Alexey Brodovitch became art director at Harper’s Bazaar Magazine in 1934, where he continued to work until 1958. Being a Russian émigré, Brodovitch was not afraid to use work of European artists such as Man Ray, Salvador Dali, and A.M. Cassandre in Bazaar Magazine. By the 1950s white space was the hallmark of the Brodovitch style. If one were to look at a spread, you would experience the illusion of models “floating” on a page. He was able to create elegance from the slightest hint of materiality.

 Aside from Haper’s Bazaar, Brodovitch taught at what is now the Philadelphia College of Art. His “Design Laboratory” focused variously on illustration, graphic design, and photography.

• Projects: Harper’s Baazar Magazine
• Resources: AIGA Medalist, ADC Hall of Fame
• Books: Alexey Brodovitch, Brodovitch (Masters of American Design), Alexey Brodo-Vitch

Willy Fleckhaus is known for his avant-garde visuals, layouts, and typography. He was associated with the birth of the magazine “Twen” in 1959. The magazine was published from 1959-1970, and was geared toward the first generation of German adults who came of age after World War II. The magazine combined deepened political and intellectual thought and increased sexual awareness’.

The 50s and 60s was known as a renaissance of re-designing magazine, Fleckhaus took advantage of this renaissance. He joined “F.A.Z Magazine” and once again revolutionized how the viewer experienced content. His design was structured, carefully planned chaos. 

• Resources: ADC Hall of Fame
• Books: Fleckhaus: Deutschlands erster Art Director (German Edition)

The world of education if getting more and more competitive–rising costs, fewer applicants. More than ever admissions offices are seeking innovative ways to reach their prospective students through social media, web, recruitment. It can be safely said that the school’s website is a primary resource for prospective students. So what is the role of print? Is there still a need to create something that gets handed or mailed out? Yes, but it has to move beyond a traditional bound publication packed with content. It has to be something that captures attention, tell a story, and entices someone to learn more.

When we started concepting the admissions materials for Cate School in Carpinteria, California we had three goals for the design:

1. To create a piece that felt like a gift when it arrived in a recipient’s mailbox.
2.  To be something that captured the attention of both the parent and student and bring the family together to review and discuss the school.
3. To capture the sense of place, “one of the most beautiful places in the world.”

The final solution we created was a series of printed pieces that each have their own interactive experience. “People of the Mesa” profiles archetypes of the Cate community in series of cards that unfold accordion-style. While the student is unfolding the sorting the cards the parent can read “Life on the Mesa,” a 24-page booklet that delivers core messaging about the school’s academically rigorous curriculum. “Graduates of the Mesa” contains profiles of the class of 2013 all written by the school’s Headmaster Ben Williams on one-side and a fold-out map on the other revealing in one quick glance where the graduates go on to college. All three pieces are wrapped with a band that opens to show the school’s rich history. The complete package mails in a clear acetate envelope so recipients can get a glimpse at the contents—almost like peeking under the wrapping of a present.

Each piece tells a story in a visual, concise way. We worked with Cate School’s Sarah Kidwell, Director of Marketing and Communications, Charlotte Brownlee, Director of Admissions, and Ben Morris, Multimedia Coordinator to accurately represent the school’s mission and culture and capture day-in-the-life photography. Mark Sheehy Creative was called upon to write strategically crafted copy to capture the essence of Cate. It doesn’t get bogged down in details but instead pulls readers in—it entices people to learn more, to go to the website, and to finally set-up a visit to the school. Based on past numbers from Cate Office of Admissions once prospective families visit the school 97 percent apply. The goal of the printed material is to get people there—whether it is the website for more information or the school.

Case Study
With an average of 1,412 wireless devices connected to 800 community members, digital is an integral part of the school’s culture. To take advantage of the ubiquity of mobile devices Noble and Greenough has developed: eight blogs, Nobles Minute video series, Photo of the Day, and multiple podcasts and photo galleries. Nobles magazine was clearly positioned for a digital publication that would take advantage of this rich content and connected audience.

Process
In the Fall of 2012 we redesigned the print version of Nobles. The redesign represents the culture of the school visually through vibrant photography, modern typography, and elegant use of white space. A typical issue of the magazine is 72 pages and could easily be longer. After the Fall issue was launched the next phase was to create the iPad edition. While there are multiple options for tablet publication including Apple iPad, Kindle Fire, Nook, and Android, based on the Noble’s audience profile the iPad was the best fit.

Many alumni publications are opting to produce an interactive PDF or a flipbook but the final solution is simply a translation of a printed page on a screen. For Nobles we created a tablet-only design to take advantage of the digital content while working within the limitations of the tablet screen. Where the print has a three column format the tablet design is one column for ease of reading. Readers can view the pages in a vertical or horizontal orientation taking advantage of the flexibility of the device.

Not only is the interactive experience enhanced but the tablet allows for Nobles to deliver substantially more content to their audience. Where the print version may have had one photo the tablet version has a slide show or video, there are links to Amazon to purchase community authored books, direct email links for alumni, and one of my favorite items–an interactive Nobles by the Numbers allowing readers to test their knowledge of Nobles. Other examples in the Spring 2013 issue include audio of faculty discussing their work in the faculty show, authors reading from their books, the school’s mascot traveling the world showcasing the student’s experiences and service work, and video clips from the documentary feature.

The additional tablet-only content and interactivity was created using Adobe’s Digital Publishing Suite. The easiest part of the process being the software, the more challenging part being actual launch in the Apple store.

At the moment Nobles appears to be the only independent school magazine available on the APP store. With alumni audiences becoming increasingly digitally savvy we imagine many other schools will be soon to follow.

On November 6, the latest issue of MIT Technology Review hit the newsstands. The print edition is the last piece of a larger content delivery re-envisioning focused on a “digital first” model. It is a much different publication than the one I art-directed from my studio from 1998 to 2000. Here we discuss the new vision with creative director Eric Mongeon, who worked with me on the magazine from 1999 to 2000 and then went on to become the in-house art director and recently returned to be the creative director.

A few facts about MIT Technology Review:

The magazine has been published since 1899. The price is $24.95 for six print issues, with unlimited access to archives. It is free to alumni (approximately 140,000 people). All content is available free online, while the print edition is curated content from the previous six to eight weeks. It is also available on newsstands.

2Communique: You were the art director at Technology Review from 2000 to 2003 and returned in March 2012. How is your position as creative director different now?

Eric Mongeon: When I was the art director, my core responsibilities were the conceptualization, art direction, and design of the print magazine specifically. Like most publishing companies a decade ago, Technology Review was very print-focused; it was a typical ad-supported editorial operation that made content available for free online, and it would stage a big conference or event every year.

As the creative director of MIT Technology Review, I’m now responsible for setting the design strategy, vision, and direction for all print, digital, and event projects. Though our mission remains the same—to promote the understanding of the practical impact of new technologies—the means are quite different now. We’re a digitally oriented global media company that produces content online, in print, on mobile devices, and at conferences around the world. We publish in six languages in 147 countries and coordinate 400 live and webcast events each year. It’s a much more ambitious company than the one I left nine years ago, and Jason Pontin, the editor in chief and publisher, places a high priority on design that is consistent across all platforms.

2Communique: How does the magazine fit into the overall communication strategy for the company?

EM: Print is a platform we take seriously, but it’s one of several—and it’s by no means the most important one.

We continue to publish the print magazine for three primary reasons: 1) We know some people—myself included—find print the preeminently pleasurable medium. 2) Our owner, MIT, believes all alumni should get a print edition six times per year. 3) Visibility on the newsstand is desirable to many of our advertisers and serves as a key piece in our marketing strategy (i.e., raising awareness of and spurring interest in the brand).

2Communique: Many online versions of magazines are created from the content in the print edition, typically with Web add-ons. MIT Technology Review has taken a different approach, where the print is curated content from the Web. What is the process for selecting content for the print edition? How does “digital first” change how you approach art direction and design?

EM: It all happens simultaneously. Though the print magazine is published on a bimonthly schedule, we follow the production workflow of a weekly magazine. Each Friday, a batch of print layouts is due. The pieces are copyedited, fact-checked, and prepped for press as if we were shipping them. All of the copy is labeled with XML tags, and the images are resized according to our online specs. Our Web producer, Kyanna Sutton, assembles the Web pages with direction from the design staff and pushes everything live, and our production manager, Jim LaBelle, simply sits on the page files until we’re at the end of our eight-week editorial cycle, when the issue ships to press.

Because this all happens so quickly, we designers rarely conceptualize a story with a complete draft. Instead, the editors provide us with a very concise story brief, which allows us to devise a visual approach and identify appropriate illustrators, photographers, videographers, and/or animators to help us execute.

Of course, this sometimes means double the work: For the online version of a story, we’ll commission a videographer to produce a short film, and then we’ll send a still photographer a week later to create images for the print version. We’ve found that it’s nearly impossible to get quality video and quality still images at the same time.

2Communique: With a “digital first” model, how does a publication sustain the need for a print edition?

EM: It starts by acknowledging what print cannot do and emphasizing what it can do. Print can’t compete with digital media on timeliness. Neither can it be social or searchable. And it will never be less expensive (at least not for MIT Technology Review; the digital paywall was a failure for us).

Print can shine, however, if you approach the project as an artifact—a beautifully crafted, curated, collectible reading experience intended to be savored—rather than as mere ephemera that you read and then recycle.

2Communique: You had mentioned that there will not be a tablet version. With tablet publications being the trend, why has MIT Technology Review decided not to pursue one?

EM: Certainly apps allow for beautifully designed reading experiences on digital devices, but publishers who think they can make the economics work are delusional.

For starters, most tablets are Apple machines, and Apple shaves off 30 percent of the profit on all single-copy and subscription sales through the iTunes store. True, in June of 2011 Apple did allow publishers to begin selling through their own sites, but the mechanism will never be as smooth as that of the iTunes store—provided a prospective subscriber can even find it.

Second, it’s actually a lot of work to adapt print publications to apps. Many publishers end up producing up to six different versions of any given editorial product: There’s the core print piece, plus a digital replica for browsers and proprietary readers like Zinio, plus a digital rework for landscape viewing on tablets, plus a digital rework for portrait viewing on tablets, a kind of hack for smartphones, and then HTML pages for their websites. Even if you keep all the production in-house, there are labor and opportunity costs associated with the extended workflow. Also, iPad apps are written in Objective C, and since most Web developer departments have personnel who specialize in HTML, CSS, and Javascript, this usually means expensive, time-consuming outsourcing.

But the biggest problem with publishing apps isn’t technical. When people read news stories in digital media, they expect them to have the linky-ness of the Web. Stories in apps don’t really link; they’re beautiful “walled gardens.” And not even the most dazzlingly novel or elegant publishing app can overcome the frustration of reading digital media sequestered from other digital media.

We no longer support our iOS apps and have dumped the digital replicas. We’ve chosen instead to focus our digital strategy around a great site coded in HTML5, so that our Web pages will look beautiful on any screen.

2Communique: In 1997, when we worked on the magazine together, the design was heavily influenced by the impact of the Web (underlined headers, tabs). How did digital media influence the latest redesign?

EM: I look at those old issues and, though I’m quite proud of the art direction and visual storytelling, tend to cringe at the aesthetics. Their look—like the look of many technology publications today—was really only superficially informed by digital design.

When Nick Vokey, who is our new art director, and I approached this redesign, we were very deliberate in our effort to avoid aping the visual language of digital media. Instead, we tried for a design that embodies the ideals of technology—things like intelligence (is information smartly organized?), elegance (is it pleasant to look at?), utility (is it clear and easy to read?), and most important, pleasure in use (is it fun?).

The result is a print format that, though it bears a resemblance to the digital platform, has a distinct identity. And vice versa—the print and digital platforms are intended to be seen as siblings, not twins.

2Communique: What role did user experience play in the design of the publications?

EM: You taught me that the user’s experience of navigation, legibility, and narrative pacing are central concerns, so of course those were priorities when we tackled the print platform.

On the digital platforms, this is even more of a priority. Our development team consists of just five people, and one of them is a full-time user interface designer. Emily Dunkle spends her days obsessing over things like link hierarchies and hover states. And Brent Turner, our chief digital officer, is sort of the Billy Beane of Web dev; he’s constantly gathering usage statistics, gauging how readers are interacting with the site, and working with us designers to refine their experience.

In my view, UX is where the action is right now. This evolving specialty combines aesthetics, sociology, behavioral science, and philosophy, all with an eye toward crafting dramatic reading/viewing experiences. I expect the practice of graphic design—print and environmental, as well as digital—to become increasingly multidisciplinary in the coming years.

2Communique: Beyond the photography and illustration, the publication is devoid of color. What is your thinking behind this direction?

EM: We began the redesign process by looking at 113 years of Technology Review magazine archives, searching for inspiration and trying to uncover the core identity of the magazine. We were very taken with the work done under the guidance of Muriel Cooper, who ran the MIT Publications Office in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The magazine during that era featured full-color covers but had only two-color interiors. Those publications couldn’t rely on color to provide the drama—it was all done with the typography and a dynamic page grid. So we followed suit, stripping out the color from our layouts almost as a thought experiment.

We discovered that when you do this, the images—which do feature color—take on added significance within the layouts. They become like the paintings hanging on the walls of an art gallery.

This approach may prove restrictive in the long run, but we’re going to try it for a while.

2Communique: What qualities do you feel today’s designer needs to have to stay relevant?

EM: The same qualities they’ve always needed: curiosity, visual and cultural awareness, a respect for the history of the practice, and above all, an understanding of typography. Increasingly, businesses understand that design is more than mere gold-plating applied to interchangeable commodities; it’s a differentiator central to any modern business strategy. It’s up to us designers to demonstrate how.

2Communique: What are some things you want to explore in future issues?

EM: I’m looking forward to exploring data visualizations and information graphics. It’s hard to get them right—balancing the need to inform with the desire to delight, and without evoking the drudgery of homework.

We seem to be entering a sort of golden age of infographics design; we have access to an unprecedented amount of information, and there’s a new crop of professionals working today—people who came up after Edward Tufte—using digital tools to render it in ways that are relevant, useful, and beautiful. I want us to be part of that effort.

2Communique: What are your top-five favorite MIT Technology Review covers of all time?

One could argue that the cover of a magazine is its most important feature—even more important than the editorial and interior design—because in a brief moment it has to entice a reader to pick it up and read it. For years, editors and art directors have explored ways to create memorable covers. This fall, one of our clients, editor David Brittan from Tufts Magazine, kicked off the upcoming issue with a presentation called “Taxonomy of Cover Images” in an “attempt to categorize the relationships between image and topic,” he said, and ultimately create a startling cover.

We have worked with the team at Tufts’ Office of Publications since the publication redesign under Brittan’s editorial direction in 2006. In the past we would leave our art meeting with a firm direction in mind—conceptual illustration, photography, single image. (View the gallery of back issues.) But for this latest issue, we left the meeting with a different challenge in mind—to explore the many different ways to tell a story.

Tufts’ Office of Publications Creative Director Margot Grisar assigned us one story to devise cover concepts for, while she explored alternate feature articles to put on the cover. Our collective goal was to not only present more than one viable cover story but multiple ways for each to be represented visually (in the end we showed 30 covers). The story we were assigned was titled “Riding the Dragon,” which was the story of Dragon Systems founders Jim and Janet Baker, who spent 25 years on a quest to invent voice-recognition technology. It was a successful quest that was ruined in a bad deal with Goldman Sachs, and the couple lost everything, including the rights to the technology they created.

Brittan’s categories for the cover ideas included literal, synecdoche, metaphor, parody, and word play. We did further research at 2communiqué, including referring to Bo Bergström’s book Essentials of Visual Communication, to define categorization of imagery, and we began the task of exploring this article by applying the tools of image rhetoric.

Along with trying new ideas for this cover, we decided to try a new way to generate ideas. I had recently read Jonah Lehrer’s book Imagine (before it was pulled off the shelves due to fact-check concerns—a very unfortunate ending to a thoughtful book) and was particularly inspired by his theory of why traditional brainstorming doesn’t work (“If people are afraid of saying the wrong things, they’ll end up saying nothing at all”). In chapter 6, Lehrer discusses models for successful idea generation, including what makes Pixar work: They have creative discussions after they have had time to develop ideas. The reasoning is that critical feedback is imperative for a successful result. We decided to implement this thinking for our own cover project.

After we all read the article, we got together as a team to discuss the visual directions that stood out to us—the rise and fall of Dragon—and checked back in with Brittan and Grisar to make sure we were all on the same page. Initial visual directions included dragons (including “rise and fall” or death), speech, and Siri, which runs from the speech technology the Bakers invented. We went our separate ways with a goal to develop concepts that included all of the forms of visual rhetoric. We were already scheduled to photograph Janet Baker, so we had “literal” covered, but what visual metaphors could be explored? Or synecdoche? What about parody, something done so well by The New Yorker?

When we regrouped to share sketches and discuss concepts, we could see there were some common visual concepts that arose from our individual brainstorming: a slayed dragon, a muzzled dragon, swords, a decayed building (Dragon Systems headquarters resembled an old castle), roller coasters, speech bubbles, lack of speech, and speech graphs. We collectively edited our ideas down, developed roughs of the strongest ones, and shared these with Grisar. With her input, we edited further and defined the strongest ideas with a final presentation to Brittan of the top 10.

When it came time to present the covers to the editorial team, Grisar and I decided we needed a different approach. In previous cover presentations, we would reveal one design at a time and talk through each concept. Considering the goal for this assignment was to create a “startling” cover, we decided the most successful cover would stand out among the rest, as it would have to if it were a consumer magazine on a newsstand. So the covers were put up on a wall in a conference room at Tufts, and the editorial team was invited to view all of the covers simultaneously. This method resulted in clear eliminations and a selection of favorites (for example, dark covers were nixed in favor of brighter covers). The toughest idea to comp—a parody caricature of the Bakers on a dragon roller coaster—was selected based on a stock image for tone and samples of illustrators we felt could achieve parody with depth (including New Yorker cover illustrator Barry Blitt, who unfortunately was too busy to take the project on).

What was most interesting was that I would not have considered doing a parody cover of such a serious story if we had not explored visual rhetoric. I was more drawn to the serious, provocative covers. But when I look at the cover displayed in my office, I think it is fresh, and it definitely piques my interest.

The issue recently mailed, and initial feedback is coming in. The subjects of the article loved it, and Brittan shared it with a discerning reader who laughed out loud. Brittan himself said, “It’s certainly an effective cover—bright and eye-catching, perhaps more fun than startling. But I’ll take fun.”

Image credits

Final cover: Amanda Duffy

Janet Baker: John Soares

Red Dragon: gedsrl.org

Duo Portrait: Portrait: istock, Smoke

Smoke Dragon: Smoke

Excalibur Sword

Building: Library of Congress

Red Balloon Animal: istock

Dragon Roller Coaster: Kissimmee Guest Services

Dragon Balloon Animal

You there! What are you reading? Unfortunately in the brave new world of digital publishing, I’ll never know. Gone are the days of my favorite pastime: judging my fellow morning commuters based on what they are reading. I used to have a window into a reader’s world based solely on their literary choices. Now I just have the cold metallic backside of a Kindle or iPad (But to be honest, I do judge you a little bit if you have a Sony E-Reader).

Consider the joy I had just last year in imagining how a person came to be reading a tattered copy of The Amityville Horror. That’s a long book and certainly we know by now it wasn’t really haunted. I give that man credit for saying, “Yes, this is the book I’ve always been meaning to read and today is the day!” or that woman reading Highlights, is she merely bringing it home to her children or does she believe that even adults should be getting their moral cues from Goofus and Gallant? These people lead fascinating lives, if only in my over-active imagination.

Digital publishing offers none of those creative exercises/time killers for voyeurs like me. Their stories are all the same now. Man buys iPad. Man probably talks too much about how great the iPad is to his friends. Man reads something on iPad across from me for the next four subway stops. Could he throw me a bone by just yelling out “I just wish I could write in the margins of this digital Glen Beck book like I could the hardcover version!” or “Whoever is in charge of picking this font for Dwell Magazine should be shot!!!”

No, they just sit there quietly, occasionally flicking their fingers across the screen, reading who knows what. Sadly, I’m not in the know.

In 1987 Fred Woodward became the art director of the venerable music magazine, Rolling Stone. Prior to landing his dream job he designed for D Magazine in Dallas, Westward, the Sunday magazine of the Dallas Times Herald, Texas Monthly, and Regardie’s.

Mr. Woodward art directed Rolling Stone until 2001 when he moved on to art direct GQ magazine. The men’s magazine was quickly reshaped into an award-winning publication taking home the Society of Publication Designers’ Magazine of the Year during Mr. Woodward’s second year on the job. His work for GQ continues to win awards in all major design categories.

• Projects: GQ Magazine, 401 Projects
• Resources: AIGA Medalist, ADC Hall of Fame
• Books: Rolling Stone: The Complete Covers, Rolling Stone Images of Rock & Roll, Rolling Stone: The Illustrated Portraits

From 1962 to 1972 AIGA Gold Medalist, George Lois, art directed some of the most recognizable magazine covers for Esquire magazine. His tenure started off with a knock-out — The Floyd Patterson knock-out. On his website, Mr. Lois retells the story of the cover creation and the impact it had on the culture. His vision for the covers included some of the period’s hot topics like the martyrdom of Muhammad Ali, sexual equality, Presidential elections, and the Pop Art movement.

• Projects: Esquire covers
• Resources: George Lois website, wikipedia entry, Esquire magazine
• Books: George Lois: The Esquire Covers, Covering the ’60s: George Lois – The Esquire Era

When many people think of the term “blog” they tend to envision a personal journal. But today blogging platforms have expanded into a much broader use, ranging from school websites to online publications. With a built-in Content Management System and templated design capabilities they can be an excellent, cost effective way to develop an interactive online alumni publication. If you are thinking of taking your publication online, or need to update what you already have, a blogging platform may be the solution for you.

By looking at a blog solution, you are opening up options for you and your audience. A web-based publication built on a blogging platform allows your audience to build a community around its content, provides instant reader feedback for you, and connects you with your audience. There is no question that blogging software, such as WordPress, is an excellent resource for creating an online publication on a tight budget. But is it right for your publication? Here are a few things to consider:

Delivery
The blogging platform provides a built-in delivery system known as RSS (Really Simple Syndication). The benefit of RSS is that your audience can subscribe to your magazine’s RSS feed and have it delivered to a reader. Some readers are web-based like Google Reader and Bloglines, or desktop applications like FeedDemon and NetNewsWire, and of course there are mobile device versions like Byline and Pro RSS Reader. If your audience is reading your magazine in their readers it’s crucial that the content be written to encourage clicking on links to bring the reader back to the website. Upon returning to the website the reader becomes a participant in the magazine’s community and is exposed to the visual brand as well as the written brand.

Social Media
Since blogging platforms were built to post articles so easily they have a natural fit with other social media websites and applications. To get your message out to your tech-savy audience consider connecting your online magazine to other blogs (Blogger, Typepad), video- and photo-sharing websites (YouTube, Flickr, Vimeo, Twitter), and social networking websites (Facebook, MySpace, Twitter). Most likely some segment of your audience is using some of these websites, so why not let them help promote your content.

Web Address as Brand
It goes without saying that your web address is part of your overall brand. The challenge of using some blogging systems is that your web address might have another brand embedded within it. If your publication’s title is “Magazine Monthly” and you’re using Google-owned blogspot, the web address would be magazinemonthly.blogspot.com. The better option, if you have available resources, would be to not only purchase the domain name of magazinemonthly.com but variations that might be used by your audience. Some variations might be magmonthly.com, magazinemonth.com, and magazine-monthly.com. For the really adventurous brands, try www.domai.nr, where you can find alternative domains, such as magazinemonth.ly or magazi.ne/monthly (monthly would be a folder on the domain).

Customize the Design
There are thousands of free templates built for WordPress that can be further customized to visually relate to your print publication (if you have one). You may not get exactly what you want, but if you can let go of some of the details, you can get close. The key to using existing templates is the grid. Just as you would start by defining a grid system for your print publication, you need a strong, flexible grid in web design. Find a template with a good grid and let your web consultant apply your visual identity as best he can.

Maintaining It
Many smaller publications cannot afford to build out a customized content management system (CMS). Blogging software comes with an easy-to-use CMS built in. It will take some time to learn the interface of the system, but for the most part it’s a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) application. Everybody’s favorite commands of copy and paste will work to get your text into the text editor. Uploading photos and videos is usually just a couple of extra clicks of the mouse. Many of the systems also allow you to customize access for the many people who maintain the website: For example, administrators who manage the site can access the entire CMS; editors are able to access articles and accept or decline comments; and contributors can post articles.

Alumni magazines are unique in the sense that they deliver content to an existing audience. But the time of one-way conversation is behind us. It is imperative to connect with alumni and engage conversation. By taking your publication online you create something manageable to maintain that is also cost effective.