their noses; New world monkeys have a wide septum with outward-facing nostrils whereas Old World monkeys, apes and humans, referred to as catarrhines, have narrow septums and downwards-facing nostrils.

Dental structure is another area that separates monkeys in the New world from those in the old and is worth exploring quickly as all catarrhines share the dental structure of humans. Mammals have four main types of teeth; incisors sit at the front of the mouth and are used to cut, bite, nibble and strip. Canines, which are particularly prominent in male old-world monkeys and apes, are used to grab, pierce and tear. Premolars and molars sit behind the canines and are used to grind and crush, with premolars also being used to slice. In New World monkeys, the dental formula for each quadrant is 2 incisors, 1 canine, 3 premolars and either 2 or 3 molars. Catarrhines have 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3 molars.

Old World monkeys are found throughout Africa and into Asia, with populations as far north as Japan and Gibraltar. Although many of these monkeys are arboreal, there is generally more time spent on the ground in the old world, and thus less of a need for a prehensile tail. The types of ecosystems inhabited by Old World monkeys are also more diverse, with species such as the baboon roaming the tropical grasslands of Africa. Many of these primates also exhibit callous sitting pads known as ischial callosities. These monkeys are all contained in one family, which is split into two subfamilies.

The members of Colobinae are referred to as leaf-eating monkeys and include the colobus monkeys of Africa, the langurs of Asia and a group known as the odd-nosed monkeys like the Proboscis monkey, which are also present in Asia. On the other side of the family, all of the species are found in Sub-Saharan Africa with the exception of macaques, which are found in Asia and a small population in North Africa & Gibraltar, and the Hamadryas baboon, which is found in East Africa and the Arabian peninsula. In addition to baboons and macaques, the most well-known of these primates include the mandrill, seven species of Vervet monkey and guenons, which can be quite colourful.

Apes

The last major group of primates to evolve are thought to have split from Old world monkeys around 25 million years ago and can be split further into two groups; lesser apes or gibbons and great apes, which are all included in the same family as humans, Hominidae. Although they are arguably the most fascinating, if we remove humans, apes make up the smallest group of primates; There are just 20 species of gibbon and 3 species of Orangutan found in Southeast Asia and 2 species of gorilla, 1 species of chimpanzee and 1 species of bonobo found in Central Africa.

There are several physical characteristics that separate apes from monkeys; although all apes possess a coccyx, we lack the presence of an external tail. Apes are much larger than monkeys and have broader, more shallow chests. Lesser apes or gibbons are the primates arguably best suited to an arboreal lifestyle, with long arms and flexible shoulder joints that facilitate brachiation, a particularly efficient method of arboreal locomotion. However, we see a gradual progression back to shorter arms as apes adapted to a terrestrial lifestyle with chimpanzees exhibiting the most similar bodies to humans.

As we discussed at the beginning, it’s not just these morphological similarities that position chimps as our closest relatives. Genome sequencing has now been completed on at least one species of each of the apes and has helped us better assess how closely related we are to each species. But what exactly is genome sequencing and how does it work? Let’s start with cells. A cell is the basic unit of life. Cells combined together make tissues and tissues combined together make organs. Each cell is controlled by a nucleus, which contains 46 chromosomes, grouped into 23 pairs. Each chromosome neatly packages a long molecule of DNA.

Specific sections of DNA are referred to as genes and provide each cell with instructions on how to function and thus how to develop and maintain our bodies. Genes are hereditary and are passed on from our parents who in turn got their genes from their parents. This is why we look similar to our relatives. We can measure how genetically similar we are to other people or other animals thanks to the structure of DNA.

You’ve probably seen elaborate animations of the shape of DNA, which looks similar to a coiled ladder. To understand genome sequencing, the most important part of this structure is the pairs of bases that make up each rung of the ladder. There are 4 possible combinations AT, TA, GC, and CG. Human DNA contains 3 billion base pairs, the vast majority of which are in exactly the same sequence; we all have 5 fingers on each hand with nails, the structure of our skeleton is more or less proportioned the exact same way etc… However, it is small differences in these sequences that give us our eye colour, our height and other physical characteristics passed down from our relatives.

A genome is a complete set of our genetic code, the sequence of all 3 billion base pairs. Once this sequence has been analysed and recorded, we can compare genomes to see how genetically similar we are to other organisms. It is because of this scientific breakthrough that we are able to more accurately understand the evolution of primates. All humans share around 99.9% of either other’s DNA. Chimps are the most similar species with almost 99% similarity, gorillas are a close second with 98%, orangutans third with 97% and gibbons bringing up the rear with 96%. These are your closest relatives.

Sources

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Animal Diversity, Wikipedia, Taxonomy and General Characteristics of Primates, Duke University – Primate Evolution’s Tangled Tree, PBS – Your Place in the Primate Family Tree, Chimp genome sequencing, Bonobo genome sequencing, Common ancestry, The evolution of primates, primate evolution, hominini, Timing & distribution of early primate species, Dinosaur extinction, Creation of the Himalayas, Human evolution, Morphology of Primates, Why primates have forward-facing eyes, Predator/prey vision difference, How fossils are formed, How fossils are dated, dating rocks and fossils, New world monkey migration, monkeys rafting the Atlantic, future species rafting, important fossil sites, Homo Erectus fossils, Fossil evidence of the Great Biotic Interchange, Rafting dispersal of terrestrial animals, New world monkey ecology, Where anthropoids originated, Mammalian teeth, Orangutan fossil evidence, primate genetic differences, orangutan genome, gibbon genome, DNA, identical twins DNA, genome, genetics, the Structure and Function of DNA & human genome

1 – Galapagos National Park, Ecuador

Our journey into the world of national parks starts on a remote archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, 1,000 km from mainland South America. Galapagos National Park was established in 1959 as Ecuador’s first national park. It is one of the most renowned locations for wildlife, sporting one of the highest percentages of endemic species. Sitting atop the Galapagos hotspot, the volcanic landscape of the islands is just as impressive as their inhabitants. Wolf volcano has erupted several times over the last decade, most recently in January 2022. Considering its position on the equator, the climate of the Galapagos is unusually cool thanks to an ocean current known as the Peru or Humboldt current. This current transports cool, nutrient-rich water from Antarctica up the west coast of South America before turning west at the equator where it runs into the Galapagos Islands. The archipelago sits at the intersection of three large ocean currents creating a tremendous amount of biodiversity. But it’s not just marine life that thrives here; on land, gigantic Galapagos tortoises slowly traverse the terrain alongside iguanas and many other types of reptile. The park also plays host to colonies of fur seals and sea lions who enjoy the warm sands of the islands’ shores.

2 – Pantanal Matogrossense National Park, Brazil

Our next stop is found 4,000 km southeast, in Brazil, where the largest tropical wetland on the planet exists. Pantanal Matogrossense National Park is another area revered for its biodiversity and, like Galapagos, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, inscribed in the year 2000. The national park is a relatively small section of the larger Pantanal region; this gently sloped basin floods from October to March and drains during the dry season from April to September. The Pantanal contains one of the world’s highest concentrations of Jaguars, the largest felines in the Americas, who are known to be excellent swimmers and are often found near water where they prey upon caiman, capybara, tapirs and many other types of animal. Capybara is another species that thrive in areas with lots of water; they are the world’s largest rodent species and can be found grazing in the Pantanal alongside South America’s largest cervid, the Marsh deer, which can weigh almost 300 lbs (275 lbs / 125 kg). Families of giant otters play and hunt in the waters here alongside caiman and anacondas. Birdlife is also abundant in the Pantanal, with over 600 species calling this region their home.

3 – Los Glaciares National Park, Argentina

The Andes Mountain Range runs along the western side of the continent and terminates in one of the most admired regions in the world, Patagonia. At the southern end of this range, Argentina’s Los Glaciares National Park features some of the most recognisable mountains in South America. The park’s most iconic peak is Mount Fitz Roy, which is made from granite and rises to just over 3,400 m (3,405 m / 11,155 ft). This mountain looks particularly magnificent at sunrise as the sun casts shades of yellow and red against its tall grey towers. These mountains are home to a large collection of glaciers from which the park derives its name. The most well known of these glaciers is Perito Moreno, which is named after the Argentine explorer Francisco Pascasio Moreno; Perito in Spanish meaning expert. Perito Moreno sits in front of Lake Argentino and supplies the lake with a constant source of fresh water. We’ll learn more about glaciers later on in Iceland. There are over 100 registered bird species in Los Glaciares including the Magellanic woodpecker and the eye-catching many-coloured rush tyrant, which is sighted infrequently in the humid areas of the park. 

4 – Virunga National Park, DRC

The South Atlantic Ocean separates the continents of South America from Africa where one of the most mysterious rainforests is found. Virunga National Park is located in far-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and is home to the largest primates in the world. The gorillas of Virunga are known as mountain gorillas, which are one of two subspecies of eastern gorilla; the western gorilla, found on the western side of the continent also has 2 subspecies. Mountain gorillas are perhaps most unique from all other subspecies by their group structure; most gorilla troops are made up of one dominant male, known as a silverback, and between 3-6 females with their young. Troops of mountain gorillas are much larger, containing up to 8 silverbacks, although there is still a hierarchy with one dominant male who leads the group. Eastern gorillas are critically endangered with less than 3,000 remaining in the wild. This area is also home to other endangered species such as the common chimpanzee, the closest relative to humans, and the Okapi, the closest relative to the giraffe. Virunga National Park is named after the Virunga mountain range, which is nothing short of breathtaking and is home to 2 active volcanoes. Nyiragongo features the world’s largest lava lake and is known for its violent eruptions, last erupting in May 2021 when the lava reached the outskirts of Goma, a city that sits just 10km from the summit.

5 – Kruger National Park, South Africa

Roughly 2,500 km due south from Virunga, sits one of South Africa’s most famous parks, housing the savannah’s most infamous predators. At roughly 20,000 square kilometres, Kruger National Park is one of Africa’s largest and boasts one of the most impressive collections of wildlife on the continent. In addition to many other species, Kruger is home to the “Big 5”, a group of animals that gets its nickname from a term that game hunters used to describe the 5 most difficult animals to hunt on foot. The largest of the 5, the African bush elephant is the largest terrestrial mammal on earth and also has the longest gestation period; females give birth after around 650 days, which is well over twice that of a human. The second largest of the group is the black rhinoceros, which are critically endangered with just over 3,000 remaining in the wild. African buffalos can be seen roaming the park in herds of up to 500, banding together to protect themselves from another big-5 member and the largest feline on the continent. A survey in 2011 estimated close to 1,800 lions in Kruger National Park. Researchers did this by playing the distress call of a buffalo calf over a loudspeaker at various locations in the park and counting the number of lions that showed up These gigantic cats can be up to four times the size of Leopards, an elusive and agile cat who often hoist their prey into trees to avoid other predators such as lions.

6 – Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya

There are many national parks in Africa that feature the classic safari animals but few as unique as the next on our journey found 2,600km north in central Kenya. Lake Nakuru National Park may not boast the largest, deepest, or most visually alluring lake in the world but thanks to its algae-rich alkaline waters, is home to some of the most incredible birdlife on the planet. Nakuru is one of three lakes that make up the Kenya Lake System in the Great Rift Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and an important foraging location for the park’s most well-known residents, lesser flamingos. These birds are highly social and live in large flocks; up to 4 million lesser flamingos can be found throughout Kenya’s lake system and fly from lake to lake in search of food. Nakuru National Park is not only famous for its flamingos, there are over 400 bird species in the area including great white pelicans who use the park as an important breeding ground. Waterbucks are another interesting species that call the park their home; the males of the species are larger and have long spiral horns.

7 – Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia

To Kenya’s north sits Ethiopia; although this country doesn’t contain the highest peak, it is the most mountainous country in Africa and contains a particularly beautiful national park found at the northern tip of the Ethiopian Highlands. The landscape at Simien Mountains National Park was shaped over millions of years as the Ethiopian plateau eroded away creating deep valleys with steep cliffs and tall mountainous peaks. The high-altitude terrain here is noticeably green and supports several fascinating species; The Gelada baboon is a medium-sized old-world monkey found only in the alpine grassland areas of the Ethiopian Highlands. They are also known as the bleeding-heart baboon thanks to an hourglass-shaped hairless patch on their chests revealing bright red skin. The males of the species exhibit long hair on their head and shoulders and onto their back, not too dissimilar to the mane of a lion. The Ethiopian wolf is another species endemic to the highlands and is critically endangered with estimates as low as 200 remaining in the wild. They have a striking red and white coat and are found in packs of up to 13 individuals. The Walia ibex is also endangered with less than 600 individuals remaining and has an even smaller range, found only in the Simien Mountains with almost all of them located in the national park. They live only at high altitudes where they graze on grasses, herbs, lichens and similar vegetation.

8 – Timanfaya National Park, Lanzarote

Our last stop in Africa before heading to the European continent sits 150 km from mainland Morocco on the Spanish island of Lanzarote. The views at Timanfaya National Park can best be described as otherworldly and is often compared to the landscape on Mars. It is home to a collection of incredible red, orange and black volcanoes and although the last significant activity occurred 200-300 years ago, hotspots are still present in the park and can reach over 100°C (212°F) at the surface and 600°C (1112°F) just 13 m deep. Besides the volcanoes are long stretches of jagged lava fields, which further add to the park’s mystique. Timanfaya also has a long north-facing coastline where the rich red and dark black volcanic soils contrast sharply with the deep blue sea. As you might expect, this national park is not famous for its flora or fauna, however, there is life that abides in this rugged terrain. Over 100 species of lichen grow on the rocks here and the park is home to one of the most unique vineyards in the world.

9 – Plitvice Lakes National Park, Croatia

The warm waters of the Mediterranean separate Africa from the European continent, which is home to some of the most unique national parks in the world. The landscape at Plitvice Lakes National Park is one of the most recognisable in all of Europe. It is referred to as a karst landscape, which is created when the bedrock, in this case, limestone with inserts of dolomite, erodes over time creating springs, caves, sinkholes, sinking streams and other features. The lakes here are formed by tufa barriers; as per the park’s website, tufa is a hollow, porous rock created from the deposition of dissolved calcium carbonate in the water by plants, algae and mosses. These barriers are constantly growing and create many of the picturesque cascades that the park is known for as the water passes from one lake to another. It is this combination of karst landscapes and tufa barriers that makes Plitvice so special. Although not its most well-known feature, the wildlife of the park is also impressive; perhaps most surprisingly, Plitvice Lakes is home to two venomous snake species including the Nose-horned viper, over 300 species of butterfly including the Jersey tiger and many species of bird including the Eurasian pygmy owl.

10 – Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany

Plitvice is Croatia’s oldest national park, 500 km northwest lies Germany’s oldest, which showcases some of Europe’s largest predators. Bavarian Forest National Park is home to the Eurasian Lynx; the largest feline on the continent which were reintroduced to the park in the 1980s. These agile creatures are mostly solitary with the exception of mother and cubs, which are usually born in a litter of 2-3 and won’t reach independence until 10 months of age. Being the largest of the 4 lynx species, these cats prey on larger animals such as roe or musk deer. Another of the park’s large predators is the grey wolf, these canids are twice the size of the lynx and also have double the offspring, with the average litter size of 6 pups. Wolves will prey on ungulates such as deer as well but will also eat smaller animals such as beavers and rabbits, which are present in the park. One of the most interesting bird species here is the capercaillie; the males of the species exhibit a majestic green chest and fancy red eyebrows. The Bavarian Forest is also stunning in its own right and contains swaths of spruce, beech and fir trees as well as a large network of streams and lakes filled with ice-cold water from the surrounding mountains.

11 – Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland

One park that has even more ice-cold water is located in Iceland and covers over 13% of the country. Vatnajökull National Park was established relatively recently, in 2008 and was also inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2019. Vatnajökull ice cap is the defining feature of the park; it is the largest in Europe and features a collection of spectacular output glaciers. There are many different types of glacier, including ice caps, but can be generally defined as a body of ice found on land that flows downhill under its own weight; they add mass at the top due to an accumulation of snow over long periods of time and lose mass from glacial melt at the bottom. What makes Vatnajökull so unique is the addition of volcanic activity. The national park is home to ten volcanoes, eight of which are classed as subglacial, positioned underneath the ice cap. The heat generated by these volcanoes, most forcefully during an eruption, creates glacial outburst floods that dump water into the surrounding plains. There are many other fascinating features at Vatnajökull including ice caves, waterfalls and lakes.

12 – Lake District National Park, UK

A short hop across the Atlantic Ocean takes us to our next stop in objectively the most beautiful country on earth, England! Although this fact may not be entirely true, the landscape at Lake District National Park is the definition of British countryside and when it’s not raining, is pretty special. The reflection of the colourful glaciated valleys of the region can be seen in the park’s many picturesque lakes, the largest of which is Lake Windermere, which is also the largest natural lake in England. These hillsides are home to an agro-pastoral land-use system that sees individual fields separated by stone walls. Lake District National Park is also home to the highest mountain in England, Scafell Pike, which stands a fraction below 1,000 metres (978 m / 3,209 ft) and looks out over the surrounding countryside. Some of the park’s most loveable wildlife includes Eurasian otters, which enjoy the waterways of the park, and red foxes who usually mate during the winter and give birth to an average of 5 kits during the spring.

13 – Abisko National Park, Sweden

I like to think of Scandinavia as Europe’s Canada. Most of the large cities are located in the south and further north lies vast expanses of snowy wilderness packed full of interesting animals and experiences. Sweden’s Abisko National Park is one such wilderness found in the heart of Skandanavia’s legendary Lapland, which is now referred to by its indigenous name Sápmi. It is the only national park on our list that sits inside the Arctic Circle. In the summer, the park experiences days without a sunset known as midnight sun and in winter, experiences days without a sunrise known as polar night. Although the climate here can be harsh, the landscape is by no means bleak and is home to some incredible wildlife. The area’s history is closely tied between the Sami people and the herds of wild reindeer, known in North America as caribou, who roam the tundra in search of food. Other animals include moose, who inhabit the park during the winter months as well as arctic foxes and bears. Abisko is commonly cited as one of the best places in the world to watch aurora borealis, more commonly known as the Northern Lights. This natural phenomenon occurs when charged particles collide with gases in the earth’s atmosphere producing billions of tiny flashes that appear as waves of colour in the night sky. This only occurs in polar regions as the earth’s magnetic field directs the charged particles towards the poles.

14 – Calanques National Park, France

Heading southeast, the turquoise coastline of the Mediterranean plays host to our last stop in Europe, located in the south of France. Calanques National Park is one of the newest national parks in France, having only been created in 2012. The word Calanque comes from two words in the local dialect; calo, meaning “small rocky cove” and anca, meaning steep slope. Calanques are found all along France’s southern coastline but nowhere better exhibits these incredible geological structures than the 20km stretch east of Cassis towards Marseille, which is all included in the national park. As such, they are often referred to as the creeks of Marseille. The rock here is mostly white limestone, which contrasts sharply with the myriad shades of blue from the Mediterranean Sea. The park includes more than just these coves, stretching further inland and out to sea. The ocean life here is as diverse as you would expect from such pristine waters and includes dolphins and whales. Interestingly, there are four species of dolphin in the Mediterranean; common, striped, Risso’s and bottlenose.

15 – Göreme National Park, Turkey

Our first national park in Asia is also our first with man-made features and can be found in the province of Cappadocia in central Turkey. The landscape at Göreme National Park was created over millions of years as the soft volcanic rock of the Anatolian Plateau eroded away creating a multitude of formations including colourful ridgelines, intricate valleys with smooth wavy sides, and pinnacles known as hoodoos or fairy chimneys. What makes Göreme even more unique is a collection of hand-carved accommodations amounting to one of the largest cave-dwelling complexes in the world. There is evidence to suggest that the first dwellings were created around the 4th century BC, although most of the complex is thought to have been created during the reign of the Byzantine Empire starting in the 4th century AD. The cave system was used as refuge during times of invasion and also became an important centre for Christianity, exhibiting a collection of intricately decorated churches and monasteries. The final and most modern human spectacle at the park is the groups of hot air balloons that drift peacefully at sunrise as the golden sun breaks the horizon.

16 – Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal

The next stop on our world tour showcases perhaps the greatest geological formation on earth found in Nepal on its northern border with China. Sagarmatha National Park is home to the tallest mountain in the world, Mount Everest or Sagarmāthā in Nepalese, which stands at 8,848 m (29029 ft). This awe-inspiring peak has been the subject of mountaineering legend over the years; the first attempt at the summit was made by the British climber George Finch in 1922 but it wouldn’t be until 1953 that Tenzing Norgay from Nepal and Sir Edmund Hillary from New Zealand would successfully summit. The park contains numerous other epic peaks, glaciers and deep valleys lined with lush green forests. One of the world’s most elusive species, the snow leopard, can be found within the park’s boundaries where they enjoy the steep, rocky terrain. They prey primarily on blue sheep and will also hunt other bovids such as Tibetan antelope as well as smaller animals such as marmots, mice and birds. The lesser panda, also known as the red panda, is another species found in the park and throughout the Himalayas. They live in deciduous and coniferous forests between 2,200 to 4,800 m (7220 ft to 15750 ft).

17 – Ranthambore National Park, India

Nepal borders India to the south, one of the most biodiverse countries on the planet with one of the most extensive national park systems. Ranthambore National Park in Rajasthan is one of the most well known and for good reason. The park is named after the historic Ranthambore Fort, which was built over centuries starting in 10th century A.D. and looks out over the surrounding forest. This forest is home to some of the most breathtaking wildlife on the planet including royal Bengal tigers, several species of deer, sloth bears and monkeys. The population of tigers in the park rose from 66 in 2019 to 81 in 2021, which has actually led to several tigers migrating outside of the park due to territorial disputes. The home range of a female tiger can range from 200 to 1,000 square kilometres, a male’s range can be 2 to 15 times that size. There are many species of ungulate that live in the forests here, which are preyed upon by the tigers. Species include the chital deer, which have a majestic rich brown coat with white spots with the males of the species displaying antlers. Sambar deer are also found in the park, they are much darker in colour and are also significantly larger with the biggest individuals weighing up to 570 lb (260 kg). Other interesting species include the sloth bear, which occasionally clash with the tigers and grey langurs, a species of old world monkey native to the Indian subcontinent.

18 – Gobi Gurvan Saikhan National Park, Mongolia

From one of the most biodiverse locations on the planet to one of the most inhospitable, our next stop is found 3000 km northeast in Southern Mongolia. Gobi Gurvan Saikhan National Park is Mongolia’s largest national park measuring 380 km wide and 80 km north to south. It showcases some of the best landscapes of the Gobi, one of the world’s largest deserts, that stretches from northern China to far-eastern Mongolia. The Khongoryn Els, also known as the singing dunes, are located within the park boundary and are some of Mongolia’s largest sand dunes, measuring up to 300 m high (990 ft). They bridge the gap between the fertile steppe and Gurvan Saikhan mountain range providing quite a striking contrast. Herds of horses can be found grazing the steppe here alongside the largest camel species, well equipped for the freezing nights of the Gobi. Bactrian camels have thick fur, helping them survive the freezing winter temperatures, which can reach -15°C to -30°C.

19 – Guilin and Lijiang River National Park, China

To explore another karst landscape, we need to travel over 2,200 km south to a famous river scene in southern China. Guilin and Lijiang River National Park is one of the most recognisable scenes in Asia; like others previously discussed, the rock formations here were created over millions of years as the soluble limestone slowly eroded away leaving a large collection of white rock peaks covered with lush green foliage. These limestone peaks are home to over 20 large karst caves some of which look out over the city. Today, the picturesque Lijiang River, also known simply as Li River, winds its way through the city Guilin, it is regarded as one of the most beautiful areas in the country and even has its own saying, which translates to “Among all the mountains and waters, Guilin is the best”. One of the most amazing scenes from this area are fishermen, who use an ancient method of fishing known as cormorant fishing, which dates back 1300 years; the fishermen use trained cormorants to retrieve fish, which are then regurgitated once back at the boat. The cormorants are most hungry at dawn and dusk and thus when most of this fishing takes place. Nowadays, these traditional fishing practices have been replaced by more modern methods but it is still upheld by those passionate about the craft in Guilin.

20 – Fuji Hakone Izu National Park, Japan

Another of Asia’s most revered countries is Japan, and no park is more emblematic than our next stop just outside of Tokyo. Fuji Hakone Izu National Park sits under 100km from the centre of Tokyo and consists of three main elements; Mount Fuji and its surrounding area, a nearby town named Hakone & the Izu peninsula and nearby islands. Mount Fuji serves as the centrepiece and can be seen on the skyline from some of the park’s more distant elements. Fuji is a composite or stratovolcano, meaning their lower slopes rise gently to begin with and peak in a steep concave fashion towards the top. Although Mount Fuji isn’t close to being one of the tallest or most active, it certainly is one of the most iconic; Chureito Pagoda sits just outside of the park but is one of the most well-known in the area and has unbelievable views of Mount Fuji, especially when the cherry trees blossom. There are 5 large lakes that sit at the foothills of the volcano named Fuji Five Lakes and are included in the park boundary. The Hakone area sits southeast of Mount Fuji and is another area well known for its volcanicity and resulting hot springs and sulphur vents, where volcanic gases escape from the ground along with groundwater steam. The Izu peninsula and Izu islands are the southernmost elements of the park, extending into the north pacific.

21 – Hundred Islands National Park, Philippines

The first of three national parks we’ll explore in Southeast Asia is found across the Philippine Sea on the main island of Luzon. Hundred Islands National Park is made up of over 120 picture-perfect islands, only 4 of which are inhabited. These islands are thought to be around 2 million years old and, in fact, are ancient corals that are part of the sea bed. As ocean levels dropped, these corals became exposed and grew vegetation, producing the collection of picturesque islands we see today. The islands all have an interesting mushroom shape thanks to many years of erosion from the crashing waves of the ocean. A study conducted in 2010 sought to assess the wildlife found on the islands and in the adjacent Lingayen Gulf; green sea turtles are one of three species of turtle found in the park along with Olive Ridley turtles and one species of red turtle. Dugongs also abide here, they are the closest living relatives to manatees who are found in the Americas and the west coast of Africa. On land, spotted house geckos were found on one of the larger islands along with the skull of a long-tailed macaque also known as the crab-eating macaque who are found throughout much of southeast Asia.

22 – Khao Sok National Park, Thailand

Thailand is located on the other side of the South China Sea and owns a beautiful piece of land named the Kra Isthmus. Khao Sok National Park offers yet another landscape crafted from the erosion of limestone and is touted as containing one of the oldest evergreen rainforests in the world. By far the most recognisable section of the park is a large lake that sits in the centre of the surrounding rainforest. Here the tall limestone peaks covered in lush green vegetation tower over the turquoise waters. The rainforest visible from the lake extends 10-20 km further south and is home to one of the world’s largest flowers, Rafflesia kerrii. The Rafflesia genus contains the largest flowers in the world, a specimen of this particular species was measured at 112 cm (44 in) in 2007. They omit a horrendous stench, which is similar to that of rotten mean and attracts flies who assist with pollination. As you would expect from such pristine rainforest, the fauna of the park is equally impressive; insects include the jewel beetle, of which there are over 300 species that display a range of vibrant colours. Bird species include several types of hornbill and 12 species of kingfisher including the white-throated kingfisher.

23 – Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park, Indonesia

The Greater Sunda Islands are found south of Thailand and include Java, the 13th largest island in the world. Its topography and landscape are dominated by a row of volcanos that run from one end of the island to the other. The largest of these volcanoes is Semeru, which is also the largest volcano in Indonesia at just over 12,000 ft (12,060 ft / 3,676 m). It towers over the Tengger caldera, a huge ancient volcanic crater from which several newer volcanoes have emerged, one of which is Mount Bromo. Together, these three elements make up Indonesia’s Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park. Although Mount Bromo is not the largest, it is arguably the most iconic, often displaying sizable plumes of smoke from its caldera. At the foot of Mount Bromo lies the floor of the Tengger caldera, an area which is covered in volcanic sediment and known as the Tengger sand sea. The surrounding rainforest can be best described as wild, with several interesting species including the Javan leopard and the Javan rusa, a close relative to the Sambar deer we discovered in Ranthambore.

24 – Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, Australia

Another national park named after multiple individual elements is located 2,500 km southeast in the middle of the Australian outback. Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park features two large rock formations, both of which are immensely important to the Anangu people who have inhabited the area for tens of thousands of years. Uluru, formally known as Ayers Rock, is a gigantic sandstone monolith thought to be roughly half a billion years old that stands at a height of 348 m (1142 ft) and has a circumference of 9.4 km (5.8 mi). 32 km west of Uluru sits a collection of rock domes named Kata Tjuta, formally known as The Olgas. The largest of these domes has a prominence of 546 m (1,791 ft) making it almost 200m taller than Uluru. The wildlife in the park is quite unique given this desert environment. There are many colourful bird species such as the red-capped robin and the Australian Ringneck parrot, which can grow up to 38 cm (15 in) in length. The reptiles of the park include the three-lined knob-tailed gecko and the colourful woma python, which is non-venomous and preys on lizards, ground birds and small mammals.

25 – Fiordland National Park, New Zealand

The Tasman Sea separates Australia from New Zealand where exists a forest fit for a Hollywood blockbuster. Fiordland National Park is known for its fjords and sounds, in particular, Milford Sound, which is located at the northern end of the park and is known for its stunning peaceful views. Both of these geographic features are created when seawater fills a valley that stretches inland from the ocean. Fjords are always created by glaciers whereas the term sound is often used to denote valleys created by rivers instead. The forests of the park were used as one of the filming locations for Lord of the Rings with their moss-covered trees and forest floor creating the magical landscape for the film’s Fangorn Forest. There are two particularly interesting species of alpine bird that live in the park; the takahe is found in alpine grasslands and subalpine shrublands, they are flightless and have an iridescent plumage with hues not too dissimilar to that of a peacock. The kea is another alpine bird found on the south island, in the winter they live at lower elevations but can be found in the alpine tundra in the warmer parts of the year. They are considered to be the only alpine species of parrot in the world and have especially colourful underwings with shades of red and yellow.

26 – Rapa Nui National Park, Chile

The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world and plays host to one of the most isolated national parks. Rapa Nui National Park is located almost 4,000km from mainland Chile and is best known for its collection of hand-carved monoliths. It is thought that the Polynesians first settled in Rapa Nui, known in English as Easter Island, towards the end of the first millennium A.D. Some 900 monoliths, known as moai, were hand-carved between the 10th and 16th centuries and transported to various spots around the island, the majority of which are located around the island’s rugged coastline. Some of these moai rest on their own or in groups and others are lined up on ceremonial platforms known as Ahu. Aside from its man-made features, the island is fascinating in its own right with many volcanic features such as Rano Kao, a volcanic crater found on the southwest of the island. The crater features a lake in its centre and steep walls that drop into the sea on its southwestern side. Although the island is relatively small and doesn’t exhibit any particularly large wildlife, there are several interesting species. The red-tailed tropicbird is one such creature and is named so for its elegant red tail streamer, which on average, is over 30 cm long (35 cm / 14 in).

27 – Manuel Antonio National Park, Costa Rica

Costa Rica is the first of three countries we’ll explore in Central America and is not too far from our first stop in the Galapagos. Even though Manuel Antonio National Park is the country’s smallest, it is one of the most biologically diverse parks on this list and is home to some of the most interesting wildlife. It is situated in the centre of the country’s west coast and in addition to just over 12 sq km (7.7 sq mi) of rainforest, the park also contains several beaches that flank a spine connecting what was previously an island and features a section of cliffs that drops to the clear blue ocean below. One of the most interesting lizards in the park is the basilisk, also known as the Jesus Christ lizard for its ability to run 10-20 metres across a body of water. There are many species of monkey found in the treetops here including capuchins and the Central American squirrel monkey, also known as the red-backed squirrel monkey. Sloths can also be found relaxing in the treetops, both the brown-throated three-toed sloth and Hoffmann’s two-toed sloth are found inside the park boundaries. There are almost 200 species of birds in the park including the charming hummingbird and the colourful American pygmy kingfisher, which weighs just 10–16 g (0.35–0.56 oz).

28 – Tikal National Park, Guatemala

Another great example of Central American rainforest is found 1,000 km northwest but contains a mysterious twist. Tikal National Park in Guatemala is the first of two we’ll explore that exhibit some of the most fascinating ruins of the Maya civilization. This particular set of ruins is found deep in the Guatemalan jungle and makes up just a small fraction of the surrounding national park. The site is thought to have been inhabited from the 6th century BC to the 10th century AD, which spans both their pre-classical and classical periods. The Temple of the Great Jaguar is one of the most famous of the ruins here and stands at a height of 47 m (154 ft) sporting views over the jungle canopy. This national park is also a UNESCO world heritage site, inscribed not only to protect the cultural elements of the park but also the biodiversity of the surrounding rainforest. There are 5 feline species found within the park; the margay, jaguars, pumas, ocelots and the jaguarundi. One bird species, in particular, frequents the ruins of Tikal, the wild ocellated turkey. They are named so for the spots on their tail known as ocelli and also have bright blue faces with orange nodules, which are present to a greater degree in males.

29 – Tulum National Park, Mexico

Northeast of Tikal, Mexico’s Yucatan peninsula contains a stretch of idyllic Caribbean coastline and our next set of Mayan ruins. The ruins in Mexico’s Tulum National Park were built much later than those in Tikal. This picturesque ancient seaside city would reach its height between the 13th and 15th centuries in the period leading up to Spanish colonisation. There are several structures of note, including a pyramid named El Castillo, which is 7.5 m (25 ft) tall and sits on the cliff overlooking the sea. In addition to the ruins, Tulum National Park features a spectacular tropical coastline, a stretch of forest and several cenotes. Cenotes are sinkholes, created when the soluble limestone collapses and is filled with groundwater. These formations are dotted all over the Yucatan peninsula and can be quite intricate. They were important to the Mayans both as a source of fresh water and were of great spiritual significance. There are also many interesting species here such as the Central American agouti, a rodent found in Central and South America.

30 – Jasper National Park, Canada

The Rocky Mountains run from New Mexico in the south and into Canada in the north, where a contiguous collection of national parks can be found. Jasper National Park is the largest of the national parks in the Canadian Rockies, which collectively were inscribed as the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. The mountain landscape here is breathtaking, with dramatic slabs of rock rising from the forest floor. At the southern end of the park sits the Columbia Icefield, the largest icefield in the Columbia Rockies. The Athabasca Glacier is the most well-known section of this icefield, it is quite intricate and features a collection of electric blue ice caves. The water from this mountain drains into the Athabasca River which flows north into the main body of the park and has, over time, eroded the bedrock to create many beautiful canyons and waterfalls. Running parallel to Athabasca River is Maligne River, which features one of the most recognisable lakes in all of North America, Maligne Lake. In addition to its geological features, Jasper National Park was also founded to protect the diverse collection of wildlife that exists within its boundaries. One of the animals most at threat is the caribou, whose numbers are too low to be maintained on their own and are currently being rebuilt by Parks Canada. There are many other species that roam the forests here including mountain goats and wolverines who are one of the largest mustelids, weighing up to 30 kg (66 lb).

There is of course one country omitted from this video that contains one of the most incredible national park systems in the world. If you’d like to learn more about the national parks in the United States, check out this video, the first in a three-part series covering all 63 of the country’s wonderful national parks.

Sources

UNESCO, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wikipedia, Animal Diversity, IUCN Red List, Plitvice Lakes National Park, Galapagos currents, ocean currents, Pantanal, wetlands, Los Glaciares, Virunga, gorilla social groups, gorilla social structure, Kruger, animal gestation period, Simien Mountains, Timanfaya Spain tourism, Timanfaya Lanzarote Tourism, Timanfaya tours, Timanfaya info, karst landscape, Bavarian Forest National Park, Vatnajökull glaciers, Vatnajökull ice cap, largest glaciers, ice caps, Lake District, Abisko, northern lights, Marseille tourism, Calanque geology, whales in the med, Göreme, Ranthambore, Rajasthan tiger population, Gurvan Saikhan, Khongoryn Els, Gobi desert, cormorant fishing, stratovolcanoes, sulphur steam vents, Khao Sok, Rafflesia flowers, hundred islands, hundred islands guide, hundred islands animal study, Bromo Tengger Semeru, Uluru-Kata Tjuta, Fiordland, Lord of the Rings, fjords and sounds, fjords, Manuel Antonio, Manuel Antonio guide, Tikal, Tulum, cenotes, Jasper, Travel Alberta

1 – American crocodile | Crocodylus acutus

The American crocodile is one of the world’s largest reptiles, with a maximum weight of 2,000 lbs (907 kg) and lengths of up to 20 ft (6 m). They can be distinguished by their lighter olive-coloured skin, especially when it’s dry. As well as being found in freshwater ecosystems such as rivers, American crocodiles have a high tolerance for salinity and are often found in coastal waters and brackish ecosystems such as estuaries and mangrove swamps. Crocodilians are referred to as “cold-blooded”, lacking the ability to regulate their own body temperature internally. As such, they can often be found sunbathing at the water’s edge to warm up. While on land, they use a behaviour known as “mouth-gaping”, which amongst other reasons is thought to further assist thermoregulation through evaporation. Once they are too hot, they retreat back to the water to cool down. There are estimated to be around 5,000 individuals in the wild which is alarmingly low when compared to the estimated 1,000,000 American alligators found in a smaller range.

2 – American alligator | Alligator mississippiensis

The American alligator is much darker and is also smaller in size measuring 10 to 15 ft in length (3 to 4.6m) and weighing up to 1,000 lbs (454 kg). Gators have a low tolerance for salt and are therefore not usually found in brackish waters, preferring freshwater habitats such as lakes and rivers. When on land, these creatures often use a high-walk, lifting their bodies off the ground and dragging their tails. American alligators are one of the most vocal species of crocodilian; a study in the Journal of Experimental Biology suggests they use deep bellows to communicate body size. They breed once per year during the spring and lay a clutch of eggs in a nest, which usually contains around 40 eggs. Hatchlings measure 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 cm) and will spend 1 to 2 years with their mother before reaching independence. There are only two species of alligator, both of which exist at the same latitude but on different sizes of the world.

3 – Chinese alligator | Alligator sinensis

The Chinese alligator is found in far eastern China in the lower Yangtze River basin and quite frankly is adorable. These miniature monsters are some of the smallest crocodilians, averaging 5 ft (1.5 m) in length and weighing no more than 100 lbs (45 kg). Like their American cousins, they are dark in colour and their young display yellow bands across their bodies. Living at such high latitudes for cold-blooded animals, winter poses a problem for Chinese alligators who create burrows and become dormant from late fall until early spring when they emerge to enjoy the sun. They have dull teeth, which help them crack the shells of molluscs such as snails as well as preying on fish, invertebrates, small mammals and aquatic birds. This species is critically endangered; with estimates ranging from just 70 – 300 remaining in the wild. Both species of alligator are part of the Alligatoridae family, which also contains 6 species of caiman, found in Central and South America.

4 – Cuvier’s dwarf caiman | Paleosuchus palpebrosus

The world’s smallest caiman, Cuvier’s dwarf caiman, also holds the title of the world’s smallest crocodilian, averaging 4.5 ft (1.4 m) in length and weighing just 13 to 15 lbs (6 to 7 kg). They are quite beautiful with dark, almost black backs and colourful reddish-brown heads. In many crocodillians, including dwarf caimans, the incubation temperature of the eggs has been shown to determin the sex of the hatchlings. Cooler temperatures produce more female young, whereas warmer temperatures produce greater numbers of male hatchlings. This is known as TSD: temperature-dependent sex determination, which is also present in some turtle species. Dwarf caimans bask during the day and hunt at night, preying upon fish, small mammals, frogs and a variety of invertebrates. They are very similar in appearance to the smooth-fronted caiman, a species that gets its name from the lack of a ridge between the eyes that is present in some of the caimans we’ll discuss next.

5 – Smooth-fronted caiman | Paleosuchus trigonatus

Centred around the Amazon and Orinoco basins, smooth-fronted caimans have a very similar range to that of the Cuvier’s dwarf caiman. Although still small, these caimans are slightly larger, usually measuring no more than 6 ft (1.6 m) and weighing up to 45 lbs (20 kg). Clutch size is between 10 to 20 eggs, which won’t hatch for 100 days. Interestingly, nests are often built next to termite mounds, which act as a source of heat. Hatchlings are very colourful and have a golden crown on the top of their head, which fades as they grow. Their diet also changes with age; hatchlings feast on small invertebrates, progressing to small fish, birds and other reptiles. Adults, who are semi-terrestrial, will also prey on larger mammals such as porcupines and pacas, a cool-looking rodent from Central and South America.

6 – Spectacled caiman | Caiman crocodilus

The spectacled caiman, also known as the common caiman, is named for the exact opposite reason to the Smooth-fronted caiman, exhibiting a bony infra-orbital bridge in between the eyes, giving the appearance of spectacles. On average, they measure 6.5 ft in length (2 m) and weigh 90 lbs (40 kg). These cheery-looking crocodilians are active mainly at night and spend most of the day basking in the sun, with a quick dip around mid-day when the sun is the highest in the sky. Spectacled caimans are generalist carnivores, preying on a wide range of animals from insects and fish to birds and mammals. Thankfully, their conservation status is least concern with an estimated 1,000,000 individuals in the wild.

7 – Broad-snouted caiman | Caiman latirostris

Another species of caiman that exhibits the bridge between its eyes is the broad-snouted caiman which is easily distinguished by its exceptionally broad snout. Their range is quite different, being found in southeastern South America in comparison to the spectacled caiman, which is found further north. They are also slightly larger, usually measuring no more than 8 ft (2.5 m) but have been recorded up to 11.5 ft (3.5 m). Like all crocodilians, their eyes, nose and ears, which lie just behind the eyes, are positioned on the very top of their head, allowing them to see, breath and hear all while being almost completely submerged. Many individuals exhibit spots on the jaw, a trait they share with a very similar caiman who can be distinguished by a narrower snout.

8 – Yacare caiman | Caiman yacare

The Yacare caiman also shares the ridge between the eyes and in some individuals but not all, some of the lower teeth fit into holes in the upper jaw. These animals use a cooperative feeding tactic called collective fishing that sees up to 15 individuals stretched across the width of a river to catch passing fish. A large portion of their diet is also made up of snails and other invertebrates but like many other species will prey on a broad variety of animals. Crocodilians tend to be sexually dimorphic, with male individuals being larger than females. Male Yacare caimans will grow to almost 10 ft (3 m) in length and weigh no more than 130 lbs (128 lbs / 58 kg), while females reach a maximum of 6 to 8 ft (1.8 to 2.5 m). They have a large population of between 2 to 5 million in a relatively small range in central South America, which overlaps slightly with the range of the largest caiman species, the black caiman.

9 – Black caiman | Melanosuchus niger

Interestingly, while black caiman also have the ridge between their eyes, they are from a separate monotypic genus to the spectacled, broad-snouted and Yacare caimans. They also have spots on their lower jaw although as you would expect, black caimans are darker in colour. These giant creatures are not only the largest caiman but are also one of the largest crocodilians with males reaching over 16 ft in length (5 m / 16.4 ft). These animals prey on larger mammals than other species, including the capybara, the largest rodent on earth that can weigh up to 150lbs (68 kg). In addition to the 5 species of Caiman and the American crocodile, there are 2 additional members of the Crocodylidae family located in Central and South America.

10 – Orinoco crocodile | Crocodylus intermedius

The largest of these species, the Orinoco crocodile is a similar size to the black caiman and American crocodile, often reaching up to 16 ft (4m) in length but have been reported at well over 20 ft (23 ft / 7m). These animals are quite distinct in appearance with light olive skin decorated with black spots. Their long, slender snouts are also a distinguishing feature and enable them to catch a large amount of aquatic prey, primarily fish, thanks to a reduction in water resistance. Orinoco crocodiles are critically endangered, with some estimates suggesting there are less than 100 remaining in the wild. They are found in the Orinoco river basin, which lies north of the Amazon and 3,000 km southeast of the next species that we’ll discuss, the Morelet’s crocodile, found in Mexico, Belize and Guatemala.

11 – Morelet’s crocodile | Crocodylus moreletii

This species is known for its uncharacteristically blunt snout, which is more similar to that of an alligator or caiman than it is to the rest of the Crocodylidae family. They are quite a bit smaller than the two species previously discussed, with an average length of 10ft (3m) and an average weight of just over 100lbs (112 lbs / 51 kg). All Crocodilians have rows of raised scutes along their backs. This shape is caused by bony deposits known as osteoderms that give the dorsal scutes their raised appearance. Osteoderms can be a range of shapes and are also present on the ventral side of the body. The Morelet’s crocodile lacks these ventral osteoderms, producing a smoother belly than other crocodiles.

12 – Cuban crocodile | Crocodylus rhombifer

Found due east in the Caribbean, the Cuban crocodile is the last species we’ll discuss in the Americas. It is critically endangered and has the smallest range of any crocodile, found in just two swamps in Cuba. These animals are relatively small for crocodiles, usually reaching no longer than 10.5 ft (3.5 m / 10.5 ft) in length and weighing no more than 180 lbs (80 kg). The bony ridge that starts just behind the eye and above the ear and runs to the back of the head is more accentuated in this species. Cuban crocs are quite colourful, with black and yellow scales and have strong, powerful tails which they use to launch themselves out of the water, which looks terrifying!

13 – Nile crocodile | Crocodylus niloticus

To continue our journey, we need to travel over 10,000 km across the Atlantic Ocean to Africa to visit the crocodilian with the strongest bite force of any animal on earth, the Nile crocodile. Although they are smaller than saltwater crocodiles, at 5,000 PSI their bite force is considerably stronger. They use this strength in combination with a technique named the “death roll” to tear flesh from carcasses of the large mammals they consume along with fish, reptiles and birds. Life for a Nile crocodile starts in a clutch of 25 to 80 eggs, which hatch after an incubation period of around 90 days. Hatchlings will stay with their mothers for up to 2 years while learning to navigate the complicated and treacherous African waters. One of their most interesting behaviours is burrow-digging. Individuals who live in the southernmost areas of their range will spend the cooler part of the year inside of these burrows in a state of dormancy known as aestivation. While these animals are known to be some of the largest crocs in the world measuring up to 20 ft (6.2m) in length and weighing up to 2,400lbs (1089 kg), their size varies considerably throughout their range and actually averages out to just 15 ft (4.6 m) in length and 500 to 900 lbs (227 kg to 408 kg) in weight.

14 – Dwarf crocodile | Osteolaemus tetraspis

On the other end of the scale, the dwarf crocodile is the world’s smallest crocodile. They usually measure around 5 ft (4.9 ft / 1.5m) and weigh between 40 to 70 lbs (18 to 32 kg) with the largest males weighing up to 180lbs. They have a short blunt snout, similar to that of the dwarf caiman. Their young are quite colourful, exhibiting spots along the jaw and onto their body. Some adults appear to retain these spots whereas others are almost entirely dark grey. Dwarf crocodiles live in streams, small rivers and other aquatic ecosystems and are known to move between these environments on land. They are found in both West and Central Africa, where their range presumably overlaps with a much larger species, the West African crocodile.

15 – West African crocodile | Crocodylus suchus

Although it was first suggested as a separate species by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1807, the West African crocodile was only confirmed as a separate species to the Nile crocodile between 2011-2015 thanks to genetic testing. As such, they are very similar in appearance to the Nile crocodile although tend to be smaller in size, usually measuring 5 – 8 ft (1.5–2.5) in length.

16 & 17 – West/Central African slender-snouted crocodiles | Mecistops cataphractus/leptorhynchus

The remaining species located in West and Central Africa, the African slender-snouted crocodile is also the last remaining species on the African Continent and has also been subject to taxonomic debate. They are characterised, of course, by their slender snouts and are medium in size, usually measuring no more than 13 ft (4m). They mostly live in freshwater ecosystems where, as well as preying on fish, adults will lie in wait for mammals to drink at the water’s edge. In 2018, this species was determined to, in fact, be two species separated geographically by the Cameroon volcanic line. This chain of volcanoes is unusual as it includes both mainland volcanoes such as the active Mount Cameroon, seamounts and islands such as São Tomé and Príncipe. I digress. Individuals found to the west of this line are West African slender-snouted crocodiles and those to the east are Central African slender-snouted crocodiles. But these slender snouts are not the most slender of crocodilian snouts. Found over 7,000 km away in Asia are two species with exceptionally narrow snouts.

18 – Gharial | Gavialis gangeticus

The Gharial and the false gharial, otherwise known as the Tomistoma, are 2 of the most unique crocodilians. They are both contained within the Gavialidae family and are more closely related to crocodiles than they are to alligators or caiman. Gharials have the most narrow snout profile of all crocodilian species and are also one of the largest with males reaching up to 20 ft (6m) in length. They are known as the fish-eating crocodile for their fish-catching prowess and are known to be especially inefficient on land. They display a yellowish-white belly and are dark greenish-brown on their dorsal side with scutes that are much less pronounced than many other species. Gharials live in freshwater rivers and can often be seen basking on the banks to warm up, particularly during winter. They are found in small isolated pockets in South Asia and are critically endangered with less than 1,000 remaining in the wild. The closest relative to this species, the false gharial or Tomistoma is found across the Bay of Bengal and has one of the most unique colourations of all the species we’ll discuss.

19 – False gharial | Tomistoma schlegelii

The false gharial, also known as the Malayan gharial or Tomistoma, referencing the name of its genus, has a similar narrow snout but is reddish-brown with black cross bands and spots throughout the body and jaw. They are smaller than gharials, with male individuals measuring up to 16.5 ft (5m) and weighing no more than 460 lbs (210 kg). They breed twice a year and clutches will usually contain 20 to 60 eggs. Similar to other crocodilians, they are thought to live for up to 60 to 80 years and are currently listed as vulnerable with less than 10,000 remaining in the wild. Before we explore the crocodilians of Oceania and Southeast Asia, we need to travel back to India to pick up one straggler with a cheeky smile.

20 – Mugger crocodile | Crocodylus palustris

Mugger crocodiles are more akin to regular crocodiles, being part of the Crocodylidae family, where we’ll remain for the rest of this video. Its Latin name, palustris is commonly used in taxonomy and means swampy or marshy, referencing some of the habitats where it abides although they are also found in rivers, lakes and other freshwater ecosystems. They are characterised by a board snout, which is unusual for crocodiles and is one of the broadest in this entire family. They are medium-sized, roughly the same length as a Tomistoma, with males measuring no more than around 16ft (5m). Although not pictured here, perhaps their most interesting trait is tool usage; researchers collected evidence of Mugger crocs using sticks balanced on their snouts during the breeding season of certain waterbirds in an attempt to lure those building nests to a snappy end.

21 – Saltwater crocodile | Crocodylus porosus

The only other crocodile whose range overlaps with the mugger is the saltwater crocodile, which with its high tolerance for salinity, has a massive range, which is fitting for its gigantic size and reputation. Saltwater crocs are the largest reptiles on earth, measuring up to 23ft (7m) in length and weighing up to a scary 2,600 lbs (1,200 kg / 2,643 lbs). All crocodilians have webbed feet, especially their hind feet which they use to assist with swimming. Saltwater crocs are exceptionally good swimmers and live in a wide range of habitats including freshwater rivers, brackish mangrove swamps and salty coastal waters, even being spotted far out to sea. They have the second-largest bite force of any crocodilian and prey on a wide range of animals including water buffalos, wild boar and monkeys who they snatch from the water’s edge. They are affectionately referred to as ‘salties’ in Australia, where one other species of crocodile can be found.

22 – Freshwater crocodile | Crocodylus johnstoni

‘Freshies’ or freshwater crocodiles are found only in northern Australia and are another species with a slender snout. They are found in various freshwater settings including swamps, billabongs and rivers, although they tend not to venture too far downstream due to a low tolerance of salinity and to avoid competition with the much larger ‘salties’. They generally do not exceed 12 ft (3 m) in length or 220 lbs (100 kg) in weight. The average clutch size is smaller than many species previously discussed at around 13-20 eggs, laid in the dry season, between August and September. Hatchlings will pop out of their shell after 65-95 days before the wet season rains begin and food becomes plentiful.

23 & 24 – New Guinea & Hall’s New Guinea crocodiles | Crocodylus novaeguineae/halli

Heading northeast, from Australia’s sunny shores, lies the island of New Guinea where the most recently discovered species exists. The New Guinea crocodile is a small to medium species, rarely exceeding 11.5 ft (3.5 m) in length. It was officially described as a species in 1928, since then, scientists have analysed live specimens and 51 skulls found on both sides of the central highlands, which now shows that individuals to the south are in fact a separate species named Hall’s New Guinea crocodile after the late Philip Hall, a scientist at the University of Florida who first proposed the species in the 1980’s Our journey concludes 2,500 km west of New Guinea in Southeast Asia where definitely 2 and possibly 3 species reside.

25 – Siamese crocodile | Crocodylus siamensis

The Siamese crocodile is critically endangered, with less than 1,000 remaining in the wild. Like the Cuban crocodile, the body ridge behind the eyes is more prominent than other species. They are medium in size, measuring no more than 13ft (3m) in length in the largest of cases. They are found in slow moving streams, rivers and swamps where they prey primarily on fish but also amphibians and other reptiles.

26 – Borneo crocodile | crocodylus raninus

There is one other species that may also exist on the island of Borneo, the Borneo crocodile whose range is unknown and about which there is little literature or photos. It was first described in 1844 when it was found to be distinct from the saltwater crocodile on the basis of snout shape and the structure of the scales on the neck and then revalidated in 1990. As such, some sources list the Borneo crocodile as a separate species and others as a synonym of the saltwater crocodile. The last crocodilian on our list is found due north on the islands of the Philippine archipelago.

27 – Philippine crocodile | Crocodylus mindorensis

The Philippine crocodile is another critically endangered species with just 100 individuals remaining in the wild. At a maximum of 13ft (3m), they are a similar size to the Siamese crocodile. When they are born, hatlings exhibit a golden brown colour, which darkens with age. They have a broad snout and one of the cheeriest looking expressions of all crocodilian species. It is subject to debate whether they are more cheery than the quokka, which you can judge for yourself by watching this video on marsupial species.

Eupleridae | Fossa & Malagasy Mongooses

Arguably, the most visually similar species to a cat is the fossa, which weighs roughly the same as an ocelot at between 7 to 12 kg (15.5 to 26.5 lb vs ocelot 8.5 to 16 kg / 18.5 to 35 lb). These cat-like creatures have large rounded ears and long vi-briss-ae, more commonly known as whiskers. Their tails are quite long, measuring the same length as their body at up to 80cm (31.5 in). Although these animals are part of Feliformia, their young are called pups; two to four pups are born after a gestation period of around 3 months and don’t reach full size until around 4 years old. They live in the forested areas of Madagascar where they are the largest species of carnivore preying on lemurs, other small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects.

Part of the same subfamily, the Malagasy civet is one of the closest relatives to the Fossa. They are significantly smaller, weighing no more than 2 kg (4.4lb) and are quite unique exhibiting a thick bushy tail, which is thought to be used to store fat for the winter and can weigh up to 25% of their body weight.

Both of these animals are contained within Euplerinae, one of two subfamilies within Eupleridae, whose members are known collectively as Malagasy mongooses or Malagasy carnivores. The other subfamily, Galidiinae, contains 6 species, including the narrow-striped mongoose, which is found in the dry deciduous forests of western Madagascar, the Grandidier’s mongoose, which has long dark stripes down its body and the Ring-tailed mongoose or ring-tailed vontsira. These animals have a rich red coat and striped tail and are quite similar in appearance to a weasel, so much so that their genus “Gali-dia” comes from the Greek word galē, meaning weasel. They have webbed feet and are known to be adept at both swimming and climbing and use these skills to hunt freshwater aquatic prey, many smaller terrestrial animals, birds and eggs.

Herpestidae | Mongooses inc Meerkat

At 80cm (32 in) in length, the Indian grey mongoose is roughly the same size as a small domesticated cat but with their slender bodies, tends to weigh a little less. They are easily recognised by their grey and black-speckled fur in addition to their piercing eyes and often a red nose! With a short gestation period of 60-65 days, females can have two to three litters per year, usually containing 2-4 young. The Indian grey mongoose is found mostly in grassland, both tropical and temperate, as well as agricultural areas with their range extending throughout most of India, a large portion of Pakistan and as far west as the Arabian peninsula. They are part of the Urva genus which contains a total of 9 species commonly referred to as the Asian mongooses.

The Crab-eating mongoose is visually very similar but sports a much lighter tail and stripes that start just below the ear and extend onto their shoulders. They hunt on the banks of streams and other areas with water and prey not only on crabs but fish, birds and many other small animals such as frogs and insects.

They have a large range, found throughout southern China and much of Southeast Asia. Found over 5,000 miles across the Indian ocean, lives the most well known of all mongooses, the meerkat, whose range extends across the southern tip of Africa. These cheery fellows are burrowing specialists who are famous for the upright posture they take outside of their burrows while looking out for predators. They are most commonly found in drier areas such as desert or tropical grassland, known in Africa as the savannah. They are quite small, weighing no more than 730g / 1.5 lb but what they lack in size they more than makeup for in number. Meerkats are highly social, living in large packs that are usually made of 3 familial groups, each containing a mating pair and their offspring. At 11 weeks, they have a slightly longer gestation period than the Indian grey mongoose but also give birth to around 3 young and can have up to 3 litters per year.

In total there are more than 35 species contained within Herpestidae including the yellow mongoose and the banded mongoose. All of these animals are closely related to the Malagasy mongooses previously discussed and this entire group is one divergence removed from a very different family, which contains just four species.

Hyaenidae | Hyenas

The spotted hyena is one the quintessential African animals. They are much larger than any animal previously discussed weighing between 45 to 80 kg (100 to 176 lbs) and exhibit sexual dimorphism. Females weigh roughly 6.5 kg (6.6 kg / 14.5 lb) more than males and are also known to be more aggressive. Groups of spotted hyenas are called clans, they are dominated by the females and are matrilinear, meaning that the hierarchy and lineage of the clan can be traced through its female members, with males leaving the clan after puberty. Gestation is usually around 4 months, after which females give birth to an average of 2 young who are almost entirely black. As cubs age, their black fur quickly disperses into the darker spots these animals are known for. While hyenas in general have a reputation for being scavengers, this is not the case for the spotted variety with direct kills making up to 70% of this species’ diet.

These animals are found throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa with their range overlapping slightly with that of the brown hyena, who are found on the southern tip of Africa and are part of the same subfamily, Hyaeninae. Also known as the strandwolf, these animals are smaller than their spotted cousins weighing between 34 to 72 kg ( 75 to 160 lb), which is slightly larger than a male leopard (17 to 65 kg / 37 to 143 lb). Although unique, they are not too dissimilar in appearance to the spotted hyena; they exhibit the same elongated forelimbs and large heads with pointy ears. Their distinguishing feature is the long brown hair on their back, which can reach 30 cm (11.8 in) in length and turns lighter in colour towards the nape. Brown hyenas are highly opportunistic and will scavenge carrion in addition to hunting smaller mammals and birds.

The remaining and smallest member of the Hyaeninae subfamily, the striped hyena weighs between 25 to 45 kg (55 to 99 lb) with males being slightly larger than females. They are generally thought of as solitary and scavenge on their own but recent research has shown that they congregate in groups of up to 7 where food or water is plentiful. They have a surprisingly large range being found as far east as Pakistan and India, through the Middle East and into Northern and East Africa, where their range intersects with the smallest and most distant hyena, the​​ aardwolf who is found in East and Southern Africa.

These miniature hyenas are a similar size to a serval, weighing just 8 to 14 kg (18 to 31 lb). They are also known as the “termite-eating hyena” with specific types of termites making up their entire diet. Due to this consumption, they play an important role in the ecosystems in which they abide, limiting the spread of termite colonies and the wood damage that they cause.

Viverridae | Civets & Genets

If you were to argue that one animal looked more similar to cats than the fossa, it would likely be the common genet. They are part of Viverridae whose members are split into two subfamilies containing genets and civets. The common genet is one of the smallest animals on this list weighing just 1 to 3 kg (2.2 to 6.6 lb). Like many cats, they are solitary, nocturnal and excellent climbers, hunting small mammals, reptiles and birds along with a selection of insects. With their arboreal skills, these animals favour forests and are also found in grassland.

This species is generally found in Africa but has been introduced to Europe with its population extending as far north as France. Found at the southern end of this range, in Sub Saharan Africa is the African civet. Not too dissimilar visually but significantly larger, these animals are around the same size as an aardwolf at 12 to 15 kg (26.5 to 33 lb). They have a short mane running along the spine, which amongst other reasons is used to make themselves look larger when threatened. They are easily distinguished by the solid black mask around their eyes and muzzle along with a unique fur pattern, exhibiting large spots on the back half of its body. Gestation is around 65 days and litters usually average between 2-3 young. The African civet is one of 6 civets found in the Viverrinae subfamily.

There are two other subfamilies within Viverridae that between them contain 11 species of palm civet. The Asian palm civet is found throughout Southeast Asia and as far west as India. These viverrids are a little larger than the common genet ranging from 1.3 to 5 kg (2.9 to 11 lbs) in weight. They are excellent climbers and are found mostly in forested areas, both temperate and tropical. They are thought of as frugivores, with fruit making up the majority of their diet and are also coffee bean connoisseurs, choosing to consume only the ripest and most palatable coffee beans which, once passed, are used in a fascinating process to create coffee.

Nandiniidae | African palm civet

The last species of palm civet that we’ll discuss is from a completely separate family, Nandiniidae, which is the most basal of all families within Feliformia. At roughly the same size, African palm civets are quite similar to their Asian counterparts but do not exhibit the dark mask around their face.

Prionodontidae | Asiatic linsangs

Last but most certainly not least are two species of Asiatic linsang who are the closest relatives to the Felidae family, containing all extant wild cats. There are two species, the banded linsang and the spotted linsang, both of which are found in south and southeast Asia on the western side of the Wallace line, which you can learn more about in this video, which covers all 8 Biogeographical Realms, their animals and their geography.

Sources

Animal Diversity, Wikipedia, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Fossa, Red-Tailed Vontsira, Hyena social behaviour, Hyena direct kills, Striped hyena group behaviour, Viverrids & the spotted linsang

Once an animal has successfully entered the tree, they must traverse the network of branches skillfully without tipping over and falling. Branches are typically narrow and sometimes steep but always require balance to navigate safely. There are various ways to achieve this. Many arboreal animals are quadrupedal, bearing weight on all four limbs; this increases the number of contact points and positions their centre of mass closer to the branch making them much less likely to topple over.

A prehensile tail can also come in handy both for balance and grip and is used by many types of animals, including the panther chameleon and the emerald tree boa who use their tails to secure themselves while coiled. Gibbons are especially interesting; they are the most bipedal of all non-human primates but instead of possessing a prehensile tail, use their long arms to balance while moving elegantly across narrow branches.

Left: Panther chameleon | Milan Zygmunt / Shutterstock & Right: Common gibbon in Khao Yai National Park | Kittipong Chotitana / Shutterstock

To excel in the trees, all arboreal animals have excellent grasping capabilities but this doesn’t necessarily mean a strong grip; sloths, for example, are not known for their athleticism but instead have long curved claws which they position in a slow methodical motion. Primates on the other hand are masters of movement and use brachiation, a method of motion unique to certain arboreal species to move efficiently through the canopy. Birds also have excellent grip; one of the best examples being the woodpecker who secure themselves using their feet while drilling their nest.

Left: Sloth hanging on tree branch in Costa Rica | Lukas Kovarik / Shutterstock & Right: Father and son woodpeckers | Massimiliano Paolino / Shutterstock

As the saying goes, what goes up must come down. Descending is one of the most difficult parts of life in the trees. Many animals have evolved membranes between their limbs that facilitate a type of gliding flight, allowing them to either transition between trees or descend to the forest floor. These creatures include mammals such as colugos, reptiles such as Draco lizards and amphibians such as flying frogs.

Left: Sunda flying lemur | Joshua Davenport / Shutterstock & Right: Draco Lizard | NeagoneFo / Shutterstock

Squirrels are one of the most efficient descenders; they possess the ability to swivel their back ankle joints and use their sharp claws to grip while sprinting headfirst down the trunk. Animals who do not possess this flexibility, simply climb down the tree backwards such as the lynx which you can learn about in this article along with all other members of the Felidae family, better known as wild cats.

Sources

Encyclopedia Britannica, Wikipedia, Animal Diversity, Arboreal Animals, Paper by Delyle T Polet & John EA Bertram, Panther Chameleon, Emerald Tree Boa, Lumholtz’s tree kangaroo, Gibbons bipedal movement & Squirrel ankle joints

Contents

• Dasyuromorphia (Tasmanian Devil, Quolls, Numbat…)
• Diprotodontia Introduction
• Vombatiformes (Koalas & Wombats)
• Macropodiformes (Kangaroos, Wallabies, Quokka…)
• Phalangeriformes (Gliders, Possums and Cuscuses)
• 4 Smaller Orders (Marsupial Moles, Bandicoots, Monito del monte…)
• Didelphimorphia (Opossums)

Dasyuromorphia

One of the most unique orders is Dasyuromorphia, which contains almost all of the carnivorous marsupials. Interestingly, while larger individuals like the Tasmanian devil feed almost exclusively on meat and are therefore thought of as true carnivores, the smallest members of this order are insectivores—animals who feed on insects or other invertebrates—and are therefore also technically carnivores.

The Tasmanian devil is the largest carnivorous marsupial, weighing up to 12kg (26.5 lbs), it is part of the Dasyuridae family, which contains all but one species from this order. They are generally found on the island of Tasmania but were reintroduced to the mainland in 2011. These animals have powerful jaws and sharp teeth but are known to scavenge, which they do at night. Their gestation period is 21 days, after which pouch life lasts around 4 months.

Left: Tasmanian Devil in woodland | james_stone76 / Shutterstock & Right: Tasmanian Devil showing teeth | Merry And The Moon / Shutterstock

Quolls are similar to Tasmanian devils but much smaller. There are 6 species, found in Australia and New Guinea. Weighing just over half of a devil (7kg / 15.5 lbs) the tiger quoll is the largest of the six and is also known as the spotted-tailed quoll. They hunt other marsupials such as greater gliders and red-necked pademelons, along with a variety of other small animals. The eastern quoll is smaller still, weighing no more than 1.5 kg (55 oz). They have a similar pelage to the tiger quoll but can also be found in black, with white spots.

Left: Spotted Quoll Snarling and Showing Teeth | Craig Dingle / Shutterstock & Right: Eastern Quolls in Tasmania, Australia | Wirestock Creators / Shutterstock

The smaller members of Dasyuridae make up the majority of species. The most numerous of these members are 15 species of antechinus and 23 species of dunnart. The Yellow-footed antechinus is tiny (47 g / 1.7 oz). These marsupials have more of a flap than a fully developed pouch. In contrast to the animals previously discussed, the yellow-footed antechinus is diurnal. They are found in a variety of habitats in eastern Australia and also on the southern tip of the west coast.

The Fat-tailed dunnart is even smaller averaging just 16 g (0.56 oz); they feed on grasshoppers, moths and beetles. Other miniature members of this family include the slender-tailed dunnart and the southern ningaui which is found along Australia’s south coast.

Left: Slender-tailed dunnart | Kristian Bell / Shutterstock & Southern Ningaui | Kristian Bell / Shutterstock

The only other species found in this order is the sole member of the Myrmecobiidae family, the unique and beautiful numbat. Interestingly, these animals are one divergence removed from the now extinct Tasmanian Tiger and share the stripes across their back and rump. Numbats are roughly half the size of an eastern quoll (750 g / 26.5 oz) and are unfortunately listed as endangered. They are found only in a small collection of eucalypt woodlands in southern Australia.

Diprotodontia

The largest and most diverse order inside of Australidelphia is Diprotodontia, which itself contains 3 suborders, 11 families and over 130 species. Diprotodonts have two distinguishing features; Most species have a large pair of incisors dominating their lower jaw bone. They are also syndactylous, meaning the second and third digits of the hind foot are fused up to the claw.

Vombatiformes

The first of the three suborders, Vombatiformes contains the sole species of koala and 3 species of wombat. Koalas weigh no more than around 12 kg (11.8 kg / 26 lbs) and, being arboreal, are found in the eucalyptus forests of Eastern Australia where they snack mostly on eucalypt tree species. They have a gestation period of around 25-35 days, followed by 5-7 months of pouch life. After this period they begin to feed on solid food and are carried around on their mother’s backs. Currently, these loveable creatures have a conservation status of vulnerable.

Left: Koala joey emerging from pouch | TeacherKarla / Shutterstock & Right: Koala | rickyd / Shutterstock

The Vombatidae family contains 3 species of wombat; the common wombat and two species of hairy-nosed wombat. They live in underground burrow systems and are generally thought of as solitary but do live in groups called colonies. Like koalas, wombats have compact bodies but grow much larger than their tree-dwelling cousins, with the common or coarse-haired wombat weighing up to three times that of a koala (35 kg / 77 lbs). Gestation and pouch life is almost exactly the same as a koala but because the wombat is fossorial, their pouch opens backwards to prevent dirt from entering while digging. Wombats are found in southern and eastern Australia, with the critically endangered northern hairy-nosed wombat found only in Epping National Forest in Queensland.

Left: Common wombat | Andreas Ruhz / Shutterstock & Right: Hairy nosed wombat | Susan Flashman / Shutterstock

Macropodiformes

The next suborder Macropodiformes contains 3 families whose members include kangaroos, wallabies, wallaroos, the cheery-looking Quokka and potoroos. Most of these species are found within Macropodidae, a family whose type genus Macropus comes from the Greek words makros (μακρός), meaning long and pous (πούς), meaning foot. There are only two species within Macropus: the western and eastern grey kangaroo. Although the Latin name for the latter is Macropus giganteus, they are not the largest; that prize goes to the red kangaroo who reach up to 90 kg (200 lbs) which also makes them the largest marsupial.

Left: Eastern grey kangaroo | Jarrod Calati / Shutterstock & Right: The red kangaroo | Artur Bogacki / Shutterstock

These animals share their genus with one other member, the Antilopine kangaroo also known as the Antilopine wallaroo, which is quite beautiful and supposedly named so due to their resemblance to the African antelope. The range of these four species differs considerably; the aptly named eastern kangaroo is found to the east, the western kangaroo to the south, Antilopines to the north, and red kangaroos who have the largest range are found in the shrubland, grassland, and desert habitats of inland Australia. The average gestation is a little more than a koala, at just over a month, pouch life can be between 6 to 8 months and joeys will continue suckling up to 18 months depending on the species.

Left: Antilopine kangaroo | Victoria Tucholka / Shutterstock & Right: Female eastern grey kangaroo with joey suckling K.A.Willis / Shutterstock

Wallabies are a group of macropods from various genera that are smaller than the four species of large kangaroo. The red-necked wallaby is one of the most common, they weigh up to 18.5 kg (28.6 lbs) and are named so for the patch of red fur on the back of their neck and shoulders. Like all macropods, these animals are herbivorous and graze on grasses, roots and other foliage. One of the largest groups of wallabies, 17 species to be exact, are found in the Petrogale genus and are known as rock wallabies. These creatures thrive in rocky terrain and exhibit a striking colouration. The Yellow-footed rock-wallaby has a grey back and face with a white belly and stripes and yellow-orange limbs and tail. The Black-flanked rock-wallaby also has white stripes but is much darker and is found dotted around northwestern Australia, in contrast to their yellow-footed friends who are dotted to the southeast. There are also several species of dorcopsis who are thought of as wallabies, such as the white-striped dorcopsis also known as the greater forest wallaby.

Left: A young red-necked wallaby | Dennis Jacobsen / Shutterstock & Right: A pair of yellow-footed rock-wallabies | Kevin Wells Photography / Shutterstock

It is thought that all macropods once lived in the trees but eventually adapted to life on the ground.
The genus Dendrolagus contains 14 species, all of which returned to a life in the trees, and as such, are commonly referred to as tree kangaroos. 12 of the 14 species live on the island of New Guinea and are among the most threatened of all marsupials with 7 of those 12 classed as endangered or critically endangered such as the Goodfellow’s tree-kangaroo who exhibit a rich reddish-brown and cream coat and weigh no more than 7.5 kg (7.4 kg / 16.3 lbs) and the Matschie’s tree-kangaroo who are a little darker and quite a bit larger (13 kg / 28.63 lb). The remaining 2 species, including Lumholtz’s tree-kangaroo, are found on the northern tip of Australia’s Queensland province and are quite different, exhibiting a much darker coat.

Left: Goodfellow’s tree-kangaroo | Danny Ye / Shutterstock & Right: Lumholtz’s tree-kangaroos with cub | Frank Fichtmueller / Shutterstock

Rounding out Macropodidae, are the smallest members of this family: pademelons and the quokka. All 7 pademelons are found in the same genus Thylogale and like kangaroos have a gestation period of around 30 days and a pouch life of around 6-7 months. Much the same as the red-necked wallaby, the red-necked pademelon has an area of reddish fur on the back of its neck and shoulders. Even smaller still and ostensibly the happiest animal on the planet is the sole member of the monotypic genus Setonix, the quokka. These cheery macropods are about half of a Goodfellow’s tree kangaroo (4.2 kg / 9.25 lbs) and have a slightly shorter gestation period of 26-27 days. They are found on the southwestern tip of Australia where they average around 10 years in the wild. If you thought Macropods couldn’t get any smaller and more charming, I have good news.

Left: Mother and baby quokka eating twigs | Damian Lugowski / Shutterstock & Right Family of red-legged pademelons | Imogen Warren / Shutterstock

The last two families in Macropodiformes contain its smallest members. Potoroidae contains potoroos, bettongs and rat kangaroos, which are all of a similar size and appearance. The long-nosed potoroo weighs no more than 2 kg (1.8 kg / 4 lbs) and has a longer gestation period than regular kangaroos at around 38 days but a shorter pouch life with joeys staying in the marsupium for around 130 days or a little under 4.5 months. The Eastern bettong, also known as the Tasmanian betting, is found in grasslands, woodlands and eucalypt forests of eastern Tasmania. They are nocturnal and up to 80% of their diet can be made up of fungi, which is foraged with its little forelimbs. The rufous bettong, also known as the rufous rat-kangaroo, is quite a bit larger, weighing around twice that of the long-nosed potoroo (3.6 kg / 8 lbs). The final macropod we’ll look at is the sole extant member of Hypsiprymnodontidae, the musky rat-kangaroo. They are quite a bit smaller (500g /1.1 lbs) and much darker in colour.

Left: Eastern bettong | Wirestock Creators / Shutterstock & Right: Musky rat-kangaroo | feathercollector / Shutterstock

Phalangeriformes

Phalangeriformes is the last suborder within Diprotodontia and contains a unique set of arboreal marsupials grouped into 6 families that contain a mixture of gliders, possums and cuscuses. Unlike macropods which are bipedal, the members of Phalangeriformes are quadrupedal, bearing weight on all four of their limbs. The gliders of this suborder have also evolved flaps of skin between their limbs on either side of their bodies that they use to glide up to 65ft through the canopy. Although the name possum is derived from North American opossums due to their resemblance in appearance, they are not closely related.

Petauridae is the first family we’ll explore, it contains various species of striped possum, most of which are found on New Guinea and gliders, which are mostly found in Australia, although there is some crossover between the two. The sugar glider is a well-known member of this family and has quite a large range, being found on both the northern and eastern coast of Australia and New Guinea. Sugar gliders are tiny, weighing only 100 g (3.9 oz) and at 16 days, their gestation period is significantly shorter than the species previously discussed. Pouch life is a little over 2 months and they become independent not long after that. The average number of offspring is two and their average lifespan in the wild is 14 years. The Yellow-bellied glider is another species found on the east coast of Australia. The striped possum has a similar appearance to a sugar glider but is around 5-6 times the size (570 g / 20 oz). They live in lowland tropical forests and woodlands where being insectivores, will prey on ants, termites, beetles and moths.

Left: Sugar Glider | Arif Supriyadi / Shutterstock & Right: Common striped possum | Michal Sloviak / Shutterstock

Phalangeridae is a large family containing 22 species of cuscus and 5 species of brushtail possum.
The Waigeo cuscus is one of the most unique-looking marsupials on this list. They are named after Indonesia’s Waigeo island found to the northwest of New Guinea and displays a white pelage with black spots and a red face. The Sulawesi bear cuscus is quite different with a much darker fur and is found further west on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. They weigh around 7 kg (15.5 lbs) and are classified as a folivore, an animal that primarily feeds on leaves although they will also eat unripe fruit, flowers and buds. Found in the same family but a different genus, the common brushtail possum has a much larger range being found throughout much of coastal Australia and was also introduced to New Zealand in the 1840s. They range in colour based on location, with some exhibiting a grey coat, some displaying a red pelage and can also be found in a darker black. Their gestation period is around 16-18 days and will remain in the pouch for 4-5 months and will then ride on its mother’s back until around 7-9 months old.

Left: Waigeo spotted cuscus | Arie de Gier / Shutterstock & Right: Common brushtail possum | Lowell Hendrix / Shutterstock

Pseudocheiridae contains 16 species of ringtailed possums and 3 species of glider. They were previously classified as part of Petauridae but were found to differ by dental structure. The members of this family, which include the southern greater glider, are some of the largest gliders at roughly the same size as a domestic cat and can be found in a range of colours from pure black to white, red and yellow. Around the same size, the common ringtail possum has a prehensile tail, which it uses in the trees. Families can be found in nests called dreys, which they construct with bark, twigs and ferns. The Green ringtail possum is also part of this family, it is found only in a small area of the northeastern coast of Australia and exhibits a unique fur pattern with a grey face with white rings around the eyes and ears and a green back.

Left: Common ringtail possum | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock & Right: Green ringtail possum | gillougribouille / Shutterstock

The 5 species of adorable pygmy possum are all contained within the Burramyidae family. They are omnivorous, feasting on both nectar and pollen from plants and a selection of invertebrates. The eastern pygmy possum is found both on the southeastern coast of Australia and Tasmania, whereas the Tasmanian pygmy possum is located mainly in Tasmanian but also a small section of the south coast. The honey possum is the sole member of the Tarsipedidae family, they are found on the southwestern coast of Australia and weigh no more than 18 g (0.63 oz). Acrobatidae is a similarly small family with only two species. The feather-tailed glider is found on the east coast of Australia and is even smaller at a maximum of 13 g (0.46 oz).

Left: Feather-tailed glider | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock & Right: Eastern pygmy possum | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock

Notoryctemorphia

The order Notoryctemorphia contains just two species of marsupial mole but what they lack in number they more than make up for in quirkiness! These odd-looking creatures resemble moles and with their large claws are well-adapted for digging in the sand dunes and sandy soil areas in which they live. Not a great deal is known about these solitary creatures but we do know they consume insects and small lizards as well as some plant matter.

Peramelemorphia

Peramelemorphia is the second to last order we’ll discuss in Australidelphia and the last whose members are located in Australasia. It contains two families, Peramelidae, which contains all extant bandicoots and Thylacomyidae, which contains bilbies, also known as rabbit-bandicoots. Like diprodonts, Bandicoots are also syndactylous and, in similar fashion to a wombat, their pouches open backwards to prevent dirt from entering when digging. The southern brown bandicoot is found on the southern coast of Australia and Tasmania and the long-nosed bandicoot, which has an elongated snout is found along the east coast. The greater bilby or the rabbit-eared bandicoot looks quite different, with its long stiff ears and weighs almost double at 2.5 kg (88 oz).

Left: Bilby | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock & Right: Southern brown bandicoot | Susan Flashman / Shutterstock

Microbiotheria

The order Microbiotheria is the only order in Australidelphia whose members are located in the Americas. It contains just one species, the colocolo opossum, also known as the Monito del monte, which translates from Spanish to “Little monkey of the mountain”. They are found in temperate and tropical forests at elevations up to 1135m / 3723 ft.

Paucituberculata

The Gray-bellied shrew opossum is one of 7 species of shrew opossum in the order Paucituberculata that bridge the gap nicely to the final but by no means least interesting chapter… opossums.

Didelphimorphia

Pictured below is Didelphis virginiana, it’s the species you might think of when picturing an opossum. But it’s containing order, Didelphimorphia holds 19 genera and well over 120 species contained in a single family, making opossums the most diverse type of marsupial. Essentially, life for these creatures starts as a very small jelly bean. With a gestation period that usually lasts around 13/14 days, opossums give birth to up to twenty-five young, many of whom will not survive. Pouch life also varies between species, both in terms of duration and how developed the pouch is. Once they are old enough, the young will ride on their mother’s backs until fully weaned.

Left: Baby common opossums in mother’s pouch | Breck P. Kent / Shutterstock & Right: Baby Virginia opossum | Heiko Kiera / Shutterstock

The Virginia opossum is the only species found as far north as the United States and Canada and is also the largest, weighing up to 6 kg (13.2 lbs). They have short legs and compact bodies with a prehensile tail, which they use for grip while climbing. They are omnivores eating a combination of vertebrates, invertebrates and plant matter. The common opossum is contained in the same genus but is around a quarter of the size (1.5 kg 3.3 lbs). They are found throughout Central America and the northern half of South America. They can survive in a large range of habitats with the exception of day areas such as deserts, which is presumably why they don’t venture past central Mexico. Like the Virginia opossum, they are solitary and nocturnal.

Left: Virginia Opossum | Evelyn D. Harrison / Shutterstock & Right: Common Opossum | Martin Pelanek / Shutterstock

There are two other species in the same genus that we’ll discuss, the white-eared opossum is found throughout most of the Southern half of South America, while the big-eared opossum is confined to the southeastern corner. The big-eared opossum is very similar in appearance to the common opossum and, in fact, was once considered a subspecies. They live in rainforests and highland areas up to an elevation of around 1,000m. The white-eared opossum is quite a bit larger, weighing around half of a Virginia opossum (2.7 kg / 17.5 lbs), and unsurprisingly has white ears. They have a surprisingly short lifespan with the average white-eared opossum living for just 20 months in the wild. Outside of this genus, the appearance and size of opossums change drastically.

Left: A white ear opossum | Guilherme de Melo / Shutterstock & Right: Big-eared opossum | Leonardo Mercon / Shutterstock

The grey four-eyed opossum gets its name from the clearly defined white spots above its eyes. They are found in rainforest and scrub forest in Central and South America. Interestingly, although they live in the same area, they have almost the exact opposite range to the water opossum, which are also found on both continents. These water specialists are quite small, maxing out at around 800 g (790g / 28 oz) and are thought of as semi-aquatic, preying on amphibians, fish, crustaceans and insects.

Left: Gray four-eyed opossum | Ilan Ejzykowicz / Shutterstock & Right: Water Opossum | Leonardo Mercon / Shutterstock

Venturing outside of the Didelphini tribe, these opossums are even smaller and more dissimilar in appearance. The five species mentioned in this section, the gray short-tailed opossum, the Northern three-striped opossum, Linnaeus’s mouse opossum, the Brazilian gracile opossum, and the Grey Slender opossum are all confined to South America. The gray short-tailed opossum is significantly smaller than the species previously discussed (155g / 5.5 oz) and looks more similar to the dunnarts found in Australasia. Their young can reach independence in as little as 6 to 8 weeks and females can have up to 5 litters per year. They are from the same genus as the northern three-striped opossum. Even smaller still, are the 25 species of mouse opossum found in the Marmosa genus. The species shown here, Linnaeus’s mouse opossum, weighs just 56 g (2 oz) and the Brazilian gracile mouse opossum is even smaller at just 45 g (1.6 oz). The final species of mouse opossum we’ll look at, the grey slender opossum has a particularly long tail, which is roughly 1.5 times the combined length of its head and body.

Left: Brazilian gracile opossum | Leonardo Mercon / Shutterstock & Right: Northern three-striped Opossum | Luis Renato R. Bernardo / Shutterstock

The Bare-tailed woolly opossum is the last species we’ll look at and are from a separate subfamily to the previous 11. They have a large range spanning from southern Brazil to northern Venezuela and in Kwazá, an indigenous language spoken in the Brazilian state of Rondônia, they are known as wakaro.

With temperatures reaching as low as -60°C and winds of up to 100 mph (160 kpm) the conditions of this realm are brutal, however, there are a few advantages. For a start, there are no land predators here, no polar bears, no arctic wolves, combine this with an abundant supply of krill and fish and for those who can put up with the conditions, this realm is quite appealing. Penguins are the best example of animals that make the most of the Antarctic. Species include the emperor penguin, who can weigh almost 100 lbs (99 lbs / 45 kg), chinstrap penguins, who are named so for the black line across their chin, and the Gentoo penguin, who evidently love it here!

Left: Gentoo Penguin | Andrew Mobbs / Shutterstock & Right: Chinstrap Penguin | Antarctica SZakharov / Shutterstock

Patrolling the ice-cold waters of the Antarctic are pods of orca who hunt penguins, seals, fish and squid. Other whales include humpbacks, who being filter feeders, feast upon large schools of Antarctic krill, which measure no more than 2.5 inches in length (6.5 cm). Another aquatic threat to the penguins are leopard seals who can also be found on the pack ice hiding from orcas. Seabirds include the wandering albatross whose range extends to the southern regions of Australasia, Africa and the Americas.

Left: Humpback Whale Feeding on Krill | vladsilver / Shutterstock & Right: Wandering Albatross in The Ocean | Hugh Lansdown / Shutterstock

02 Nearctic Realm

Up until two to three million years ago, North and South America were separated and the wildlife on each of these landmasses evolved independently. Today, these continents are joined by the isthmus of Panama and the border of these realms corresponds almost exactly with the junction of tropical forest and desert in the centre of Mexico and a small region in southern Florida. The topography of the Nearctic is epic! It features the northern or “western” half of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges that stretches from Alaska to the southern tip of South America and is the defining geographical feature of the west coast.

Left: The Nearctic Realm & Right: The Highest Peaks in the Americas

If there is one animal North America is famous for, it’s bears. Individuals range from gigantic Kodiak bears in Alaska and rare magical Spirit bears in British Columbia, to the polar bears of the tundra and black bears whose range extends to every corner of this realm. Moose traverse the boreal forests of the north, picking off bark, leaves and twigs from willow, aspen and balsam fir trees. The world’s smallest carnivore, the least weasel is found in more open habitats, where it preys upon mice-like rodents, such as mice!

Left: Spirit Bear searching for salmon in river, Pacific Coast, BC, Canada | Lynn A / Shutterstock & Right: Moose Cow and calf in Glacier National Park in Montana | Frank Fichtmueller / Shutterstock

From Canada’s taiga in the north to temperate areas further south, the eastern half of this realm is covered almost entirely in vast swaths of forest. The Nearctic’s most iconic river is unquestionably the Mississippi; the fourth-longest in the world (6,275 km) and 5th largest in terms of drainage area. The channel catfish, the most common catfish in North America, navigate the waters of the Mississippi with paddlefish who are referred to as primitive for their lack of morphological advancements over the years, exhibited best by their elongated, paddle-shaped rostrum.

Left: Channel Catfish | Aleron Val / Shutterstock & Right: The Mississippi Paddlefish | Saran Jantraurai / Shutterstock

In the heart of the Nearctic, just east of the cordillera lies a large area of temperate grassland, known in North America as the prairies. Here, herds of pronghorn graze alongside American bison, the largest mammal in North America, weighing almost 2,000lbs (900kg / 1982 lbs). Interestingly, coyotes who are also found here were once named prairie wolves but are no longer referred to by this name. One of the most unique birds of the prairie is the greater prairie chicken. Males have bright yellow eyebrows and air sacks on their neck, the latter of which are used to make deep mating calls during breeding season. Insects include the twelve-spotted skimmer, a colourful species of dragonfly and the rusty patched bumblebee, who are vital for pollination but currently endangered.

Left: American Bison | O.S. Fisher / Shutterstock & Right: Greater Prairie Chicken | Steve Oehlenschlager / Shutterstock

The hottest place on earth is debated but one location that shows up in every list is California’s Death Valley. It is located in the Mojave desert, which is part of a chain of arid areas, stretching from the northern contiguous United States to central Mexico. If there is one type of animal that does well here, it’s reptiles. Sonoran mountain kingsnakes and western rattlesnakes soak up the heat next to Great Basin collared lizards and prehistoric-looking desert horned lizards.

Left: Great Basin Collared Lizard | Matt Jeppson / Shutterstock & Right: Desert Horned Lizard, Sonoran Desert, Arizona | Brian Lasenby / Shutterstock

03 Neotropical realm

The neotropical realm contains 6 of the world’s megadiverse countries, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil, which is more than any other realm. Also included in the neotropics is a chain of idyllic islands known as the Caribbean. The topography here is similar to the nearctic, with a long stretch of mountainous terrain traversing the west coast, culminating in the highest peak in the Americas, Aconcagua which stands at a staggering 6,961 metres (22837 ft).

Left: The topography of the Neotropical & Right: Megadiverse Countries that lie in the Neotropical Realm

The lifeblood of this realm is arguably the greatest river on earth, the Amazon. It is second only to the Nile in length but at almost twice the size of the Congo, is by far the largest in terms of drainage area, which sits in 5 of the 6 megadiverse countries of this realm. In these murky waters, shoals of red-bellied piranhas swim beside caiman, one of the largest reptiles on the planet, and perhaps most terrifyingly bull sharks, which although they are a saltwater species, have been found 4,000 km (2,500 miles) up the Amazon.

Left: Piranha Close Up | nounours / Shutterstock & Right: Yacare Caiman, Pantanal, Bolivia | Ondrej Prosicky / Shutterstock

On the banks of this great river lie vast expanses of tropical forest that stretch to its northern border with the Nearctic. The primates here are known as new world monkeys and include marmosets and howler monkeys who can be heard communicating with each other in the canopy. The insects of this biome are plentiful and can be gigantic. The Hercules beetle is one of the largest in the world, measuring up to 18 cm in length including its horn. Poisoned dart frogs also abide here and display a range of vibrant colours from neon greens and blacks to fiery reds and oranges. Potoos are a wonderfully odd-looking bird family who when their beady eyes are closed, are incredibly well camouflaged for this habitat.

Left: Ranitomeya imitator in eastern Peru | Frank Cornelissen / Shutterstock & Right: A Camouflaged Potoo | D. Longenbaugh / Shutterstock

Bordering the tropical forests are long stretches of tropical and temperate grassland. The Pantanal is a particularly interesting region; it is an area of flooded tropical grassland, known as the world’s largest tropical wetland, home to the jaguar, the largest cat in the Americas and the anaconda, the heaviest snake in the world. The Pampas is a large area of temperate grassland found to the south. These fertile plains play host to species such as the Pampas deer, and the curious-looking Pampas fox. Another stunning area that lies south of the Pampas is Patagonia, which terminates at the end of the realm and is well known for its breathtaking landscapes.

Left: Jaguars in the Pantanal | PhotocechCZ & Right: Pampas Grey fox in Argentina | Foto 4440 / Shutterstock

The last location we’ll discuss contrasts sharply with the wet fertile areas previously covered. The Atacama desert sits on the western side of the Andes Mountain Range and is known as the oldest and driest non-polar desert in the world due to the Andes blocking rainfall from the east. This desolate region is enjoyed by flocks of flamingos and is also home to Vicuña, a member of the Camelidae family who lives at higher elevations.

Left: Vicuña on the Atacama high plateau | FCG / Shutterstock & Right: Andean flamingos, Atacama salar, Chile | Delpixel / Shutterstock

04 Afrotropical realm

Unquestionably, the Afrotropical Realm is home to the most iconic wildlife on the planet. It makes up almost all of the African continent and migration outside of this zone is near impossible due to a strip of barren land on its northern border known as the Sahara Desert. In comparison to other ecozones, the topography of this realm is one of its lesser-renowned features although the volcanic Mount Kilimanjaro found in Tanzania ranks #4 in the seven summits being surpassed by Denali by a mere 300m.

Left: The Afrotropical Realm & Right: Afrotropical Topography

The defining biome here is the savanna, this vast region of tropical grassland stretches from the southern tip of the continent to the Sahara in the north and is broken up by patches of forest and desert. The animals of the savanna can be best described as gigantic! The largest terrestrial mammal on earth is the African Bush Elephant with the heaviest individual ever recorded in Angola weighing a staggering 24,000 lbs (11,000 kg). The fact that these herbivores have evolved to become so large is unsurprising given the predators that roam these grasslands; prides of lions contain up to 40 individuals, weighing as much as 600 lbs apiece (272 kg) and packs of African wild dogs can also reach 40 in number.

Left: Male lion | RujStudio / Shutterstock & Right: Elephants in front of Kilimanjaro | HordynskiPhotography / Shutterstock

At the heart of the Afrotropical realm lies the Congo river, which in terms of drainage area and average discharge is second only to the Amazon. The Congo features many colourful fish including the Congo tetra and various species of freshwater pufferfish (Tetraodon Mbu). Surrounding the river is a strip of tropical forest that sits directly on the equator and hosts the largest primates in the world. Eastern gorillas can weigh up to 440 lbs (200 kg) and unfortunately, are critically endangered with less than 5,000 remaining in the wild. Accompanying these peaceful primates are unique species such as the great blue turaco, the bongo with its beautiful horns and rich brown coat, and the Red-legged running frog, which is also found on the savanna.

Left: Silverback mountain gorilla in Rwanda | Onyx9 / Shutterstock & Right: Tetraodon Mbu Freshwater Puffer Fish | yuliya ivanenko / Shutterstock

The island of Madagascar is the fourth largest island in the world and one of the most biodiverse areas on the planet. Here, camouflaged chameleons use their tongues as projectiles to snatch unsuspecting insects on whom they prey. The Giraffe weevil is endemic to the island and is sexually dimorphic, with males exhibiting necks up to 3 times longer than that of a female.

Left: Panther chameleon in Madagascar | Milan Zygmunt / Shutterstock & Right: The giraffe weevil in Andasibe Mantadia National Park, Madagascar | Dennis van de Water / Shutterstock

The last interesting feature we’ll explore is the Kalahari desert. This incredible stretch of land sits at 900 metres above sea level on the interior plateau of Southern Africa. There are a surprising number of animals in this arid region including meerkats, flocks of colourful flamingos, the blue-headed agama lizard, and the aardvark, a largely nocturnal mammal whose range extends throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa.

Left: Baby Aardvark in the Okavango Delta, Botswana | Thomas Retterath / Shutterstock & Right: Meerkats playing on the sand, Kalahari desert, Namibia | Luca Nichetti / Shutterstock

05 Palearctic realm

The Palearctic is the largest biogeographic realm on earth, occupying 54 million square kilometres (20.9 square miles), which is well over twice the size of the Nearctic, the second largest. In addition to the Sahara desert, which sits on its south-western border, this zone is separated from the Indomalayan realm by the highest mountain range on earth, the Himalayas. There are several other mountain ranges that sit within this realm including the Caucasus (Mount Elbrus 5,642 m / 18,510 ft) and the Alps (Mont Blanc 4,810 m / 15,781 ft).

Left: The Palearctic Realm & Right: Topography of the Palearctic

At the top of the Palearctic lies the tundra. The animals here are well equipped for the freezing conditions and many of them exhibit white camouflage including arctic foxes and wolves and birds such as rock ptarmigans and snow geese. Beneath the tundra lies a strip of boreal forest known as the taiga. Many species of insect live in the boreal zone; the European spruce bark beetle is considered by some to be a keystone species and leaves a fascinating trail of destruction in the spruce it devours. One of the world’s most intimidating creatures abides only in the boreal forests of far eastern Russia, the Siberian tiger, the largest member of the Felidae family.

Left: European Spruce Bark Beetle | Mi St & Wjarek / Shutterstock & Right: Arctic fox in the snow | L-N / Shutterstock

The area south of the boreal forest can best be described as a patchwork of temperate forest, temperate grassland and desert. The Gobi desert sits northwest of the Tibetan plateau and is one of the most inhospitable places on earth. With windchill, temperatures can range from -40°C (-40°F) in the winter to 45°C (113 °F) in the summer. Although there are sand dunes here, most of the landscape is made up of flat barren basins and colourful rock formations. One of the few mammals to excel in this habitat is the Bactrian camel, which exhibits thick fur to stave off the frigid Gobi nights. There are also several species of pit viper endemic to the Gobi including the Haly’s or Siberian Pit Viper.

Left: Bactrian camels in Mongolia | Pierre Jean Durieu / Shutterstock & Right: Siberian pit viper Eastern Gobi, Mongolia | Ridinghood / Shutterstock

Temperate grassland in the Palearctic is referred to as steppe and is generally found in the transitional zones between desert and forest, where environmental factors such as precipitation are enough to support the growth of grasses but not sufficient for large amounts of trees. The Volga river passes through the Pontic Steppe and is home to the colourful Russian sturgeon. On land, animals include the critically endangered Saiga antelope, various species of fox, and the majestic steppe eagle.

Left: Saiga antelope in the steppe | Yakov Oskanov / Shutterstock & Right: Steppe Eagle | Ondrej Prosicky / Shutterstock

The largest expanse of temperate forest is found to the west and makes up almost all of Europe. Deer are common here and mill about peacefully beside pigeons, whose appearance varies considerably between realms, the western European hedgehog, and the European badger, the United Kingdom’s largest land predator.

Left: European badger | Coatesy / Shutterstock & Right: Western European Hedgehog | Nataliia Melnychuk / Shutterstock

06 Indomalayan realm

The Indomalayan realm sits to the south of the Palearctic on the other side of the Himalayas. Its mainland body stretches from the Thar desert in the west, which sits on the border of India and Pakistan to southern China in the east. Beneath are its island components, made up of the Philippines and half of the Indonesian and Malay archipelagos. With the exception of the Himalayas, its topography is relatively flat, especially in comparison to other zones although the islands of Indonesia are a well known volcanic hotspot.

Left: Indomalayan Realm & Right: Indomalayan Topography

This realm is made up almost entirely of tropical forest, which unsurprisingly is home to an astounding amount of biodiversity including the Asiatic version of Africa’s big 5. Various species of water buffalo can be found in the tropical and subtropical forests of this region alongside Asiatic elephants, which although smaller than their African counterparts, can still reach up to 13,000 lbs (13,215 lbs / 6,000 kg). The large felines of this realm include the Asiatic lion, an endangered but heavily protected subspecies of lion found only in India’s Gir Forest, and the leopard, which between its 8 subspecies, has an unusually large range from the southern tip of Africa to far eastern Asia. Completing the big 5 are three species of rhinoceros, including the Indian rhino, also known as the greater one-horned rhinoceros, whose numbers have risen from a bleak 600 in 1975 to over 3,500 by mid-2015 thanks to valiant conservation efforts.

Left: Mother elephant with baby | Nuttaya Maneekhot / Shutterstock & Right: Indian One-Horned Rhino in Nepal | Dominyk Lever / Shutterstock

Another area renowned for its wildlife is the island of Borneo. Orangutans here will live for up to 50 years, they are mostly arboreal and are also found on the island of Sumatra. The Wallace’s flying frog is also arboreal and will use its webbed feet to glide from the treetops when threatened. One of the many colourful birds on the island, the Rhinoceros hornbill secretes a tinted oil from their preen gland when grooming, which is thought to give their bill and casque its red tint. The spiny turtle is one of the most unique species of reptile and although they are found throughout Southeast Asia are classified as endangered.

Left: Rhinoceros Hornbill in Sumatra, Indonesia | feathercollector / Shutterstock & Right: Mother orangutan with baby | lukaszemanphoto / Shutterstock

Initially mapped by Alfred Russel Wallace in the 19th century, the southeastern border of this realm has been subject to much debate over the years but lies somewhere between the islands of Borneo and Java and New Guinea and Australia. This faunal boundary is known as the Wallace line and quite frankly, is fascinating. For context, there are three living subgroups of mammals; placentals, marsupials and monotremes. While there are some placental mammals in the Australasian realm, there are no marsupials or monotremes east of the Wallace line. It is thought that this separation is due both to continental drift and changing sea levels with the Wallace line representing a historically difficult boundary to cross for mammals who can’t fly or be transported by humans.

07 Australasian realm

The Australasian realm is positioned on the other side of the Wallace line and comprises New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand and several other smaller island nations. The highest peak in the region is found on New Guinea and is over twice the height of Australia’s Mount Kosciuszko, which stands at just over 2,000m.

Left: Australasian Biomes and Countries & Right: Australasian Topography

At almost 800,000 square kilometres (785,753 sq km/ 303,381 sq mi) New Guinea is the world’s second-largest island (the largest is Greenland, Australia is usually considered a continental landmass not an island) and features many curious animals including a particularly interesting marsupial, the Goodfellow’s tree-kangaroo. These furry fellows weigh around 7.5 kg (16.5 lbs) and unlike their Australian counterparts have brown and cream fur. The long-beaked echidna is a prime example of a monotreme mammal that exists in this realm and comes very close to but does not cross the Wallace line. The birds of this island are many and include a particularly exotic family known as birds of paradise.

Left: Goodfellow’s Tree Kangaroo | Danny Ye / Shutterstock & Right: Echidna | Kima / Shutterstock

Australia is the world’s 6th largest country and features a wide variety of biomes. The central and western portion of the country is dominated by areas that receive very little precipitation and are therefore classified as desert. The thorny devil is endemic to Australia and in addition to its thorny exterior and intricate camouflage exhibits a fake head on the back of its neck which it uses as a defence when provoked. The red kangaroo is the largest of Australia’s many marsupials and varies in colour between sexes; males are brick-red whereas females are grey. The eastern portion of the country is made up of grassland and forest. Here, koalas can be found traversing the treetops, overseeing wombats, another marsupial who live in underground burrow systems. Australia is of course famous for its snakes and spiders; one of the most striking arachnids is the red-headed mouse spider with males exhibiting a red head and jaws.

Left: Thorny devil | crbellette / Shutterstock & Right: Mouse Spider | Brittany North / Shutterstock

It would be a travesty to discuss Australia without exploring its waterways and ocean. The saltwater crocodile is the largest reptile on earth, weighing north of 2,600 lbs (2643 lbs / 1200 kg) and exists on Australia’s northern coastline and into Southeast Asia. The species of shark in these waters are numerous and range from hammerheads and tiger sharks to the infamous but beautiful great white.

Left: Hammerhead sharks | frantisekhojdysz / Shutterstock & Right: Saltwater crocodile | Danny Ye / Shutterstock

New Zealand is found southeast of Australia and although it is in the same realm, is home to quite a different array of animals. The most iconic by far is the kiwi, after which the humans of these islands are nicknamed. Mammals of the marine persuasion include various types of pinniped such as the New Zealand fur seal and whales such as the Hector’s dolphin, which has a unique colouration. Interestingly, there are no marsupials or monotremes here, in fact, bats or pekapeka in Maori, are the nation’s only native land mammals. Representing the reptiles of New Zealand is the Tuatara, a rare species found on the north island and the very northern tip of the south island.

Left: Endangered New Zealand kiwi | Vee Snijders / Shutterstock & Right: Fur seal in New Zealand | Nicram Sabod / Shutterstock

08 Oceanian realm

The Oceanian realm is made up solely of islands in the Pacific Ocean stretching from Japan’s Bonin Islands and Hawaii in the north to Fiji, Tonga and Easter Island in the south. As such, it is the smallest realm on earth by landmass. The topography here is limited due to the size of the landmass but the highest peak in Hawaii still reaches over 4,000m. Migration to and from these islands is limited for land mammals due to the long treacherous stretches of deep water, which is much less of a problem for flying mammals such as bats and species of bird.

The island of Palau is home to several species of bat from the Pteropus genus, more commonly referred to as flying foxes. Some of the most beautiful bird species include the Nicobar pigeon and the Red-footed booby, which is found throughout the tropics. The clear shallow waters of the Palau archipelago features yellow seahorses who drift along the ocean current with multicoloured mandarinfish.

Left: Nicobar pigeon | Vladimir Wrangel / Shutterstock & Right: Mandarin fish | wildestanimal / Shutterstock

Fiji is one of the larger archipelagos in this realm and its array of tropical birds is equally as spectacular; collared lory are common here and at 20 cm (7.9 in) long is roughly twice the size of a Fiji parrotfinch. Reptiles include the Fiji banded iguana, which is endemic and classified as endangered. They are similar in appearance to the Fiji crested iguana, which unfortunately is critically endangered. There are 6 species of clownfish in Fijian waters who compete with the Peacock mantis shrimp for the most colour animals of the reef!

Left: Collared Lory | arak7 / Shutterstock & Right: Peacock Mantis Shrimp | Aleksei Alekhin / Shutterstock

The Hawaiian island of Maui lies over 3,500 km (3678 km / 2,286 mi) from the closest point on the California coastline. It is part of a chain of islands and underwater volcanoes known as seamounts that stretches from Hawaii in the east to Kure Atoll in the west. Hawaii is the youngest, least eroded and most prominent. From Hawaii, the age of the islands increases the further northwest they lie and therefore their prominence decreases due to the time they have had to erode. In addition to the incredible array of birds and marine life that you’d expect from this Pacific chain (Hawaiian honeycreeper), there are many species of animal here that have been introduced by humans. The Indian Mongoose was introduced in the 19th century to combat rat populations in sugar plantations, along with the chital, another Indian species found in Hawaii that was also introduced in the 1800s.

Left: Indian Mongoose Martin Pelanek / Shutterstock & Right: Lava erupting into Pacific Ocean in Hawaii | Alexey Kamenskiy / Shutterstock

01 Eagles

Eagles are perhaps the most revered birds of prey. They are split between several subfamilies in the Accipitridae family and are some of the most striking members of the animal kingdom. Subfamilies include booted eagles (Aquilinae) such as the martial eagle, giant forest eagles (Harpiinae) such as the harpy eagle and snake eagles (Circaetinae), which includes the Philippine eagle and the endangered Bateleur, the national emblem of Zimbabwe. Fish eagles, also known as sea eagles, are found in the subfamily Buteoninae along with many types of hawk and kite.

Among the largest and heaviest of these birds (females weigh up to 9 kg / 19.8 lbs), the Steller’s sea eagle exhibits a particularly unique and thick plumage equipping them well for their frigid environment. They are found in far eastern Eurasia where they have a relatively small range. They spend most of the year around the Kamchatka peninsula and mainland areas at the same latitude. They breed further north and will spend the winters further south on Hokkaido and as far south as the Korean peninsula. Being sea eagles, they live on the coast and survive mostly on a diet of fish, particularly salmon. They are usually solitary but will congregate to breed or when the salmon are plentiful.

Left: Steller’s Sea Eagle, Hokkaido, Japan | Ondrej Prosicky / Shutterstock & Right: Steller’s Sea Eagle in Winter, Shiretoko Peninsula, Hokkaido, Japan | Phubet Juntarungsee / Shutterstock

Another type of sea eagle, the bald eagle is found in the same genus and has been a powerful symbol of American independence for well over 200 years. They exhibit an iconic white head and tail and a dark brown body. One of their most interesting traits is their nest building, which usually begins around 1-3 months before mating season. These nests can be gigantic with the largest structure ever recorded in St. Petersburg, Florida measuring almost 10 feet in diameter, 20 feet in depth and weighing almost 3 tons.

Left: Bald Eagle in Alaska | Ludo KOOS / Shutterstock & Right: Adult Bald Eagle standing guard over two chicks, St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada | Paul Reeves Photography / Shutterstock

02 True Hawks

All birds of prey have excellent eyesight but hawks, in particular, have a visual acuity around 8 times that of a human being. Along with eagles, they are part of the Accipitridae family, as well as buzzards, kites, harriers and old-world vultures all of which we’ll discuss in the following chapters. Although the term hawk is often used much more broadly, true hawks are all contained within the Accipitrinae subfamily where two types of hawk make up the majority of species, goshawks and sparrowhawks. Being much smaller than eagles, hawks will consume a large amount of invertebrates and prey on small mammals, reptiles and other birds ranging from hummingbirds, preyed up upon by the tiny hawk, to larger birds such as grouse preyed upon by goshawks (Northern Goshawk).

Hawks are well-known for their manoeuvrability and will dart gracefully through dense vegetation to catch prey in the forests they inhabit. The Eurasian sparrowhawk is an excellent example of the reversed sexual dimorphism that occurs in many but not all raptors. While we are not exactly sure why this happens, males are much smaller, weighing at most 196g (6.9oz) with females weighing close to double, topping out at around 342g (12oz). One of the most unique species of hawk is the Pale Chanting Goshawk, found throughout much of Southern Africa. In contrast to many other types of hawk, their plumage is a rich grey colour with a black tail and they come with matching orange beak and legs!

Left: The Eurasian sparrowhawk | Kalina Georgieva / Shutterstock & Right: Pale Chanting Goshawk Otto du Plessis / Shutterstock

03 True Buzzards

Where true hawks are contained within a single subfamily, true buzzards are contained within a single genus, Buteo. The members of this genus are also referred to as hawks in the new world but are known as buzzards elsewhere. There are almost 30 species found within this genus including the common buzzard, the eastern buzzard, also known as the Japanese buzzard, and the Gray-lined hawk, which has a unique plumage. As with many types of raptor, the common buzzard’s range is split up into three parts. Their resident range, where they spend most of their time, covers almost all of Europe. Their breeding range extends into northern Scandinavia and as far east as Mongolia and their winter range extends as far south as the southern tip of Africa.

Left: Eastern buzzard also known as the Japanese buzzard | Hawk777 / Shutterstock & Right: A Gray-lined hawk hunts above on a clear day | Chelsea Sampson / Shutterstock

We all go on vacation when it’s cold, that’s relatable, but why do these birds have a different breeding range? Well, it turns out that raptors have very specific nest-site requirements that ensure the maximum survival rate for their young. This could mean trees at a certain height, a certain amount of space or perhaps the absence of a particular threat. As with any species, mums will go to great lengths to ensure the best for their kids and the common buzzard is no exception. As a closing note, there are also several other birds that are not contained in this genus but are still named as buzzards such as Australia’s black-breasted buzzard.

Left: Black-breasted buzzard | Benny Marty / Shutterstock & Right: Common buzzard (Buteo buteo) | Piotr Krzeslak / Shutterstock

04 Kites

Kites are a diverse group of birds split up between multiple subfamilies. The members of Elaninae are thought of as small kites and include some beautiful lighter-coloured raptors including the black-shouldered kite, found in Australia and the black-winged kite found throughout Africa, Asia and parts of southern Europe. Milvine kites are thought of as the larger kites and their taxonomic status is now subject to revision. Its members were previously considered a single subfamily, Milvinae, containing 8 genera. However, in more recent studies the Milvinae subfamily has been disbanded and its members split up between other subfamilies, with many now found within Buteoninae, which is also home to the sea eagles previously discussed.

The red kite, contained in the Milvus genus, is thought of as the stereotypical kite and with their bright yellow claws and beak, it’s easy to see why these animals are now thought to be more closely related to eagles. They are medium-sized birds of prey with females weighing up to around 3 lbs (2.9lbs / 1.3kg) and are thought of primarily as scavengers although they will hunt small mammals, other birds and invertebrates, especially during breeding season. Finally, there are various members of the Perninae subfamily who are also considered kites such as the hook-billed kite who are found throughout Central and South America and have a particularly colourful face!

Left: Kite vs eagle & Right: Hook-billed kite female | Rafael Martos Martins / Shutterstock

05 Harriers

Harriers are all found within the Circus genus. They are famous for flying gracefully at a slow pace. So much so that the Harrier jump jet, an innovation of the 1960s was named after this group of birds. One of the most common species is the Northern harrier, whose disk-shaped faces are very similar to owls who also rely heavily on their hearing, and have stiff facial feathers that direct sound into their ears to help them detect prey. They are resident throughout much of the United States, migrating north into Canada and Alaska to breed and vacation in Central America, the Caribbean and Colombia.

Fun fact, the entire family, Accipitridae, of which all previously discussed birds are part of, were previously thought to be contained in the order Falconiformes, which separated the diurnal raptors from their nocturnal companions, otherwise known as owls. However, falcons, which look very similar to hawks, are now thought to be much more distant. Other examples of harriers include the Western marsh harrier, which is the type species and the Hen harrier, which has a completely different colouration between sexes, with adult males exhibiting a grey plumage, while females and juveniles are found in brown.

Left: Female hen harrier | alitellioglu / Shutterstock & Right: Male hen harrier | voh14 / Shutterstock

06 Old World Vultures

The last members of the Accipitridae family that we’ll discuss are thought of collectively as old world vultures and are split between two subfamilies; Gypiinae, which contains 13 of the 16 species, and Gypaetinae, which is now thought to also contain harrier hawks. The members of Gypiinae personify a vulture, at least in popular culture. The white-backed vulture is found throughout sub-Saharan Africa and although they have quite a large range, are critically endangered. The Indian vulture is found further east on the Indian subcontinent and into Southeast Asia and, unfortunately, are also critically endangered. Both of these species are known for their long slender necks with sparser and shorter feathers.

Vultures are scavengers with a keen sense of smell, which help them locate carrion. Because of this, their talons and beaks are weaker than other raptors who use them to kill their prey. Another spectacular species in this subfamily is the red-headed vulture, they have a similar but more contained range to the Indian vulture and are also critically endangered. The members of Gypaetinae are fascinating. They are also thought of as old-world vultures but differ considerably in their appearance; possessing the face of a classic vulture but with a body and stature much more similar to that of an eagle. The Egyptian vulture exhibits a mostly white plumage with an entirely yellow face and brown flight feathers; positioned along the trailing edge of the wing.

Left: Lammergeier or bearded vulture | Ewa Studio / Shutterstock & Right: Red-headed vulture with both wings open before landing | Ishor Gurung / Shutterstock

07 Ospreys

Ospreys are contained within Pandionidae, a family with a single genus and two species. They are also known as fish hawks and with over 99% of their diet being made up of fish, are classified as piscivores, an animal that survives almost entirely off of fish. These raptors are the closest relatives to the Accipitridae family along with new world vultures and the secretary bird, which we’ll discuss next.

The two species, the eastern and western osprey, are seemingly identical in appearance but differ in range. The western osprey has a gigantic range, found throughout most of the world. The eastern osprey is located in Australia and the surrounding island nations of Oceania. Their nests are positioned high up in trees, cliffs or other features overlooking the waterways they inhabit and will house an average of three chicks each season who eagerly await the return of their fish-bearing mother.

08 Secretary Bird

The secretary bird is found in sub-Saharan Africa and has a particularly unique appearance with long black feathers protruding from the back of its neck and a spectacular red to yellow gradient on its face, which can sometimes be pure yellow. They stand up to 1.2 m (3.9ft) tall with long slender legs that are uncommon for a bird of prey. Their range is not too dissimilar to the white-backed vulture, being found throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa, although these birds are also classified as endangered. Secretary birds are monogamous and are thought to form a breeding pair for life. Females usually lay around 1 to 3 eggs per season and chicks will stay with their parents for two to three months before reaching independence.

Left: Secretary bird in South Africa | Olaf Holland / Shutterstock & Right: Secretary bird with yellow face | Vera Reva / Shutterstock

09 Condors aka New World Vultures

The Andean condor is the largest flying bird in the world, weighing up to 33 lbs / 15 kg and processing a wingspan of up to 10.5 ft / 3.2 m. Unlike many birds of prey, the males of this species are significantly larger than the females and perhaps most interestingly, the colour of their irises differs between sex, males have brown irises, whereas females have red. Like all vultures, the Andean condor is a scavenger and uses the thermals found in mountainous or coastal terrain to soar above the surrounding landscape in search of carrion.

Left: Andean condor in Peru | Ondrej Prosicky / Shutterstock & Right: Andean condors, Torres del Paine, Chile | kavram / Shutterstock

Condors, also known as new world vultures, are a family of birds named Cathartidae, made up of 5 genera and 7 species including the turkey vulture, the California condor and the black vulture. They are found throughout the Americas, with the breeding range of the Turkey vulture extending into Canada. The King vulture is the last species we’ll discuss and rivals the secretary bird for the most colourful face! They are found in the emergent layer of tropical forests throughout most of Central and South America. These colourful creatures are much smaller than the Andean condor, weighing no more than 10lbs (9.9lbs / 4.5 kg).

Left: King vulture | Martin Pelanek / Shutterstock & Right: California condor | James Michael Images / Shutterstock

10 Owls

All owls are contained within the order Strigiformes. They are commonly thought of as the nocturnal birds of prey although not all of them are active at night. There are two families of owl. Tytonidae, commonly referred to as barn owls and Strigidae, known as true or typical owls. They are one of the most admired orders of bird, often portrayed as mysterious, wise creatures in popular culture. One of the owls most unique traits is the ability to turn their heads a total of 270 degrees in some species (135 degrees to each side). Owls are able to do this due to the holes in their vertebrae being around 10 times the size of the corresponding arteries preventing a loss of blood flow to the brain.

Left: Common barn owl | Anan Kaewkhammul / Shutterstock & Right: Little owl (a typical owl) | taviphoto / Shutterstock

Owls have an enormous range, in fact, it would be easier to show on a map where they do not exist; in the center of Greenland, several other islands close to the poles and the continent of Antarctica. Another fascinating owl fact; the activity of a particular species can be determined by their eye colour. Owls with black eyes are nocturnal—hunting at night. Owls with orange eyes are crepuscular—hunting at dusk and dawn. And owls with yellow eyes are diurnal—hunting in the day. The diurnal snowy owl has piercing yellow eyes and exhibits a very unique plumage with mostly white feathers and brown highlights. They are one of the largest owls, weighing up to 3.5lbs / 1.6kg and exhibit a wingspan of up to 1.7m (67 inches). They live in the colder northern regions of the northern hemisphere where they prey on small mammals such as lemmings, mice and rabbits and will occasionally hunt other birds and fish.

Left: Snowy owl in Ottawa, Canada | Jim Cumming / Shutterstock & Right: Portrait of a Scops owl with orange eyes | Pablo Santana Duran / Shutterstock

11 Seriemas

The members of the Cariamidae family are found on the South American continent and are known as seriemas. Taxonomically, they are located on the other side of the Telluraves clade and, in terms of birds of prey, are most closely related to falcons. They have long legs, similar to those of a secretary bird and fill a similar ecological niche, preying on the same kinds of animals, including snakes, rodents and insects. There are two species; The red-legged seriema has a larger range, found as far north as central Brazil, and the black-legged seriema, which is limited to the countries of Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina. They have soft feathers that protrude from their vibrant red beaks and blue highlights around the eyes.

Left: Red-legged seriema & Right: Red-legged seriema with a snake in its beak | Wirestock Creators / Shutterstock

12 Falcons

The peregrine falcon is the fastest animal on earth. They dive at speeds of over 200 mph ( 322 kph) to snatch other unsuspecting birds mid-flight. Their facial mask is reminiscent of a viking! And their dark plumage and matching yellow talons make it one of the most visually impressive birds of prey. They are relatively small, weighing no more than around 900g (907 g / 31.96 oz) and have a maximum wingspan of 112 cm (44.09 in).

Interestingly, falcons lay a total of 2 to 6 eggs but do so at an interval of one every 48 hours. After hatching it will take falcon chicks up to 42 days to learn to fly and 3 years to reach sexual maturity. Falcons are one of two types of bird within the family Falconidae alongside caracaras, which we’ll discuss next. The smallest falcon and the smallest bird of prey is the collared falconet. These tiny predators weigh no more than 30 -50 grams, which is half of a least weasel! And will feast on grasshoppers, butterflies and other insects in the forests of south, east and southeast Asia.

13 Caracaras

Although caracaras are sometimes thought of as true falcons, visually they are quite different and really deserve their own category. These colourful birds are quite unique in appearance, often sporting a colourful face and dark black feathers. All caracaras are found in the Americas. The crested caracara has the largest range, being found throughout the neotropical realm, the black caracara is found in northern South America and the white-throated caracara is found to the south. The crested caracara is one of the most colourful, sporting a reddish-orange mask, an almost emerald-blue beak and a black toupé atop a white throat and nape.

01 Mustelinae | Stoats, Ferrets & Mink

In addition to being one of the most charming animals on the planet, the stoat, otherwise known as the short-tailed weasel or the Eurasian ermine is the root of this entire superfamily, otherwise known as the type species. It is part of the type genus, Mustela after which the naming of the containing taxonomic ranks is based.

Mustela is the largest genus in the entire superfamily, containing 16 species, all of which are generally referred to as weasels but also includes polecats, stoats, ferrets and mink. Weighing just 30 to 100 grams (1-3.5oz), the smallest of this genus is the least weasel. Referred to as the common weasel, these tiny creatures are also the smallest mustelid and the smallest carnivore. They have a very similar range to the stoat, being found throughout much of the northern hemisphere, as far south as Northern Africa and central China. The least weasel personifies a mustelid, with a long slender body and relatively short legs. In the northern parts of their range, their coat turns pure white in the winter to adapt to their snowy environment. This colour change happens due to a hormonal reaction in response to a reduction in daylight hours and also occurs in other animals such as the ptarmigan and the snowshoe hare. Other species in the genus include the Steppe polecat, the European Mink and the Black-footed ferret.

The least weasel in summer (left) and winter (right) coats | Stephan Morris/Shutterstock

02 Lutrinae | Otters

Lutrinae is the second-largest subfamily containing 13 species. Its members are referred to as otters and are the closest relatives to the weasels in Mustelinae. Like weasels, otters exhibit long slender bodies and short limbs. They thrive in the water; most species have webbed feet to aid with swimming and feed mainly on fish and invertebrates. 11 of the species are thought of as semiaquatic and live in freshwater ecosystems with the remaining two species of sea otter being classified as marine. The Eurasian otter, also known as the common otter, has a very large range encompassing almost all of Europe below the taiga belt, parts of the Middle East and Russia and into Southeast Asia.

Left: Eurasian otter portrait | Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock & Right: Male Eurasian Otter | Alec Taylor/Shutterstock

As is usually the case, the marine species of this genus are much larger than their freshwater cousins; the sea otter is the largest mustelid, weighing up to 100lbs (45kg) and measuring up to 5ft long (1.5 meters). They are well known for floating on their backs, which they do for several reasons; sea otters will adopt this position to sleep or rest in addition to using their bellies as a surface to pry open crustaceans and the other animals they consume. Another interesting species is the giant otter, found in South America. Although they can be a similar length to sea otters (including their tail, which is longer), they are roughly half the weight, weighing up to around 50lbs (52lbs / 24kg).

Left: Adult sea otter with infant | worldswildlifewonders/Shutterstock & Right: Giant otter standing on log in the Peruvian Amazon | OSTILL is Franck Camhi/Shutterstock

03 Ictonychinae | Marbled Polecat & Grison

Ictonychinae is a smaller subfamily and contains some of the lesser-known but no less incredible species including the marbled polecat and two species of grison. The marbled polecat is found on the steppes and arid areas of Central Asia, the Middle East and Europe. Like all mustelids, this colourful creature has well-developed scent glands that allow it to emit a pungent aroma, which is used both for marking territory and as a defence mechanism. They exhibit a very unique colouration with a white and black striped face and a blotched yellow body.

The grison genus contains two species, which are known as South American wolverines. The greater grison is found throughout Central America and the northern half of South America and the lesser grison, which is found at the Southern end of the continent. Both species have a dark face and belly and a lighter-coloured back with the lesser grison exhibiting a more sandy-yellow colour.

Left: Greater grison | Vladislav T. Jirousek/Shutterstock & Right: Lesser grison in the Pampas, Argentina | Foto 4440/Shutterstock

04 Guloninae | Wolverine & Martens

Guloninae contains 8 species of marten, which look very similar to weasels, the gigantic wolverine and several other unique species including the tayra and the fisher. The wolverine is the largest land-dwelling mustelid (30kg / 66lbs & 1.05m / 41in) and although they are still relatively small in comparison to their prey, they have been known to take down large ungulates five times their size including reindeer, wild sheep and even moose. They often do this by trapping their prey in the snow where, being much larger, the ungulates become stuck and are no match for the lighter, more aggressive wolverine.

Left: Wolverine portrait | Erik Mandre/Shutterstock & Right: Pair of wolverines in the taiga | Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock

The 8 species of marten are all contained within the Martes genus. Their combined range spans much of the Northern Hemisphere and stretches into Southeast Asia where a particularly colourful species is found. The yellow-throated marten, unsurprisingly, displays a yellow throat with a beautiful gradient that turns to a dark brown or black towards their hind legs and tail. Like many mustelids, these cute-looking carnivores will take on much larger prey and have been known to bring down the fawns of larger ungulates such as elk.

Left: Yellow-throated marten, Chitwan National Park, China | Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock & Right: Yellow-throated marten showing their beautiful colour gradient | Wirestock Creators/Shutterstock

05 Helictidinae | Ferret badgers

Helictidinae contains a single genus and six species of ferret badger and figuratively speaking, bridges the gap nicely between the weasel-like mustelids of the previous chapters and the badger-like mustelids of the next. Collectively, they are found in China and Southeast Asia.

06 Melinae | European Badger & Hog Badger

The species of Melinae are split between two genera, which can be termed generally as badgers and hog badgers. Regular badgers have a gigantic range being found throughout most of Eurasia, whereas hog badgers are located solely in east and southeast Asia. Weighing up to a burly 16.683kg (36.779lbs) the European badger is the United Kingdom’s largest land predator! Their primary prey is earthworms, which they dig ferociously for!

Left: European badger sniffing flowers! | Frank11/Shutterstock & Right: Badger sow and cubs | Tony Baggett/Shutterstock

Badgers are highly social by nature, which is unusual for mustelids, and live in groups that usually number around 6 but can surpass 20. They live in underground burrow systems called setts and are nocturnal or crepuscular, being most active at dusk or dawn. The Japanese badger is slightly smaller and exhibits a lighter coat. Hog badgers are also similar but have elongated snouts and lighter claws.

07 Mellivorinae | Honey Badger

Mellivorinae contains a single species, the honey badger also known as the ratel. They have a large range being found throughout much of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, South Asia and a small region east of the black sea. Although they are named so for their love of honey and bee larvae, they are voracious predators and most of their diet is made up of small mammals or snakes depending on the season. Specifically, they are known to take on highly venomous snakes such as cape cobras and horned adders. Honey badgers are able to prey on these deadly reptiles having evolved to develop a resistance to the toxicity of their venom. This is similar to mongoose, who also eat snakes and look like a mustelid but are not part of this family.

Left: Honey badger portrait | LM Gray & Right: Honey badger hunting in Krüger National Park, South Africa | Gergo Nagy/Shutterstock

08 Taxidiinae | American Badger

The American Badger is also contained within its own monotypic genus, Taxidiinae. In terms of its evolutionary path, this species and genus are the most basal; a term referring to the proximity to the root of the family. Mustelids are thought to have split from the members of Procyonidae around 29 million years ago, with the rest of Mustelidae splitting from the American badger around 18 million years ago. Like the European badger, this species has a white line extending from their back and onto their face although this is much less pronounced on the American badger. These mustelids are fossorial predators, those adapted to digging, and prey mostly upon rodents such as gophers, prairie dogs, kangaroo rats and pika. The American badger usually mates in the summer or early fall but won’t give birth until around March and April. Their young are called cubs and usually stay with their mother until around 5-6 months old.

Left: American Badger at a prairie dog burrow | Lev Frid/Shutterstock & Right: Young American badger | critterbiz/Shutterstock

09 Procyonidae | Racoons, Olingos & Coatis

The closest relatives to the mustelids are the members of the Procyonidae, a family that contains 5 genera and 13 species such as the kinkajou, raccoons, olingos and coatis. Like the honey badger, the kinkajou is also known to raid the nests of bees and is sometimes referred to as the honey bear. They are found in the tropical forests of Central and South America where they feast mainly on fruit but, being carnivores, will also eat small mammals. Raccoons are omnivores and although they will feast on both plant matter and animals such as invertebrates, they have an unfortunate, although well deserved, reputation for pinching our trash. These masked bandits weigh no more than around 23lbs (10.5kg) and have dark patches surrounding their eyes, similar to that of the raccoon dog (aka Tanuki!), although they are not related.

Left: Kinkajou in Costa Rica | Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock & Right: Raccoon in Minnesota | Agnieszka Bacal/Shutterstock

There are 4 species of olingo, which look very similar to the kinkajou. They are also arboreal and nocturnal and also live in the tropical forests of Central and South America and have a similar range to coatis who are the last member of this family that we’ll discuss. There are four species of coati with the white-nosed coati, who live mainly on the North American continent and the South American coati being the most common. In addition to both tropical and temperate forest coatis are found in grassland and more arid ecosystems.

Left: Bushy-tailed olingo | Martin Pelanek/Shutterstock & Right: White-nosed coati | Jim Cumming/Shutterstock

10 Ailuridae | Red Pandas

The next most distant relatives to the mustelids are contained in the Ailuridae family, which features only 1 extant genus and 2 species most commonly referred to as Red pandas. These creatures, who are said to resemble bears, weigh no more than 14lbs (13.7lbs / 6.2kg) and have a very unique appearance, sporting a black belly and legs and a majestic dark red back and face with white highlights. The red panda is found throughout the Himalayas and south-central China where they live a mostly arboreal and solitary existence. Although they are contained within the same clade, they are not closely related to the giant panda, rather their name derives from the Nepali word “Nigalya ponya” which means “eater of bamboo.”

11 Mephitidae | Skunks

Commonly referred to as stink badgers, skunks are members of the Mephitidae family, which contains 4 genera and 12 species. They are found in three general areas; spotted skunks are found on the North American continent along with striped and hooded skunks. Hog-nosed skunks are also found in North America and also in South America. Stink badgers are found on the other side of the world, most commonly on the islands of Borneo, Sumatra and Java.

Left: Eastern spotted skunk | Holly Kuchera/Shutterstock & Right: Young hog-nosed skunk in Bear Canyon near Tucson, Arizona | Sean R. Stubben/Shutterstock

Spotted skunks display a very interesting fur pattern that can sometimes look like stripes but differ considerably from striped skunks whose stripes are much more clearly defined. They are perhaps most famous for their scent glands, which are used to deter predators. These glands are much more developed than the members of Mustelidae and it is thought the reason that stripes of the skunk terminate on either side of their tail is to warn predators of the glands, which are positioned on either side of the anus.

Left: Striped Skunk | sunsinger/Shutterstock & Right: Eastern spotted skunk in defensive posture | Agnieszka Bacal/Shutterstock

Sources & Further Reading

Animal Diversity, Wikipedia, Encyclopedia Britannica, Musteloidea Taxonomy, Mustelids, Mustelidae, Type Specimens, Winter Colour Change, Sea Otters, Greater vs Lesser Grison, Largest Mustelids, Wolverine Moose Kills, Badger Diet, European Badger, Badgers, Hog Badger Range, Honey Badger Venom Resistance, Honey Badger Aggression, American Badger Behaviour, American Badger Life Cycle, The Red Panda, Red Panda Name & Skunk Facts

Odd Toed Ungulates

Odd-toed ungulates are housed within the order Perissodactyla, which contains three families; equids, rhinos and tapirs. They are characterized by having an odd number of functional toes; equids have a single toe, whereas rhinos and tapirs have three.

01 – Rhinocerotidae | Rhinos

Rhinocerotidae contains 5 species, commonly referred to as rhinos. The most well-known of the species, black and white rhinos are found in sub-Saharan Africa but a further three species exist in Asia: the Indian rhino, the Javan rhino and the Sumatran rhino. All species have horns that are used primarily for self-defence but are also used for foraging. Black, white and Sumatran rhinos have two horns whereas Indian and Javan rhinos have only one.

Unlike their names would suggest, Africa’s black and white rhinos are not named so due to a difference in skin colour but can be differentiated in several ways. The shape of their upper lip is more v-shaped in black rhinos and flatter in white rhinos and they also vary drastically in size with male white rhinos weighing a whopping 8000 lb (3600 kg) in comparison to the black rhino, which weighs a mere 3000 lb (1400 kg). Of the Asian species, Indian and Javan rhinos are quite distinct, sporting an armour plated-like appearance.

Left: Indian Rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park, India | NileshShah/Shutterstock & Right: Javan Rhino on a postage stamp printed in the USSR | Shutterzomb/Shutterstock

02 – Tapiridae | Tapirs

The last of the odd-toed ungulate family, Tapiridae contains four species of Tapir. The Baird’s tapir, the South American tapir and the Mountain tapir all exist in Central & South America with the remaining species, the Malayan tapir found throughout southern Thailand, the Malay peninsular, and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. Tapirs are herbivorous and are known to have flexible snouts, which they used to collect foliage. The largest of the four species, the Malayan tapir exhibits a unique colouration and can weigh almost 1200lbs (1189lbs/540kg).

Left: Malayan tapir | jeep2499/Shutterstock & Right: Baird’s tapir in Corcovado National Park, Costa | Rica Salparadis/Shutterstock

Although the three South American species are significantly smaller, they are still the largest native land mammal on the continent with some male tapirs weighing up to 660lbs (300kg). Perhaps their most interesting characteristic is the colour pattern of their young; regardless of species, calves have white stripes across their bodies, which grow out of as they age. In addition, Malay tapir calves appear to be significantly darker than their South American cousins.

Left: The first hour of the birth of the Malay tapir | J.Natayo/Shutterstock & Right: Baby of the endangered South American tapir | Artush/Shutterstock

03 – Equidae | Horses

The Equidae family contains 7 species, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. While there are certain breeds of domesticated horse that exceed this size (e.g. Shire Horse – 2425lbs / 1100kg), the largest wild equid is the Grévy’s zebra, which stands up to 5.2 feet (1.6m) at the base of the neck and weighs close to 900lbs / 409kg. They are found in east Africa in the countries of Ethiopia and Kenya, where they are currently endangered. The plains zebra is slightly smaller and although they are much more common with a larger range stretching into southern Africa, they are also endangered.

The African wild ass is one of three asses in the Equidae family. The Somali wild ass is a particularly beautiful subspecies, exhibiting the same colouration as zebras on their legs with a light grey body with a white belly, muzzle and chin. The species Equus ferus is split into two subspecies; the domesticated horse and the Przewalski’s horse. The latter is found on the steppes of Mongolia and is said to be the last truly wild horse.

Left: Przewalski’s horses | Yantar/Shutterstock & Right: Somali wild ass near Eilat, Israel | Sergei25/Shutterstock

Even Toed Ungulates

Even-toed ungulates are contained within Artiodactyla, which includes camels, giraffes, deer, bovines and whales. They are categorized by having an even number of functional toes, usually 2 or 4 on which they bear their weight. There are well over 200 species of even-toed ungulate in comparison to their odd-toed cousins, who number just 16.

04 – Camelidae | Camels

Camelidae contains 7 species; three in the Camelus genus and 4 in the Lama genus. These creatures once roamed much of Eurasia and North America but are now found natively in two separate areas, the Camelus genus being found throughout North Africa and the Middle East (with dromedary camels also being introduced to Australia in the 1840s) and the Lama genus being found in South America.

Left: The Bactrian camel | Alex Tumee/Shutterstock & Right: Two dromedary camels in the desert | Vinnikava Viktoryia/Shutterstock

The wild Bactrian camel and the enormous Bactrian camel, which can weigh up to 2,200 lbs (1,000kg) are much more similar in appearance to Lamas. They are found on the frigid steppes of Central Asia and have two large humps. The slender Dromedary camel, also known as the Arabian camel, is built for the desert, weighing around half the weight and exhibiting just a single hump. The four species in the Lama genus, the Llama, Alpaca, Vicuña and Guanaco are very similar both in appearance and range, being found at the southern tip of the Andes mountain range with only Guanacos living further south.

Left: Llamas at Vinicunca Mountain in Peru | Diego Vargas Nasser/Shutterstock & Right: White alpaca with offspring in South America | fotorince/Shutterstock

05 – Suina | Pigs

Suina is a suborder consisting of two families that we’ll group together: Suidae, which are generally referred to as pigs, contains 6 genera and 18 species and are native to Eurasia and Africa. Tayassuidae contains three monotypic pig-like genera, which are often referred to as New-world pigs, being found in the Americas. Unlike most other even-toed ungulates, pigs are omnivorous, surviving off both plant matter and meat. Wild bores generally weigh a maximum of 770lb (350kg) but have been recorded at a staggering 1,000lbs.

Conversely, the smallest species of pig is the pygmy hog, which stands just 10 inches high (25cm) weighs just 12 lbs (5.4kg) and are highly endangered with an estimated 250 individuals remaining in the wild. One of the most interesting features of wild pigs is their tusks, although they are not present in all individuals. Babirusa males have two sets of tusks, one protruding from the upper jaw and one from the lower, which if they’re not maintained by grinding, can grow so long that they pierce the skull of the individual. Perhaps the most well-known pig is Pumbaa, a happy-go-lucky warthog from Disney’s Lion King.

Left: Pygmy hog | Yvdalmia/Shutterstock & Right: Babirusa male | Makoto_Honda/Shutterstock

Cetruminantia Split & Whippomorpha

While Camelidae and Suina were the first two groups to split from the main pack, the next split is by far the most interesting. The clade Cetruminantia contains two suborders: Ruminantia, which are all fairly similar and include giraffes, deer and bovines such as bison and wildebeest. Whippomorpha on the other hand contains both whales and hippos and is thought to have diverged around 59 million years ago, with hippos then diverging from whales around 55 million years ago.

06 – Cetacea | Whales

The members of Cetacea, whales are mammals and are more closely related to giraffes than they are to fish. This means that they breathe air, females produce milk, which is suckled by their young, and they have hair, the follicles of which are perhaps the most noticeable on humpback whales. There are over 80 species of whale, which can be broadly categorized into toothed whales, including dolphins, porpoises and orcas, and baleen whales, which includes grey whales and right whales.

Left: A happy porpoise | Simone Janssen/Shutterstock & Right: A pod of killer whales | Tory Kallman/Shutterstock

One of the whale’s most impressive traits is breaching, which they do to rid themselves of parasites; humpback whales can weigh up to 30 tonnes and can almost breach their entire bodies out of the water. Even bigger still is the blue whale, which can weigh close to 200 tonnes and rarely ever breach due to the energy that would be required to do so! A group of whales is called a pod and usually consist of up to 30 animals, although this number can be larger, especially in the smaller toothed whales who band together for protection.

Left: Humpback whale breaches in the Broughton Archipelago, British Columbia, Canada | William Drumm/Shutterstock & Right: Blue whale in Monterey Bay, California | Chase Dekker/Shutterstock

07 – Hippopotamidae | Hippos

Hippos are the closest relatives to whales but are thought of as semi-aquatic mammals, spending most of their day in the water keeping cool and exiting only at dusk to graze. There are only two species within Hippopotamidae, both of which are found in Africa. The common hippo is found throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa and the pygmy hippo, which is found in West Africa. The common hippopotamus can best be described as gigantic! They are the third-largest land mammal after the elephant and the rhino, weighing upwards of 6,600 lbs (3,000 kg) in the wild but have reached almost 10,000lbs (4,500kg) in captivity!

The pygmy hippo is significantly smaller weighing up to 600 lbs (275kg). Both species are largely herbivorous but have been known to consume meat very occasionally, although their stomachs are not made for doing so. They are extremely territorial and are known as the deadliest mammal in Africa, responsible for 3,000 deaths per year, which is 10 times that of the Nile crocodile.

Left: Pygmy hippopotamus underwater | Tatiana Grozetskaya/Shutterstock & Right: Pygmy hippopotamus calf | Tristan Tan/Shutterstock

Ruminantia

Ruminantia is the last group of ungulates we’ll look at. Ruminants are grazing mammals whose stomachs are made up of 4 parts, allowing them to consume their food through a fascinating 2-part process known as rumination! Initially, these animals chew and swallow their food, which is fermented in the first chamber of their stomach known as the rumen and passed to the reticulum which allows it to be regurgitated in the form of cuds. These cuds are then chewed again, swallowed and passed to the third chamber, the omasum for further processing before ending up in the true stomach, the abomasum.

08 – Tragulidae | Mouse Deer

The most distant ruminants are members of the Tragulidae family, which contains 10 species of mouse deer. 9 species are found in southeast Asia with the remaining single species located in Africa. As adorable as they sound, the Java mouse-deer is the smallest living ungulate, weighing just 2-4lbs (1-2kg). They exist on the forest floor and are mainly herbivorous, although they have been known to eat invertebrates and sometimes carrion. Most species have a light brown coat with white highlights around the neck but some species are spotted and the Philippine mouse-deer is much darker.

Left: Lesser mouse deer | Try_my_best/Shutterstock & Right: Close up of a mouse deer | Independent birds/Shutterstock

09 – Antilocapridae | Pronghorn

The Antilocapridae family contains only a single species, the pronghorn, which is closely related to the Giraffe but found on the other side of the planet in North America as far north as  Saskatchewan and Alberta in Canada and as far south as Northern Mexico. They exhibit a striking colouration with a white belly, rump and striped neck and a dark area on the front of their face. They are often called the American antelope and being preyed upon by cougars, wolves, coyotes and bears have evolved to be the fastest land mammal in the Americas, reaching up to 90km/h (55 mph).

10 – Giraffidae | Giraffes

Giraffidae contains two of the most unique animals on the planet, the giraffe and the Okapi, which is also known as the forest giraffe or zebra giraffe. Giraffes are the tallest mammal on earth with the loftiest individuals reaching a height of almost 19ft (18.70 ft / 5.7 m) and can weigh over 4,000 lbs (4250 lbs /1930 kg). They use this height to feast on the foliage of tall Acacia trees that are not accessible to the other herbivores of the savannah. The taxonomy of the giraffe is highly debated, regardless they display a wide range of fur patterns between species or subspecies with some giraffes showing clearly defined patches and others with a more broken or blotched pattern.

While giraffes are found throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa, the okapi is located solely in the Congo where they are endangered with an estimated 22,000 remaining in the wild. Okapi have long tongues used to select vegetation, in addition to cleaning their ears. They have a very unique appearance with a deep brown coat and white and black striped legs used for camouflage.

The beautiful okapi. Left: Michal Sloviak/Shutterstock & Right: Juan Carlos Munoz/Shutterstock

11 – Cervidae | Deer

Cervidae is a much larger family with 47 species. They are more commonly known as deer and are well-known for the antlers that are present on males from all but one species and also on female caribou. Deer are split into two main subfamilies, old-world deer, which are found mostly throughout Eurasia and new world deer found mostly in the Americas although there is some crossover between the two. A third subfamily does exist, Hydropotinae, which contains a single species, the Chinese water deer.

Left: Mother white-tailed deer with fawn | Holly Kuchera/Shutterstock & Right: Chinese water deer | Shaun Whitmore/Shutterstock

The largest of the cervids is the moose, with the largest individual ever recorded in Alaska weighing a staggering 1800lbs (816 kg) and standing over 7ft at the shoulder. Another particularly beautiful species is the Chital deer from India that exhibit a rich brown coat with white dots. Deer are one of many types of animal whose mating season is known as the rut, which comes from the word rugire, meaning “to roar”. Rutting takes place during the late fall and early winter and sees males compete aggressively for their mates. Males start by making a loud call to ward off other males and will battle antler to antler if this isn’t sufficient.

Left: Bull moose in Denali National Park, Alaska | NancyS/Shutterstock & Right: Two male fallow deer during the rut | Menno Schaefer/Shutterstock

12 – Moschidae | Musk Deer

Moschidae contains a single genus, which oddly enough is more closely related to the bovines that we’ll discuss next than it is to the members of Cervidae. There are 7 species found throughout southern Asia, particularly in the Himalayan region and one species, the Siberian musk deer found throughout eastern Russia and northern China. There are relatively small, weighing no more than around 37lbs (17kg) and are a hardy species, well adapted for their frigid environment. Rather than antlers, males’ defining feature is the presence of tusks, which protrude from their upper jaw bone.

Left: Male Siberian musk deer | Suvorov Alex/Shutterstock & Right: Female Siberian musk deer | Damson/Shutterstock

13 – Bovidae | Bovids

Bovidae is by far the largest ungulate family with 143 extant species. This diverse group of animals includes some of the largest on the planet including the Gaur, also known as the Indian bison (3,310zlb / 1,500kg), Africa’s wild water buffalo (2,600lb / 1,200kg), the North American bison (3,090lb / 1,400kg) and the Wild yak (2,600lb / 1,200kg). All male bovines possess horns, which are also present on many females. Unlike the antlers of the deer family, these horns do not branch but do twist and spiral to create many fascinating shapes.

Left: Wild yak in the mountains of Nepal | Andy Shell/Shutterstock & Right: Indian Gaur in Bandipur National Park | Bobbys gallery/Shutterstock

Some of the most interesting are that of the addax antelope, the Giant eland, the East African oryx and the sturdy curled horns of the Bighorn sheep. Many bovids form large groups for protection; herds of bison can reach almost 5,000 on the grasslands of North America and famously in Africa, alongside herds of zebra that we discussed first, thousands of blue wildebeest trek in a loop from Kenya’s Massai Mara to areas further south in Tanzania in search of more fertile lands all while dodging crocodiles, lions and other predators.

Left: Wildebeest herd navigating a cliff in the Masai Mara, Kenya | Wirestock Creators/Shutterstock & Right: Wildebeest herd crossing the Mara River at the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya | crbellette/Shutterstock

01 – Giant Panda | Ailuropoda melanoleuca

Taxonomically, Giant Pandas are the most distant species from all other bears. They are easily distinguished by their round faces, black and white coat, and stocky build, weighing up to 275 lbs (125kg). Almost all of a panda’s diet is made up of bamboo, which is a poor nutritional source but easily accessible in the forests they inhabit. They will eat for up to 16 hours per day and are well-known to do so in an upright position. This species once roamed much of central and southeastern China, Myanmar and northern Vietnam but is now found solely in a small collection of mountainous bamboo forests in central China. Pandas are solitary by nature and have a relatively small range of up to 6 square kilometres (2.3 square miles), which they maintain by rubbing their scent gland against trees. The conservation status of the giant panda is currently set to vulnerable, although they are protected and highly revered in China, with their government even building bamboo corridors to allow them to move freely between mountain ranges.

Left: Panda bear sleeping on a tree branch | clkraus / Shutterstock & Right: Panda bears eating bamboo | Hung Chung Chih / Shutterstock

02 – Qinling panda | Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis

The Qinling panda wasn’t officially recognised as a subspecies until 2005 and besides the nominate subspecies that we’ve discussed, is the only recognised subspecies. They are named after the Qinling mountain range where they live and are extremely rare with estimates ranging from 100 to 300 remaining in the wild. Qinling pandas have a beautiful brown coat, are slightly smaller,  and exhibit the exact behavioural traits of regular pandas.

Left & Right: Qinling pandas | Wang LiQiang / Shutterstock

03 – Spectacled Bear | Tremarctos ornatus

The spectacled bear is named as such due to the black markings around their eyes encircled in white, although this pattern is not clearly defined on all individuals. Spectacled bears are found in the mountain ranges of South America, particularly the Andes, where they are the only species of bear on the continent. They are generally found in cloud forests, which are tropical forest ecosystems found at higher elevations and covered in cloud for most of the year. A medium-sized bear, weighing up to around 440lbs (200kg), they are known as excellent climbers and are often found relaxing at the tops of trees. Like the panda, the spectacled bear is a species of bear that does not hibernate due to an abundance of food year-round. Perhaps the most well-known spectacled bear is Paddington, who, being sent by his aunt Lucie, arrived in London as a stowaway from “Darkest Peru”.

Left: Spectacle bear face with black eye patches | Chris Humphries / Shutterstock & Right: Spectacled bear side profile | Lighttraveler / Shutterstock

04 – Sloth Bear | Melursus ursinus

Sloth bears are a slow-moving species who have poor eyesight and hearing but have a keen sense of smell used to detect termites and ants, which they suck up through their elongated snouts—a sound that can be heard from almost 200 meters away. They are found in the tropical forest and grassland areas of southern Asia with the majority of their population residing in India. Sloth bears have long, shaggy fur and a white V-shaped mark on their chest, which is sometimes absent, especially in Sri Lanka. They breed in the early spring and, after a gestation period of around 210 days, usually give birth in the winter. Cubs ride on their mothers’ backs until they are large enough to fend for themselves and become fully independent after 24-36 months. As with the panda and the spectacled bear, the sloth bear’s conservation status is currently listed as vulnerable.

Left: Sloth bear and cub riding on her back | Alan De Witt / Shutterstock I & Right: Sloth bear in Ranthambore | Martin Mecnarowski / Shutterstock

05 – Sun Bear | Helarctos malayanus

The sun bear is the smallest of all bear species, with even the largest individuals weighing no more than 140lbs (63kg) and standing around 70cm at the shoulder. Like the sloth bear, sun bears also hunt termites along with bees and earthworms and have exceptionally long tongues for doing so. They are excellent climbers and are thought to be the most arboreal of all bears, usually sleeping several meters off the ground. They are found throughout much of South and Southeast Asia, as far north as India and as far south as the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. Living mainly in the tropical forest biome where food is available all year round, they are another species of bear that do not hibernate. Sun bears are thought to be the rarest of all bear species with some research estimating there could be less than 1,000 left in the wild.

Left: Malayan sun bear profile | TigerStocks / Shutterstock & Right: Malayan sun bear with white mark on chest | forest71 / Shutterstock

06 – Asiatic Black Bear | Ursus thibetanus

The Asiatic black bear is the first bear we’ll look at in the Ursus genus, which contains all remaining bears on this list. They are similar in appearance to the American black bear, which we’ll discuss next, but have longer hair around the neck and, similar to that of the sloth bear, have a white moon-shaped mark on their chest. Due to this pattern, this species is also known as the moon bear or the white-chested bear. Asiatic black bears have a large range, being found as far west as Iran, through the Himalayas, and into east and southeast Asia where they roam as far north as Siberia and as far south as southern Thailand. They are exceptional climbers and will often use their arboreal environment to eat, rest and escape larger carnivores such as leopards, tigers, brown bears and packs of wolves. Members of this species who live in the northern parts of their range will spend the winter in dens where they become dormant—a state of reduced metabolic activity that allows them to survive off their fat stores until spring.

Left: Pair of Asiatic black bears | jeep2499 / Shutterstock & Right: Himalayan black bear | Shayak_rc / Shutterstock

07 – American Black Bear | Ursus americanus

The American black bear is the first species we’ll discuss with a conservation status of least concern. In terms of size, they rank third behind brown and polar bears, weighing up to around 600lbs (272kg). The American black bear has a large range from Alaska and Newfoundland in the far north, to parts of Mexico and Florida in the south. The colour variation and distribution of those variations are fascinating. In the east, black bears are just that, black. However, it has been reported that areas further west can see over 90 percent of black bears exhibiting a brown or blonde coat. They can also be found with a silver-blue coat in Alaska, a subspecies named the glacier bear which is exceptionally rare. They are omnivorous, eating large quantities of fruit and nuts, but will also hunt large mammals such as moose calves and deer fawns. Fun fact, bears are not technically true hibernators because their body temperature does not drop during their dormancy. Regardless, the American black bear will also survive the winter in a den and can emerge in spring 15-30% lighter.

Left: Black bear adult eating berries | Brad Doerksen / Shutterstock & Right: Black bear salmon fishing | emperorcosar / Shutterstock

08 – Cinnamon bear | Ursus americanus cinnamomum

The cinnamon bear is the first of two black bear subspecies that we’ll look at with a particularly unique appearance. They are often mistaken for grizzly bears thanks to their light, cinnamon-coloured coat, which some researchers suggest is not a coincidence. It is thought that through the evolutionary process of natural selection, cinnamon bears have come to mimic the colour of grizzlies, a larger and more aggressive species, to ward off the likes of wolves and other pesky carnivores. It is also suggested that the eastern brown-coloured bears use their coat for camouflage, ironically to hide from grizzly bears who are not found on the east coast.

Left: Cinnamon black bear cub at Adirondack Wildlife Refuge, Upstate New York | James Casil / Shutterstock & Right: Cinnamon-coloured black bear cub | Greg Westbrook / Shutterstock

09 – Kermode (Spirit) bear | Ursus americanus kermodei

The Kermode bear is a magical subspecies of black bear found in the coastal forests of British Columbia where it is the provinces’ official animal and is highly revered by the indigenous population. Due to the colour of their coat, these bears are often assumed to be a black bear in albino form but this light colouration is in fact caused by the lack of a particular gene, preventing the production of melanin and producing an entirely white bear known as the spirit bear. Not every member of this subspecies lacks this gene, meaning that there are both black and white Kermode bears. It is estimated that there are between 100-500 spirit bears, which can make up to 10-20% of the population in some areas.

Left: Spirit bear adult | NaturesMomentsuk / Shutterstock & Right: Spirit bear searching for salmon in BC, Canada | Lynn A / Shutterstock

10 – Brown Bear | Ursus arctos

The brown bear, which is also known as the grizzly bear in North America is second only in size to the polar bear with the largest individuals on Alaska’s Kodiak island weighing up to 1,500 lbs (680kg) in the most extreme cases. They have a large range spanning much of the northern hemisphere from small populations in Europe to the Middle East, the Himalayas and Russia through to Alaska, Canada and northern parts of the contiguous United States. There are currently 17 defined subspecies, which display some spectacular colour morphs. Although they can be similar in appearance to larger brown-coloured black bears, brown bears have a large hump of muscle at the top of their shoulder, a testament to how powerful these animals are. Brown bears mate around May or June and females will give birth during the winter, usually while they are still hibernating, emerging in spring with their cubs, which are usually 2-3 in number.

Left: Brown bear cubs | Volodymyr Burdiak / Shutterstock & Right: Momma bear and bear cubs in the summer forest | Sergey Uryadnikov / Shutterstock

11 – Kamchatka brown bear | Ursus arctos beringianus

The Kamchatka brown bear is a particularly large and beautiful subspecies that often exhibit a dark brown coat. They are found on the volcanic Kamchatka peninsula in far eastern Russia, which, largely thanks to its isolation, is home to the largest density of brown bears in the world. Their home range can vary greatly depending on the amount of food, with some individuals roaming 1100 square kilometres (683sq miles) in search of food. This mountainous peninsula is home to one of the highest populations of salmon in the world, which, when it’s not illegally poached by humans, provides the bears here with a reliable source of meat, hence their size. Kamchatka brown bears can reach almost the same size as Alaska’s Kodiak bear with males weighing almost 1500lbs (680 kg).

Left: Bear fishing for salmon at Kurile Lake, Kamchatka, Russia | Giuseppe D’Amico / Shutterstock & Right: Brown bears of Kamchatka roaming the landscape | Vaclav Sebek / Shutterstock

12 – Himalayan brown bear  | Ursus arctos isabellinus

The Himalayan brown bear is an endangered subspecies of brown bear also known as the Himalayan red bear. They are much lighter in colour and exhibit a longer pelage that helps keep them warm in their chilly environment. As their name would suggest, this subspecies is found in the areas surrounding the Himalayan mountain range in Central Asia where they trek across the snowy slopes in search of food. Like almost all species of bear, these brown bears are omnivores, stocking up on grasses, roots and other vegetation in addition to other mammals such as goats and sheep before entering hibernation around October. Although brown bears are not endangered, the Himalayan brown bear is highly endangered and protected in several of the countries where it exists.

Left: Adult Himalayan brown bear | Sergei Chuzavkov / Shutterstock & Right: Himalayan brown bear cub | Artyom Ernst / Shutterstock

13 – Syrian brown bear | Ursus arctos syriacus

The Syrian brown bear is another light-coloured subspecies that have white claws, a unique trait not found in other bears. Weighing up to 550 lb (250kg), they are the smallest subspecies of brown bear, around a third the size of their Alaskan and Kamchatkan cousins. Although their range has historically included Syria, they are now extinct in the country after which they are named and are more commonly found in other parts of the Middle East and the Caucasus region. They inhabit mountainous regions that span several different types of forest including Mediterranean, deciduous and conifer forests where they search for fruits, seeds and other vegetation in addition to small mammals.

Left: Syrian brown bear | Yory Frenklakh / Shutterstock & Right: Syrian brown bear side profile | Yory Frenklakh / Shutterstock

14 – Tibetan blue bear | Ursus arctos pruinosus

The Tibetan blue bear is one of the rarest subspecies and is rarely found in the wild. They exhibit a very unique colouration and although they are mainly black and white, their guard hairs give it a greyish-blue appearance, which is particularly noticeable on its muzzle. They are found on the Tibetan plateau, which sits at the foothills of the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world. Their characteristics and behavioural traits are one of the least studied of all bear species but we know that they live for around 20 – 30 years in the wild and hunt many types of mammals, big and small, particularly the pika.

Left & Right: Tibetan blue bear | ylq / Shutterstock

15 – Polar bear | Ursus maritimus

The polar bear is the largest bear on the planet, weighing a fraction more than the largest Kodiak bears who also weigh north of 1,500lbs (750kg). Their size is largely due to their diet, which, unlike other bears who survive on a mixture of meat and vegetation, is made up almost entirely of seals. They are found solely in the arctic, the lands of which exist in Alaska, Canada, Northern Europe and Russia. Also known as the white bear, sea bear, or ice bear, their Latin name, maritimus, means of or pertaining to the sea, referencing their love of the sea ice where they spend the majority of their time. There were originally thought to be two subspecies of polar bear, one existing in North America and the other in Siberia but this has since been disproven. Polar bears usually mate in the spring, a period of time that sees males fight viciously for their mate. Females then spend the summer eating as much food as possible, often gaining over 400lbs (181kg) in preparation for hibernation. Cubs are born between November and February, often weighing just 2lbs (1kgs) and will emerge from the den in the spring weighing between 20 – 35lbs (9 – 15kg). The cubs do not leave their mother until 2 – 3 years of age and will not start breeding until the age of 5 or 6. The conservation status of the polar bear is currently set to vulnerable due largely to habitat loss caused by climate change.

Left: Polar bear | Vaclav Sebek / Shutterstock & Right: Polar bear with cub | Gecko1968 / Shutterstock

Sources

Encyclopedia Britannica, Animal Diversity, Wikipedia, Historical range of the panda, Qinling Panda, Cloud forest, Spectacled bear and hibernation, How many sun bears are left, How many Asiatic black bears remain, The colour variations of the black bear, Dormancy and hibernation, Bears in Kamchatka, Kamchatka Brown Bears, Syrian brown bear & The Tibetan blue bear

Family: Boidae | Boas

Boas are a family of large non-venomous snakes that kill by constriction. There are 5 sub-families of boa, the most famous of which are true boas found in Central and South America and the Caribbean. The holes in the side of their faces are heat-sensing organs known as pits, used to detect prey.

01 – Green anaconda | Eunectes murinus

The green anaconda is found in the Amazon and Orinoco basins and is the world’s heaviest snake, reportedly weighing up to 227 kg or 500 lb. Their name derives from a Latin word meaning “of mice” although they consume a much larger variety of prey.

Left: Green anaconda | Wayak / Shutterstock & Right: Green anaconda, Pantanal, Brazil | Slowmotiongli / Shutterstock

02 – Common boa | Boa constrictor

The common boa or boa constrictor has a much larger range than the anaconda being found throughout much of South America. They have intricate camouflage and are also known as the red-tailed boa for the beautiful colour gradient on their tail.

Left: Boa constrictor, Suriname locality | reptiles4all / Shutterstock & Right: The boa constrictor, also called the red-tailed boa or the common boa | Jan Hejda / Shutterstock

03 – Rainbow boa | Epicrates cenchria

Rainbow boas are typically much darker than the common boa, exhibiting a deep red hue and are named as such due to their iridescent sheen, giving their skin a rainbow-like reflection in certain light.

Left: Baby Brazilian rainbow boa aka the slender boa | Karel Bartik / Shutterstock & Right: Adult rainbow boa | slowmotiongli / Shutterstock

04 – Emerald tree boa | Corallus caninus

More colourful yet still is the emerald tree boa, which is part of a family of snakes called neotropical tree boas. Interestingly, juveniles start their lives in various shades of red and orange and then turn to emerald green after around 9-12 months, a process called ontogenetic colour change.

Left: Juvenile emerald tree boa | bluedog studio / Shutterstock & Right: Adult emerald tree boa | Linto Philip / Shutterstock

05 – Javelin sand boa | Eryx jaculus

A particularly odd-looking boa and the last in this family that we’ll discuss, the javelin sand boa is found in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. They are much smaller than true boas, only growing to around 80 cm in length.

Left: Closeup of juvenile javelin sand boa | Taviphoto / Shutterstock & Right: Javelin sand boa (Eryx jaculus) | Edvard Mizsei / Shutterstock

Family: Tropidophiidae | Dwarf boas

06 – Panamanian dwarf boa | Ungaliophis panamensis

Dwarf boas are a separate family of snakes also known as thunder snakes containing two genera and 36 species. The Panamanian dwarf boa is found in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia and grows up to around 30-60 cm in length.

Left & Right: Panamanian dwarf boa | Milan Zygmunt / Shutterstock

Family: Pythonidae | Pythons

Pythons are very similar to boas, containing some of the largest and most colourful snakes in the world. This family is made up of 10 genera including “true” pythons, reticulated pythons and tree pythons. They are found in sub-Saharan Africa, much of Asia and Australia.

07 – Burmese python | Python bivittatus

The Burmese python is the second heaviest snake in the world, weighing just north of 180 kg or 400 lbs. Although they are now an invasive species in Florida, they live mainly in Southeast Asia and are particularly stunning in their albino form, displaying yellow and white skin.

Left: Burmese python in the Everglades | Heiko Kiera / Shutterstock & Right: Albino Burmese python | PaniYani / Shutterstock

08 – Ball python | Python regius

The ball or royal python is native to west and central Africa and usually displays fairly standard colouring. They can be bred to exhibit a wide variety of colour morphs including the butter ball python, the pied royal python and the entirely white blue-eyed leucistic ball python.

Left: Butter ball python | bluedog studio / Shutterstock & Right: White leucistic ball python | Mark Kostich / Shutterstock

09 – Reticulated python | Malayopython reticulatus

The reticulated python is the longest snake in the world, reportedly measuring up to 10 meters or over 30ft in length. The word reticulated means constructed, arranged, or marked like a net or network, referencing the intricate pattern on this species’ skin.

Left: Reticulated Python | Yatra / Shutterstock & Right: The skin of a reticulated python | Dwi putra stock / Shutterstock

10 – Green tree python | Morelia viridis

The spectacular green tree python is pythonidae’s answer to the emerald tree boa. In this particular species, juveniles can be both yellow in colour or a deep orange-red before turning green at around 1 year old.

Left: Green tree python hatching out of its egg | Paul Tessier / Shutterstock & Right: Green tree python | Henner Damke / Shutterstock

11 – Black-headed python | Aspidites melanocephalus

The last species we’ll discuss in the python family, the black-headed python is a monotypic species endemic to Australia. They are found in tropical regions and eat many types of reptile, including other snakes, along with a variety of small mammals.

Left: Black-headed python | Lakeview Images / Shutterstock & Right: Black-headed Python in Australia’s desert | Chris Watson / Shutterstock

Family: Viperidae | Vipers

Vipers are a group of venomous snakes, much smaller than boas, who have long fangs used to inject venom into their prey. Vipers’ venom is hemotoxic, which is less deadly than the neurotoxic venom used by elapids that we’ll discuss later on.

Subfamily: Crotalinae | Pit vipers

Pit Vipers are the largest subfamily of vipers, which include lanceheads, rattlesnakes and moccasins, and are distinguished by the presence of their pits, which are found between the nostril and eye on each side of their face.

12 – Eyelash pit viper | Bothriechis schlegelii

The eyelash pit viper is one of the most colourful in this family and can be found in a bright yellow to shades of green and white. They are known as such for a row of superciliary scales above their eyes giving the appearance of eyelashes, which protect them in their arboreal environment.

Left: Yellow Eyelash Pit Viper | Roy H / Shutterstock & Right: Eyelash Pit Viper in Costa Rica | Honesttraveller / Shutterstock

13 – Fer-de-lance | Bothrops atrox

The common lancehead otherwise known as the fer-de-lance has similar colouration to a boa or python and are found in central and South America. They are one of the most venomous of the viper family, a weapon they use to hunt rodents in banana and coffee plantations.

Left: A tiny fer-de-lance | David Havel / Shutterstock & Right: Fer-de-lance on a tree fungus | Ondrej Prosicky / Shutterstock

14 – Sunda Island pit viper | Trimeresurus insularis

The Sunda Island pit viper is the first of three colourful vipers that we’ll explore in the Asian lancehead genus. They can be found in a variety of colours although by far the most striking variation has a blue-green skin that is rare to find in other species.

Left: Sunda Island pit viper | Cavan-Images / Shutterstock & Right: A baby Lesser Sunda pit viper I Wayan Sumatika / Shutterstock

15 – McGregor’s pit viper | Trimeresurus mcgregori

The McGregor’s pit viper is native to the Batanes Islands of the Philippines and can be found in an entirely white variation. The species is named after Richard Crittenden McGregor who survived being bitten while collecting the type specimen.

Left: A white McGregor’s pit viper | reptiles4all / Shutterstock & Right: Yellow McGregor’s pit viper | reptiles4all / Shutterstock

16 – Beautiful pit viper | Trimeresurus venustus

The brown-spotted pit viper also known as the beautiful pit viper is one of the most aptly named snakes in the world. They display a chequered green and brown skin with turquoise highlights and are found in southern Thailand.

Left: Beautiful pit viper in southern Thailand | Nenad Preradovic / Shutterstock & Right: Beautiful pit viper in Phuket | Binturong-tonoscarpe / Shutterstock

17 – Western diamondback rattlesnake | Crotalus atrox

Diamondback rattlesnakes are one of the heaviest venomous snakes in the world weighing up to 6.7 kg or 15 lbs. They are a type of pit viper who exhibit a rattle to warn predators, which they will use before striking. The Western Diamondback Rattlesnake is found in the southern US and Mexico.

Left: A coiled up Western Diamondback Rattlesnake in Arizona | Ryan M. Bolton / Shutterstock & Right: Closeup of a Western Diamondback Rattlesnake | Audrey Snider-Bell / Shutterstock

18 – Rock rattlesnake | Crotalus lepidus

The rock rattlesnake is much smaller and has lighter skin. There are four known subspecies including the banded rock rattlesnake and the mottled rock rattlesnake who use their patterned skin for camouflage.

Left: Banded rock rattlesnake | Matt Jeppson / Shutterstock & Right: Mottled rock rattlesnake | Rusty Dodson / Shutterstock

19 – Eastern copperhead | Agkistrodon contortrix

The Eastern copperhead is the first of two American moccasins that we’ll look at. Its Latin name contortrix comes from the Latin contortus which means twisted, intricate or complex, referring to the bands of colour on its skin that contort in width.

Left: Copperhead | Fabio Lotti / Shutterstock & Copperhead viper (Agkistrodon contortrix) | Giannis Papanikos / Shutterstock

20 – Cantil | Agkistrodon bilineatus

Cantils are another species of moccasin found in Mexico and Central America. They are around 60 cm or 24 inches in length and although they lack a rattle, they also vibrate their tails when threatened.

Left: The mouth of a Cantil | Rodolfo Ayala Plata / Shutterstock & Right: Mexican moccasin or Cantil | Eduardo Estellez / Shutterstock

Subfamily: Viperinae | True/Pitless vipers

True or pitless vipers are distinguished by a lack of pits, the heat-sensing organ present in other members of the viper family. This family is often referred to as true adders, containing the day adder, night adder and puff adder genera.

21 – Rough-scaled bush viper | Atheris hispida

The Rough-scaled bush viper also known as the hairy bush viper is very unique, exhibiting raised dorsal scales that give it an almost dragon-like appearance. They are found in Central and East Africa in the Congo, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.

Left: Close up of a hairy bush viper & Right: A hairy bush viper in the rainforest | Mark Kostich / Shutterstock

22 – Variable bush viper | Atheris squamigera

The green or variable bush viper might just be the most colourful snake on this list. They are quite small with an average total length of 60 cm or 24 inches and can be found in a wide range of colours from green, yellow and reddish-orange to slate grey or black.

Left: Variable bush viper in its orange phase & Right: Two variable bush vipers | Mark Kostich / Shutterstock

23 – Many horned adder | Bitis cornuta

The many horned adder is a puff adder found in rocky desert areas in Southern Africa. Their name derives from the 2-5 raised scales above their eyes which give them a horned-like appearance not too dissimilar from the lashes of the eye-lash viper previously discussed.

Left: Many-horned adder from Springbok, Northern Cape | Willem Van Zyl / Shutterstock & The many-horned adder | Andre Coetzer / Shutterstock

24 – Desert horned viper | Cerastes cerastes

The desert horned viper lives on the other side of the continent in Northern Africa and is also found in the Middle East. Instead of multiple scales, their horns consist of a single scale, which makes them easily distinguishable from other species in their genus.

Left: Desert horned viper | Horia Bogdan / Shutterstock & Right: Desert horned viper in the sand | Mark Kostich | Shutterstock

25 – Spider-tailed horned viper | Pseudocerastes urarachnoides

The spider-tailed horned viper is the last viper we’ll cover; they are incredibly unique and are found only in a small area in western Iran. They have a spider-like tip to the tail, which they wave around to lure insectivorous birds into the range of their bite.

Left: The spider-tailed horned viper & Right: Close up of a spider-tailed horned viper’s tail | reptiles4all / Shutterstock

Family: Elapidae | Elapids

Elapids are the most venomous snakes on the planet. This family contains both terrestrial and aquatic snakes and, unlike the viper family who enclose their fangs in a sheath, the fangs of elapids are permanently erect and secrete powerful neurotoxins which attack nerve tissue. Terrifying!

Group: 7 x genera | Cobras

Cobra usually refers to a single genus containing 36 species, Naja, but can also refer to a group of 7 genera, the rest of which only contain 1-2 species including the King cobra, shield nose cobras and tree cobras.

26 – King cobra | Ophiophagus hannah

The king cobra is one of the most well-known snakes on the planet. It is not actually part of the cobra genus and is instead contained in its own monotypic genus. Furthermore, recent DNA analysis has shown that there may actually be multiple species of king cobra.

Left: A beautiful King cobra | Heiko Kiera / Shutterstock & Right: An erect King cobra in India | Mufti Adi Utomo / Shutterstock

27 – Indian cobra | Naja naja

The Indian cobra is the first of three true cobras that we’ll look at. The species plays an important role in Indian mythology and culture but is part of the “big 4” snakes that inflict the most bites on the Indian Subcontinent.

Left: Indian cobra | Guillermo Pis Gonzalez / Shutterstock & Right: Close view of Indian cobra | RealityImages / Shutterstock

28 – Samar cobra | Naja samarensis

The Samar cobra is a particularly colourful cobra native to a few small islands in the Philippines. They prey upon small rodents and reptiles and have a beautiful black and yellow skin that make them easily recognisable from other cobras.

Left: Close up of a samar spitting cobra | reptiles4all / Shutterstock & Right: Samar spitting cobra | Sibons photography / Shutterstock

29 – Red spitting cobra | Naja pallida

The red spitting cobra is another very unique cobra exhibiting dark red scales and a black band around its neck. They are found mainly in East Africa and their venom is a combination of neurotoxic and cytotoxic which affects cell function.

Left: A attacking red spitting cobra | reptiles4all / Shutterstock & Right: Red spitting cobra lying on a tree | M. Schauer / Shutterstock

30 – Rinkhals | Hemachatus haemachatus

The rinkhals or ring-necked spitting cobra is another species of cobra contained within its own monotypic genus—those containing a single species. They can be both chequered and almost entirely black but always with a white ring towards the top of the body.

Left: Black ringhals spitting cobra side view | Andre Coetzer / Shutterstock & Right: Rinkhals striking a pose | Cormac Price / Shutterstock

31 – Cape coral snake | Aspidelaps lubricus

The cape coral snake is part of a genus of snakes commonly known as shield-nosed cobras or coral cobras. There are two subspecies, both of which are found in Southern Africa. They bridge the gap nicely between the cobras of this section and the coral snakes of the next.

Left: Cape coral snake from Springbok, Northern Cape | Willem Van Zyl / Shutterstock & Right: Coral shield cobra | Willem Van Zyl / Shutterstock

Group: 4 x genera | Coral snakes

Coral snakes are a group of snakes made up of old world and new world snakes. Old world coral snakes are made up of three genera and exist in Europe, Asia and Africa. New world coral snakes are made up of two genera and exist in the Americas.

32 – Eastern coral snake | Micrurus fulvius

The eastern coral snake is also known as the candy-stick snake, the coral adder or the American cobra but is not closely related to other cobras apart from being in the elapid family. They are relatively small, rarely surpassing 80 cm or 31 inches in length.

Left: Eastern coral snake | Jay Ondreicka / Shutterstock & Right: Venomous eastern coral snake | Mark Kostich / Shutterstock

33 – Australian coral snake | Brachyurophis australis

The Australian coral snake is different to the eastern coral snake in almost every way! Although they are still venomous, they are tiny, usually reaching about 38 cm or 15 inches and, being a burrowing snake, live mostly underground.

Left: Australian coral snake flickering its tongue | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock & Right: Close up of Australian coral snake | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock

34 – Blue Malaysian coral snake | Calliophis bivirgatus

The blue Malaysian coral snake is part of the oriental coral snake genus and is one of the most venomous, with venom glands extending up to 25% of the total length of their bodies. They are native to Southeast Asia and, interestingly, prey upon other snakes.

Left: Malaysian blue coral snake | Charles Bokman / Shutterstock & Right: The body part of the Malayan blue coral snake | Farriz Photos / Shutterstock

35 – MacClelland’s coral snake | Sinomicrurus macclellandi

The MacClelland’s coral snake is named in honour of the naturalist, John McClelland. There are 4 recognised subspecies and are found throughout much of east, south and Southeast Asia including the Ryukyu islands of Japan.

Left & Right: MacClelland’s coral snake, Vietnam | Dan Koleska / Shutterstock

Group: 7 x genera | Sea snakes/kraits

Sea snakes may refer to the single family or a collection of 7 families of aquatic snakes including sea kraits. These sea-dwelling serpents spend their lives in the shallow tropical waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans and all apart from one genus are unable to permanently exist on land.

36 – Yellow-lipped sea krait | Laticauda colubrina

The yellow-lipped sea krait is perhaps the most well-known sea snake with its distinctive black and blue striped skin. They have a yellow upper lip and snout, hence the name, and have a paddle-like tail used for swimming.

Left: Yellow-lipped sea krait | Rich Carey / Shutterstock & Right: Close up of a Yellow-lipped sea krait | Ethan Daniels / Shutterstock

37 – Black-banded sea krait | Laticauda semifasciata

The black-banded sea krait, also known as the Chinese sea krait, is similar in colour pattern but much lighter. They break the surface once every six hours to breathe and, like all sea snakes, are highly venomous; this species, in particular, are reportedly more deadly than a cobra.

Left: Tail and body of a black-banded sea krait | Ethan Daniels Shutterstock & Right: Chinese sea snake | SergeUWPhoto / Shutterstock

38 – Yellow-bellied Sea Snake | Hydrophis platurus

The yellow-bellied Sea Snake is part of the main family of sea snakes, Hydrophis, which contains 36 other species. Most have a yellow belly and black back but they can also be found entirely in yellow.

Left: Close up of a yellow-bellied sea snake | NickEvansKZN / Shutterstock & Right: Yellow-bellied sea snake on the sand | NickEvansKZN / Shutterstock

39 – Olive sea snake | Aipysurus laevis

The olive sea snake is a particularly beautiful species. They feed on crustaceans, fish, and fish eggs and are preyed upon by sharks and ospreys. They are said to be the most toxic of all sea snakes with venom that breaks down their prey to aid with digestion.

Left: Olive sea snake swimming in coral | Gabriel Guzman / Shutterstock & Right: A large olive sea snake | DNC40 / Shutterstock

Group: Other Elapids

While we have discussed a few of the main groups; cobras, coral snakes and sea snakes, there are many other interesting genera of the highly venomous elapid family that we’ll group together such as mambas, brown snakes, taipans and death adders.

40 – Banded krait | Bungarus fasciatus

The banded krait is a particularly dangerous-looking member of the krait genus that is separate from the sea-dwelling kraits we discussed in the previous chapter. This particular species inhabits termite mounds in the countryside of eastern Asia.

Left: Banded krait in Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India | RealityImages / Shutterstock & Right: Banded krait with its tongue out | apple2499 / Shutterstock

41 – Black mamba | Dendroaspis polylepis

The black mamba is one of the most well-known and infamous snakes in the world. They are found in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and, in terms of venomous snakes, the black mamba is second only in length to the king cobra.

Left: A coiled black mamba | NickEvansKZN / Shutterstock & Right: Black Mamba hatching | NickEvansKZN / Shutterstock

42 – Western green mamba | Dendroaspis viridis

The western green mamba inhabits the coastal tropical forest and woodland regions of West Africa and is one of two species of green mamba—the other being the eastern green mamba found in East and Southern Africa.

Left: Western green mamba in green foliage | Prill / Shutterstock & Right: Western green mamba | Lubos Chlubny / Shutterstock

43 – Eastern brown snake | Pseudonaja textilis

The eastern brown snake can reach up to 2 meters or 7 feet in length and is considered to be the second most poisonous snake in the world. They are found in Australia and New Guinea especially in areas such as farmland with high populations of house mice.

Left: Highly venomous eastern brown snake | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock & Right: Eastern brown snake in striking position | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock

44 – Ringed brown snake | Pseudonaja modesta

The ringed brown snake is a close relative to the eastern brown snake and is distinguished by four to seven black bands dispersed throughout its body although these bands or rings are much less prominent on some individuals.

Left: A black and orange Australian ringed brown snake in the Australian outback | Chris Watson / Shutterstock & Right: Close up of a ringed brown snake | Adam Brice / Shutterstock

45 – King brown | Pseudechis australis

The king brown snake is not actually a brown snake, rather, it is the first of two black snakes that we’ll discuss. They are quite large growing up to 3.3 meters or 11 ft in length and are found in either a browny-black or a reddish-brown colour.

Left: King brown snake | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock & Right: Juvenile king brown aka the mulga snake | Kristian Bell / Shutterstock

46 – Inland taipan | Oxyuranus microlepidotus

The inland taipan, which is also named the fierce snake, changes the colour of its skin depending on the season to aid with thermoregulation. It is endemic to Australia and is the most venomous species of snake in the world.

Left: Inland taipan in coiled position | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock & Right: Yellow inland taipan in Australia | Ondrej Prosicky / Shutterstock

47 – Coastal taipan | Oxyuranus scutellatus

The coastal or common taipan is found in the coastal regions of Australia and on the island of New Guinea where there is a particularly colourful subspecies known as the Papuan Taipan, which has a much lighter body and an orange head.

Left: Hatchling coastal taipans | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock & Right: Close up of a coastal taipan | reptiles4all / Shutterstock

48 – Tiger snake | Notechis scutatus

Tiger snakes are named so for the tiger-like bands across the length of their bodies. They are excellent swimmers and come in a wide range of colours depending on which part of Australia they are from.

Left: Close up of a tiger snake in the Perth region of Western Australia | Adam Brice / Shutterstock & Right: Eastern tiger snake in defence pose | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock

49 – Common death adder | Acanthophis antarcticus

The common death adder is one of two death adders that we’ll explore and the last in the Elapid family. Death adders possess the longest fangs of any snake in Australia but, rather bizarrely, are currently threatened by an invasion of cane toads.

Left: Close up of Australian common death adder showing lure at tip of tail | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock & Right: Common death adder in curled up position | Ken Griffiths / Shutterstock

50 – Desert death adder | Acanthophis pyrrhus

Desert death adders are extremely well camouflaged for their environment and can either be a brick red or more of a yellowish colour. They are found in central and western Australia where they prey upon lizards and small mammals.

Left: Death adder with tail lure | Brooke Whatnall / Shutterstock & Right: A desert death adder await in ambush | Adam Brice / Shutterstock

Family: Colubridae | Typical snakes

Commonly referred to as typical snakes, Colubridae is the largest snake family comprising 8 subfamilies, 258 genera and over 1800 species. The vast majority of these snakes are non-venomous, although there are a few species that have caused human fatalities.

Subfamily: Natricinae

The first subfamily that we’ll explore is Natricinae. It contains 37 genera and includes grass snakes, water snakes and garter snakes. They are found on most continents with the exception of South America and only a few that exist in Australasia.

51 – Grass snake | Natrix natrix

Grass snakes are strong swimmers and feed exclusively on amphibians. They spend winter underground where they are not subject to freezing and males will bask in the sun in the spring to raise their body temperature before mating.

Left: Grass snake on pond with water lily leaf | Dr Pixel / Shutterstock & Right: Close up of a grass snake | Gucio_55 / Shutterstock

52 – Common garter snake | Thamnophis sirtalis

Garter snakes are relatively small skinny snakes, with a maximum total length of 1.4 meters or 4 feet. Their venom is very mild but they are efficient hunters often catching fish and tadpoles. They are present in North America where there are 13 subspecies.

Left: Headshot of a common garter snake | Paul Tessier / Shutterstock & Right: A group of garter snakes mating in Narcisse, Manitoba, Canada | Jukka Palm / Shutterstock

53 – San Francisco garter snake | Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia

The San Francisco garter snake is by far the most colourful subspecies of garter snake, exhibiting blue, red and black stripes along the length of its body. They are currently listed as endangered with some researchers estimating that only 1-2 thousand remain in the wild.

Left: Close up of a San Francisco garter snake | reptiles4all / Shutterstock & Right: Group of San Francisco garter snakes, endemic to California | spatuletail / Shutterstock

54 – Buff striped keelback | Amphiesma stolatum

The buff striped keelback is a particularly docile snake, it is said to be the Asia version of the American garter snake being found in South and Southeast Asia. They tend to dwell in areas with lots of water where they feed on frogs and toads.

Left: Buff striped keelback | irfanazam / Shutterstock & Right: Coiled up buff striped keelback | Pratimaan / Shutterstock

55 – Common watersnake | Nerodia sipedon

The common watersnake also feeds on amphibians along with small birds and mammals, which they hunt at the water’s edge. This snake is ovoviviparous, meaning that it gives birth to live offspring rather than laying eggs.

Left: Northern water snake basking on a rock in Haliburton, ON, Canada | Brian Lasenby / Shutterstock & Right: Northern water snake climbing in a tree | Steve Byland / Shutterstock

56 – Diamondback water snake | Nerodia rhombifer

The diamondback water snake gets its name from the roughly diamond-shaped black spots that are present along its body and also, coincidentally, has a diamond-shaped head. This harmless species is often mistaken for the highly venomous cottonmouth.

Left: Diamondback water snakes | Laurie L Snidow / Shutterstock & Right: Diamondback water snake that is flattening its head in a defensive posture | Michael Benard / Shutterstock

Subfamily: Dipsadinae

Dipsadinae is a family of snakes containing 700 species that are present throughout the Americas. The various genera include snail-eaters, hognose snakes and a group of snakes that mimic various members of the venomous coral snake and viper families.

57 – Western worm snake | Carphophis vermis

The western worm snake has a very unique colouration, with a black or purple back and a light pink belly. They are very small with adults rarely surpassing 28 cm or 11 inches and their diet consists almost entirely of earthworms.

Left: Western worm snake in a knot! | Matt Jeppson / Shutterstock & Right: Western worm snake | Matt Jeppson / Shutterstock

58 – Ring-necked snake | Diadophis punctatus

The ring-necked snake is around the same size as the western worm snake and, like their pink-bellied cousins, exhibit a darker back and colourful belly, this time with a spectacular combination of orange and red.

Left: Ring-necked snake close up portrait | Tucker Heptinstall / Shutterstock & Right: Ring-necked snake from Arizona | jokerbethyname / Shutterstock

59 – Catesby’s snail-eater | Dipsas catesbyi

The Catesby’s snail-eater is the first of two snakes that we’ll look at who prey upon arboreal land snails and slugs. This particular species lives in tropical forests, lowland areas and mountainous regions at altitudes of up to 1,500 meters or just under 5,000 feet.

Left: Catesby’s snail-eater portrait | Patrick K. Campbell / Shutterstock & Right: Catesby’s snail-eater | Patrick K. Campbell / Shutterstock

60 – Neo-tropical snail-eater | Dipsas indica

The neo-tropical snail-eater lives in South America alongside the Catesby’s snail-eater and uses its slender jaw to pry snails from their shells. There are two known subspecies both of which are fully arboreal.

Left: A cute Amazonian snail eater | Patrick K. Campbell / Shutterstock & Right: Curled up Amazonian snail eater | Patrick K. Campbell / Shutterstock

61 – False coral snake | Oxyrhopus guibei

The false coral snake is one of many species of snake that have evolved to display the colouration of the highly venomous coral snake, a defence known as Batesian mimicry, where a harmless species mimics the appearance of a dangerous species.

Left: False coral snake | Tacio Philip Sansonovski / Shutterstock & Right: Portrait of a false coral snake | Tacio Philip Sansonovski / Shutterstock

62 – Tschudi’s false coral snake | Oxyrhopus melanogenys

The Tschudi’s false coral snake has two highly distinct subspecies. The first has black and red scales with black and white stripes. The second is known as the Black-Headed Calico Snake and is almost entirely black in colour with yellow stripes.

Left: Black-headed calico snake | Dr Morley Read / Shutterstock & Right: Tschudi’s false coral snake | Oxyrhopus melanogenys Shutterstock

63 – Mud snake | Farancia abacura

The mud snake is almost entirely aquatic; it is usually found on the edge of swamps and streams where it preys on salamanders and other amphibians. They are found throughout much of the southeastern United Stakes.

Left: Eastern mud snake | Nathan A Shepard / Shutterstock & Right: Western mud snake | Ryan M. Bolton / Shutterstock

64 – Western hog-nosed snake | Heterodon nasicus

The Western hognose snake is one of two hog-nosed snakes we’ll cover that have upturned snouts, which they use for digging in the soil. This particular species has developed a resistance to the toxicity of toads, its primary prey.

Left: A colourful orange-red Eastern Hognose snake | Mike Wilhelm / Shutterstock & Right: Flattened-out eastern hognose snake with rear fangs exposed | Mike Wilhelm / Shutterstock

65 – Eastern hognose snake | Heterodon platirhinos

The Eastern hognose snake is the colourful cousin to its western counterpart. Although they can be found in a normal colouration, they can also exhibit reddish-orange skin with black chequers or blotches.

Left: Western hognose snake portrait | Mark Kostich / Shutterstock & Right: The body of a western hognose snake | skifbook / Shutterstock

66 – Blunt-headed tree snake | Imantodes cenchoa

The Blunt-headed tree snake is a mildly venomous snake that lives in Mexico, Central America, and South America. They are well-known for their slender bodies and large heads that house their particularly googly eyes!

Left: Blunt-headed tree snake | Edvard Mizsei / Shutterstock & Right: A blunt-headed tree snake in the jungle of Ecuador | Zaruba Ondrej / Shutterstock

67 – Clouded snake | Sibon nebulatus

The clouded snake has a similar appearance to the blunt-headed tree snake but is a little darker with a blotched pattern. They are found in a similar range but also inhabit Venezuela’s Isla Margarita and the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago.

Left: A cloudy snail sucker perched on a flower | Vaclav Sebek / Shutterstock & Right: The clouded snake | David Havel / Shutterstock

68 – Giant false viper | Xenodon severus

The giant false viper is part of a genus of snakes, Xenodon, many of which mimic the appearance of the highly venomous viper family. This entire genus, which is made up of 12 species, prey almost entirely on toads.

Left: A baby giant false viper in the Peruvian Amazon | Ryan M Bolton / Shutterstock & Right: Giant Amazon false viper | Patrick K. Campbell / Shutterstock

Subfamily: Ahaetuliinae

The snakes of the subfamily Ahaetuliinae are found throughout much of Asia, as far west as Pakistan and as far south as Australia. It contains some of the most unique and beautiful species of snake including vine snakes, flying snakes and bronzebacks.

69 – Common vine snake | Ahaetulla nasuta

The common vine snake, also known as the Sri Lankan green vine is a venomous snake found on the island of Sri Lanka. They were previously thought to inhabit much of India but a 2020 study categorized those snakes into 4 different species.

Left: Sri Lankan green vine snake | Capture i_524 / Shutterstock & Right: Green vine snake hanging on the tree | Panu_Sa / Shutterstock

70 – Oriental whip snake | Ahaetulla prasina

The Oriental whip snake has a broader range, being found throughout much of southern Asia. It is very similar in appearance to the common vine snake but comes in a fascinating array of colour morphs including yellow and white.

Left: Yellow oriental whip snake | panda3800 / Shutterstock & Right: Oriental whip snake in a white morph form | Chattraphas / Pongcharoen Shutterstock

71 – Paradise tree snake | Chrysopelea paradisi

The paradise tree snake is one of two snakes on this list who are capable of a type of gliding flight and are known as flying or gliding snakes. They flatten their body using their ribs, which allows them to glide for distances of up to 10 meters or 30 feet.

Left: Paradise tree snake or paradise flying snake | Nenad Preradovic / Shutterstock & Right: Flying snake hiding in the forest | Forrest9 / Shutterstock

72 – Golden tree snake/ornate flying snake | Chrysopelea ornata

The golden tree snake or ornate flying snake can reach up to around 1.3 meters or 2.7 feet and exists in two colour variations. The most common is found in Sri Lanka and is a green-yellow colour. The second is found in Southeast Asia and is black with red and white highlights.

Left: Close up of a golden tree snake or ornate flying snake | Polbkt / Shutterstock & Right: Golden tree snake or ornate flying snake | Polbkt / Shutterstock

73 – Common bronzeback | Dendrelaphis tristis

Although bronzeback snakes prefer the tops of trees, unfortunately for them they cannot fly. However, they make up for this lack of aerial finesse by being particularly elegant. They prey upon geckos, birds and occasionally frogs.

Left: Common bronzeback | Pratimaan / Shutterstock & Right: A bronzeback on a palm leaf in Maharashtra, India | RealityImages / Shutterstock

74 – Beautiful bronzeback tree snake | Dendrelaphis formosus

The beautiful bronzeback tree snake is just that, exhibiting a bright green belly and a darker back. They prefer lowland forests at elevations of no more than 600 meters or 2,000 feet and are found from southern Thailand to the Indonesian archipelago.

Left: Beautiful bronzeback tree snake | Ewil Zulfie / Shutterstock & Right: Beautiful bronzeback tree snake on a flower | Thousandlies / Shutterstock