The Study Guru

Business Mathematics II : Syllabus For BBA

2011-07-14T20:26:00.002+05:30

MTH 102.3 (Credit hours 3)

Business Mathematics II

BBA, First Year, Second Semester

Course Objectives:

This Course aims to provide students with a sound understanding of calculus and linear algebra for business

decisions.

Course Contents:

Module I

1. Applications of Derivatives 5 hours

Revenue, Cost and Profit Applications, Marginal approach to profit maximization, Elasticity, Market model

2. Functions of Several Variables 6 hours

Functions of variables, Partial derivatives, Partial and total differentials, Higher order differentials

3. Optimization: Functions of Several Variables 7 hours

Maxima and minima of functions of several variables, Lagrange multiplier and constrained optimization,

Competitive equilibrium of a firm, Monopoly price and output, Discriminating monopolists

4. Integration and its Applications 10 hours

Indefinite integrals, Techniques of integration, Definite integrals, Improper integrals, Applications,

Ordinary differential equations

6. Series 4 hours

Series; geometric series, Taylor series

7. Vector 5 hours

Vector; vector spaces, Linear dependence, Basis

8. Matrices and Determinant 11 hours

Types of matrices, Matrix operations, Matrix representation of equations, Determinant, Inverse of a matrix, Cramer’s rule, Applications of matrix algebra, Input Output model.

Programming Language : Syllabus For BBA

2011-07-14T20:25:00.000+05:30

CMP 103.3 (Credit hours 3)

Programming Language

BBA, First Year, Second Semester

Course Objectives:

This course aims to introduce students to the imperative programming principles and acquaint them with the C programming language.

Course Contents:

Module I

1. Historical Development 2 hours

History of computing and computers, Types of computers (analog and digital), Generations of computers

2. Introduction to Computer Systems 4 hours

Fundamental concepts of computer, Memory, hardware, software and firmware, Block diagram of digital

computer, Computer peripherals

3. Programming Preliminaries 10 hours

Introduction to program and programming language, Types of programming language, Generations of

programming languages, Program design methodology, Software development: Stages of software development, Text editor; Assembler, Compiler, Interpreter, Algorithms, Flowcharts, Pseudo codes, ASCII

4. Introduction to C 16 hours

C Basics; variables and constants, The simple data types in C. Operators, Header files, Input and Output statement: Unformatted I/O, Formatted I/O, Type conversion, Loops and Decisions (For loop, while loop, Do while loop, Nested loop Case-break and continue statements, If Else, Else-If and Switch statements), Functions (Variables, Returning a value from a function, Sending a value to a function, Arguments, Preprocessor directives, C libraries, Macros, Header files and proto typing), Recursion

5. Arrays and Strings 4 hours

Initializing arrays, Multidimensional arrays, String; functions related to the string

6. Structures and Unions 3 hours

Initializing structures, Nested type structure, Arrays and structures, Unions

7. Pointers 4 hours

Pointer data type, Pointers and Arrays, Pointers and Functions, Pointers and Structures

8. Files and File handling 5 hours

Opening and creating a file in different modes (Read, Write and Append)

Financial Accounting II : Syllabus For BBA

2011-07-14T20:21:00.002+05:30

ACC 102.3 (Credit hours 3)

Financial Accounting II

BBA, First Year, Second Semester

Course Objective

This course aims to equip students with the knowledge and skill in handling financial accounting system. Specifically it aims to acquaint students with the

Recording, accounting, valuation and disclosure in the financial statements of the inventories and the cost of goods sold;
Accounting and disclosure of cash, cash equivalents and receivables;
Accounting and disclosure of non-current assets and liabilities;
Accounting and disclosure of current liabilities; and
Accounting and presentation of owners' equity and dividends.

Course Contents:

1. Accounting for Inventories and Cost of Goods Sold 8 hours

The nature of inventory; cost of goods sold model; inventory valuation and income measurement; inventory costing methods; choice of a method; methods of inventory estimation; effect of inventory valuation method on the cost of goods sold; disclosure in the financial statements.

2. Accounting for Cash, Cash Equivalent and Receivables 8 hours

Cash and cash equivalent: components of cash and cash equivalents; preparation of the bank reconciliation statement and the need for adjustments to accounting records; petty cash, balance sheet presentation cash and cash equivalent; accounts receivable: valuation of accounts receivables, methods to account for uncollectible amount, balance sheet presentation; notes receivable: interest bearing notes, non-interest bearing notes, presentation of the notes receivable and related aspects in the financial statements.

3 Accounting for Non-current Assets 11 hours

Concepts of capital, revenue and deferred revenue expenditure; types of operating assets; acquisition of operating assets and the capitalization process; depreciation: concepts, methods and accounting( straight line and diminishing balance method including accelerated depreciation method), disposal of assets and accounting for gains and loses; disclosure in the financial statements.

4 Accounting for current Liabilities 5 hours

Accounts payable; notes payable and other current liabilities; balance sheet presentation.

5 Accounting for Non-current liabilities 9 hours

Bonds payable: issuance of bonds, characteristics of bonds, factors affecting bond price, premium or discount on issuance of bonds, bond amortization, redemption of bonds, disclosure in financial statements. Accounting for leases: Operating and financial lease; balance sheet of presentation

6 Accounting for Stockholders' Equity and Dividends 7 hours

Stockholders' Equity: components of the stockholders' equity section of the balance sheet; stocks: types of stock, issuance of stock, stock issued for cash and non-cash consideration and on a subscription basis, treasury stock, retirement of a stock; presentation in the financial statements; dividends: meaning and types of dividend-cash dividend, cash dividend for ordinary stock and preferred stock; stock dividend and stock split, disclosure in financial statements.

English II : Syllabus for BBA

2011-07-14T20:17:00.000+05:30

ENG 102.3 (Credit hours 3)

English II
BBA, First Year, Second Semester

Course Objectives:
This course aims to develop writing skills in the students. If functions as a mini-rhetoric offering extensive advice on planning, writing and revising, including brainstorming, clustering, journal writing, and editing, The course introduces students to the various modes of writing and with enough examples it teaches how to distinguish between the various modes and comprehend an essay's Content, understand the writer's purpose and audience, recognize the stylistic and structural techniques used to shape the essay, and their sensitivity to the nuances of word choice and figurative language, In addition, there are ample "Writing Assignments" and "Collaborative Writing Activity" for the students to apply what they have learnt.

Course Contents:
Module I                                                                                                                 16 hours
1.     Introduction
Reading to Write

2.     The Writing Process
Invention, Arrangement, Drafting and Revision

3.     Narration
Sandra Sisneros, Only Daughter; Donna Smith-Yackel, My Mother Never Worked

4.     Description
Mark Twain, Reading the River; N. Scott Momaday, The Way to Rainy Mountain

Module II                                                                                                                    16 hours
5.     Exemplification
Robert M. Linlinfeld and William L. Rahje, Six Enviro-Myths
Richard Leaderer, English is a Crazy Language

6.     Process
Alexander Petrunkevitch, The Spider and the Wasp; Larry Brown, On Fire

7.     Cause and Effect
Norman Cousins, Who Killed Benny Paret?
Marie Winn, Television: The Plug-In Drug

8.     Comparison and Contrast
Bruce Catton, grant and Lee" A Study in Contrast
Deborah Tannen. Sex, Lies, and Conversation

9.     Classification and Division
Allen Pace Nilsen, Sexism in English: A 1990s Update
Stephanie Ericsson, The Way We Lie

Module III                                                                                                                                 16 hours
10. Definition
Judy Brady: I Want a Wife
Burno Bettelheim. The Holocaust

11. Argumentation
Structuring an Argumentative Essay
Tomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence
Debate Casebook: Multicultural Education

12. Combining the patterns
Lars Eighner, On Dumpster Diving

13. Using and Documenting Sources
Paraphourasing, Summarizing, and Using Quotations, Avoiding Plagiarism, Using APA Style to Cite and Document Sources

Microeconomics: Syllabus for BBA

2011-07-14T20:15:00.000+05:30

ECO 101 (Credit hours 3)

Microeconomics

BBA, First Year, Second Semester

Course Objective

The courses aims to acquaint students the basic fundamentals of micro economic theory. It enhances the skills of the students in tabular and graphic interpretation of the economic concepts with respect to business decisions.

Course Content

1. Introduction 3 hours

Introduction to economic theory: Problem of scarcity, Introduction to microeconomics and macroeconomics, Function of microeconomic theory, Comparative statics and dynamics, Positive and normative economics

2. Demand, Supply and Equilibrium 7 hours

Meaning and Concept of Demand, Individual demand (Law of demand and Demand curve), Market demand curve, Meaning and Concept of Supply, Individual supply (Law of Supply and Supply Curve), Market supply curve, Shifts in demand and supply curves and the changes in equilibrium

3. Measurement of Elasticities 4 hours

Price elasticities of demand, Arc and point elasticity, Total expenditure (revenue) and elasticity, Income elasticity, cross elasticity and price elasticity of supply.

4. Consumer Demand Theory 10 hours

Cardinal approach of utility, Consumer equilibrium, Ordinal approach of utility, Indifference curve, Marginal rate of substitution, budget line, consumer equilibrium, income consumption curve, price consumption curve, Separation of substitution and income effect from price effect for normal, inferior and Giffen good

5. Theory of Production 7 hours

Production function, Production with one variable input: total, average and marginal product, Law of diminishing marginal returns, Production function with two variable inputs: Isoquants, marginal rate of technical substitution, Law of returns to scale, Isocost lines, Optimum Combination of inputs, Expansion path

6. Costs of Production 4 hours

Short-run total, average and marginal cost curves, Geometry (shape) of short-run cost curves with their relationships, Long-run average and marginal cost curves: derivations and their shapes

7. Concept of Revenue Curves 2 hours

Nature of revenue curves in various markets, Total, average and marginal revenue curves, Relationship between average and marginal revenue curves in different market situations

8. Product Pricing 7 hours

Perfect competition; pricing under perfect competition; equilibrium in short run and long run, Monopoly; pricing under monopoly, short and long period, Monopolistic competition; pricing under monopolistic competition; short and long period, Comparison among various market structures

9. Theory of Factor Pricing 4 hours

Factor pricing in perfectly competitive markets, factor pricing in imperfectly competitive markets, Bilateral monopoly

Unicode vs ASCII

2011-07-14T18:01:00.001+05:30

Unicode vs ASCII

Unicode and ASCII both are standards for encoding texts. Uses of such standards are very much important all around the world. Code or standard provides unique number for every symbol no matter which language or program is being used. From big corporation to individual software developers, Unicode and ASCII have significant influence. Communication between different regions in the world was difficult but this was needed in every time. Recent easiness in communication and development of a unique platform for all people in the world is the result of inventing some universal encoding system.

Unicode

Development of Unicode was coordinated by a non-profit organization Unicode Consortium. Unicode is most compatible with different language like Java, XML, Microsoft .Net etc. Symbolic figure or glyptic art are greatly available due to modification of character shape which is done using some mechanism adopted by Unicode. Invention of Unicode has brought major renovation in texture, graphics, themes etc. Natural numbers or electrical pulse is used to convert a text or picture and they are easy to transmit through different networks.

• Recent version of Unicode consist more than 109000 characters, charts for visual reference, encoding methodology, standard for encoding, collation, two-way display, depicting etc.

• UTF-8 is one of the widely used encodings.

• Unicode consortium consists of world leading software and hardware companies like Apple, Microsoft, Sun Microsystems, Yahoo, IBM, Google Oracle Corporation.

• First book was published by the consortium in 1991 and latest Unicode 6.0 published in 2010.

ASCII

Short form of American Standard Code for Information Interchange is ASCII. Encoding of that system is based on ordering the English alphabet. All modern data encoding machines support ASCII as well as other. ASCII was first used by Bell data services as a seven bit Tele-printer. Use of binary system had brought tremendous change in our personal computing. Personal Computer as we see now is the boon of using binary language which was used as core things for encoding and decoding. Various languages later created and adopted are based on it. As binary system makes the PC more comfortable and user friendly for all, similarly ASCII is being used for making easiness in communicating. 33 characters are non-printing, 94 printing characters and space altogether makes 128 characters which are used by ASCII.

• It allows 128 characters.

• WWW or World Wide Web used ASCII as character encoding system but now ASCII is superseded by UTF-8.

• Short passage was encoded by early ASCII.

• ASCII-code order is different from traditional alphabetical order.

Difference between Unicode and ASCII

• Unicode is an expedition of Unicode Consortium to encode every possible languages but ASCII only used for frequent American English encoding. For example, ASCII does not use symbol of pound or umlaut.

• Unicode require more space than ASCII.

• Unicode use 8, 16 or 32 bit characters based on different presentation while ASCII is seven-bit encoding formula.

• Many software and email can’t understand few Unicode character set.

• ASCII only supports 128 characters while Unicode supports much more characters.

Though different variations appear among Unicode and ASCII but both are very much essential in development of web based communication.

ASCII

2011-07-14T17:58:00.001+05:30

ASCII

• It allows 128 characters.

• WWW or World Wide Web used ASCII as character encoding system but now ASCII is superseded by UTF-8.

• Short passage was encoded by early ASCII.

• ASCII-code order is different from traditional alphabetical order.

Difference between Unicode and ASCII

• Unicode require more space than ASCII.

• Unicode use 8, 16 or 32 bit characters based on different presentation while ASCII is seven-bit encoding formula.

• Many software and email can’t understand few Unicode character set.

• ASCII only supports 128 characters while Unicode supports much more characters.

Though different variations appear among Unicode and ASCII but both are very much essential in development of web based communication.

Compiler vs Interpreter

2011-07-14T17:45:00.002+05:30

Compiler and interpreter, both basically serve the same purpose. They convert one level of language to another level. A compiler converts the high level instructions into machine language while an interpreter converts the high level instruction into some intermediate form and after that, the instruction is executed.

Compiler

A compiler is defined as a computer program that is used to convert high level instructions or language into a form that can be understood by the computer. Since computer can understand only in binary numbers so a compiler is used to fill the gap otherwise it would have been difficult for a human to find info in the 0 and 1 form.

Earlier the compilers were simple programs which were used to convert symbols into bits. The programs were also very simple and they contained a series of steps translated by hand into the data. However, this was a very time consuming process. So, some parts were programmed or automated. This formed the first compiler.

More sophisticated compliers are created using the simpler ones. With every new version, more rules added to it and a more natural language environment is created for the human programmer. The complier programs are evolving in this way which improves their ease of use.

There are specific compliers for certain specific languages or tasks. Compliers can be multiple or multistage pass. The first pass can convert the high level language into a language that is closer to computer language. Then the further passes can convert it into final stage for the purpose of execution.

Interpreter

The programs created in high level languages can be executed by using two different ways. The first one is the use of compiler and the other method is to use an interpreter. High level instruction or language is converted into intermediate from by an interpreter. The advantage of using an interpreter is that the high level instruction does not goes through compilation stage which can be a time consuming method. So, by using an interpreter, the high level program is executed directly. That is the reason why some programmers use interpreters while making small sections as this saves time.

Almost all high level programming languages have compilers and interpreters. But some languages like LISP and BASIC are designed in such a way that the programs made using them are executed by an interpreter.

Difference between compiler and interpreter

• A complier converts the high level instruction into machine language while an interpreter converts the high level instruction into an intermediate form.

• Before execution, entire program is executed by the compiler whereas after translating the first line, an interpreter then executes it and so on.

• List of errors is created by the compiler after the compilation process while an interpreter stops translating after the first error.

• An independent executable file is created by the compiler whereas interpreter is required by an interpreted program each time.

What is the difference between primary & secondary storage device?

2011-07-14T17:31:00.003+05:30

PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES            SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

1.These devices are tempo-      1.These devices are permanent.
rary.                       
2.These devices are expensive.  2.These are cheaper.
3.These devices are faster,     3.These devices Computers via 
therefore expensive.            cables,and slow, therefore 
                                cheaper.
4.These devices have less       4.These devices have high 
storage capacity.               storage capacity.
5.These devices refer to RAM.   5.These devices refer to FDD

Difference between primary and secondary memory.

2011-07-14T17:25:00.002+05:30

The primary memory or the main memory is part of the main computer system. The processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves information from it. This memory is accessed by CPU, in random fashion. That means any location of this memory can be accessed by the CPU to either read information from it, or to store information in it.
o The primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory technologies. The first is called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the other is read only memory (ROM). A more appropriate name for RAM is RWM (Read Write Memory), the CPU can write and read information from any primary memory location implemented using RAM. The other part of primary memory is implemented using ROM which stands for Read Only Memory.

Primary memory is much faster and also it is more cost effective. But the secondary memory is much slower and also less costly. It stores the data permanently unless it is erased. The secondary memory is usually available in the form of floppy disk storage media, hard disk, CD, DVD, Pen drive (i.e. Mass storage devices), memory chips. A 5 and1/4 inch floppy disk typically stores 1.44 mb of data. The data on the floppy disk is organized in terms of tracks and sectors. Hard disk can have large capacity something like 80-300 GB's or higher. Hard disk itself is made up of, large number of platters. Hard disk is usually much faster compared to floppy disk. CD can store up to 750 mb of data. Information on CD ROM is organized in terms of a spiral track. A DVD is digital Versatile Disk and can store 4.6 Gigabyte of information. All these CD disk are usually write ones and read many times (if the disk is not multisession and re writable). So are the DVDs.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER IX

2011-07-14T12:03:00.000+05:30

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

Introduction

A computer is an electronic machine that accepts instruction as input data, stores the data, processes them and produces the desired output. Computer automatically accepts data and instructions as input, stores and processes them and produces and gives the output under the control of the instructions of the stored programs.

Features of computer:

As computer is an intelligent amplifier that performs the above-mentioned operations in a faster, accurate and efficient way, it creates extra leisure time which can be used in matters involving creativity & judgment. Some of the common characteristics possessed by computers are as follows:

A computer can perform tasks at very high speed. The speed, with which computers carry out these operations, varies from a few microseconds (10^-6 of a second or millionth of a second) to nanoseconds (10^-9of a second or billionth of a second).
It can store a large amount of data in its memory forever
It gives 100% accurate outputs unless the wrong data and instructions are entered.
Once the data and instructions are given, it caries out its operation automatically to produce the desired output.
It can perform its tasks repetitively with same speed, efficiency and accuracy, without being affected by traits of tiredness and lack of concentration.
It is versatile in a sense that it can perform from simple tasks, such as Desktop Publishing, to advanced tasks, such as controlling of automatic weapons, satellite launching, etc.

Limitations of Computers:

Since computer does not have its own intelligence, it should be given instructions to carry out its tasks. However, the fifth generation is supposed to have own intelligence.
An important data can be lost sometimes due to the breakdown of storage media in machine.
However there are various systems to protect data, but there is always fear of data piracy.
Computer is a very expensive to install and maintain that it would be difficult to afford it for everybody. But, with the ever-increasing advances being made in the state of the art, the cost of computer equipment has dropped drastically over the years. Hardware costs have been decreasing at an estimated annual rate of 25%.
Computers cannot store data unless they are given instructions.

SWITCH-CASE STATEMENT

2011-07-14T12:00:00.000+05:30

SWITCH-CASE STATEMENT

Switch Statements

The switch and case statements help control complex conditional and branching operations. The switch statement transfers control to a statement within its body.
Syntax:
The general form of a switch statement is:

switch (variable)

{
    case expression1:
        do something 1;
        break;
    case expression2:
        do something 2;
        break;
      ....
    default:
        do default processing;
}

Example :

#include<stdio.h>

main()

{

int x;

printf("Enter the any number");

scanf("%d", &x);

switch(x)

{

case 1:

printf("I am in Case one");

break;

case 2:

printf("I am in case two");

break;

case 3:

printf("I am in case three");

break;

default:

printf(" I am in Default");

}

In above program if we enter 1 value in x then the output will be:

I am in Case one

When an expression is found that is equal to the tested variable, execution continues until a break statement is encountered. It is possible to have a case without a break. This causes execution to fall through into the next case. This is sometimes very useful.

STORAGE CLASSES : Programming

2011-07-14T11:59:00.002+05:30

STORAGE CLASSES

Introduction

The storage class determines the part of memory where storage is allocated for an object (particularly variables and functions) and how long the storage allocation continues to exist.
A scope specifies the part of the program which a variable name is visible, that is the accessibility of the variable by its name. In C program, there are four storage classes: automatic, register, external, and static.
Moreover, a variable's storage class tells us:

Where the variable would be stored
What will be the initial value of the variable, if initial value is not specifically assigned(i.e. the default initial value)
What is the scope of the variable; i.e. in which functions the value of the variable would be available.
What is the life of the variable; i.e. how long would the variable exist.

Automatic Storage Class

The features of a variable defined to have an automatic storage class are as under

Storage	Memory
Default initial value	Garbage value
Scope	Local to the block in which the variable is defined
Life	Till the control remains within the block in which the variable is defined

The scope of automatic variables is local to the block in which they are declared, including any blocks nested within that block. For these reasons, they are also called local variables.
No block outside the defining block may have direct access to automatic variables (by variable name) but, they may be accessed indirectly by other blocks and/or functions using pointers.
Automatic variables may be specified upon declaration to be of storage class auto. However, it is not required to use the keyword auto because by default, storage class within a block is auto.
Automatic variables declared with initializers are initialized every time the block in which they are declared is entered or accessed.
auto is the default storage class for local variables.

Example

void main()

{

int Count;

auto int Month;

}

The example above defines two variables with the same storage class. auto can only be used within functions, i.e. local variables.

Register Storage Class

The features of a variable defined to have an automatic storage class are as under

Storage	CPU Register
Default initial value	Garbage value
Scope	Local to the block in which the variable is defined
Life	Till the control remains within the block in which the variable is defined

Registers are memory located within the CPU itself where data can be stored and accessed quickly. Normally, the compiler determines what data is to be stored in the registers of the CPU at what times.
register is used to define local variables that should be stored in a register instead of RAM. This means that the variable has a maximum size equal to the register size (usually one word) and can't have the unary '&' operator applied to it (as it does not have a memory location).

Example:

void main()

{

register int Miles;

}

Static Storage Class

The features of a variable defined to have an automatic storage class are as under

Storage	Memory
Default initial value	Zero
Scope	Local to the block in which the variable is defined
Life	Value of the variable persists between different function calls

Static automatic variables continue to exist even after the block in which they are defined terminates. Thus, the value of a static variable in a function is retained between repeated function calls to the same function.

Comparing two storage class we get to know how static storage class variable works and auto storage class works.

Auto Storage Class	Static Storage Class
void Increment() { auto int i=1; printf("%d\n",i); i=i+1; } void main() { Increment(); Increment(); Increment(); }	void Increment() { static int i=1; printf("%d\n",i); i=i+1; } void main() { Increment(); Increment(); Increment(); }
Output: 1 1 1	Output: 1 2 3
Each time the Increment() function is called i variable is taken as new and each time i is initialized with 1 so when i is printed each time it displays 1	When first time Increment() function is called i variable is initialized to 1 and next two time the value will be incremented by one. That is when Increment() function is called second time i variable in not initialized again but will directly goto printf() and displays the value of i i.e. 2 and so on it displays 3

External Storage Class

The features of a variable defined to have an automatic storage class are as under

Storage	Memory
Default initial value	Zero
Scope	Globle
Life	As long as the program's execution doesn't come to an end

All variables we have seen so far have had limited scope (the block in which they are declared) and limited lifetimes (as for automatic variables).
However, in some applications it may be useful to have data which is accessible from within any block and/or which remains in existence for the entire execution of the program. Such variables are called global variables, and the C language provides storage classes which can meet these requirements; namely, the external (extern) and static (static) classes.
Declaration for external variable is as follows:
extern int var;
External variables may be declared outside any function block in a source code file the same way any other variable is declared; by specifying its type and name (extern keyword may be omitted).

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

extern int i;

void Increment()

{

i=i+1;

printf("%d\n",i);

}

void Decrement()

{

i=i-1;

printf("%d\n",i);

}

void main()

{

printf("initial value=%d\n",i);

Increment();

Decrement();

}

Output:

                    initial value = 0
                    1
                    2
                    1
                    0

Book : Let us C

INPUT/OUTPUT : Programming

2011-07-14T11:58:00.002+05:30

INPUT/OUTPUT

Usually i/o, input and output, form an important part of any program. To do anything useful your program needs to be able to accept input data and report back your results. In C, the standard library provides routines for input and output. The standard library has functions for i/o that handle input, output, and character and string manipulation. In this lesson, all the input functions described read from standard input and all the output functions described write to standard output. Standard input is usually the keyboard. Standard output is usually the monitor.

Formatted Output

The standard library function printf is used for formatted output. It takes as arguments a format string and an optional list of variables or literals to output. The variables and literals are output according to the specifications in the format string. Here is the prototype for printf.
int printf(const char *format, arg1, arg2, arg3, ......);
Example: Adding two number

#include
#include
void main()
{
    int a,b,c;
    printf("enter the value for a and b");
    scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);

    c= a + b;

    printf("%d + %d = %d" ,a ,b ,c);
    getch();
}

Here are the more common conversion specifiers.

Specifier	Argument Type
%d	int
%f	float or double
%e	float or double, output in scientific notation.
%c	character
%s	character string (char *)

Formatted Input Output

The standard library function scanf is used for formatted input. It takes as its arguments a format string and a list of pointers to variables to store the input values. Similar to its use in printf, the format string can contain literals and conversion specifiers. In C, to return a value from a function to a calling routine, a pointer to a variable is passed into the function. A pointer stores the memory address of another variable. The methods of passing and returning values from functions are described in Passing Arguments to Functions. Don't worry if you don't understand pointers completely. For now, all this means is a slightly different notation in the call to scanf. In later lessons, pointers and functions will be fully explained. Here is the prototype of scanf and a program illustrating its use.
Scanf returns an integer, either the number of values read in, or EOF if an end of file is reached. EOF is a special termination character, specified in stdio.h, which designates the end of a file. If no values are successfully read, scanf returns 0. To use scanf in a program, the file stdio.h must be included.

WAP to find out simple interest (SI) and Amount (A), given that SI=PRT/100 and A=P+SI.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
   float p,t,r,A,SI;
   printf("Enter value p, t, r ");
   scanf("%f %f %f",&p,&t,&r);

   //calculating simple interest
   SI=(ptr)/100;

   //calculating Amount
   A=SI+p;

   printf("Simple interest=%f, Amount=%f", SI, A);
   getch();
}

Unformatted Input / Output

Unformatted functions do not allow the user to read or display data in desired format. These library functions basically deal with a single character or a string of characters. The functions getchar(), putchar(), gets(), puts(), getch(),gerche () , putch() are considered as unformatted functions.

getchar and putchar

getchar reads a single character from standard input.
putchar writes a single character to standard output.
Example:

#include<stdio.h>

void main()
{
    char c;

    c = getchar(); /* to take input form keyboard /
    putchar(c);    / to display value of 'c' in screen */
}

gets and puts

gets reads a line of input into a character array (String).
puts writes a line of output to standard output .
Example:

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
     char str[120]; /* Holds input and output strings /
     gets(str); / to take string as input form keyboard /
     puts(str); / to display value of 'str' string in screen */
}

FILE HANDELING

2011-07-14T11:54:00.003+05:30

FILE HANDELING

File Input and Output

Library Functions for File I/O.

fopen is used to open a file for formatted I/O and to associate a stream with that file. A stream is a source or destination of data. It may be a buffer in memory, a file or some hardware device such as a port.

FILE *fp;

fp=fopen(filename, mode);

fopen() returns a file pointer on success or NULL on failure. The file pointer is used to identify the stream and is passed as an argument to the routines that read, write or manipulate the file. The filename and mode arguments are standard null-terminated strings. The valid modes are shown below.

Mode	Use
"r"	Read Mode.If the file exists, loads it into memory and sets up a pointer which points to the first character in it. If the file doesn't exist it returns NULL. Operations Possible:- reading from the file
"w"	Write Mode. If the file exists, its contents are overwritten. If the file doesn't exist, a new file is created. Returns NULL, if unable to open file. Operations Possible:- writing to the file
"a"	Append Mode. If the file exists, loads it into memory and sets up a pointer that points to the last character in it. If the file doesn't exist, a new file is created. Returns NULL, if unable to open file Operations Possible:- adding new contents at the end of file
"r+"	Read Plus Mode. If the file exists, loads it into memory and sets up a pointer which points to the first character in it. If the file doesn't exist it returns NULL. Operations Possible:- reading existing contents, writing new contents, modifying existing contents of the file
"w+"	Write Plus Mode. If the file exists, its contents are destroyed. If the file doesn't exist, a new file is created. Returns NULL, if unable to open file. Operations Possible:- writing new contents, reading them back and modifying existing contents of the file
"a+"	Append Plus Mode. If the file exists, loads it into memory and sets up a pointer that points to the first character in it. If the file doesn't exist, a new file is created. Returns NULL, if unable to open file Operations Possible:- reading existing contents, appending new contents to the end of file. Cannot modify existing contents.

Files are closed with the function fclose. Its prototype is:

fclose(*fp);

Functions for Reading and Writing to the file

fprintf():

Data is written to a file using fprintf. This function is very similar to printf. Printf was used to write to standard output, stdout. Fprintf has one additional argument to specify the stream to send data. Its prototype is:

fprintf(FILE stream, const char format, ....);

fscanf():

Data is read from a file using fscanf. This function is very similar to scanf, is used to read from standard input, stdin. Fscanf has one additional argument to specify the stream to read from. Remember that the argument to store data must be pointers.

fscanf(FILE stream, const char format, ....);

Other Useful Standard Library Functions for Input and Output

int fgetc(FILE *stream);

This function returns the next character in the input stream, or EOF if the end of the file is encountered. It returns int rather than char because the "end of file", EOF, character must be handled. EOF is an int and is too large to fit in a char variable.

int fgets(char s, int n, FILE *stream);

It returns a pointer to the character string if successful, or NULL if end of file is reached or if an error has occurred. The string is also read into the character array specified as an argument. The character string will be terminated be a "\0", which is standard for C.
At most n-1 characters will be read. This allows for storage of the string terminator, '\0'.

fputs(const char s, FILE stream);

This function writes a string to the stream. It returns EOF on failure.

int fputc(int c, FILE *stream);

fputc writes a single character to the output stream i.e. file. It returns EOF on failure.

int sprintf(char buffer, const char format, ...);

This function is the same as fprintf, except data is written into a character buffer rather than an output stream.

int sscanf(char buffer, const char format, ...);

This function is the same as fscanf, except data is read from a character buffer rather than an input stream.

Example 1: Here is the example program which creates a file "Record.txt" and adds students record in it.

#include<stdio.h>

main()
{
    char name[30];
    int idNum;
    FILE fp;

    / Open file for input */
    fp = fopen("Record.txt","w");

if(fp==NULL)

{

printf("Error Opening File !!!");

exit(1);

}

printf("Enter name and id")

scnaf("%d %s", name, &idNum);

/* Write out data */

fprintf(fp,"%d %s\n",idNum, name);

/* Close Files */

fclose(fp);

}

Example 2: Here is the example program which reads name and id form student record a file "Record.txt" and displays on screen.

#include<stdio.h>

main()
{
    char name[30];
    int idNum;
    FILE fp;

    / Open file for read */
    fp = fopen("Record.txt","r");

if(fp==NULL)

{

printf("Error Opening File !!!");

exit(1);

}

/reading all records form file /

while(fscanf(fp,"%d %s", &idNum, name) != EOF)

printf("%d %s\n", idNum, name);

/* Close Files */

fclose(fp);

}

Example: Create a file name "COLLEGE.DAT". Write a program to store record of n students in a file. These records contain student name, roll no, program. Also display records of those students whose program is BBAII and BCA II.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

#define N 2 //defining the N no. of student

void main()

{

struct student

{

int roll_no;

char name[25],program[25];

};

struct student s;

int i;

FILE *fp;

fp = fopen ("COLLEGE.DAT ", "w+");

if (fp == NULL);

{

puts("Cannot open file");

exit(0);

}

//taking student records as input and writing it into file

for(i=0;i<N;i++)

{

scanf("%d %s %s %d",&s.roll_no,s.name, s.program);

fwrite(&s,sizeof(s),1,fp);//writing record into file

}

//reading from file until end of file

while(fread(&s,sizeof(s),1,fp)!=EOF)

{

//displaying only those records having program is BBAII or BCAII

if(strcmp(s.program,"BBAII")==0||strcmp(s.program,"BCAII")==0)

printf("%d\t %s\t %s\n",s.roll_no,s.name,s.program);

}

fclose(fp);

getch();

}

STRUCTURE

2011-07-14T11:53:00.000+05:30

STRUCTURE

Structures

Structures are used to group a number of different variables together which enables us treat a number of different variables stored in different place in memory.

Syntax:

struct structure_name

{

Data_type member;

........

};

struct structure_name structure_variable;

Declaring Structures

A structure is declared by using the keyword struct followed by an optional structure tag followed by the body of the structure. The variables or members of the structure are declared within the body. Here is an example of a structure that would be useful in representing the book containing id, name of book and price.

struct book {
int id;
char name[25];

float price;
};

The struct declaration is a user defined data type. Variables of type book may be declared similarly to the way variables of a built in type are declared.

struct book b1, b2;

Example: Simple example to declare structure and performing input/output process.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

main()

{

struct book

{

int id;

char name[25];

float price;

};

struct book b1;

printf("Enter the record of book");

scanf("%d %s %f", &b1.id, b1.name, &b1.price);

//displaying the book record

printf("%d %s %f", b1.id, b1.name, b1.price);

getch();

}

Arrays of Structures

The data structures needed to solve some problems are best represented as an array of structures. Consider, for instance, the problem of storing 100 books record. Here we need to declare book variable like b1, b2, b3 and so on to b100, which is very hard way of doing so. So, this problem can be made easier by using array of structure. Array of structure is declared as follows:

struct book{

int id;

char name[25];

float price;

};

struct book b[100];

Example: Here is a simple program to illustrate the use of some of these array of structure. This program will input 100 book record and finds out the number of books price above 300.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

main()

{

struct book

{

int id;

char name[25];

float price;

};

struct book b[100];

int i, ctr=0;

printf("Enter the 100 records of book");

for(i=0; i<100; i++)

scanf("%d %s %f", &b[i].id, b[i].name, &b[i].price);

//finding out the book record whose price is above 300

for(i=0; i<100; i++)

{

if(b[i].price > 300)

ctr = ctr +1;

}

printf("No. of books having price above 300 is %d", ctr);

getch();

}

Nested Structure

When a structure is created at first and then again is called by another structure as a member of it. We call this mechanism as nested structure. In another simply can say, structures can contain other structures as members then we call it as nested structure.

Declaration:

struct Date

{

int dd, mm, yy;

};

struct book

{

int id;

char name[25];

float price;

struct Date issue;

};

struct book b;

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

void main()

{

struct Date

{

int dd, mm, yy;

};

struct student

{

int roll;

char name[25]

struct Date dob;

};

struct student s;

//taking input in normal structure

scanf("%d %s",&s.roll, name);

//taking input in nested structure

scanf("%d %d %d",&s.dob.dd, &s.dob.mm, &s.dob.yy);

//Displaying the value of structure

printf("%d %s",s.roll, name);

//Displaying the value of nested structure

printf("%d %d %d",s.dob.dd, s.dob.mm, s.dob.yy);

getch();

}

UNION

2011-07-14T11:50:00.000+05:30

UNION

Union

Union is used to group a number of different variables together which enables us to treat the same space in memory as a number of different variables. Union and structure are exactly alike, the only difference is that structure uses different memory space to store different variables but union uses the same memory space to store different variable.

Syntax:

union structure_name

{

Data_type member;

........

};

union structure_name structure_variable;

Declaring Union

A union is declared by using the keyword union followed by an optional union tag followed by the body of the union. The variables or members of the union are declared within the body. Here is an example of a union that would be useful in representing the book containing id, name of book and price.

union book {
int id;
char name[25];

float price;
};

The union declaration is a user defined data type. Variables of type book may be declared similarly to the way variables of a built in type are declared.

union book b1, b2, b[100];

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

{

union try

{

int i;

char ch[2];

};

union try t;

t.ch[0]=50;

t.ch[1]=30;

t.i=512;

printf("t.i=%d\n",t.i);

printf("t.ch[0]=%d\n",t.ch[0]);

printf("t.ch[1]=%d",t.ch[1]);

}

Output:

t.i = 512

t.ch[0] = 0

t.ch[1] = 2

Reason:
Values of t.ch[0] and t.ch[1] i.e. 50 and 30 , is changed to 0 and 2 respectively after t.i is assigned with 512. This happens because t.ch[0] and t.ch[1] share the same memory.

Difference Between Structure And Union

2011-07-14T11:49:00.002+05:30

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND UNION

Difference Between Structure And Union

	Structure	Union
1	Structures are used to group a number of different variables together which enables us treat a number of different variables stored in different place in memory.	Union are used to group a number of different variables together which enables us to treat the same space in memory as a number of different variables.
2	Syntax: struct structure_name { Data_type member; ........ }; struct structure_name structure_variable;	Syntax: union structure_name { Data_type member; ........ }; union structure_name structure_variable;
3	Example: #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { struct try { int i; char ch[2]; }; struct try t; t.ch[0]=50; t.ch[1]=30; t.i=512; printf("t.i=%d\n",t.i); printf("t.ch[0]=%d\n",t.ch[0]); printf("t.ch[1]=%d",t.ch[1]); } Output: t.i = 512 t.ch[0] = 50 t.ch[1] = 30 Reason: t.ch[0] , t.ch[1] and t.i values are stored in different memory locations there for, no values are changed	Example: #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { union try { int i; char ch[2]; }; union try t; t.ch[0]=50; t.ch[1]=30; t.i=512; printf("t.i=%d\n",t.i); printf("t.ch[0]=%d\n",t.ch[0]); printf("t.ch[1]=%d",t.ch[1]); } Output: t.i = 512 t.ch[0] = 0 t.ch[1] = 2 Reason: Values of t.ch[0] and t.ch[1] i.e. 50 and 30 , is changed to 0 and 2 respectively after t.i is assigned with 512. This happens because t.ch[0] and t.ch[1] share the same memory.

FUNCTION

2011-07-14T11:48:00.002+05:30

FUNCTION

A self-contained software routine that performs a task. Functions can do a large amount of processing or as little as adding two numbers and deriving a result. Values are passed to the function, and values may be returned. Or, the function may just perform the operation and not return a resulting value. The concept of a function within a program is that, once written, it can be used over and over again without the programmer having to duplicate the same lines of code in the program each time that same processing is desired.
Syntax:

return_type function_name(list of parameters);

Example:

int max(int n1, int n2);    /* A programmer-defined function /
int printf(const char format,...);    /* From the standard library /
int fputs(const char buff, File fp);    / From the standard library */

Local Variables

The scope of a variable is simply the part of the program where it may be accessed or written. If a variable is declared within a function, it is local to that function. Variables of the same name may be declared and used within other functions without any conflicts.

int fun1()
{
    int a;
    int b;
    ....
}

int fun2()
{
    int a;
    int c;
    ....
}

Here, the local variable "a" in fun1 is distinct from the local variable "a" in fun2. Changes made to "a" in one function have no effect on the "a" in the other function. Also, note that "b" exists and can be used only in fun1. "C" exists and can be used only in fun2. The scope of b is fun1. The scope of c is fun2. Note that main is also a function. Variables declared after the opening bracket of main will have all of main as their scope.

External Variables

Variables may also be defined outside of any function. These are referred to as global or external variables. The scope of an external variable is from its declaration to the end of the file.

int j;
...
int main()
{
....
}

int k;
float funA()
{
}
int l;
float funB()
{
}

The variable "j" will be visible in main, funA and funB. The variable "k" will be visible in funA and funB only. The variable "l" will be visible only in function funB.
An important distinction between automatic (local) variables and external (global) variables is how they are initialized. External variables are initialized to zero. Automatic variables are undefined. They will have whatever random value happens to be at their memory location. Automatic, or local, variables must always be initialized before use. It is a serious error, a bug, to use a local variable without initialization.

Functions: TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

2011-07-14T11:47:00.003+05:30

TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

1. Function Without return_type and without parameters:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void add()

{

int x, y;

printf("Enter value for x and y");

scanf("%d %d", &x, &y);

printf("Sum of x and y is %d", x+y);

}

main()

{

add();

getch();

}

void keyword is used since no return type is needed.

2. Function Without return_type and with parameters:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void add(int x, int y)

{

printf("Sum of x and y is %d", x+y);

}

main()

{

int x, y;

printf("Enter value for x and y");

scanf("%d %d", &x, &y);

add(x,y);

getch();

}

Above example is of without return type so void keyword is used. Variable x and y is used as parameter in function add() whose value is supplied from main() function.

3. Function With return_type and without parameters

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int add()

{

int x, y;

printf("Enter value for x and y");

scanf("%d %d", &x, &y);

return(x+y);

}

main()

{

int sum;

sum=add();

printf("Sum of x and y is %d", sum);

getch();

}

In add() function int return type is used and at last line of add() function return keyword is used to return added value of x and y to main function to display.

4. Function With return_type and with parameters

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int add(int x, int y)

{

return(x+y);

}

main()

{

int x, y, z;

printf("Enter value for x and y");

scanf("%d %d", &x, &y);

z=add(x, y);

printf("Sum of x and y is %d", z);

printf("Sum of x and z is %d", add(x,z));

getch();

}

main() function calls add() function by passing two value. add() function those two value as parameter and performs addition and returns the added value to main() function so that main() function can display the added value.

Example 1: Write a program to find the factorial of N number using function.

#include <stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

long int fact(int n); //prototype

main()

{

long int f;

int x;

printf("enter the value for x:")

scanf("%d", &x);

f = fact(x);

printf(" Factorial of x is %ld", f);

getch();

}

long int fact(int n)

{

long int f=1;

int i;

for(i=1; i<=n; i++)

f= f*i;

return(f);

}

Example 2: Write a program to find the length of string using function.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int slen(char str[]);

main()

{

int len;

char str[25];

printf("Enter any string as input");

scanf("%s", str);

len = slen(str);

printf("Length of string is %d", len);

getch();

}

int slen(int str[])

{

int l;

for(l=0; str[l] != '\0', l++);

return(l);

}

Functions: RECURSIVE FUNCTION

2011-07-14T11:47:00.000+05:30

RECURSIVE FUNCTION

Recursion in computer programming defines a function in terms of itself. One example application of recursion is in recursive descent parsers for programming languages. The great advantage of recursion is that an infinite set of possible sentences, designs, or other data can be defined, parsed, or produced by a finite computer program.
syntax:
void function()
{
   .. .. ..
   .. .. ..
   function();
   .. .. ..
   .. .. ..
}
Example 1: Write a program to find out the factorial of n^th term using recursive function.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

long int fact(int n)

{

long int f;

if(n==1)

return(1)

else

f = n * fact(n-1);

return(f);

}

main()

{

long int f;

int x;

printf("enter the value for x:")

scanf("%d", &x);

f = fact(x);

printf(" Factorial of x is %ld", f);

getch();

}

Example 2: Write a program to find out the sum of digit of an integer number using recursive function.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int sumdigit(int n)

{

int sum;

if(n<10)

return(n)

else

sum = (n%10) * sumdigit(n/10);

return(sum);

}

main()

{

int sum;

int x;

printf("enter the value for x:")

scanf("%d", &x);

sum = fact(x);

printf(" sum of digit is %d", sum);

getch();

}

Functions: Difference Between pass by value and pass by reference with example

2011-07-14T11:42:00.000+05:30

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PASS BY VALUE AND PASS BY REFERENCE WITH EXAMPLE

Difference Between pass by value and pass by reference with example

Pass by value	Pass by reference
While calling by value, variable value is passed and its value is received by the arguments in the function	While calling by reference, variable's address is passed and the pointers as arguments in the function pointes to that variable's address.
Example: #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void swap(int x, int y) { int temp; temp = x; x = y; y = temp; } main() { int x=5, y=10; swap(x, y); //pass by value printf("x=%d \n y=%d", x, y); getch(); } OUTPUT: x=5 y=10	Example: #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void swap(int x, int y) { int temp; temp = x; x = y; y = temp; } main() { int x=5, y=10; swap(&x, &y); //pass by reference printf("x=%d \n y=%d", x, y); getch(); } OUTPUT: x=10 y=5
In above example, from main() function value of x and y is sent to swap() function. The value swapped between x and y is within swap function only. So, when return back to main() function the value of x and y remains same. That is why value of x is displayed as 5 and y as 10. Its like Ram and Laxman searing different room in Ram And Laxman story.	Here, from main() function x and y address (reference) is sent to swap() function. The value swapped between x and y is the value swapped for swap() and main() function because both's x and y points to same block of address. So, when return back to main() function the value of x and y is changed. That is why value of x is displayed as 10 and y as 5. Its like Ram and Laxman searing same room in Ram And Laxman story.

DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION

2011-07-14T11:38:00.002+05:30

DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION

Dynamic Memory Allocation

C language requires that the number of elements in an array should be specified at compile time. Our initial judgment of size, if it is wrong, may cause failure of the program or wastage of memory space. Many languages permit a programmer to specify an array?s size at run time. Such languages take the ability to calculate and assign, during execution, the memory space required by the variables in a program. The process of allocating memory at run time is known as dynamic memory allocation. The library functions used for allocating memory are :
Function - Task
malloc( ) -Allocates requested size of bytes and returns a pointer to the first byte of the allocated space
calloc() - Allocates space for an array of element, initializes them to zero and then returns a pointer to the memory

Memory Allocation Process

Let us first look at the memory allocation process associated with a C program. Fig. below shows the conceptual view of storage of a C program in memory.

Local Variable Stack
Free Memory Heap
Global Variables
C Program instructions

The program instructions and global and static variables are stored in a region known as permanent storage area and the local variables are stored in another area called stack. The memory space that is located between these two regions is available for dynamic allocation during execution of the program. The free memory region is called the heap. The size of the heap keeps changing when program is executed due to creation and death of variables that are local to functions and blocks. Therefore, it is possible to encounter memory "overflow" during dynamic allocation process. In such situations, the memory allocations functions mentioned above returns a NULL pointer.

Allocating a block of memory

A block of memory may be allocated using the function malloc. The malloc function reserves a block of memory of specified size and returns a pointer of type void. This means that we can assign it to any type of pointer. It takes the following form;

Ptr = ( Cast type * ) malloc ( byte size ) ;

Ptr is a pointer of type cast type. The malloc returns a pointer (of cast type) to an area of memory with size byte - size.
Example :

X = ( int * ) malloc ( 100 * size of ( int )) ;

On successful execution of this statement, a memory space equivalent to "100 times the size of an int" bytes is reserved and the address of the first byte of the memory allocated is assigned to the pointer X of type int.
Similarly, the statement

Cptr = ( char * ) malloc ( 10 ) ;

allocates 10 bytes of space for the pointer cptr of type char. This is illustrated below :
Cptr Address of first byte
10 bytes of Space
Remember, the malloc allocates a block of adjacent bytes. The allocation can fail if the space in the heap is not sufficient to satisfy the request. If it fails, it returns a NULL. We should therefore check whether the allocation is successful before using the memory pointer.

Allocating Multiple Blocks of Memory

Calloc is another memory allocation function that is normally used for requesting memory space at runtime for storing derived data types such as arrays and structures. While malloc allocates a single block of storage space, calloc allocates multiple blocks of storage, each of the same size, and then allocates all bytes to O. The general form of calloc is :

Ptr = (Cast type * ) Calloc ( n, elem-size );

The above statement allocates contiguous space for n blocks, each of size elem-size bytes. All bytes are initialized to zero and a pointer to the first byte of the allocated region is returned. If there is not enough space, a NULL pointer is returned.

INTRODUCTION OF POINTER

2011-07-14T11:37:00.000+05:30

INTRODUCTION OF POINTER

Pointers are variables that hold addresses. They provide much power and utility for the programmer to access and manipulate data in ways not seen in some other languages.
A pointer is a special type of variable that contains a memory address rather than a data value. Just as data is modified when a normal variable is used, the value of the address stored in a pointer is modified as a pointer variable is manipulated.
Usually, the address stored in the pointer is the address of some other variable.

int ptr;
ptr = &count / Stores the address of count in ptr */

To get the value that is stored at the memory location in the pointer it is necessary to dereference the pointer. Dereferencing is done with the unary operator "*".

int total;
total = ptr;
/ The value in the address stored in ptr is assigned to total */

Example 1: To take input and output for integer pointer variable

#include<string.h>

#include<conio.h>

main()
{

int a;

int *x;

//taking input for general variable

scanf("%d", &a);

//taking input for printer

scanf("%d", x);

//displaying value for general variable

printf("%d", a);

//displaying value for pointer variable

printf("%d", *x);

getch();

}

Example 2: Program to convert uppercase string into lowercase using pointer

#include<string.h>

#include<conio.h>

main()
{

char *str;

int i;

printf("Enter value for string:");

scanf("%s", str);

for(i=0; *(str+i)!='\0'; i++)

if((str+i)>= 'A' && (str+i)<= 'Z')

(str+i) = (str+i) + 32;

printf("converted into Lower case sting is %s ", str);

getch();

}

Example 3: Write a program to input name of person. Reorder record in alphabetical order of name.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<string.h>

#include<conio.h>

main()

{

char *name[10], temp[25];

int i, j;

/taking input for name and age/

for(i=0; i<10; i++)

scanf("%s", name[i]);

/reordering record in order of name /

for(i=0; i<10; i++)

for(j=i+1; j<10; j++)

{

if(strcmp(name[i], name[j]) > 0)

{

//swapping name

strcpy(temp, name[i]);

strcpy(name[i], name[j]);

strcpy(name[j], temp)

}

/Displaying the reordered name /

for(i=0; i<10; i++)

printf("%s", name[i]);

getch();

}

DIMENSION OF ARRAY

2011-07-14T11:35:00.002+05:30

DIMENSION OF ARRAY

Important Note About Array Dimensions

The C language performs no error checking on array bounds. If you define an array with 50 elements and you attempt to access element 50 (the 51st element), or any out of bounds index, the compiler issues no warnings. It is the programmer's task alone to check that all attempts to access or write to arrays are done only at valid array indexes. Writing or reading past the end of arrays is a common programming bug and can be hard to isolate.
What will happen if a program accesses past the end of an array? Suppose a program has the following code.

int val;
int buffer[10];
val = buffer[10];
/* Bug, remember that the indexes of buffer run from 0 to 9. */

What value will be in val? Whatever happens to be in memory at the location right after the end of the array. This value could be anything. Worse yet, the program may continue to run with the incorrect value and no warnings are issued.
What will happen if a program writes past the end of an array? Suppose a program has the following code.

int buffer[10];
buffer[593] = 99;

The value of 99 will be written at the memory location, buffer + 593. "buffer" is a pointer to the beginning of the array. buffer + 593 is pointer arithmetic for the address equal to the starting address of the array plus the size of 593 integers. The overwriting of the value at this memory location will change the value of whatever variable is stored there. Some other variable may have its value changed unintentionally. If the program writes unintentionally to memory locations that not valid, the program may crash.

Multidimensional Arrays

The C language also allows multidimensional arrays. They are defined as follows.

int matrix[3][3];

	0	1	2
0	x1	x2	x3
1	x4	x5	x6
2	x7	x8	x9

To represent x5 it should be written as follows

matrix[1][1]

Similarly

x1 = matrix[0][0];

x2 = matrix[0][1];

x3 = matrix[0][2];

x4 = matrix[1][0];

and so on

Example:

int x[3][3];

x[0][0] = 5; x[0][1] = 3; x[0][2] = 9;

x[1][0] = 6; x[1][1] = 22; x[1][2] = 33;

x[2][0] = 32; x[2][1] = 45; x[2][2] = 7;

	0	1	2
0	5	3	9
1	6	22	33
2	32	45	7

A common way to access the elements of multidimensional arrays is with nested for loops.

#define row 3
#define col 3

int i;
int j;
int x[row][col];

for (i = 0; i < row; i++)

{
for (j = 0; j < col; j++)

    {
        values[i][j] = whatever;
     }
}

Example: Program to find the sum of matrix of 3x3

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

main()

{

int A[3][3], B[3][3], c[3][3];

int i, j;

/taking input values in matrix A and matrix B /

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

for(j=1; j<3; j++)

scanf("%d %d ", &A[i][j], &B[i][j]);

/Adding matrix /

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

for(j=0; j<3; j++)

C[i][j] = A[i][j] + B[i][j];

/Displaying the result in screen /

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

for(j=0; j<3; j++)

printf("%d", C[i][j]);

}

Example : Program to find the multiplication of matrix of 3x3

#include<stdio.h>

main()

{

int A[3][3], B[3][3], c[3][3];

int i, j, k, sum;

/taking input values in matrix A and matrix B /

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

for(j=0; j<3; j++)

scanf("%d %d ", &A[i][j], &B[i][j]);

/multiplying matrix /

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

for(j=0; j<3; j++)

{

sum = 0;

for(k=0; k<3; k++)

sum = sum + (A[i][k]*B[k][j]);

C[i][j] = sum;

}

/Displaying the result in screen /

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

for(j=0; j<3; j++)

printf("%d", C[i][j]);

}

Example 3: Program to transpose matrix of 3x3

#include<stdio.h>

main()

{

int A[3][3], B[3][3];

int i, j;

/taking input values in matrix A and matrix B /

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

for(j=0; j<3; j++)

scanf("%d %d ", &A[i][j]);

/transposing matrix /

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

for(j=0; j<3; j++)

B[j][i] = A[i][j];

/Displaying the result in screen /

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

for(j=0; j<3; j++)

printf("%d", B[i][j]);

}

Example 4: Write a program to input name and age of person. Reorder record in alphabetical order of name.

The Study Guru

Business Mathematics II : Syllabus For BBA

Programming Language : Syllabus For BBA

CMP 103.3 (Credit hours 3)

Programming Language

1. Historical Development 2 hours

Financial Accounting II : Syllabus For BBA

ACC 102.3 (Credit hours 3)

Financial Accounting II

English II : Syllabus for BBA

ENG 102.3 (Credit hours 3)

English II

Module I 16 hours

Module II 16 hours

Microeconomics: Syllabus for BBA

2. Demand, Supply and Equilibrium 7 hours

3. Measurement of Elasticities 4 hours

4. Consumer Demand Theory 10 hours

6. Costs of Production 4 hours

7. Concept of Revenue Curves 2 hours

9. Theory of Factor Pricing 4 hours

Unicode vs ASCII

ASCII

Compiler vs Interpreter

What is the difference between primary & secondary storage device?

Difference between primary and secondary memory.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER IX

Introduction

Features of computer:

Limitations of Computers:

SWITCH-CASE STATEMENT

Switch Statements

switch (variable)

{ case expression1: do something 1; break; case expression2: do something 2; break; .... default: do default processing; }

#include<stdio.h>

main()

{

int x;

printf("Enter the any number");

scanf("%d", &x);

switch(x)

{

case 1:

printf("I am in Case one");

break;

case 2:

printf("I am in case two");

break;

case 3:

printf("I am in case three");

break;

default:

printf(" I am in Default");

}

}

I am in Case one

STORAGE CLASSES : Programming

Introduction

Automatic Storage Class

void main()

{

int Count;

auto int Month;

}

Register Storage Class

void main()

{

register int Miles;

}

Static Storage Class

void Increment()

{

auto int i=1;

printf("%d\n",i);

i=i+1;

}

void main()

{

Increment();

Increment();

{
case expression1:
do something 1;
break;
case expression2:
do something 2;
break;
....
default:
do default processing;
}

#include
#include
void main()
{
int a,b,c;
printf("enter the value for a and b");
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);

c= a + b;

printf("%d + %d = %d" ,a ,b ,c);
getch();
}

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
float p,t,r,A,SI;
printf("Enter value p, t, r ");
scanf("%f %f %f",&p,&t,&r);

//calculating simple interest
SI=(ptr)/100;

//calculating Amount
A=SI+p;

printf("Simple interest=%f, Amount=%f", SI, A);
getch();
}

void main()
{
char c;

c = getchar(); /* to take input form keyboard /
putchar(c); / to display value of 'c' in screen */
}

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char str[120]; /* Holds input and output strings /
gets(str); / to take string as input form keyboard /
puts(str); / to display value of 'str' string in screen */
}

fprintf(FILE stream, const char format, ....);

fscanf(FILE stream, const char format, ....);

int fgets(char s, int n, FILE *stream);

fputs(const char s, FILE stream);