The Archaeology Queen

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2014-03-17T22:37:00.001+00:00

I can sleep where you will go

I can sleep where you go

2014-03-17T22:26:00.001+00:00

I can sleep where you go

The God Notus in History and Mythology

2012-03-14T11:18:00.000+00:00

For centuries, Greek mythology has been handed down from generation to generation; in the 8^th century BCE, the poet Homer produced the first written version of the legends surrounding the battle of Troy. These are known as the Iliad and the Odyssey. Within these epic poems, he tells not only the details of the battle itself, but the myths from the ancient world: meetings between the gods and mortals, challenges of heroes, magic, monsters and the creation of life and death.

In Greek mythology, many organic objects were seen to be of divine origin, usually in the form of either a personification or a minor deity (for example, a nymph). The Anemi, the Four Winds, were four deities (Zephyrus from the west, Boreas from the north, Notus from the south and Argestes from the east), who were known as ‘flint-hearted’.

Notus was the son of Astraeus, the Titan god of the stars and planets, and the goddess Eos, the personification of the dawn. He brought with him fog, rain and heat. Hesiod, in his Works and Days, stated that, “Do not wait till the time of the new wine and autumn rain and oncoming storms with the fierce gales of Notos (South Wind) who accompanies the heavy autumn rain of Zeus and stirs up the sea and makes the deep dangerous”.

In one myth, the Psylli decided to make war against Notus when winds from the desert had dried the water in the land (now Tripoli). As they marched into the desert, they were overcome by a simoon and perished to a single man.

In art, Notus was shown as a winged deity, usually pouring rain from a vase as he was believed to bring with him fog and rain wherever he went. In a relief on the column of Marcus Aurelius, the great winged creature showering rain upon the troops is doubtless intended for Notus, and not Jupiter Pluvius.

He seems to appear more frequently to that of his brothers and this might be due to the number of different weather characteristics that he is attributed to, especially by later Latin writers. In Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Notus is the wind employed by Jupiter to bring on the rain for the deluge.

Weather deities and myths are important elements in a culture’s mythology and identity; they are the reasons how and why their crops grew and so allowed the people to survive. However, like with many deities, they could not only be benevolent but could also turn violent and destructive, giving the residents the explanation for bad weather.

Bibliography:

Cotterell, Arthur & Storm, Rachel (1999) The Ultimate Encyclopaedia of Mythology, Hermes House, Anness Publishing House.

McCartney, Eugene S. (1930) Greek and Roman Weather Lore of Winds, the Classical Weekly, Classical Association of the Atlantic States.

The History and Significance of the god Ebisu

2012-03-08T10:13:00.000+00:00

As one of the seven Shichi Fukujin, Ebisu was considered to bring good luck and happiness, each deity looking after a different aspect. In this respect, Ebisu was the Shinto god of work and the most popular of the seven deities. He is the most widely revered god in the fishing industry and fishing villages in modern day Japan.

Illustrations of the god show him as a peasant, linking to him being the patron of labourers, with a smile on his face. Due to him being associated with the sea, he is generally shown holding a fishing rod in one hand and a sea bream (sunfish) in the other, this being a symbol of good luck. However, there are images of him that show him depicted as a human corpse floating on the surface of the sea, occasionally as a shark or a whale, sometimes even of a float - the Ebisu-aba or Ebisu-float -and sometimes Ebisu is just a common stone drifted or brought ashore.

There has been some debate amongst scholars as to why an ordinary stone from the ocean could be Ebisu, or the representation of the deity. One scholar states, “The one conclusion that we can draw is that Ebisu, as fishermen worshipfully call him, is the power who, they believe, grants them successful catches. Consequently we may assume that a stone picked up from the sea bottom, a corpse, a shark, or any object believed to have power over the catch, has the potentiality of becoming Ebisu”.

Ebisu is believed to have originated in the Shinto religious belief system as the son of Okuninushi, who was the god of medicine and magic. There are other sources which state he was the third son of Izanagi and Izanami, the primal couple; from this he is seen as one of the first ancestors of the Japanese people.

The etymology of Ebisu’s name comes from the word ‘ebisu’, which means a stranger, foreigner or person from a remote place; this then places the god Ebisu as a god originating from a remote land bringing good luck.

Ebisu is seen to be a mediator between the human world and the Otherworld. The word ‘ebisu’ itself carries the connotation of deformity and abnormality; for example, ebisu-buna means a malformed crucian carp, and ebisu-zen means abnormally arranged dishes on the table. In addition to this, the belief that Ebisu is seen as both as a man and a woman illustrates an aspect as a mediator between the two worlds.

Bibliography:

Naumann, Nelly (1974) Whale and Fish Cult in Japan: A Basic Feature of Ebisu Worship, Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.

Yoshida, Teigo (1981) The Stranger as God: The place of the Outsider in Japanese Folk Religion, Ethnology, University of Pittsburgh of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education.

Oceanus in Mythology and History

2012-02-22T10:58:00.001+00:00

The myths of ancient Greece have provided the world with one of the richest sources of stories and legends in the world; they provided not only a recording of how they believed the world came to be, but provided a moral guide to live one’s life against as well as being a form of entertainment.

In Greek mythology the Olympian gods were widely worshipped, but they were not the first gods to come into existence. The first primal deities, the Protogenoi, gave birth to several deities who came to be known as the Titans. These Titans then fought in the war against the Olympians which saw, for most of them, their eventual imprisonment in the bowls of the earth.

One of these Titans was Oceanus, whose name can be translated as ‘River Ocean’. There are two versions of his parentage; Hesiod states that Gaia and Ouranos were his parents but the later Roman author, Hyginus, states that they were Aither (also spelt Aether) and Gaia.

Oceanus was believed to have been the great river that encircled his mother, the earth. He, like many of the gods in Greek mythology, married his sister Tethys, and together they produced many children. These included the elegant Oceanids, nymphs of the sea and the many river-gods of the earth (called the Potoami). Like Zeus and Poseidon, he had many affairs which resulted in the birth of the Aurae (nymphs of the breezes), the monkey-thieves Cercopes by the goddess Theia as well as the semi-divine Triptolemos by Gaia. In addition to this, he also raised Hera, the future queen of the gods, from birth until her marriage to Zeus.

Oceanus and Tethys were, as stated earlier, an incestuous couple, a theme which reoccurs in Greek mythology. Due to this, their relationship was used by the Roman poet Catullus. In one of his poems, Gellius is accused of incest with his mother, sister, and aunt and not even Oceanus and Tethys can wash away his crimes. This notion that large bodies of water are unable to wash away the stain of crime is of course a ‘topos’ going back to Greek tragedy but the “individual naming of the two sea-deities seems to make a point-a literary point which is relevant to the invective of the poem. Not even the mythologically incestuous couple Oceanus and Tethys can wash out Gellius' incest, though they are guilty of the offence themselves and might be thought likely to connive at it”.

Although the children that the Titans gave birth to were more influential in Greek and Roman society than that of their parents, the Titans’ myths still had a great significance on ancient society. Their tales were usually seen as explanations of the nature of the world or the origins of the dominant gods. In spite of this, the Titans are interesting characters of ancient Greek mythology.

Bibliography:

Harrison, S. J. (1996) Mythological Incest: Catullus 88, The Classical Quarterly, Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Classical Association.

Lesser Known Deities Starting With the Letter A

2012-02-19T16:42:00.001+00:00

Throughout history, the world has seen the birth of many new religions and the worship of strange, beautiful and mysterious deities. Some of these gods (such as Zeus, Athena, Odin, Loki, Jupiter, Venus, etc) have still stayed with us in these modern times. However, there are thousands of lesser known deities from world mythology who are only really known to scholars.

There is a list of lesser known deities starting with the letter A:

1. Acrasia – the Greek personification of intemperance.

2. Ada-Ea - the Mesopotamian ferryman in the Babylonian underworld.

3. Adda-Nari – the Egyptian goddess of religion and truth.

4. Adhimukticarya – a Buddhist goddess and one of the 12 bhumis.

5. Afi – a storm god from the Caucasus.

6. Afrikete – an African sea goddess of the Fon people who was regarded as a trickster and a gossip.

7. Agas Xenas Xena – the deity of the evening star according to the Chinook of North America.

8. Agwatana – the god of the sun and the Nigerian supreme deity.

9. Aha – a river god of the Yakut people of Siberia.

10. Ah Peku – a Mayan thunder god.

11. Ah Uuc Ticab – a Mayan fertility god.

12. Ahi – the Egyptian goddess of the dawn.

13. Ai Apaec – the supreme god of the Mochica tribe in Central America.

14. Aion – the Greek male personification of time.

15. Akakanet – a vegetation god of the Araucanian tribe in South America. He is said to live in the Pleiades and provides flowers and fruit for the tribe.

16. Akano Jewel – a Japanese god of famine.

17. Ake – a Polynesian water god.

18. Akkruva –a fish-goddess in Finland.

19. Akongo – a creator god of the Ngombe people in Africa, who was said to have found the people so noisy that he left to live in the sky.

20. Akshobhya – one of the five Buddhist Dhyanibuddhas and one of the five Dhyanibodhisattvas.

21. Akua – a creator god of Hawaii.

22. Ala – a goddess of the earth and fertility of the Ibo people in Africa.

23. Alako – the god of the gypsies, according to Norwegian mythology. After teaching the gypsies his secret lore, he returned home in the heavens.

24. Alannus – a Celtic messenger god in Gaul who was worshipped by the Romans as well.

25. Alatanagana – the creator god of the Kono people in Africa.

26. Albunea – a Roman water nymph that had the gift of prophecy. Some of her revelations were recorded in the Sibylline Books.

27. Alcyone – a daughter of the Greek Titan Atlas, she was the leader of the Pleiades and the mother of Aethusa by Poseidon.

28. Algea – the Greek female personification of pain. She was an attendant of the goddess of strife, Eris.

29. Alilat – an ancient Arabian mother-goddess, she was worshipped by the Nabataeans in the form of a four-sided stone idol.

30. Allat – a Babylonian underworld goddess.

31. Almaqah – an Arabian sky god of the Saba tribe.

32. Alo’alo – a weather god in Tonga.

33. Alpan – an underworld deity of the Etruscans in ancient Italy.

34. Alrune-wife – a household goddess from Germany.

35. Aluberi – a distant and supreme god of the Arawak American Indians.

36. Ama – from ancient Mesopotamia, a Sumerian virgin mother-goddess.

37. Ama-no-ho – a divine messenger god in Japanese mythology.

38. Amaethon – a Welsh god of agriculture and the son of Beli and Don.

39. Amana – a creator goddess of the Calina tribe in South America. She lived in the Milky Way and was attended to by sea creatures.

40. Amarok – an Inuit deity in the form of a wolf-like monster.

41. Ar-tojon – a supreme god of the Yakut people in Siberia.

42. Aralo –a Georgian agricultural god.

43. Aramati – the Hindu female personification of devotion.

44. Aranyani – a woodland goddess in Hindu belief.

45. Aranzakh – a river god and the personification of the river Tigris in ancient Persian belief.

46. Areop-Enap – a creator deity in Nauru Island who made men from stones and had them support the sky.

47. Argimpasa – the Scythian goddess of love.

48. Asto-vidhotu –a demon in ancient Persia who was then later promoted to a god of death.

49. Astrild – a Norse god of love.

50. Azacca – an agricultural deity in Haiti.

The Role of Remote Sensing in Ethnohistorical Research

2012-02-15T09:16:00.002+00:00

In the last few decades archaeology has seen new technique and methods, especially in ethnohistorical research. Remote sensing techniques can offer a great deal in constructing new research methods and as such played an important part in the transition.

Remote sensing in can be defined as the detection, recognition or evaluation of distant objects through the use of recording devices. The turn ‘remote sensing’ refers to the use of both photographic and non-photographic imagery produced from an aerial vantage point. As such, cameras, thermal infrared scanners, radar and multi-spectral systems are just a few of the many instruments that can be used to record and utilise natural and man-made features from aircraft, satellites and spacecraft.

There are some ethnohistorians who may find replacements somewhat difficult to use in their studies. However, remote sensing offers a wealth of information that can be crucial in ethnohistorical research.

Both historians and archaeologists would define ethnohistorical will research as “… the use of historical and ethnological methods and materials to gain knowledge of the nature and causes of change in a culture”. There are scholars who believe that ethnohistorians rely primarily on the written record, whereas archaeologist and anthropologist utilise different techniques to gather information, such as maps, photos, ecological surveys and site exploration.

For ethnohistorians, remote sensing can offer vital information. “For example, remote sensing offers an improved vantage point, one that can assist in the evaluation and measuring of known patterns and structures not easily visible from the ground. This includes residence and settlement patterns, trade routes, and demographic information. Aerial photos and imagery achieve levels of sensitivity beyond the capacity of the human eye, aiding in the search for undiscovered historical features and assisting in site exploration”.

There are many different types of remote sensing. One of these includes black and white photography – “the film has an emulsion of silver salts that becomes black metallic silver when activated by light energy. The light that is recorded on the film is the selective reflection of sunlight from the various phenomena photographed through the lens. The quantity of energy reflected from an object is a function of the incoming energy as well as absorption and reflective characteristics of the object. Therefore, if one is not utilizing pre-existing or archival photography, the planning of new photography for ethnohistorical research requires that light intensity, altitude (hence scale and resolution considerations), and the angle and direction of the photography be properly specified”.

In the last few years, archaeologists and cultural geographers have experimented with a vast range of different sensors, data-processing techniques and new strategies in order to find the greatest advantage when studying ancient cultures. Using remote sensing, ethnohistorians will find that they gain a lot more when incorporating this new technique.

Bibliography:

Kruckman, Laurence (1987) The Role of Remote Sensing in Ethnohistorical Research, Journal of Field Archaeology, Boston University.

The Cult of Mithras in Roman Britain

2012-02-10T09:15:00.002+00:00

The religion of Mithras was spread all throughout the Roman Empire, and he became popular not only with slaves, but with the Roman soldiers. It is my intention to look at the cult of Mithras in Roman Britain using the information left by the archaeological record.

First, let us define who Mithras was. Mithras was the Persian deity of the sun, truth and light, although it must be stressed that it is difficult to establish when the ancient Persians connected Mithras with the sun, since ancient Iran had a different solar deity (Edwards, p.2). Once Persia was under Rome’s authority, the religion of Mithras rapidly spread across the Roman Empire.

The military background to Mithraism in Britain is well known to academics and its reputation among the military seems to indicate the cult was most active amongst the veterans stationed near temples and mithraea, small basilical buildings resembling caves where ceremonies were performed.

Due to the deliberate water-logging of the mithraea at Carrawburgh near Hadrian’s Wall in the late Roman period, this mithraea is very well-preserved and can offer us great insight into the significance of the cult of Mithras. The temple itself was built in the early 3^rd century CE, and indicates that the fire that destroyed it could have been deliberate (King, p.354). We have evidence that animal sacrifice was practiced in early to mid 3^rd century CE, as the floor of the narthex was covered in the bones of sheep, goat, pig and ox. Bones of chickens were found amongst a large amount of heather. This has been “interpreted as ritual offerings, either as general sacrifices to Mithras or as part of an initiation ceremony and subsequent ritual meal” (King, p.355). This evidence indicates that these sacrifices were carried out with deliberation, and were clearly significant to the participants involved. It should be noted, however, that due to the complex and secret theology of Mithraism, offerings to the deity are likely to have been undertaken only within the mithraea itself (Stocker, p.360).

Among the different minor animals that have been portrayed on known Mithraic representations, the bull, dog, scorpion and the serpent have all played an important role in the Mithraic myth. However, until recently, no known text recorded the role these animals played, so that “interpretation of the artistic representations and the various group scenes on the art-monuments remains an open field for scholarship” (Oikonomides, p.88).

The significance for Mithraism in Britain is highly important, not only the religion’s own internal history, but also for the religious identity and history of Rome. Instead of the stereotyping view that Rome forced its religious identity onto its conquered people, the study of Mithraism allows us to see clearly that Rome’s stand on religion was more fluid than fixed. The archaeological remains relating to the cult of Mithras indicates that the religion shared a universal identity across not only land and people, but also across time.

Bibliography:

Edwards, M. J. (1990) Herodotus and Mithras: Histories I. 131, The American Journal of Philology, The Johns Hopkins University Press.

King, Anthony (2005) Animal Remains from Temples in Roman Britain, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Oikonomides, Al. N. (1977) A New Mithraic Tauroctony in the J. Paul Getty Museum, The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal, J. Paul Getty Trust.

Stocker, David (1998) A Hitherto Unidentified Image of the Mithraic God Arimanius at Lincoln? Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

The History of the Oracle at Delphi

2012-01-31T22:29:00.001+00:00

Delphi and her cults that resided there spark a fascination which is not matched at any other Hellenistic site. The towering precipices, the dark deep crevice ravines, the enigmatic caves, and the bubbling springs of water combined, bestows a romantic allure and a feeling of awe of which no portrayal can satisfactorily describe.

The temple at Delphi was the home of the Pythia, the priestess of Apollo who interpreted visions for visitors. However, in the beginning it was the home of the worship of Gaia and her children before she appointed Themis to be the guardian. After this, Apollo came to Delphi and slew the Python, a gigantic serpent appointed by Gaia to guard the site. According to one ancient author, “[Apollon] made his way to Delphoi, where Themis gave the oracles at that time. When the serpent Python, which guarded the oracle, moved to prevent Apollon from approaching the oracular opening, he slew it and thus took command of the oracle”. Another version claims that Apollo slew the serpent in order to avenge his mother, the Titan Leto, who had been pursued by Python during her pregnancy.

Slaying Python gained Apollo the possession of the temple. The gigantic serpent rotted away (there are sources which claim that Python was created out of the slime left behind after the Great Deluge) and Apollo named the oracle and the festival of the god the Pythia and Pythian in its honour.

Apollo then brought his twin sister, Artemis, and his mother to the site and later Athena, who were all placed with the Chthonians, and were all worshipped here to various degrees. Apollo was the deity that took the foremost position in the religious concepts at Delphi.

The slaying of the Python has been suggested that it may reflect the Greek conquest of the region after 2000 BCE. The establishment of the Pythia and her priests may have simply taken over a pre-existing religious institution.

The Pythia was the oracle who could tell the future. Anyone wanting to know their destiny made their way to the sacred temple and made offerings of a sacred cake and a goat or sheep before consulting the Pythia.

The Pythia would sit on a tripod, a bowl on three legs and burn bay-leaves and barley-meal (instead of fragment incense as what is commonly believed). After this she descended into a vault, drank of the holy spring, chewed some bay-leaves, and mounted on to the tripod, holding in her hand a branch of bay leaves. She then fell into a deep trance-like state in which she received answers from Apollo. According to Aristophanes, “the voice of the Pythia, concentrated by the curved vault of the oracular cell, would rise into the adytum through an opening in its floor, and there would be heard by the priests”.

As she spoke, her words were written down by a group of priests who then interpreted them and the relayed the answer to the supplicant. If the messages that the Pythia received were negative, then she would refuse to speak.

Sometimes the answers the Pythia gave were ambiguous. For example, when Croesus, the emperor of Lydia consulted the oracle in regards to campaigning against Persia, was told that he would defeat a great empire. Croesus went to war and, unfortunately, destroyed his own kingdom. More often than not, the answers the Pythia gave were extremely obscure and open to any meaning.

The importance of the site can hardly be exaggerated. From as early as the third millennium BCE, Delphi was considered a sacred site and drew visitors, many of them rulers, from all over the Mediterranean and the Middle East.

The Pythia was mostly depicted in art as beautiful young women. In later times, due to the seduction of the Pythias, no woman was appointed to this position until she had reached 50 years old. In the early years of the temple there was only one oracle but during the Classical period, the height of its importance, there were three Pythias. One scholar states that “she was probably chosen for her susceptibility to possession, and even if the fumes that surrounded her were non-hallucinogenic, they might well have served to trigger an ecstatic state, in combination with her chewing of equally "harmless" laurel and bay leaves”.

However, her importance, both as an oracle and as a social focus, began to wane in the third century BCE, due to the Greek civilization expansion and outside influence. During the time when Xerxes was invading Greece “the Pythia committed the fatal blunder of advising the Greeks to submit to Persia - a mistake which cost the oracle very dear”. There are two instances that Herodotus claims that the Pythia was bribed.

In later decades, Emperor Theodosius closed all of the oracles in the name of Christianity. Indeed, according to Lucan and several other Roman writers, the oracle stopped continuous functions from approximately 50 BCE on, as she had long since lost the status it had held from the 6^th through the 4^th centuries BCE.

Bibliography:

Fairbanks, Arthur (1906) Herodotus and the Oracle at Delphi, The Journal of Hellenic Studies, the Society for the promotion of Hellenic Studies.

Littleton, C. Scott (1986) The Pneuma Enthusiastikon: On the Possibility of Hallucinogenic “Vapors” at Delphi and Dodona, Ethos, Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological association.

Maurizio, L. (1995) Anthropology and spirit Possession: A Reconsideration of the Pythia’s Role at Delphi, the Journal of Hellenic Studies, the Society for the promotion of Hellenic Studies.

Middleton, J. Henry (1888) The Temple of Apollo at Delphi, the Journal of Hellenic Studies, the Society for the promotion of Hellenic Studies.

The Varna Cemetery

2012-01-19T11:34:00.001+00:00

The accidental discovery of the Varna Cemetery (otherwise known as the Varna Necropolis) on the Black Sea coast of modern day Bulgaria has shed light onto the lives of the people in the vicinity and the burial customs they practiced.

When it was discovered in 1972, a mass of gold and other metals were uncovered, dating back to the 5^th and 4^th millennium BCE, and this was one of the many reasons why archaeologists flocked to the area to study the area. The majority of the gold discovered was in the form of gold beads, but other forms were discovered. One of the more famous items found was the penis sheath. Other items found included hammered sheet pectorals, and “the gold appliqués (often zoomorphic in form) with perforated edges for sewing onto the clothing of the deceased” (Scarre, p.403). According to scholars, many of the discoveries were decorations; some worn around the wrists or upper arms, pushed through holes in the lips or ears or sewn onto their clothing.

The fact that many of these items were highly prized decorative objects is particularly interesting. It has led to the theory that they were specially made for the purpose of burial and not for use while the person was alive. It indicates the method of how societies in this time were able to show the differences in social status.

It has been suggested by scholars that due to the richness of its treasures, especially the considerable quantity of gold jewellery, that these were the tombs of rulers. However, it should be stressed that there is no evidence at this time to back up this hypothesis.

Not all the graves contained a rich amount of grave goods. Indeed, while the majority have up to 10 items placed in the graves, there were 23 graves that contained none at all. Most interestingly, was the discovery of no skeletons in some of the graves, even though these were handsomely furnished with objects. These have been classed as ‘cenotaphs’ – a memorial to those whose body could not be found or buried in another location.

The Varna Cemetery offers us great insight to the growing complexity of communities in southeast Europe during the 5^th millennium BCE. While certain questions cannot be answered at this present time, the continual study of the Varna Cemetery will continue to provide unknown aspects of the Black Sea societies in the future.

Bibliography:

Scarre, Chris (2005) The Human past – Holocene Europe, Thames & Hudson, London.

The History of African Red Slip Ware

2012-01-14T15:40:00.002+00:00

Studying the history of African Red Slip ware allows us insight into the culture of North African Roman society as well as the industrial history of the period. It is my intention to look at the history and the significance of African Red Slips Ware through the archaeological and literary records available.

African Red Slip Ware (henceforth ARS) is named so by archaeologists since there is no name for this type of pottery in the historical record. Archaeologists coined this phrase due to the red glaze or slip, which was applied on top. The production of ARS is of importance to the history of North Africa, since it was a local production which went on to supply Roman citizens throughout the Empire.

The production and trade of ARS can be seen as a mechanism for both spreading and defining a ‘Roman’ material culture and, indeed, a Roman identity. This is due to the fact that ARS was a product that developed in North African long after the Roman occupation and archaeological evidence has not unearthed any pottery similar to ARS with pre-Roman characteristics.

Italian sigillata was the main imported fine-ware in the 1st century CE. In the first half of the 2nd century, however, as Italy became a mass consumer of merchandise, Italian sigillata disappears from the Corinthian market. Throughout the 2nd and most of the 3rd century, Eastern Sigillata B (ESB) and Candarli ware from Asia Minor were important imports. But Candarli ware nearly disappears from Corinth in the early 4th century and is replaced by ARS, which forms at least 30 percent of all fine-wares in both the 4th and 5th centuries (Slane, p.331).

ARS was manufactured in several distinct areas of Tunisia, in the North near Carthage and Cap Bon, in the Sahel, and on the high steppe near Sbeitla. Despite the immense interest in ARS, some type remain rather vaguely dated, particularly those of the later second and early third century and those of the fifth century (Mattingly & Hitchner, p.201)

The lack of information regarding ARS has led to difficulties in understanding the ‘material culture’ of the Romans identity. Nevertheless, the study of ARS will continue to shed light on the Roman industrial history and on the people themselves.

Bibliography:

Mattingly, David J. & Hitchner, R. Bruce (1995) Roman Africa: An Archaeological Review, The Journal of Roman Studies, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Slane, Kathleen Warner (2003) Corinth’s Roman Pottery: Quantification and Meaning, Corinth, American School of Classical Studies at Athens.

The Origin of the Name Horus

2012-01-11T09:31:00.001+00:00

Horus is one of the most famous and iconic gods from ancient Egypt; the falcon-headed god born from Osiris and Isis after his father had been murdered and cut into pieces by his brother Set (Seth). The pieces of Osiris’ body was scattered throughout Egypt and Isis gathered them all and brought him back to life again to create their son.

But where does the name come from? What does it mean?

Archaeologists have believed that the name Horus stemmed from the root hr, 'to be far', that is to say 'He Who Is Far Away' - an explanation that seems to correspond the original concept of Horus as a sky god. However, this is based on later sources which confuse with the verb hr, and although this may have been the original meaning, “there is no early evidence for such paronomasia with the name of Horus”.

One way of determining the origin of Horus’ name is through the Coffin Texts, where Spell 148 states that his mother Isis says to him, 'O falcon, my son Horus, dwell in this land of your father Osiris in this your name of Falcon who is on (or 'above') the battlements of the mansion of Him-whose-name-is-hidden'. His ornithological name is Bik; it is only after he has been born does she call him Horus, his divine name. She goes on to say, 'Falcon who is on (or 'above') the battlements of the mansion of Him-whose-name-is-hidden’.

The name hr (Horus) was only given to him when he took his first flight after being instructed by Isis. “Consequently, one is tempted to consider the possibility that the present text regards Bik hry znbw hwt Imn-rn as the primary name of Horus, and that Hr may have been derived from it, perhaps even being a short form or a by-name”.

No matter what, Hr became the principal name of Horus. However, there is no firm round for the accepted etymology of Hr, 'He who is far away’; despite the fact that being up and away is a feature of a flying falcon. This does not constitute a etymological value. “The late association of the name Hr in a play on words with the root hr does not actually show anything beyond the propensity of the Ancient Egyptians towards puns, and does not convey anything about the original meaning of the name”.

Bibliography:

Gilula, Mordechai (1982) An Egyptian Etymology of the Name of Horus? The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Egypt Exploration Society.

The Syro-Hittite Ritual Burial of Monuments

2012-01-04T17:32:00.002+00:00

The Syro-Hittite cultures flourished in ancient Mesopotamia from the Late Bronze Age to the time when they were finally annexed by Assyria sometime in the eighth century BCE. One of the many features they are known for are their remarkable pieces of art and architecture, especially giant lions where they were placed in front of palaces and temples.

Many of these beautiful monuments were later burnt to the ground by invaders who conquered these areas. These gate-lions and other statues were also broken down into smaller pieces and then taken away as spoils of war, to be reused for their own monuments or simply left buried underneath the rubble for an extraordinary long period.

However, at least five locations - Alalakh, Hazor, Zincirli, and Arslantepe near Malatya – archaeologists have discovered that these monuments were carefully buried in the ground, suggesting a Syro-Hittite burial ritual.

In Alalakh, archaeologists discovered several temples that were destroyed sometime in the 13^th century BCE when they were destroyed by the Sea Peoples. They also found evidence of a short occupation in the 12^th century BCE. A large statue of the king, Idri-mi, would have been firmly fixed onto a throne in an annex.

However, Woolley remarks, “In a room in the annexe of the temple proper ... we found a hole which had been dug into the floor and filled with earth and large stones (the largest weighing nearly a ton and a half) and smoothed over; under the stones there was a broken statue; the head, which had been knocked off, was set beside the body together with two smaller fragments, one of the beard, the other of a foot; only part of one foot was missing. The statue belonged to the throne found on the temple floor.... We can be sure that the statue was on its throne when the temple was destroyed because the breaking of the feet must have resulted from its being knocked violently off its base into which the feet were socketted.... After the sack of the temple someone must have crept back and piously collected all that he could find of the figure and hidden it in a hastily-dug hole ...”. The statue of the king had clearly been collected and buried carefully under the floor.

As with Alalakh, archaeologists found other temple monuments which, after invasion by a hostile enemy, had been buried in the ground. In Zincirli, five gigantic lions were dragged from their original places and buried in a specially made pit. When taking into account how heavy and the difficulties in moving them, it is clear that this was a case of ritual burying.

For a period of at least half a millennium, the Syro-Hittite people clearly practiced a ritual of burying monuments. However, there are questions that arise when looking at the information yielded from these temples. Why were only a small number of temple monuments buried in a ritualistic manner? Why did other temples not do this as well? Although the number of cases is relatively small, the sheer extent to which these ancient people went to bury these monuments clearly shows that it is not accidental.

The burial of monuments seems to indicate their importance in the cults and the ancient beliefs of the Syro-Hittite world. “The ritual burial seems to support the view that the gate-lions were not merely decorated orthostats meant to strengthen the superstructure of the gates in which they were incorporated, but, as guardians of the gate were considered to possess godly, demonical, or punitive powers”.

Bibliography:

Ussishkin, David (1970) The Syro-Hittite Ritual Burial of Monuments, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, the University of Chicago Press.

The History of the Xiajiadain Period in Ancient China

2012-01-01T11:12:00.002+00:00

Before the major dynasties of ancient Chinese history, there were several Neolithic cultures that sprang up around the valleys of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers. These ancient civilizations, known as cultures, established agricultural communities in the Bronze Age which later gave way to better known cultures such as the Shang civilization.

The Lower Xiajiadain culture was established in Inner Mongolia and Liaoning and Hebei provinces in the north of China. At the time it emerged (around 2200 BCE) it was contemporary with the Longshan culture. Excavations have separated the Xiajiadain period into three phrases with the known 2000 sites falling into one of the three categories, based on size and the presence of defences.

Some Xiajiadain sites had large walls for protection; the largest site covers more than 10 ha (25 acres). Smaller defended sites and those without walls clustered around a large central place. An example of this can be found at Chijiayingzi. A number of these stone walls included bastions of stone or stamped earth and had plastered walls and floors.

Different locations had slight variations. For example, in Sifendi in Inner Mongolia, houses were constructed as circular buildings with a diameter of not more than 4m (13ft), dominated by a hearth in the middle of the room.

The Xiajiadain culture was based on millet cultivation and many storage pits were likely to have been dug to store millet for the winter period. Archaeologists have unearthed large amounts of cultural implements, such as stone hoes, sickles, spades made from animal shoulder bones, and bones from several types of animals. The animal bones strongly indicate that the Xiajiadain people had raised livestock as well as hunting deer. From grave excavations, it appears pigs were placed with the bodies as ritual offerings.

Graves have been found at many sites belonging to the Xiajiadain culture. At Dadianzi, some 800 burials have been excavated. The elite classes were placed in large graves of up to 8.9m (29ft) where a wooden coffin was placed at the bottom. On top of the coffin finely painted ceramic vessels and limbs of domestic pigs were placed in niches at the side. Archaeologists have also found polished stone battle-axes, lacquer-ware, rare jades, ornaments made from bronze and skeletons of dogs and pigs.

Not only can the Xiajiadain culture tell us what the society was like, it can also tell us what the conditions were like to live in at the time. “Pollen collected from graves of the Lower Xiajiadian period, however, suggests that conditions did not significantly deteriorate during the 5th and 4th millennia B.P. Analysis of pollen collected from Lower Xiajiadian graves showed that in some samples, tree pollen accounted for up to 99% of the total pollen, while in others bush and grass pollen accounted for 95% of the pollen. Among the trees, pine and other polipodia dominated the pollen spectrum. This suggests that the area had a wooded environment with patches of grassland and agricultural fields. On the basis of the types and relative frequencies of plants identified, a wetter environment than the present is suggested”.

The Xiajiadain period was a remarkable period in Chinese history; because of this ancient society, it is believed they were, in part, the ancestors of the Shang civilization.

Bibliography:

Linduff, Katheryn. M., Drennan, Robert D. & Shelach, Gideon (2002-2004) Early Complex Societies in NE China: The Chifeng International Collaborative Archaeological Research Project, Journal of Field Archaeology, Boston University.

Higham, Charles (2005) The Human Past – Complex Societies of East and Southeast Asia, Thames & Hudson, London.

The History of Retired Emperorship in the Northern Wei Dynasty

2011-12-29T10:01:00.001+00:00

During the Northern Wei Dynasty, the practice of retired emperorship was practiced as a means to stabilize imperial successions; however, it is also closely simultaneous with organizations attempting to establish a primogenital type of succession over a prior potential institution of parallel succession.

Before the Northern Wei established their rule in China, the ruling Toba house was a nomad confederate chieftaincy, with the reins of power passing from brother to brother. There were also cases of uncle to nephew and nephew to uncle. However, once the Northern Wei Dynasty established their rule, they “successfully and rapidly engineered a switch from a horizontal, fraternal mode of political succession to a vertical, primogenital mode of succession. Generally speaking, the emperor's eldest son inherited the throne”.

For example, in 471 CE, emperor Xianzu retired from emperorship. At 16 years old, he proclaimed a four year old boy his heir, the future Xiaowendi, emperor. “Initially, during the course of a court conference called to discuss the issue, Xianzu offered the throne to his eldest paternal uncle, but retracted the offer in the face of strong court opposition”.

Xianzu was 11 years old when he became emperor in 467, the previous two years were a time of power struggles which saw him taking the throne. In 465 -647, his father’s first cousin, Toba Daofu, had unsuccessfully revolted and, according to one scholar, this traumatized the young emperor’s early reign. “In sum, Xianzu's retirement was an effort to insure the legitimacy of his young son upon the throne. The retirement would also serve to guarantee that the degree of accumulated court support for the young emperor would be sufficient to withstand future threats to the throne in the eventuality of Xianzu's unforeseen demise”.

The retirement of the emperor generally meant his removal to a separate palace complex buildings and then his heir was formally proclaimed emperor. However, it was more of a co-regency rather than complete retirement – in many cases the retired emperor would still manage all state affairs until he died. Until the retired emperor died the boy-emperor (all were under the age of 10 at their ascension) was required to visit him at his court at least once a month. As one scholar states, “Xianzu's institution of the Retired Emperorship was a bridge between the non-formal, familialistic power arrangements of Gaozong, and the formal institutional experimentation of the emperor Xiaowendi”.

Bibliography:

Eisenberg, Andrew (1991) Retired Emperorship in Medieval China: The Northern Wei, T'oung Pao, BRILL.

Myths and Legends from the Aztec World

2011-12-21T13:59:00.002+00:00

In November 1519 CE, a group of exhausted Spanish soldiers led by Hernan Cortes found the Aztec capitol, Tenochtitlan, which had been founded in 1325. It was laid out on islands in the middle of a vast lake and was home to a population of 200,000, much larger than any European city of its day.

The Aztecs (or more accurately, the Mexica) were the result of a tradition that had begun in the mid second millennium BCE. Their culture had originated with the Olmecs, a culture we know very little about even today, and had carried on by a series of other Mesoamerican cultures, including the Zapotecs, Mixtecs, Toltecs and the Maya.

The Aztecs were the dominant group when the Spanish arrived (they had been in power for around a century) and had absorbed much of their mythology from the cultures that had power before them in order to legalize their rule. Because of this, there are no clear distinctions as to what myth belongs to the Aztecs or the other groups before them.

Despite the destruction that the Spanish brought upon the region certain information survived which details the religious beliefs of the Aztecs. A copy of the Quiche Maya’s sacred ‘Popol Vuh’ survived the destruction of the Spanish conquest, giving scholars an understanding of the regions religions, the daily importance of which was recorded in stone and paint.

According to Aztec mythology, the world came into being by a single deity. Ometeotl was the supreme god who, like most Aztec deities, had a duel nature. He was both male and female and existed beyond time and space. He/she brought the world into being with his breath and then created the gods (some 1,600). There he stopped his work and left the rest to the other gods and goddesses.

There are five ages in Aztec mythology called ‘Suns’. In the previous four ages, the world was destroyed when the sun was thrown out of the sky. Each age was presided over by a different god.

The first age was ruled over by Tezcatlipoca, the most powerful son of Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl (the male and female names of Ometeotl). One day Tezcatlipoca decided to turn himself into the sun and during his reign the world was populated by a race of vegetarian giants of immense strength. This age lasted for 676 years before Quetzalcoatl struck Tezcatlipoca into the waters with a staff, turning him into a jaguar. He devoured the giants and later rose into the sky as the constellation Ursa Major.

There are many different gods and goddesses in the Aztec pantheon, most with different forms and names. One goddess was Toci (‘Our Grandmother’) who was worshipped alongside Chicomencoatl in the annual harvest festival where she was the personification of nature’s generosity.

Another goddess was Coatlicue (‘She of the Serpent Skirt’) who was added rather late to the pantheon. She symbolised fecundity in her role of mother of the fire and warrior god Huitzilopochtli (‘Hummingbird of the South’), the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui and her 400 sons. Despite her obvious fertility, she was also seen as a virginal goddess. However, she was also associated with death and regeneration, showing the darker side of her dual nature.

The picture that is painted of the myths and legends emerging from the Aztec word can be somewhat alien to us, full of blood and death and destruction. However, the Aztecs saw the world and humanity’s role within it as part of a continuous cycle of destruction and regeneration. Within each rotation an immense disaster threatened the world and it was thought that it could only be prevented by a sacrifice of blood – human blood – to pay homage to the gods.

The History and Significance of the god Lao Jun

2011-12-18T13:23:00.000+00:00

Chinese mythology is full of mortals who, after their deaths, were deified due to the impact they had on Chinese society. We can see this in Guan Yin, the Buddhist goddess of mercy and compassion who was based on an ancient Chinese princess who became a nun. Guan Di, a mortal general was made the Daoist guardian of soldiers and policeman.

The religions that flourished in China helped give Chinese mythology a uniqueness of its own. For a long time, ancestral worship was the main religion, then Confucianism, Daoism (also spelt Taoism) and Buddhism was introduced. Each gave China a vast range of deified mortals to add to the pantheon.

Perhaps the most important mortal man to be elevated to the status of a god was Laozi who, after his death, became the god Lao Jun (or Lao Chun).

Laozi (or Lao-tzu) was said to have lived sometime from around 600 – 517 BCE and is the founder of Daoism, as well as being a key deity in it. His original name was Li Erh and he was deified under the name Lao Jun around the second century BCE. Then he was declared the god of alchemists and potters, and regarded as one of the three San Ch’ing, the Three Pure Ones.

Ancient writers state that his birth was unusual. “When Laozi was born, within three days his body underwent nine changes. It grew to a height of nine feet. He had gray eyebrows and white hair. On his forehead, he had the Sun Horn and the Moon Crescent. His nose had a double rim, and his ears three openings. His face was adorned with beautifully shaped eyebrows and a square mouth. He showed the sign of lordship on his feet and had the mark of the ruler on his palms. All in all, he possessed the seventy-two divine signs and eighty-one auspicious marks of the sage on his body”.

As the original and principle aspect of the Dao, he cannot be seen or touched. However, unlike the Dao itself, Lao Jun is a person, an entity, and can be seen as the humanized symbol of the Dao. Although he is a fully developed being, he remains within the void and at the root of all creation.

Another ancient writer, Xie Shouhao, claimed that when Lao Jun was resting, then his form took that of a man. However, he did not originally have a permanent body; he was pure energy.

Lao Jun was said to have two bodies – a teaching body and a true body. This distinction was derived from the Buddhist doctrine of the trikaya (three bodies) of the Buddha: the dharmakdya (body of the law), the true spiritual body of the deity that signifies the fundamental nature of his being, the complete and means of the universe; the sambhogakdya (reward body), the celestial materialization of the Buddha in which he enjoys heavenly ecstasy; and the nirmdnakaya (transformation body), the human appearance in which he takes shape on earth.

In this regard then, Lao Jun’s true body is “utterly complete and entirely still, never arising, never passing”. His true body is invisible and cannot be artistically represented. However, his teaching body, that in the form of a human man, can be depicted. Adepts use these man-made replicas as guides to visualization and, praying at the deity's altars, act as if they were facing his actual true body. Thus they learn to "observe with proper penetration" and eventually find that "his body is no longer a proper body”. The image of the deity becomes true and coincides with the void; adepts penetrate the true Tao, in which Laozi is shapeless. "The Tao cannot be seen-if you see it, it is not the Tao."

Bibliography:

Kohn, Livia (1996) The Looks of Laozi, Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.

The Various Jewish Sects in the First Century BCE

2011-12-16T09:15:00.001+00:00

During the time of the man known as Jesus, in the region known today as Israel and Palestine, there were several Jewish sects. Until around 165 BCE, this area known as Judea was under Seleucid rule until a new Semitic dynasty called the Hasmoreans were able to establish semi-independence. However, in 63 BCE, the Roman general Pompey conquered the area and was forced to become vassals to the Romans.

The Hasmoneans:

The Hasmoneans did not have the religious legitimacy in the eyes of many strict Jews as they were not the descendants of King David. The Hasmoneans rebuilt Soloman’s temple and temple worship began to flourish once more.

The most famous Hasmonean king was Herold, the man known for the massacre of many innocent children when he heard about the birth of the Jewish Messiah. However, many do not realise that he was given the name Herold the Great, due to his magnificent architectural works and expansion of his borders.

The Sadducees:

The Sadducees were the official sect who controlled the Temple and many other key religious posts on the Sanhedrin (the official Jewish organization that decided all religious issues). They held close ties to which ever secular power was established, at this time it was the Romans. The Sadducees believed in the Old Testament but “not in what they thought were extraneous beliefs, which in their case included, for example, resurrection from the dead and an afterlife”.

The Pharisees:

The Pharisees were just as religious as the Sadducees and held to the notion of a parallel, oral tradition of rabbinical teachings. These teachings evolved over time with the Scriptures called the Torah.

The Pharisees was open to all people, unlike that of the Saducees. The New Testament claims that the Pharisees, at the time of Jesus, had become too proud in their extensive religious knowledge.

The Essenes:

The Essenes were a smaller sect who lived separate from the other Jewish sects. They lived in special communities and rejected the Hasmonean monarchy. Ascetics, they are famous today due to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the 20^th century. These are fragile scrolls which have managed to preserve their teachings.

The Zealots:

The Zealots were another smaller sect who had their own interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures. They were highly political and organised several rebellions which resulted in a major revolt from 66 – 70 CE and the mass Jewish suicide at the fortress of Masada in 73 CE.

The History and Significance of the goddess Benten

2011-12-14T09:27:00.000+00:00

Japanese mythology is full of interesting deities; for the scholar it can be somewhat difficult to unravel the ties between Shinto, the native religion of Japan, and the Indian gods that travelled with Buddhism to the country during the sixth century CE.

One of the most interesting goddesses in the Shinto pantheon is Benten, who is also known as Benzai-ten. She was a sea-goddess, a goddess of music and one of the seven Shinto deities of good fortune known as the Shichi Fukujin.

The Shichi Fukujin was a group of seven deities that were assembled sometime during the 17^th century CE by a monk; it was his intention to present them as a symbol of all the virtues that a man of his time should inspire to.

Benten can be compared to that of the ancient Greek goddess Aphrodite and the Hindu Sarasvati, in that she was known as the Queen of Love. She is believed to help humans in acquiring material gains and to bring good fortune in marriage. Benten is also the patron of geishas and worshipped by gamblers and jealous women. As well as this, she is the goddess of oratory, happy wisdom, longevity, freedom from harm, and victory. The island of Enoshima is sacred to her and, according to the noh drama Chikubushima, is where the goddess resides.

According to mythology, Benten was said to have descended to earth where she met and married a dragon in order to stop him eating young children. Because of this, she is sometimes depicted as riding a dragon in art.

Another legend tells of how the goddess helped the young poet Baishu. He had found a poem written by a maiden and had fallen in love with her, despite never having seen what she looked like. Praying to the goddess for help, Benten arranged for the young poet and the girl to meet outside the shrine. Later, it turned out that the young girl Baishu had fallen in love with was actually the soul of the women he later met and married.

In art, Benten is sometimes shown with snakes. Some statues of her reveal eight arms, six of these which are raised and the hands holding different objects. These include a bow and arrow and two hands are folded in prayer.

Bibliography:

Shokyu, Arii and Sato, Hiroaki (2002) Record of an Autumn Wind: The Travel Diary of Arii Shokya, Monumenta Nipponica.

The History and Significance of the Egyptian God Geb

2011-12-11T15:55:00.001+00:00

Egyptian mythology has fascinated the world for centuries; one of the oldest civilizations in the world, Egyptian mythology reflects the way the ancient people of this society viewed their world. They both feared and worshipped their gods in order to guarantee the annual flooding of the Nile which allowed them to stay alive in this harsh climate. The gods of ancient Egypt reflected the society of the Egyptians and we can see this in the significance and history of their deities.

The ancient Egyptian god Geb was one of the most important deities in the Egyptian pantheon. The god of the earth, Geb was both the brother and consort of Nut, as well as the oldest son of Shu and Tefnut, the deities of air and moisture.

One of his famous myths recounts the legend of how the earth and sky were formed. Geb and Nut were locked in a passionate embrace and Shu, or in other versions, the sun god Ra, separated them so violently that Geb formed the earth and Nut the sky. The distance between them gave enough space for Nut to give birth to their children. According to legends, Geb continued to grieve for Nut and his grief caused earthquakes (Cotterell & Storm, p.281).

Geb also played a leading role among the gods. In the Pyramid Texts (a collection of Egyptian texts concerning funerary rites), he is described as the spokesman of the gods against Set (Brandon, p.117).

The Egyptians viewed astronomy as an important part of life and in this Geb also plays a vital role. The 160 day visible rising phase of the decan stars was called Geb, or evening/night (rising) and the 200 day withdrawing phase was called Nut, or day (rising). This Nut rising period was when the stars withdrew, and could reflect the explanation that the goddess swallowed her star children, although this theory has been amended (Conman, p.64). Geb becomes a prince of the decan stars because he “commands them to rise. He causes the stars to return to life after they have been swallowed. He is responsible for the heliacal risings of the decans. Considered an earth god, Geb has a distinctly non-chthonic side that includes an existence in the sky” (Conman, p.64).

Geb plays an important role in the history of both ancient Egyptian mythology and history. Through the study of this deity, we can gain new insight into the fascinating history of this ancient culture.

Bibliography:

Brandon, S. G. F. (1958) A Problem of the Osirian Judgement of the Dead, Numen, BRILL.

Conman, Joanne (2003) It’s About Time: Ancient Egyptian Cosmology, Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Helmut Buske Verlag GmbH.

Cotterell, Arthur & Storm, Rachel (1999) The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology, Hermes House, Anness Publishing House.

The History and Significance of the Goddess Acca Larentia

2011-12-06T13:33:00.001+00:00

The gods and goddesses from the Classical world (ancient Greece, Rome and Egypt) are some of the most well known deities in the western world. Indeed, these gods and their myths are taught to western children at a very young age in school and we still refer to some of these mythical characters in our modern society today.

The Romans had very few native deities of their own; the majority of Roman gods were imported from other civilizations, a vast amount from Greece. The gods imported from Greece were given Roman names (i.e. Zeus became Jupiter, Hera became Juno, Athena was known as Minerva, etc) and other deities from around the Roman Empire kept their native names.

The Greek gods were adopted alongside the native Italian gods (also known as the Etruscan gods)and there are instances where it is hard to identify which culture a particular deity is originally from. However, there are some gods who are totally Roman, without any other cultural elements to them.

One of these is Acca Larentia. There are a few different accounts as to who she was, but she was a goddess native to the people of Italy where Rome was built. One accounts says that she was the mother of the Lares (household gods or ancestral spirits), the Arval Brothers (the 12 priests of the field gods) and of Hercules. There are other versions that state that was won by Hercules in a dice game.

She features heavily in the Roman foundation myth of Romulus and Remus. Where the twin boys were laid out in the open and were found and suckled by a she-wolf. In this account, the shepherd Faustulus and his wife, Acca Larentia, adopted them.

From tracing the origins of her name across the Mediterranean and the Middle East, the first part of her name appears to be translated as ‘mother’. “On this showing, Acca would appear to be the Roman equivalent of Mother Earth, the nourishing and life-giving, but also chthonian, divinity. “.

The second part of her name, Larentia, is a little different but has some similarities. “Now Larentia was connected with the feast of the Larentalia, which fell on December 23rd, as we know from the Maffeian and Praenestine calendars and the evidence of Ovid. On that day the priests offered her publicly mortuary honors … Acca Larentia would then appear to be the mother of the Lares, whose chthonian associations have repeatedly been suspected”.

From this then, it is clear that Acca Larentia was seen to be a mother-goddess, particularly the Mother Earth goddess that is widespread throughout the Mediterranean. In this role of Acca Larentia, scholars have stated that she was “manifesting herself in her usual double aspect as the mnagna parens of mortals and as the great chthonian goddess of death, who mercifully takes men back unto her bosom at the close of their earthly careers”.

Bibliography:

Krappe, Alexander H. (1942) Accia Larentia, American Journal of Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of Archaeology.

The History and Significance of the Amesa Spentas

2011-11-29T10:35:00.000+00:00

The Amesa Spentas, otherwise known as the Amesha Spentas, are not deities the general public recognises on first glance. Unfortunately in today’s contemporary society, only the major gods, such as Zeus, Isis, Osiris and Odin for example, are recognised. However, the more obscure deities, such as the Amesa Spentas can provide us with information into the lives and religious identity of a culture.

The Amesa Spentas are the holy immortals of Zoroastrianism. They were later grouped into a special class of archangels, named “Vohu Mano, the "Good Mind" (of God); Asa Vahista, the "Best [World] Order," Hsathra Vairya, the "Desired Kingdom" (of God); Spenta Armaiti, "Holy Piety," Haurvatat and Ameretat, "Physical Perfection" and "Immortality"; to which might also be added Sraosa, "Obedience." The latter is often supposed to have been added in order to complete the number "seven," since "obedience" can hardly be termed a divine attribute” (Albright, p.234).

Historians have translated a prayer which is addressed to the Amesa Spentas, which states “At whose sacrifice Ahura Mazda knows the best for me according to righteousness. Those who were and are, those I shall worship by their names, and shall approach with praise” (Boyce, p.18-19).

This prayer has been of importance to the study of Zoroastrianism. The worship and invocation by the prophet of divinities other than Ahura Mazda, however subtle the doctrine of their relationship with the supreme god, is not consonant with a theory of his strict monotheism. It has also been suggested by scholars that the Amesa Spentas had a special closeness with the worship of Ahura Mazda and the protective powers of Mithras (Boyce, p.33).

In standard Zoroastrian doctrine, the first six Amesa Spentas , have respective connections with the series of creations - Vohu Mano with cattle; Asa Vahista with fire; Hsathra Vairya with metals; Spenta Armaiti with earth; Haurvatat with water; and Ameretat with plants. Concerning the seventh, Sraosa, one scholars states that “Ahura Mazda himself had his own special creation, that of man, who comes at the beginning of the series” (Barr, p.207).

When looking at the significance of the Amesa Spentas in regards of history and religion, or the history of religion, it has been argued amongst scholars that they were part of the model Hebrew angelology developed, although the names and functions of the Amesa Spentas, and the nature of the entities as revealed by them, are very far removed from what counted as angels in most stages of Judaism (Barr, p.222).

Regardless of the fact that the Amesa Spentas are not well known in today’s society, they provide us with great insight into the culture and society of ancient Mesopotamia.

Bibliography:

Albright, W. F. (1927) Note on the Goddess Anat, the American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, the University of Chicago Press.

Barr, James (1985) The Question of Religious Influence: The Case of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Oxford University Press.

Boyce, Mary (1969) On Mithra’s Part in Zoroastrianism, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London, Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies.

Cotterell, Arthur & Storm, Rachel (1999) The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology, Hermes House, Anness Publishing House.

Funeral Rites among the Lama Priests of the Monguor

2011-11-22T09:06:00.001+00:00

In all cultures across the world, death and the traditions bound up in death are important aspects of one’s culture. Among the Monguor (also known as the Tu), one of the 56 officially recognised ethnic groups in China, there are certain funerary rites that must be adhered to in order to safeguard the community. In addition to this, deaths are categorised into different groups; those who have died a natural death, an unnatural death or the death of a lama.

A lama is a Tibetan or Mongolian priest of Lamaism (Tibetan Buddhism) and the death of one of these priests is of great concern among the Monguor. Death and the spirits are considered with great seriousness as if the proper rites are not performed correctly, then the spirit can raise havoc among the community.

If a lama is advanced in years or is clearly seriously ill, a coffin is built for him in advance. The coffin is constructed sloping at the top and is painted red with a sun and moon symbols. The box is built on a small scale, usually only big enough “accommodate the corpse, which is set in the box in a squatting position just prior to being carried to the cremation ground”.

As the lama dies, his clan and immediate family are invited to join in the ‘death watch’. As soon as the lama dies, his ajiu (important male maternal relative) is informed. The rest of his family and village are then told. On the first day of his death there are endless burning of symbolic paper money and flat pieces of fried bread (which are only used during the Spring Festival, the Day of Pure Brightness, and the anniversary of the death of the deceased, and are never eaten).

The body is then prepared. The body is generally tied in a squatting position, dressed in his finest clothes. His face is white-washed and covered in yellow silk. The head is crowned with a five-directional hat and then the body is placed in the centre of the north room facing the door. A table or chest is placed in front of him where offerings of fruit, money, large sugar crystals, a bowl of rice in which crossed chopsticks are inserted, bread, joss sticks, oil lamps, etc, are placed upon. The body will stay here until the third day of his death.

On the third day, the ajiu arrives to visit the deceased with a group of people. Several old women will walk behind him, singing loud laments. As soon as the ajiu arrives, family members rush out of the home and kneel outside on the ground, and, as the ajiu draws near, they kowtow, holding incense sticks. It is the older family members, and those who are closely related to the lama, that will kowtow and the entire family will wail before the ajiu enters the home.

After this, the body is then placed in his coffin. The windows are closed in order to prevent the curious looking in. As this happens, a retinue for wailing women set off for the cremation site, singling laments about the deceased. The woman going in front carries a wicker basket containing crumpled funeral bread and bits of "sacred paper" burned for the deceased. As she walks to the site, she will gradually throw out the contents of the basket. The women have effectively, “opened a road for the deceased to follow”.

The coffin is then brought to the site. The ajiu walks in front of the coffin and the rest of the family and community behind them. Once they reach the site, a screen of several blankets are placed around the oven before the corpse is placed seated upon it in privacy. “The coffin sedan is smashed to pieces and the pieces placed in the oven bottom, above a basin of liquefied butter and cypress needles”.

On one side, a group of lamas will assemble. Usually they number seven but any up to twenty will arrive. “After the lamas assemble and begin chanting, a lama hands the oldest xiaozi a long tree-branch, the end of which has been tied with cotton, dipped in butter, and set ablaze. The xiaozi accepts the torch, kowtows to the dead lama, then kneels and lights the fuel inside the cremation oven through the four small openings at the bottom”.

At this point the women leave and only the men remain. After an hour the rest of the villagers will leave as well so that only a few xiaozi (male relatives) and lamas remain. After the lamas have finished their chanting, they too depart.

The fire then burns out and after three days the oven is opened, and the bones are removed using red chopsticks, wrapped in yellow gold paper, and placed in a small container. This container may then be buried locally or sent to Kumbum (Taer Temple). The mourning period of the nephew of a lama lasts for 100 days. In this time they should not cut any facial hair or brush their hair. In addition to this, they are should not wash their faces until after the coffin is taken out.

The funerals and traditions surrounding the deaths of lamas among the Monguor are fascinating; it has been pondered by scholars as to the reasons why they are cremated and never buried in their ancestral burial grounds. It has been suggested that this is because they die childless and if they were buried in ancestral ground it could bring bad luck to the community – which future generations may not reproduce.

Bibliography:

Stuart, Kevin & Hu, Jun (1992) Death and Funerals among the Minhe Tu (Monguor), Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.

Examples of Religious Diversity in Roman Britain

2011-11-20T11:55:00.001+00:00

The Romans conquered many civilizations during the Republic and once Rome became an Empire. However, most non-academics do not realize that although Rome imposed much of their culture on these people, religious tolerance was one of Rome’s strengths. It is my intention to explore religious tolerance in Roman Britain through the use of the archaeological record.

The first example I wish to present, is the goddess Senuna. Near Baldock in Hertfordshire in 2002, a metal detector found a hoard of artefacts. This hoard is now on display in the British Museum. One inscription is dedicated to the goddess, which states

D SENVNE FLAVIA CVNORIS V S L M

This translates as “To the goddess Senuna, Flavia Cunoris paid her vow, willingly, deservedly” (Burnham, Hunter, Fitzpatrick, Worrel, Hassell & Tomlin, p. 489). Until this discovery, this goddess was unknown and has been able to throw new light on the religious diversity between the Romans and the native population. The votive plaques of the goddess gives her similar characteristics similar to that of Sulis Minerva, the Romano-British goddess, worshipped at Bath in Somerset. Since there are springs near to where the hoard was found, it could be argued that the goddess was associated with “the south-British river whose name is transmitted by the Ravenna Cosmography as Senua” (, Hunter, Fitzpatrick, Worrel, Hassell & Tomlin, p. 489).

The offerings, which included coins, jewellery, votive plaques, a figurine and cloak clasps, are of importance. The jewellery was imported from different parts of the Roman Empire, and the name of Flavia Cunoris suggests that the dedication was from a Roman woman, rather than a local woman. So from this, we can clearly see that a native goddess was worshipped, respected and given offerings to not only from the local population, but also from the Romans.

The next example to explore the theme of religious diversity in Roman Britain is the archaeological finds of Abandinus in Godmanchester in Cambridgeshire. Excavations uncovered a bath-house and three temples or shrines. As with many Celtic gods, we only have one inscribed that records his existence in Celtic mythology. It reads,

DEO ABANDINO VATIAVCVS D S D

Which translates as “To the god Abandinus, Vatiacus gave this from his own resources” (Wilson, Wright & Hassall, p.325). This inscription was found on the bottom of a single bronze feather found in the disused aqueduct of the bath-house. Because of the evidence found, it can be argued that Abandinus was a local deity and was worshipped by the Romans. So here is another example of religious diversity between the native Celts and the Roman population.

One more example that I wish to put forward is the cult of Mithras. Mithras was the Persian god of truth and light, and evidence of his worship can be found throughout the Roman Empire, as this deity was very popular with the Roman soldiers. A stone relief depicting his divine birth was found in northern England, and temples dedicated to the god have been along Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. Excavations undertaken at a temple of Mithras in London uncovered a wealth of icons and treasures that were buried before the building was converted into a building for a different form of worship in the 4^th century CE (Perring, p.123).

From the evidence shown in the archaeological record show that religious diversity in Roman Britain was more fluid than fixed. The cultural differences between the native and the Roman population were not quite as negative as what some people still believe today. In fact, it is because of the belief and respect the Roman soldiers paid to these Celtic deities that we today can identify and learn more about them.

Bibliography:

Burnham, Barry., Hunter, F., Fitzpatrick, A.P., Worrel, S., Hassall, M.W.C. & Tomlin, R.S.O (2004) Roman Britain in 2004, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Perring, Dominic (2003) ‘Gnosticism’ in Forth-century Britain: The Frampton Mosaics Reconsidered, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Wilson, D.R., Wright, R.P. & Hassall, M.W.C. (1973) Roman Britain in 1972, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

The History and Significance of the Furies

2011-10-30T11:00:00.002+00:00

The Furies, from the Roman name Furiae, were the avenging Greek goddesses from Greek mythology and were more commonly known as the Erinyes (‘The Angry Ones’). Their names were Tisiphone, Megaera and Alecto and they dwelled in the Underworld where they were the attendants of the gods Hades and Persephone.

There are several versions as to whom they are the children of; according to Hesiod’s Thegony, they were born from the blood of Ouranos that fell on Gaia; in Aeschylus’ Eumenides they were they children of the goddess Nyx; and in the Orphic Hymns they were the children of Hades and Persephone.

In art, the Furies were commonly depicted as fearsome women – often dressed in black clocks soaked in blood, wielding whips, sometimes made of scorpions, holding flaming torches and sometimes shown with snakes for hair.

We can see the picture that the ancient Greeks painted of these goddesses. In the play Oresteia, Apollo states to the Furies, “Hence get you gone, out of my house.... It does not befit such as you to draw near it. Your dwelling is where heads are struck off, and eyes gouged out; where the manhood of the young is maimed in the destruction of the seed; where nails are torn off and men are stoned to death; where is the piteous moaning of those that are impaled” (Grene, p.6).

Like with many ancient Greek deities, the Furies had a duel role; not only were they the avenging goddesses, ruthless and pitiless to mortals who had wrongly shed blood, but they played good spirits in Aeschylus’ Oresteia. In the Orestia, Orestes was persecuted for the murder of his mother in revenge for her killing his father.

The Furies are persecuting Orestes as he had just performed matricide. If Orestes can be purified of matricide by Apollo, the envoy of the New Gods, then the Furies as Old Gods have lost their authority. This authority embraced all homicides committed among people of kindred blood. As a result, the Furies hunt Orestes to the death, because son is connected to mother in blood, while they remain unconcerned to the murder of Agamemnon by his wife because this pair is not blood related.

The trial then involves the argument of Old Gods against the New, under the chairmanship of Athena, the “establishment of a change in the possibility of purification, the pleading of a new importance of male over female because the male is the only true parent of the child and to him the child's duty is owed, and finally the setting up of a human jury to determine the facts and significance in cases of murder, rather than to have the whole matter decided by the automatic claims of kindred bloodguiltiness” (Grene, p.13).

It was after the trail when Orestes was acquitted of matricide, that Athena turns them into good spirits, renaming them the Eumeniades (‘The Soothed Ones’) by acknowledging the legitimacy of their claims and giving them a place of honour.

It is believed by some scholars that the Furies were neither anarchic, primitive spirits of violence nor servants of Zeus, but Zeus' unseen collaborators as guardians and enforcers of those laws that are an essential part of the cosmic order that the father of gods and men administers (Bacon, p.50).

Greek mythology has always held a moralistic message for their ancient audiences, and even today, this message still holds. The Furies are integral goddesses to this message and allow us to view the world in the same light that the ancient Greeks saw it themselves.

Bibliography:

Bacon, Helen H. (2001) The Furies’ Homecoming, Classical Philology, the University of Chicago Press.

Grene, David (1983) Aeschylus: Myth, Religion and Poetry, History of Religions, the University of Chicago Press.