The World of Science

The Computer

2025-03-14T02:44:00.000-07:00

Basic Information About Computer

Computer: An Essential Programmable Machine

A computer is a programmable machine designed to process data and execute instructions efficiently. The two principal characteristics of a computer are:

It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions, known as a program.

Hardware and Software

Modern computers are electronic and digital. The physical components, including wires, transistors, and circuits, are called hardware, while the instructions and data that run on the system are called software.

Essential Hardware Components of a Computer

All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

Central Processing Unit (CPU) – The brain of the computer, responsible for executing instructions.
Memory (RAM) – Temporarily stores data and instructions for quick access by the CPU.
Storage (HDD/SSD) – Provides long-term data storage for the operating system, programs, and files.
Motherboard – Connects all components and enables communication between them.
Power Supply Unit (PSU) – Converts electrical power to a usable form for the computer.
Input Devices (Keyboard, Mouse, etc.) – Allow users to interact with the system.
Output Devices (Monitor, Printer, etc.) – Display or print the processed data.

Types of Computers

Computers come in various types based on their size, processing power, and purpose, including:

Supercomputers – High-performance systems used for complex scientific calculations.
Mainframes – Large, powerful computers used in businesses and government institutions.
Personal Computers (PCs) – Desktops and laptops used for everyday tasks.
Embedded Systems – Specialized computers integrated into devices like smartphones, smart TVs, and appliances.

Computers have revolutionized various industries, from education and healthcare to business and entertainment, making them an indispensable part of modern life.

Laboratory Measuring Apparatus

2025-03-14T02:28:00.000-07:00

Basic Information About Common Laboratory Apparatus

In scientific laboratories, different types of apparatus are used for various functions, including measuring, holding, heating, and mixing substances. Below are some of the most common laboratory containers and their functions:

1. Beaker

A beaker is a versatile container used for dissolving, mixing, and heating large amounts of liquids. It has a cylindrical shape with a flat bottom and a spout for easy pouring.

2. Test Tube

Test tubes are small cylindrical glass containers used as reaction vessels in experiments that involve small amounts of reactants. They are essential for chemical reactions and biological studies.

3. Flask (200 mL)

A 200 mL flask serves as a reaction vessel, a gas generator, or a container for heating liquids and solutions. Its narrow neck helps in controlling the release of gases and prevents spills.

These laboratory containers are essential for conducting experiments safely and efficiently. Understanding their uses ensures better handling and proper laboratory procedures.

Laboratory Holding Apparatus

2025-03-14T02:18:00.000-07:00

Laboratory Holding Apparatus: Essential Tools for Supporting Equipment

In any laboratory, various holding apparatus are essential for supporting and securing different types of glassware and equipment. These tools ensure stability, safety, and efficiency during experiments. Below is a list of common laboratory holding apparatus and their functions:

1. Clamps

Clamps are used to secure test tubes, flasks, burets, and other laboratory equipment to prevent movement during experiments.

2. Clamp Holder

A clamp holder is designed to hold clamps in their proper position, ensuring stability when securing laboratory glassware.

3. Funnel

The funnel helps in transferring liquids into containers without spillage and supports filter paper during filtration processes.

4. Iron Ring

Mounted on an iron stand, the iron ring supports beakers, flasks, and other laboratory apparatus, providing stability.

5. Iron Stand or Ring Stand

This is a vertical support structure used to mount various laboratory apparatus such as clamps, rings, and funnels.

6. Test Tube Holder

Used for holding test tubes while heating or when handling corrosive chemicals, ensuring safety for the user.

7. Tripod

A tripod provides stable support for apparatus that do not need to be attached to a stand, such as wire gauzes and beakers.

8. Test Tube Rack

This is designed to hold multiple test tubes securely in place, making them easily accessible during experiments.

Each of these apparatus plays a crucial role in laboratory operations, improving efficiency and ensuring the safety of lab personnel. Understanding their functions helps in proper handling and maintenance, making laboratory work more effective.

Laboratory Container Apparatus

2025-03-13T02:25:00.000-07:00

Basic Information About Common Laboratory Apparatus

Laboratory apparatus are essential tools used in scientific experiments. They help in measuring, heating, mixing, and storing chemicals. Below are some common laboratory containers and their functions.

Apparatus Used as Containers in the Laboratory

1. Beaker

📌 Used to dissolve, mix, and heat large amounts of liquids. It has a wide opening for easy pouring and stirring.

2. Test Tube

📌 A reaction vessel for experiments with small amounts of reactants. Commonly used for chemical reactions and heating.

3. Flask (200 ml)

📌 Functions as a reaction vessel, gas generator, and liquid holder. Suitable for heating solutions safely.

4. Volumetric Flask

📌 Used for accurate dilution and preparation of precise solution volumes. Essential for quantitative experiments.

5. Evaporating Dish

📌 Helps in evaporating liquids, leaving behind solid materials. Commonly used in crystallization experiments.

6. Watch Glass

📌 Used for spontaneous evaporation, weighing small amounts of substances, and covering beakers.

7. Mortar and Pestle

📌 Essential for grinding solid materials into fine powder, improving solubility and reactivity.

8. Crucible

📌 A heat-resistant container used for high-temperature ignition of substances, commonly in combustion and decomposition reactions.

Conclusion

Laboratory apparatus plays a vital role in scientific research, chemical reactions, and sample preparation. Understanding their functions ensures safe and efficient laboratory work.

Laboratory Heating Apparatus

2012-08-13T03:54:00.001-07:00

Apparatus Used for Heating in the Laboratory

Heating is a crucial process in laboratory experiments, especially in chemical reactions, sample preparation, and material testing. The following apparatus are commonly used to provide, control, or distribute heat efficiently in laboratory settings.

1. Bunsen Burner

The Bunsen burner is the primary heat source in most laboratories. It operates by mixing gas (such as methane) with air to produce a controlled flame. The flame can be adjusted for different heating needs:

🔥 Blue flame (non-luminous, hot, complete combustion) – Used for intense heating.

🔥 Yellow flame (luminous, cool, incomplete combustion) – Used for gentle heating.

Uses of a Bunsen Burner:

✔ Sterilizing lab equipment

✔ Heating solutions and chemicals

✔ Conducting flame tests for chemical identification

2. Pipe Stem Triangle (Clay Triangle)

A pipe stem triangle, often made of wire and ceramic tubing, provides a stable support for crucibles when heating substances at high temperatures. It is usually placed on a tripod or iron ring above a Bunsen burner.

Uses of a Pipe Stem Triangle:

✔ Holding crucibles during high-temperature heating

✔ Supporting evaporating dishes for sample drying

✔ Providing stability for heating solid substances

3. Wing Top (Fish Tail Burner Attachment)

The wing top, also called a fish tail, is an attachment placed over the barrel of a Bunsen burner to spread the flame over a larger surface area. It produces a wide, fan-shaped flame instead of a narrow, pointed one.

Uses of a Wing Top:

✔ Heating large surface areas uniformly

✔ Softening glass tubing

✔ Providing even heat for bending or shaping glass

4. Wire Gauze (Asbestos Pad)

A wire gauze is a mesh-like structure made of metal, sometimes with an asbestos or ceramic pad in the center. It is placed on an iron ring stand to act as a heat diffuser between a Bunsen burner and glassware.

Uses of a Wire Gauze:

✔ Preventing direct heat contact to fragile glassware

✔ Distributing heat evenly to flasks and beakers

✔ Reducing the risk of glass breakage from thermal shock

Conclusion

Laboratory heating equipment ensures safe and efficient heat application in experiments. Proper use of these apparatus helps prevent accidents, improves accuracy, and enhances experimental results.

Basic information about Fiber

2012-07-07T11:57:00.002-07:00

Fiber

Fiber is one of those mysterious nutrients which are known to many to be very important part of our dietary intake.

Fiber is basically referred to as the carbohydrates that cannot be digested. The fiber is always present in all eaten foods from plants. This includes: fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts and legumes.

It is strictly recommended on both adult and children to consume at least 20 – 35 grams of food dietary fiber every day. If you have more calories intake, you must also consume more fiber.

Fiber is categorized into:

1. Fiber as to its source or origin (example: fiber from grains which is called cereal fiber).

2. Fiber as to its water solubility. Some fibers are easily dissolved in water but others are not.

Foods with Soluble Fiber

Oatmeal, oat bran
Nuts and seeds
Legumes
Beans
Dried peas
Lentils
Apples
Pears
Strawberries
Blueberries

Foods with Insoluble Fiber

Whole wheat bread
Barley
Couscous
Brown rice
Bulgur
Whole grain breakfast cereals
Wheat bran
Seeds
Carrots
Cucumbers
Zucchini
Celery
Tomatoes

Health Effects of Eating Fiber

Fiber is helpful to the body in many ways:

1. Relieving constipation and hemorrhoids

Fiber can absorb large amount of water in the bowel. This makes stools softer and easier to pass.

2. Keeping weight under control

Foods containing plenty of fiber have more bulk than low-fiber foods. If taken in the right form at the right time and at sufficient quantities, fiber can sometimes slow the onset of hunger.

3. Preventing Certain Diseases

Fiber intake has been importantly linked with the metabolic syndrome. This is a constellation of factors that increases the chances of developing diseases: heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, high insulin levels, excess weight, high levels of triglycerides, body's main fat-carrying particle and low levels of HDL (good) cholesterol. Getting enough fiber in the diet can lower the risk of developing certain conditions such as:

Heart Disease
Diverticular disease
Gallstones and kidney stones
Type 2 Diabetes
Colon Cancer

Fiber vs. Heart Disease

Heart disease is characterized by the building up of cholesterol-filled plaque in the coronary arteries --- arteries that feed the heart. This condition leads these parts to become narrow and stiff (this is commonly known as atherosclerosis). When there is already total blockage of a coronary artery, heart attack occurs. The high intake of dietary fiber prevents the blockage and helps lower risk of heart disease.

Fiber vs. Diverticular Disease

Eating dietary fiber more particularly insoluble fibers lower risk of diverticular disease. Diverticulitis is painful disease characterized by the inflammation of the intestine, is one of the most common age-related disorders of the colon.

Fiber vs. Constipation

High-fiber dietary intake relieves and prevents constipation because gastrointestinal tract is highly sensitive to dietary fiber. The fiber in wheat bran and oat bran are more effective in same amounts with that fiber in fruits and vegetables.

Fiber vs. Type 2 Diabetes

High-fiber diet and low in high-glycemic-index foods helps maintain healthy weight, being physically active and lower risk of Type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is another kind of diabetes which is characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels. This condition happens when the body can no longer produce enough of the hormone insulin to lower blood sugar to normal levels or cannot anymore perform the proper use of the insulin that the body produces.

Fiber vs. Colon Cancer

High-fiber diet lowers the risk of colorectal cancer (colon cancer).

Some Healthy and Importance tips for increasing fiber intake:

· You must eat whole fruits instead of drinking fruit juices.

· You must patronize if not replace white rice, bread, and pasta with brown rice and whole grain products.

· You must prefer whole grain cereals for breakfast.

· You must choose for snack raw vegetables instead of chips, crackers, or chocolate bars.

· You must substitute legumes for meat two to three times per week in chili and soups.

· You must use in dishes whole grains and legumes as part of the main meal or in salads.

Basic information about Fiber

2011-07-18T02:55:00.001-07:00

Fiber

Fiber is one of those mysterious nutrients which are known to many to be very important part of our dietary intake.

Fiber is basically referred to as the carbohydrates that cannot be digested. The fiber is always present in all eaten foods from plants. This includes: fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts and legumes.

It is strictly recommended on both adult and children to consume at least 20 – 35 grams of food dietary fiber every day. If you have more calories intake, you must also consume more fiber.

Fiber is categorized into:

1. Fiber as to its source or origin (example: fiber from grains which is called cereal fiber).

2. Fiber as to its water solubility. Some fibers are easily dissolved in water but others are not.

Foods with Soluble Fiber

Oatmeal, oat bran
Nuts and seeds
Legumes
Beans
Dried peas
Lentils
Apples
Pears
Strawberries
Blueberries

Foods with Insoluble Fiber

Whole wheat bread
Barley
Couscous
Brown rice
Bulgur
Whole grain breakfast cereals
Wheat bran
Seeds
Carrots
Cucumbers
Zucchini
Celery
Tomatoes

Health Effects of Eating Fiber

Fiber is helpful to the body in many ways:

1. Relieving constipation and hemorrhoids

Fiber can absorb large amount of water in the bowel. This makes stools softer and easier to pass.

2. Keeping weight under control

Foods containing plenty of fiber have more bulk than low-fiber foods. If taken in the right form at the right time and at sufficient quantities, fiber can sometimes slow the onset of hunger.

3. Preventing Certain Diseases

Heart Disease
Diverticular disease
Gallstones and kidney stones
Type 2 Diabetes
Colon Cancer

Fiber vs. Heart Disease

Fiber vs. Diverticular Disease

Fiber vs. Constipation

Fiber vs. Type 2 Diabetes

Fiber vs. Colon Cancer

High-fiber diet lowers the risk of colorectal cancer (colon cancer).

Some Healthy and Importance tips for increasing fiber intake:

· You must eat whole fruits instead of drinking fruit juices.

· You must patronize if not replace white rice, bread, and pasta with brown rice and whole grain products.

· You must prefer whole grain cereals for breakfast.

· You must choose for snack raw vegetables instead of chips, crackers, or chocolate bars.

· You must substitute legumes for meat two to three times per week in chili and soups.

· You must use in dishes whole grains and legumes as part of the main meal or in salads.

Basic information about Assisting the Patient with a Bedpan or Urinal

2011-07-18T01:16:00.000-07:00

Assisting the Patient with a Bedpan or Urinal

The equipment used in assisting patient with bedpan or urinal

1. Bedpan or Urinal with cover

2. Rubber protector and cover

3. Toilet Paper

4. Douche Pitcher with warm water (un-sterile)

5. Basin of warm water

6. Soap

7. Hand Towel (bath towel may also be used)

Procedure in assisting patient with Bedpan or Urinal

1. Prepare all equipment and bring to bedside and them place bedpan or chair.

2. Provide privacy to the patient.

3. Fold diagonally upper flap of top sheet near you. Ask the patient to flex the legs. Lift the buttocks slightly and simultaneously slip the rubber protector and cover under the buttocks.

4. Remove bedpan cover, Fold and tuck under mattress at the foot of the bed then place bedpan along side of patient. The patient is placed in a comfortable position to facilitate elimination.

5. Help patient lift under the lower lumbar region. With the free hand slip bedpan under buttocks. Make sure the patient the patient is comfortable and is in such a position where she will be able to void and/or defecate, without wetting herself or the bed.

6. Place call bell within patient’s reach with instructions to call when through. Weak patients are not left alone when on the bedpan.

7. Assist patient to clean herself. This is done to insure thorough cleaning of patient.

8. Assists patient to lift herself as you remove the bedpan, rubber protector and cover. Place bedpan on chair and cover with bedpan cover immediately. Assisting will avoid too much strain on the part of the patient. Covering the bedpan will eliminate embarrassment.

9. Assist patient to wash her hands and then make her comfortable. Washing of the hands is a good health habit.

10. Take all used equipment to the utility room.

11. Observe contents of bedpan before emptying into the aeroflush. Accurate observation is of utmost importance and helpful in the diagnostic of the patient’s illness.

12. Take back equipment to the bedside. All equipment is kept in the table for neatness and facility for next use.

Important Points to Remember in Giving and Removing Bedpan

1. Insure privacy so that tension is relieved and patient’s sphincters are relaxed.

2. Bedpan should be warmed to help the patient to relax.

3. Bedpan should never be left on the floor and should be emptied and cleaned immediately.

Procedure in Giving Bedpan to the Patient

1. Warm the bedpan in the utility room by pouring warm inside and rotating the water around the sides of the bedpan.

2. Cover the bedpan and bring to the patient’s bedside. Screen the patient.

3. Place the bedpan on the chair at the side of the bed.

4. Hang cover on the foot of the bed or over the back of the chair.

5. Turn back the top sheet without exposing the patient.

6. Flex the patient’s knees and see that the gown or pajama is out of the way.

7. With the other hand, slide the bedpan under the buttocks.

8. Place one hand under the buttocks and help the patient raise his buttocks.

9. Unless contraindicated, raise the patient to the backrest position. Put the patient in a favorable position for elimination by either elevating head of bed or by placing a small pillow rolled towel under the lumbar region.

10. Place the toilet paper and the call light within easy reach of the patient.

11. Leave the room or unit unless the patient is too weak to be left alone.

Procedure in Removing Bedpan from the Patient

1. Give the toilet paper to the patient. If the patient is too ill, the nurse is responsible for cleaning the patient.

2. Flex the patient’s knees. With one hand, raise the buttocks of the patient and remove the bedpan with the other hand.

3. Place the bedpan cover at once and place on the chair.

4. Straighten the top sheet and adjust the back and knee rest.

5. Wash the patient’s hands with soap and water. Rinse and dry with hand towel.

6. Carry the covered bedpan to the utility room.

7. Empty contents into toilet bowl. Rinse thoroughly in cold water with bedpan brush. Scald with hot water afterwards.

8. Place in rack to drain.

9. Wash your hands thoroughly.

Procedure with the Bedpan if the Patient does not need Assistance

1. Cover the urinal with a urinal cover and take to the bedside.

2. Place the urinal on the other side of the bed without removing the cover. If the patient does not need assistance, leave the unit.

3. Be sure that the light is within easy reach.

4. Return to bedside when the patient turns on the signal light.

5. Take the covered urinal to the utility room.

6. Measure urine if an output order is required.

7. Empty and rinse the urinal. Wash and return to its proper place.

Procedure with the Bedpan if the Patient needs Assistance

1. Fold back the top sheet and bring down the pajamas taking care not to expose the patient.

2. Separate the legs slightly so that the urinal can be placed between them.

3. With one hand holding the urinal, raise the penis the other hand and direct it to the opening of the urinal.

4. After the patient has finished, slowly remove the urinal by withdrawing it from the patient’s legs.

5. Cover with urinal cover and place on the chair. Make the patient comfortable.

6. Measure the urine if an output record is required.

7. Empty the urinal, rinse and place it in the proper place.

Basic information about Aseptic Technique

2011-07-18T01:08:00.000-07:00

ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE

Strict aseptic technique is needed at all times in the operating room. Freshly cut living tissue can become infected easily. Therefore, it is essential for the nurse and all members of the operating room team to know the common sources of microorganism in an Operating room and the means by which they reach the sterile field to contaminate it.

The operating team consists of:

The surgeon
First Assistant
Second Assistant
Scrub Nurse
Circulating Nurse

Source of Contamination:

Members of the operating team
The patient
All articles used in the wound and on the sterile set up
Dust in the air
Other personnel or visitor in the operating room

Control of Sepsis in OR includes:

Covering the mouth and nose
Clean OR clothes and shoes, not worn outside the OR suite
Meticulous housekeeping practices
Proper methods of sterilization of all items used
Strict aseptic technique in all details
Minimum of activity in the room and of movement in and out.

Basic information about Ascaris

2011-07-18T00:57:00.000-07:00

The Ascaris

Ascaris lumbricoides is the most common human helminth with low pathogenicity. However, in cases of heavy intensity infection, life threatening complications may occur. This chapter deals with the epidemiology, mode of transmission, life cycle, pathology, clinical manifestations, and complications of ascaris.

What are the general characteristics of Ascaris?

· Largest intestinal roundworm

· Most common intestinal helminth in man

The Epidemiology of Ascaris

· Ascaris is endemic in our country, with prevalence rates of 80-90% in some areas

· It affects the most vulnerable sector of the population, children age 2-14 years

· Ascariasis thrives in areas where there is lack of sanitation practices, like slum areas in urban centers

· Transmission takes place predominantly:

In yard/compound contaminated with human feces
In field that has been fertilized with human feces
By consumption of contaminated vegetables

· When prevalence rate is high in children and low in adults, it means that the household type of transmission prevails, a case in which the area around the house is heavily contaminated through indiscriminate defecation by young children.

· Seasonal variations in the incidence of ascariasis show the major peaks for infection:

a. The highest infection rate is from July to August

b. The lowest infection rate is in October and January

· It appears that ascaris re-infection and transmission are highest when rainfall is minimal and lowest when rainfall is heaviest.

What is the usual mode of transmission of ascaris?

Ascaris is transmitted through the oral-fecal route by ingestion of embryonated egg on its 3rd stage larva

The Life Cycle and Stages of Ascaris

The Egg

The 2 types of eggs recoverable from stool are:

The fertilized egg, which is broadly oval, golden brown in color and is in the single cell stage when passed in the feces

· It’s laid by female worm after copulation

· It measures 55-75µm by 35-50 µm

· The egg shell consists of 3 layers:

The inner non-permeable, lipoidal vitteline membrane
It is thick transparent middle layer or glycogen membrane
The outermost coarsely mamillated, albuminoid layer, which may be occasionally absent

· The egg survives in the environment for as long as 2 years sensitive to heat, being easily killed at = 70ºC.

The Unfertilized egg

· It’s laid by uncopulated female worm

· It never undergoes further development

· It is generally larger, narrower, and elongated

· It measures 88-94 µm

The Larva

Infective stage which contains the 3rd stage larva

The Adult worm

· It is white, creamy, or pinkish yellow when freshly expelled elongated and cylindrical?

· It measures 15-30cm x 3mm with curved posterior end

· It is smaller, shorter and more slender than the female

· It measures 20-45cm x 5mm with straight posterior end

· It lays about 240,000 eggs/day

· 1 female produces approximately 65,000,000 eggs in 9 months

· Its life span of the worm is as long as 18 months

What is the Pathology of Ascaris?

The Larvae

The larvae cause the following damage as they migrate from the liver to the lungs:

1. Petechial hemorrhages in the lungs

2. Massive damage to the lung tissues

3. Initiation of granulomatous reactions should the larvae get lodged in the brain, eyeball, kidney, or spinal cord

The Adult worms

Because adult worms habitate the upper and middle parts of the small intestines, they cause the following disorders:

1. Decreased fat and nitrogen absorption

2. Increased nitrogen loss through the feces

3. Malabsorption of or intolerance to lactose

What are the Clinical Manifestations of Ascaris?

1. There is vague abdominal pain

2. There would be enlarged abdomen

3. There would be Diarrhea

4. There would be Weight loss

5. There would be Vomiting

6. There would be presence of live worms in the stool or vomitus if infection is severe

What are the complications of Ascaris?

1. Loefflers's syndrome is an allergic eosinophilic infiltration of the lung usually seen in hypersensitive individuals.

2. Pathology in the liver, brain, or eyeball as larvae, migrating through the bloodstream, may eventually be lodged in these organs.

3. Wanderlust or erratic behavior of the worms results in erratic migration which, in turn, may lead to: Acute appendicitis when a worm blocks the appendix; Acute pancreatitis when a worm blocks the pancreatic duct; Acute cholecystitis when a worm blocks the ampulla of vater; Multiple liver abscess when a worm invades the liver parenchyma

4. Intestinal obstruction results when there is a bolus of worms or when the worms become entangled. Peritonitis when a worm causes bowel perforation

Basic information about Arthritis

2011-07-18T00:47:00.000-07:00

Arthritis

What is Arthritis?

Arthritis is the condition wherein there’s an inflammation of one or more joints in the body. The involved joints are warm, swollen, tender and painful, especially during movement because the collagen in the cartilage had been diminished for various factors.

What are the known types of Arthritis?

Osteoarthritis
Gouty arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Lupus arthritis

Osteoporosis (or degenerative joint disease)

The Osteoporosis or degenerative joint disease is the most common which occurs chiefly in older persons characterized by the degeneration of articular cartilage. There are also eventual changes in the bone and synovial membrane, accompanied by pain and stiffness.

Gouty arthritis

Gouty arthritis is the results from large amount of uric acid deposited in the joints. It may also appear in the body’s other structures such as the ear cartilage, subcutaneous tissues and kidneys.

Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory connective tissue disease. This is very common among women (35-45 years old) characterized by bilateral, symmetrical joint disease. There are also erosive changes and positive test for rheumatoid factor. It also affects other organs and systems of the body.

Lupus arthritis

The lupus arthritis a multi-organ disease affecting young women with butterfly rash in the face and polyarthritis and the involvement of other organs like the kidneys, lungs and the heart.

How does individual develop Osteoarthritis?

Osteoarthritis may result from the following:

The wear and tear of the joints due to aging
The family tendency to develop arthritis
The obesity causing extra stress on the joints
The joint trauma due to spot injury
The repetitive overuse of joints
The joint inflammation secondary to gout or rheumatoid arthritis

What are the main symptoms and signs of Osteoarthritis?

The arthritic patients will be suffering from pain, stiffness and swelling of the joints (such as hands, knees, ankles and hips).
The arthritic joints usually may produce deformities most common in the hands and fingers.
The symptoms and signs arthritis may not be exhibit in some patients even though some arthritic changes are shown in the x-ray findings.

What is the number statistics of Osteoarthritis?

Osteoarthritis is very ordinary and commonly affects people who are already over age of 45 years old. The statistics also increases with age. Over 50% of those 65 years old and above develop sighs of osteoarthritis on x-ray. In the Philippines alone, it is estimated that about 11 million Filipinos suffer from osteoarthritis based on a recent prevailing survey of 16%.

What would results to the joint of an arthritic patient?

The cartilage (which is composed of 50% collagen) that protects the joints and cushions the bones during movement breaks down because of aging and perhaps repetitive abusive use. The cartilage tends to be damaged when the joint is used. Repairing process is only possible and sets in when there’s formation of new cartilage.

The pain is caused by friction when the spurs are formed that hamper the movement of the joints because of the bones growth.

How shall we manage Osteoarthritis?

The main aim why we are treating Osteoarthritis is to reduce and/or relieve pain, decrease the inflammation in order to increase our mobility. These are achieved through:

Taking enough rest
Regular Exercise like muscle stretching and strengthening
Maintain proper weight and weight reduction for overweight or obese
Drug treatment like using analgesic/anti-inflammatory drugs
Physical therapy and treatment by way of heat and exercise for weight-bearing joints
Using joint protection like canes, braces, bandages and walking aids
Undergoing joint replacement in severe cases

What are the common drugs that physicians prescribe to relieve pain and joint swelling in arthritis?

Paracetamol

If your joint pain and inflammation is very minimal, Paracetamol is effective in relieving the pain.
NSAID

(Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug)

If your joints are painful and swollen and you find it difficult to move, your doctor may prescribe an NSAID (Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug) which reduces inflammation by blocking the release of pain substances known as prostaglandins.

NSAID is tolerated by some patients by taking occasionally. Take caution, if large doses are taken for more thank two weeks, this may caused you stomach upset, nausea, vomiting or diarrhea. There may also allergic reactions in some hypersensitive persons. Furthermore, NSAID may lead to stomach bleeding and kidney failure usually with some elderly people and those with ulcer and kidney disease history.

Basic information about Anatomy and Physiology of Body Movement

2011-07-18T00:38:00.000-07:00

Anatomy and Physiology of Body Movement

The knowledge of anatomy and physiology is an essential basis for healthful living. It is equally essential in understanding the pathological state of the body. Before one can bring sick individuals back to normal anatomically, and physically, this subject is very important. Anatomy and Physiology is also one of the basic subjects in medicine and allied courses: like nursing, medical-technology, midwifery, etc.

Anatomy is the study of different structures of the plants and its parts. The two principal methods of this science are:

a) Gross Anatomy – the dissected body and its parts are seen by the naked eye (i.e. without the aid of the microscope.

b) Minute Anatomy or Histology – the tissues and organs are examined with the aid of the microscope.

Posture is “the relationship of the various parts of the body at rest or in any phase of activity.” Posture is considered to be good when proper placed upon the muscles, ligaments, and joints in maintaining balance.

Body movements are made principally by means of the skeleton, the muscles and the nervous system. The skeleton is made up of bones, two of the functions of which are to provide an attachment for muscles and ligaments and to act as levers. The proximal end of a skeletal muscle is attached to the less movable bone; this point of attachment is called the origin of the muscle. The distal end of the muscle is attached to a freely movable bone; this point is called the insertion of the muscle.

The muscles, which are composed of fibers, contract to produce motion. Skeletal muscles are continuously in slight contraction, or tonus. General good health, good nutrition, alternate rest and activity help to maintain the extensibility of muscle without stretching and thus affect muscle tone favorably.

The bones of the body also act as levers, and in body mechanics the principle of leverage is frequently used. A lever is “a rigid bar which revolves about a fixed point, the fulcrum of the lever is a fixed point. The resistance arm is the area between the resistance or weight and the fulcrum. The effort arm is the area between the point at which the energy is applied and the fulcrum. The levers of the body vary in shape and even in rigidity. The principles of leverage are applied in the procedures described.

The spinal nerves are directly involved in trunk and limb movements. Each spinal nerve has an anterior and a posterior root. The anterior root constructs impulses to the muscles from the central nervous system; the posterior root conducts impulses from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Body movement is also affected by gravity, the force which pulls all objects toward the center of the earth. Most movement, then, involves pulling to at least some extent against the force of gravity. To describe the movement of the body parts, term such as abduction, adduction, flexion, and extension are used. Abduction refers to movement away from the central axis of the body. Adduction refers to movement toward the axis of the body. Flexion is the act of bending; extension can be described as the act of straightening. Illustrations of abduction, adduction, flexion and extension are given later in the chapter.

Body movements can be described relative to three planes; the sagittal, frontal and transverse. When the body is in the anatomical position, the sagittal plane divides in into right and left sections, the frontal plane into dorsal and ventral sections and the transverse plane into upper and lower sections.

Basic information about Amino Acids

2011-07-16T02:32:00.000-07:00

Amino Acids

Amino acids information page

I have divided this article into two (2):

Part I which constitute Amino Acids derived from diet

Part II which are manufactured by the liver

Amino acids are the building blocks of protein, and unlike the two other basic nutrients - sugar and fatty acids, amino acids contain nitrogen - about 16%. Because of the vital functions of these nutrients, great care should be taken by any person concerned about their health, to ensure that sufficient amounts are supplied by the body in either dietary form, or if needed by supplementation.

Amino acids - general information

Protein is needed by every living organism, and next to water, makes up the largest portion of our body weight since it is contained in muscles, organs, hair, etc. The protein used in making up the body is not directly derived from diet, but the dietary protein is broken down into amino acids, and the body then re-constitutes these amino acids into the specific proteins needed.

Enzymes and hormones regulating body functions are also proteins. And amino acids are used in most body processes from regulating the way the body works to how the brain functions. They activate and utilize vitamins and other nutrients.

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together, bound together with peptide bonds and there are about 28 amino acids commonly referred to in human health.

The liver manufactures about 80% of these amino acids, but the remaining 20% of such amino acids must be supplied directly by diet, and these amino acids are referred to as the essential amino acids.

These essential amino acids are:

histidine
isoleucine
leucine
lysine
methionine
phenylalanine
threonine
tryptophan
valine

The 80% or so others that are manufactured by the liver, and which are classed as "nonessential" amino acids which will be on "Amino Acid Part II Article).

Histidine amino acid

Histidine amino acid information page

Histidine is an essential amino acid, manufactured in sufficient quantities in adults, but children may at some time have a shortage of this important vitamin. It is one of the basic (reference to pH factor) amino acids due to its aromatic nitrogen-heterocyclic imidazole side chain. This amino acid is metabolized into the neurotransmitter histamine and the set of genes that produce the enzymes responsible for histidine synthesis.

Histidine is required for

Histidine is also a precursor of histamine, a compound released by immune system cells during an allergic reaction.

It is needed for growth and for the repair of tissue, as well as the maintenance of the myelin sheaths that act as protector for nerve cells.

It is further required for the manufacture of both red and white blood cells, and helps to protect the body from damage caused by radiation and in removing heavy metals from the body.

In the stomach, histidine is also helpful in producing gastric juices, and people with a shortage of gastric juices or suffering from indigestion, may also benefit from this nutrient.

Deficiency of histidine

None known, but it is reported that an increase in the intake of this nutrient helps with the lengthening of orgasms and also more intense sexual enjoyment.

Dosage

The dosage listed is the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA), but be aware that this dosage is the minimum that you require per day, to ward off serious deficiency of this particular nutrient. In the therapeutic use of this nutrient, the dosage is usually increased considerably, but the toxicity level must be kept in mind.

Some people take 1,000 mg of histidine two to three times per day in capsule or tablet form but it is best to work out the dosage requirements as 8-10 mg per day per kilogram of body weight.

Toxicity and symptoms of high intake

There are no reported side effects with histidine, but too high levels of histidine may lead to stress and mental disorders such as anxiety and people with schizophrenia have been found to have high levels of histidine.

People suffering from schizophrenia or bipolar (manic) depression should not take a histidine supplement without the approval of their medical professional.

Best used with

Best taken with B3 (niacin)) and B6 (pyridoxin).

When more may be required

Although not conclusively proven - it is thought that histidine may be beneficial to people suffering from arthritis and nerve deafness.

Other interesting points

Histidine is also used for sexual arousal, functioning and enjoyment.

Histidinemia is an inborn error of the metabolism of histidine due to a deficiency of the enzyme histidase, where high levels of histidine are found in the blood and urine, and may manifest in speech disorders and mental retardation.

Food sources of histidine

Dairy, meat, poultry and fish are good sources of histidine as well as rice, wheat and rye.

Isoleucine amino acid

Isoleucine amino acid information page

Isoleucine is an essential amino acid and is part of the three "branched chain amino acids" (BCAA) - the other two being leucine and valine. This amino acid cannot be manufactured in the body, and needs to be supplied in the diet and was first isolated in 1904 from fibrin.

Isoleucine is required for

Isoleucine, together with the other two branched-chain-amino-acids promote muscle recovery after physical exercise and on its own it is needed for the formation of hemoglobin as well as assisting with regulation of blood sugar levels as well as energy levels. It is also involved in blood-clot formation.

Deficiency of isoleucine

Deficiency of isoleucine is only found in people deficient in dietary protein but symptoms may include headaches, dizziness, fatigue, depression, confusion as well as irritability. Symptoms of deficiency may mimic the symptoms of hypoglycemia. This nutrient has also been found to be deficient in people with mental and physical disorders, but more research is required on this.

Also see leucine and valine, and look at branched-chain amindo acids.

Dosage

Most people ingest enough isoleucine from their diet, although some individuals do supplement their diet with about 650 - 700 mg of isoleucine per day (based on a 70 kg body), or worked out to 10 - 12 mg per kg of body weight per day.

If you are taking a supplement of isoleucine, keep it in balance with the other two branched-chain-amino-acids leucine and valine in the formula of 2 mg of leucine and valine for each 1 mg of isoleucine.

Toxicity and symptoms of high intake

Consuming higher amounts of isoleucine is not associated with any health risks for most people but those with kidney or liver disease should not consume high intakes of amino acids without medical advise.

People ingesting higher amounts of isoleucine report elevated urination.

When more may be required

People involved with strenuous athletic activity under extreme pressure and high altitude may benefit from supplementation of this nutrient.

Food sources of isoleucine

It is present in almonds, cashews, chicken, eggs, fish, lentils, liver, meat etc.

Leucine amino acid

Leucine amino acid information page

Leucine is an essential amino acid, which cannot be manufactured in the body and is part of the three branched-chain-amino-acids. Supplements and protein powders that contain leucine are used extensively by bodybuilders and other athletes to promote muscle recovery, although it has not produced significant changes in body composition.

Leucine is required for

Leucine helps with the regulation of blood-sugar levels, the growth and repair of muscle tissue (such as bones, skin and muscles), growth hormone production; wound healing as well as energy regulation. It can assist to prevent the breakdown of muscle proteins that sometimes occur after trauma or severe stress. It may also be beneficial for individuals with phenylketonuria - a condition in which the body cannot metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine.

Deficiency of leucine

Deficiency of this nutrient is rare, since all protein foods contains it, but vegans and vegetarians without adequate protein sources may suffer from a deficiency. Hypoglycemia symptoms may appear if the diet is deficient and may include dizziness, fatigue, headaches, irritability etc.

Also see isoleucine and valine, and look at branched-chain amino acids.

Dosage

The daily dosage of leucine is about 16 mg per kilogram of body weight per day - which would translate to about 1120 mg for a 70 kg male. See good combinations as well.

Toxicity and symptoms of high intake

Consistent evidence of toxicity has not been linked to leucine supplements.

A high intake of leucine could contribute to pellagra as well as increase the amount of ammonia present in the body.

Best used with

If you are taking a supplement of leucine, keep it in balance with the other two branched-chain-amino-acids isoleucine and valine in the formula of 2 mg of leucine and valine for each 1 mg of isoleucine.

Food sources of leucine

It is found in protein foods, as well as brown rice, beans, nuts and whole wheat.

Lysine amino acid information page

Lysine is an essential amino acid and is a basic building block of all protein. This nutrient was first isolated in 1889 from casein.

Lysine is required for

It is required for growth and bone development in children, assists in calcium absorption and maintaining the correct nitrogen balance in the body and maintaining lean body mass. Furthermore it is needed to produce antibodies, hormones, enzymes, collagen formation as well as repair of tissue.

Since it helps with the building of muscle protein, it is useful for patients recovering from injuries and recovery after operations, and there might be use in lysine to help maintain healthy blood vessels. It also seems to assist in fighting herpes and cold sores.

Deficiency of lysine

Although a deficiency of lysine is rare, since it is found in so many protein foods, the symptoms may include anemia, enzyme disorders, lack of energy, hair loss, bloodshot eyes, weight loss and retarded growth as well as reproductive problems, poor appetite and poor concentration.

People on a vegan or vegetarian diet, using grains as their only source of protein are often deficient in this nutrient.

Dosage

The dosage listed is the ecommended Daily Allowance (RDA), but be aware that this dosage is the minimum that you require per day, to ward off serious deficiency of this particular nutrient. In the therapeutic use of this nutrient, the dosage is usually increased considerably, but the toxicity level must be kept in mind.

The daily dosage of lysine is about 12 mg per kilogram of body weight per day - which would translate to about 840 mg for a 70 kg male.

Pregnant or breast feeding mothers, as well as patients with liver or kidney problems, must first consult a health professional before taking lysine supplements.

Toxicity and symptoms of high intake

Toxicity has not been determined but animals fed high amounts of lysine, have shown a tendency to gallstones as well as elevated cholesterol - but these tendencies have not been proven in humans.

Diarrhea and stomach cramps may be indicative in high dosage, but these are not consistent symptoms.

When more may be required

Athletes, burn patients and people suffering from herpes and cold sores may benefit from an increase of lysine.

Older people could also require more lysine, as one study found older men required more of this nutrient than younger men.

Other interesting points

Lysine must be used with care in supplement form when taking antibiotics as well.

Food sources of lysine

Good sources of lysine are found in cheese, eggs, lime beans, potatoes, milk, meat and brewer's yeast.

Methionine amino acid

Methionine amino acid information page

Methionine is a sulfur containing essential amino acid and was first isolated in 1922 from casein and belongs to a group of compounds called lipotropics - the others in this group include choline, inositol, and betaine. It is important in the process of methylation where methyl is added to compounds as well as being a precursor to the amino acids cystine and cysteine.

Methionine is required for

It assists in the breakdown of fats and thereby prevents the build-up of fat in the arteries, as well as assisting with the digestive system and removing heavy metals from the body since it can be converted to cysteine, which is a precursor to gluthione, which is of prime importance in detoxifying the liver.

The amino acid methionine is also a great antioxidant as the sulfur it supplies inactivates free radicals. It may also be used to treat depression, arthritis pain as well as chronic liver disease - although these claims are still under investigation. Some studies have also indicated that methionine might improve memory recall.

It is also one of the three amino acids needed by the body to manufacture creatine monohydrate, a compound essential for energy production and muscle building.

Deficiency of methionine

Severe deficiency may manifest in dementia, while lesser deficiencies may be known by symptoms like fatty liver, slow growth, weakness, edema and skin lesions.

Dosage

The dosage listed underneath is the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA), but be aware that this dosage is the minimum that you require per day, to ward off serious deficiency of this particular nutrient. In the therapeutic use of this nutrient, the dosage is usually increased considerably, but the toxicity level must be kept in mind.

The daily dosage of leucine is about 12 mg per kilogram of body weight per day - which would translate to about 840 mg for a 70 kg male.

Toxicity and symptoms of high intake

It has been suggested that a high intake of methionine, in the presence of B vitamin deficiencies, may increase the risk for arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) by increasing blood levels of cholesterol and a compound called homocysteine; and that excessive methionine intake, with an inadequate intake of folic acid, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12, may increase the rate of conversion of methionine to homocysteine - both these theories have not been proven in humans.

Best used with

If you are considering taking a methionine supplement, it is best to balance it with choline and inositol.

When more may be required

People with liver problems, pancreatitis, HIV/AIDS as well as Parkinson's disease may consider obtaining more methionine, after consultation with their health professional, and older people may also benefit from a slightly higher intake of this nutrient.

Women on birth control pills could also look at this nutrient, since it promotes the excretion of estrogen. People suffering from schizophrenia could investigate taking extra methionine since it reduces the level of histidine in the body, a level normally higher in people suffering from schizophrenia.

Food sources

Methionine is found in good quantities in meat, fish, beans, eggs, garlic, lentils, onions, yogurt and seeds.

Phenylalanine amino acid

Phenylalanine amino acid information page

Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid that is also one of the aromatic amino acids that exhibit ultraviolet radiation absorption properties and is the most commonly found aromatic amino acid.

It can be converted in the body to tyrosine, which in turn is used to synthesize two important neurotransmitters - dopamine and norepinephrine. It is available in three different forms - L-, D- and DL-. The L- form is the most common and the type in which it is incorporated into the body's proteins. The D- form acts as a painkiller and the DL- a combination of the two.

Phenylalanine is required for

It is used in elevating the mood since it is so closely involved with the nervous system, as well as help with memory and learning and has been used as an appetite suppressant.

People suffering from Parkinson's disease It is DLPA (or the D- or L-form alone) is used to treat depression and the D form may also be helpful in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and chronic pain in both osteo-arthritis and rheumatoid arthritis with mixed results Increases blood levels of norepinephrine, epinephrine and dopamine - all three required for neurotransmission.

Deficiency of phenylalanine

Dietary deficiency is rare but symptoms may include lethargy, edema, weakness, skin lesions as well as liver damage and slow growth. A deficiency in diet would only occur with an extremely low protein intake.

Dosage

Pregnant women, people suffering from anxiety attacks, high blood pressure, diabetes and phenylketonuria, should NOT take it. DLPA supplements may interact with certain antidepressants or stimulants. Please consult your medical professional.

The daily dosage is unknown but supplements are taken at about 14 mg per kilogram of body weight per day - which would translate to about 980 mg for a 70 kg male, but since it has powerful mood altering effects, only use under medical supervision.

Toxicity and symptoms of high intake

Toxicity is rare in dietary intake but large amounts in supplement form may play havoc with your blood pressure and cause headaches, nausea and heartburn. Large amounts of this nutrient may also cause nerve damage.

Some people cannot metabolize phenylalanine and should not take supplementation of this amino acid.

When more may be required

This nutrient could prove of benefit to people suffering from Parkinson's disease, tiredness, depression, busy with alcohol withdrawal, rheumatoid arthritis, osteo-arthritis and vitiligo.

Food sources of phenylalanine

It is contained in most protein rich foods but good sources are found in dairy products, almonds, avocados, lima beans, peanuts and seeds

Threonine amino acid

Threonine amino acid information page

Threonine is an essential amino acid, and cannot be manufactured by the body and is found in high concentrations in the heart, skeletal muscles and central nervous system.

Threonine required for

It is required to help maintain the proper protein balance in the body, as well as assist in the formation of collagen and elastin in the skin.

It is further involved in liver functioning (including fighting fatty liver), lipotropic functions when combined with aspartic acid and methionine as well as assisting the immune system by helping the production of antibodies and promotes thymus growth and activity.

Other nutrients are also better absorbed when threonine is present, and it has also been used as part treatment of mental health.

Deficiency of threonine

It is a precursor of isoleucine and imbalance may result if the synthesis rate from asparate is incorrect.

In humans, deficiency may result in irritability and a generally difficult personality.

Dosage

People taking supplements normally take a dosage ranging between 103 milligrams and 500 milligrams daily.

Threonine found in food sources

Good levels of threonine are found in most meats, dairy and eggs, as well as in lower quantities in wheat germ, nuts, beans and some vegetables.

Tryptophan amino acid

Tryptophan amino acid information page

Tryptophan is an essential amino acid and is needed to maintain optimum health.

Tryptophan required for

This amino acid is required for the production of niacin (vitamin B3). It is used by the human body to produce serotonin, a neurotransmitter that is important for normal nerve and brain function. Serotonin is important in sleep, stabilizing emotional moods, pain control, inflammation, intestinal peristalsis, etc.

It is further important in controlling hyperactivity in children, assists in alleviating stress, helps with weight loss and reducing appetite. It has also been found that people suffering from migraine headaches have abnormal levels of tryptophan, and in this supplementation may be helpful.

A shortage of tryptophan, combined with a shortage of magnesium may be a contributing factor to heart artery spasms.

Dosage

The dosage listed is the Recommende Daily Allowance (RDA), but be aware that this dosage is the minimum that you require per day, to ward off serious deficiency of this particular nutrient. In the therapeutic use of this nutrient, the dosage is usually increased considerably, but the toxicity level must be kept in mind.

In certain studies supplementation of 300 mg - 600 mg per day was experimented with to help with sleep disturbances, migraines, weight loss, appetite control, anxiety and depression, but a supplementation of 100 mg at night-time proved beneficial to promote better sleep.

Toxicity and symptoms of high intake

Supplementation with high dosage of this amino acid could lead to gastrointestinal upsets, headaches, sleepiness and anxiety.

Best used with

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is required by the body for the formation of tryptophan, but people taking anti-depressants or serotonin modifying medication should be careful in taking a supplementation.

Other interesting points

Supplemental 5-HTP is derived from the seeds of the Griffonia simplicifolia, a West African medicinal plant.

Food sources of tryptophan

Good dietary sources for this amino acid are cottage cheese, meat, soy protein and peanuts.

Valine amino acid

Valine amino acid information page

Valine is an amino acid obtained by hydrolysis of proteins and was first isolated by the German chemist Emil Fischer in 1901 from casein and is not only an essential amino acid but is also a branched-chain amino acid (the others are isoleucine and leucine) found in high concentration in the muscles.

Valine required for

It has a stimulating effect and is needed for muscle metabolism, repair and growth of tissue and maintaining the nitrogen balance in the body.

Since it is a branched-chain amino acid, it can be used as an energy source in the muscles; and in doing so preserves the use of glucose.

Many amino acids become deficient with drug addiction, and here it also plays an important role and there are indications that it may also be beneficial in treating or reversing hepatic encephalopathy, or alcohol related brain damage, as well as degenerative neurological conditions.

Deficiency of valine

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is caused by the inability to metabolize leucine, isoleucine, and valine. The disease is so named because urine from affected people smells like maple syrup. A deficiency may affect the myelin covering of the nerves.

Also see Isoleucine and Leucine and also look at Branded-chain amino acids.

Dosage

Toxicity and symptoms of high intake

Very high levels of valine can cause symptoms such as a crawling sensation on the skin, as well as hallucinations. Individuals with kidney or liver disease should be careful in consuming high intakes of amino acids without consulting their doctor.

Best used with

The three branched-chain amino acids should always be taken in balance.

Other interesting points

Valine is often used by bodybuilders, (in conjunction with leucine and isoleucine), to promote muscle growth, tissue repair and energizer, although little scientific evidence supports these claims. Studies have however shown that these three substances might be useful in restoring muscle mass in people with liver disease, injuries, or who have undergone surgery.

Valine found in food sources

Good sources for this nutrient include dairy, meat, grain, mushrooms, soy and peanuts.

Basic information about Alzheimer’s disease

2011-07-16T01:25:00.000-07:00

Alzheimer’s Disease

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

Dementia is the most common cause of Alzheimer's disease in which condition, the intellectual and social abilities were lost severely enough to interfere with the affected person’s daily functioning. Dementia occurs in people with Alzheimer's disease because healthy brain tissue degenerates, causing a steady decline in memory and mental abilities.

What are the common signs and symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease?

Oblivious, persistent and increasing trend of forgetfulness, even with common recent events or simple directions. This only starts mildly and later forgetfulness persists and worsens. People with Alzheimer's routinely misplace things, often putting them in illogical locations. The most frequent that they forget were names, even the names of family members and objects that they see everyday.
People with Alzheimer's disease have difficulties with abstract thinking. They may initially have trouble balancing their checkbook, a problem that progresses to trouble recognizing and dealing with numbers.
Individuals with Alzheimer’s disease could hardly find exact and the right word to express thoughts or even follow conversations. Eventually, their reading and writing skills are also affected.
People with Alzheimer’s disease are disorientated and cannot remember time and dates. They usually find themselves lost in familiar surroundings.
People with Alzheimer’s disease have loss of judgment. Forgetfulness on solving everyday problems becomes increasingly very difficult and the worst to impossible to get through even how food is cooked and other simple things.
Individuals with Alzheimer’s disease have hardship in performing familiar and routine tasks that require sequential steps, such as cooking, become a struggle as the disease progresses. They would surely forget even simple and basic things.
Persons with Alzheimer’s disease have noticeable changes in their personality. They usually have swings of mood. And because of these they will express mistrust to other people, show increased stubbornness and withdraw socially.

What are the main causes of Alzheimer’s disease?

There is massive destruction of brain cells disrupting the transmitters that carry the messages in the brain, particularly those responsible for storing memories.
The cause of the destruction remains of the brain cells still unknown.
The genetic heredity factors play part in the development of the disease as shown in the studies made.
The neurotransmitters 'acetylcholine' and 'norepinephrine' are hypothesized to be hypoactive in Alzheimer's disease.

What are the risk factors of Alzheimer’s disease?

Age. Alzheimer's usually affects people older than 65, but can rarely, affect those younger than 40. 80 is the average age as per diagnosis. Less than 5 percent of people between 65 and 74 have Alzheimer's. However, that number jumps to almost 50 percent for those people aged 85 and older.
Heredity. Your risk of developing Alzheimer's appears to be slightly higher if a first-degree relative -parent, sister or brother - has the disease.
Sex. Women according to survey live longer than men, so they are more likely to develop this disease.
Lifestyle. The same factors that put you at risk of heart diseases, such as high blood pressure and high cholesterol, may also increase the likelihood that you'll develop Alzheimer's disease. We have to exercise and keep our mind healthy as much as we do to keep our body fit.
Head injury. The dementia eventually develops to ex-boxers as per studies and observations maybe because serious traumatic injury to the head (for example, with a prolonged loss of consciousness) may be a risk factor for Alzheimer's.

How many are suffering from Alzheimer’s disease?

Research found that 11 million people suffer worldwide
It is about 5% of people reaching 65 years old are affected
Research also showed that 15-25% of people reaching 85 years old are affected
Late stage of disease requires one total dependence and inactivity representing an enormous burden on family and health care delivery.

What are the important measures that can be done with Alzheimer’s disease?

Currently there is no cure for Alzheimer's Disease
General treatment approach to patient is to provide supportive medical care, pharmacological treatment for specific symptoms, including disruptive behavior, and emotional support for patients and their families.

Basic information about Alcohol Dependence

2011-07-16T01:11:00.000-07:00

Alcohol Dependence

What is alcohol dependence?

It is considered to be one of the chronic mental disorders which is known for the uncontrolled by a craving for strong alcohol drinks. Individuals who are suffering from this kind of illness (alcohol dependence) are called “alcoholics”. This sometimes becomes the underlying cause of serious harm, including medical disorders, marital difficulties, job loss, or automobile crashes.

What are the signs and symptoms of alcohol dependence?

If one has very strong and persistent desire to drink alcohol despite harmful consequences
There is inability to control drinking
If alcohol is often given higher priority given than other obligations
The tolerance to alcohol and the physical withdrawal reaction when alcohol is abruptly discontinued

What are the probable causes of alcohol dependence?

Medical science still cannot determine the concrete causes of alcohol dependence. However researches believe that it’s somehow genetic, psychological and social factors influence to its development. Studies proved that alcoholism has been running in some families - alcoholics are 6 folds probability than nonalcoholic to have blood relatives who are alcohol dependent. Researchers had long deliberations whether these familial patterns are results of genetics, common home environment including having alcoholic parents and relatives. The risk of alcoholism and related disorders in adult were aggravated by conduct disorders and other childhood disorders.

Psychoanalytic theory points to people with harsh superego and self-punitive turn to alcohol to diminish unconscious stress.

How many suffers from alcohol dependence?

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that nearly 140 million people worldwide suffer from alcohol dependence and 78% are not treated.
Men are three times more likely than women to become alcoholics
People aged 65 and older have the lowest rates of alcohol dependence.

What are some important measures to be done with alcohol dependence?

The best methods to treat alcohol dependency vary, depending upon an individual's medical and personal needs.

There are some heavy drinkers who recognize their problem appear to recover on their own.
While others recover from this illness through participation in the programs of anonymous alcoholics or other self-help groups.
Some alcoholics require long-term individual or group therapy, which may include hospitalization
Treatment can also be done in community setting
Prognosis is good even if a person is pressured into treatment
Patients who come for voluntary treatment have the best prognosis
Voluntary mutual help organizations play a large role in the treatment
Effective alcohol control policies are also needed

Basic information about Abnormal Psychology

2011-07-16T00:58:00.000-07:00

Abnormal Psychology

Causes of Mental Illness

A. Predisposing Factor

The biological or possibly constitutional factors predispose the individual to a neurotic reaction

B. Childhood Development Patters

A childhood atmosphere in which desertion or violent punishment is continuously threatened or implied can lead to attitudes of insecurity and fearfulness. Parents who are rejecting can arouse hostile impulses in the child.

C. Precipitating Factors

The circumstances that necessitate an intensification of defensive processes that proves to be too burdensome.

D. Cultural Factors

These are factors which influences the developments of neurotic patterns through the type of rearing practices, development of conflicting value systems within the culture or between the two cultures.

Miscellaneous Laboratory Equipments and Articles

2011-07-08T02:54:00.000-07:00

Miscellaneous Laboratory Equipment And Articles

Here is the list of other laboratory equipments and articles:

1) Bedpan Brush – This is used for cleaning bedpans and should be cleaned by washing soap and water, then hang dry.

2) Bottle Brush – This is a type of brush used for cleaning tall slender bottles, e.g. feeding bottles. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, then hand dry.

3) IV Stand – This is a slim metal pab used for hanging IVFs; blood transfusion, enema cans, etc.

4) Arm Splint – This is used to immobilize the arms where IVF is inserted.

5) IV Infusion Set – This is a plastic tube that is used to convey IVFs or fluids to the patient through vein. (Macro-drip – in drops, Micro-drip – in micro-drip, Venoset, Saftiset).

6) Butterfly needle – This is a type of needle connected to the IV infusion set to convey fluid from tube to the patient. This comes in different sizes, measured by gauge.

7) Stretcher – This is a narrow high bed with wheeled legs which is used to transport patients from one place to another in the hospital.

8) Wheel Chair – This is a chair provided with big wheels, also used for transferring patients.

9) Stethoscope – This is an instrument that is used to listen to body sounds--- e.g. breath sound, bowel sound.

10) Sphygmomanometer – This is an instrument that is used to determine the blood pressure. The types of sphygmomanometer are:

a. Mercurial

b. Aneroid

c. OR

11) Medicine Tray – This is used to carry medicine glasses with medicines when administering drugs.

12) Pick up Tray – This is used for picking up, transferring sterile objects

a. Peritoneal

b. Kelly

c. Thumb

d. Tissue

13) Nozzle Tip – This is a small tube with rounded tip connected to a rubber connect when doing vaginal or rectal irrigation. The types of Nozzle Tips are:

a. Vaginal

b. Rectal

14) Floor Lamp – This is a lamp with stand and pliable neck which is used to provide additional light during the procedures.

15) Flash Light – This is used to provide need light

16) Over Ben Table – This is a table in the patient’s room so made that top can be positioned over patient’s bed and can be used when eating or attending to grooming in bed.

17) Chest Drainage System. This is used to irrigate fluid.

Laboratory Equipments and Articles made of Enamel Wares

2011-07-08T02:48:00.000-07:00

Laboratory Equipment And Articles Made Of Enamel Wares

Here is the list of laboratory equipments and articles made of enamel wares:

Pitcher – This is receptacle for water and large amount of solution. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water.
Flushing Cup – This is receptacle of warm water for perennial hygiene. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water.
Irrigation Can – This is receptacle of solutions as in enemas. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water.
Kidney Basin – This is receptacle for body secretion and some contaminated articles such as used dressing. The method of cleaning is rinsing with water if used as a sputum receptacle, autoclave if to be used in sterile procedures.
Enamel Cup – This is used as receptacle for some medications during treatment. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, autoclave for sterile procedures.
Enamel Bowls –This is maybe sterile or non-sterile according to use; receptacle for solutions during treatments. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, autoclave for sterile procedures.
Wash Basin – This is used for water for bed-bath and may also be used as container for some solutions. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water.
Bath Tub – This is used for bathing and cleaned using soap and water.
Pail – This is also used as a receptacle for water of solution during treatment e.g. bed shampoo, continuous compress and should be cleaned by soap and water.
Bedpan – This is used as receptacle for urine and stools for patients who cannot tolerate going to the comfort room. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water.
Urinal – This is used as receptacle for urine of male patients, who are non-ambulatory. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water.
Tray – This is used as a container of some articles to facilitate transport. This maybe sterile or non-sterile.
Sputum Cup – This is used as a receptacle for sputum and can be cleaned by rinsing with water.
Cotton Jars – These serve as container for sterile cotton and should be cleaned using soap and water, then autoclave.
Enamel Can – This serve as container for sterile articles. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, then autoclave.
Boiler or Sterilizer – This is used for sterilization purpose and cleaned by rinsing with soap and water.
Powder Shaker – This is serves as container for powder used for gloving.

Laboratory Equipments and Articles made from Glass

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Laboratory Equipment And Articles Made From Glass

Here is the list of laboratory equipments and articles made out of glass:

Clinical Thermometers:

Oral Thermometer – This is to determine body temperature through the mouth. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, dry with tissue paper, and keep inside the container.
Rectal Thermometer - This is to determine body temperature through the rectum. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, dry with tissue paper, and keep inside the container.
Bath Thermometer – This is to determine the temperature of the water before using for bathing or treatment purposes. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, dry with tissue paper, and keep inside the container.

Hypodermic Syringes:

Hypodermic Glass Syringe – This is used to administer medications through the parenteral route. The method of cleaning is sterilizing by boiling for 30 minutes.
Hypodermic Disposable Syringe – This is to administer medications and as a receptacle for medication other than the liquid. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, then dry.

Medicine Glass – This is to measure liquid medications and as a receptacle for medication other than the liquid. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, then dry.
Asepto-Syringe – This is used for irrigation purposes, used to suction out certain body drainage. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, wrap and autoclave.
Toomey Syringe – This is used for G – U tract irrigation. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, rinse and autoclave.
Glass jars with cover – This is used as a receptacle for sterile articles such as cotton balls, gauge, etc.
Mortar and Pestle – This is used to pulverize medications of patients who cannot tolerate whole tablets and capsules. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water, then dry.
Glass Funnel – This is used to direct the flow of fluid when pouring it into a narrow-mouthed container. The method of cleaning is washing soap and water.
Murphy’s Drip – This used to drip chamber when doing cystoclysis is enabling the nurse to regulate the flow, attached between two rubber connecting tubes.
Nebulizer – This is to administer liquid medications into the respiratory tract by converting the medicine into fine mist. The method of cleaning is rinsing with water, then autoclave.
Alcohol Lamp – This is used to heating purposes.
Medicine Dropper – This is used to measure certain liquid medications. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water.
Test Tube – This is used as receptacle for certain specimens for examination. The method of rinsing with water, then autoclave.
Drinking Glass – This is used for drinking purposes. The method of cleaning is washing with soap and water.
Glass Rods – This is used for stirring liquid solutions.
Spatula – This is used to press the tongue during examinations of the oral cavity and throat. It should be discarded after use.

Laboratory Equipments and Articles made of Rubber

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Laboratory Equipment And Articles Made Of Rubber

Stated below are the laboratory equipments and articles:

Rubber Sheet – This is to protect the linen or bed mattress from getting soiled; used in post-operation beds, when giving shampoo or enema. The Method of Cleansing: wash with soap and water; hang to dry and air to remove odor.
Kelly Pad – This is to direct the flow of water to a pail as in rendering hair shampoo; also used in gynecologic and obstetrical procedures. Wash with soap and water; rinse and hang to dry; inflate with small amount of air.
Ice Cap – This is used to dry cold application over the forehead for fever; over the breasts to relieve congestion or on areas with inflammation. Wash with warm soapy water; rinse and hang up (dry) side down to dry; fill with air before closing to prevent sticking.
Ice Collar – This is for dry cold application for chilly patients to keep them warm; also over areas of inflammation. The method of cleaning is washing with warm soapy water; rinse and hang up (dry) side down to dry; fill with air before closing to prevent sticking.
Hot Water Bag – This is used for dry heat application for chilly patients to keep them warm; also over areas for inflammation. The method of cleaning is washing with warm soapy water; rinse and hang up (dry) side down to dry; fill with air before closing to prevent sticking.
Rubber Ring – This is used to elevate areas from flat surface to prevent pressure and sores. The method of cleaning is washing in warm soapy water, hang dry; inflate small amount of air before storage.
Catheters:

a. Urethral Catheter– This is for drainage or decomposition of the urinary bladder

· Nelaton or Straight – This is for sin le decompression in cases of collecting sterile specimen for urinalysis and culture and sensitivity.

· Two-way Catheters which are

(1) Foley Bag Catheter – This is used often as a retention catheter; it is anchored by inflating it with water using syringe and needle. The amount of water used to inflate is indicated in the catheter.

(2) Akron – This is also anchored by inflating the balloon with water by only the hub of the syringe is used.

· Three-way Catheter which is with opening for inflation, connection to a cystoclysis set and drainage.

· Malecot – This is for drainage of bigger articles like blood clots, tissue and sediments. The method of cleaning is washing with warm soapy water; milk tube and flush with syringe, rinse, dry and autoclave.

b. Rectal Catheter – This is for rectal irrigation, enemas and for the relief of flatulence. The method of cleaning is removing feces with tissue paper, wash with soapy warm water, rinse, dry and autoclave.

c. Nasal Catheter – This is used for oxygen inhalation. The method of cleaning is by removing mucus with tissue paper, wash with warm soapy water, rinse, dry and autoclave.

d. Suction Catheter – This is used to remove secretions from nose and mouth.

e. T-Tube – This is inserted to the Common Bile Duct for drainage after Billiary Surgery.

f. Levine’s Tube – This is for administration of gavages feeding and for gastric decompression. The method of cleaning is removing nasal discharges and other secretions with tissue paper, rinse under cool running water, remove any adhesive with Benzene; then wash in warm soapy water, flush catheter with bulb syringe then dry.

Basic information about Safety Rules and Precautions in the Laboratory

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Safety Rules and Precautions In The Laboratory

Here are the Instructions, Safety Rules and Precautions in the Laboratory:

Read and follow the laboratory instructions, procedures carefully given in your manual.
Never perform unassigned experiments.
Never let yourself to work alone in the laboratory. You must be with a companion or with the presence of an instructor.
Keep a thorough record of the observations and data gathered during the laboratory work on the allowed spaces after each experiment and correlate your lecture notes with the results obtained in the procedures.
Maintain cleanliness and orderliness of the working area at all times.
Keep up the laboratory working area from your personal things, bags, etc.
Report immediately any accident which may occur in the laboratory to your instructor.
Do not eat, drink or smoke inside the laboratory.
Never touch chemicals with your bare hands nor taste them unless directed to do so because most chemicals are poisonous.
Wash off with plenty of water any spilled acid or corrosive chemicals to avoid accident.
Always read the label on the reagent bottles before using the right chemical for the experiment.
Use a clean spatula for each solid reagent for an experiment.
Never return unused reagent to its container, be it solid or a liquid.
Never attempt to weigh a chemical directly on the balance pan to avoid accident.
Covers of reagent bottles must be laid upside down on the table.
Most organic solvents are flammable so keep them away from an open flame.
Dispose liquid chemicals or solutions in the sink and flush with plenty of water.
Solid chemicals, broken pieces of glass and waste papers must be thrown into the waste can.
Wash all apparatus used in the experiment before returning to the stock room. Also see to is that gas cocks, faucets and lights are switched off before leaving.

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Basic information about Laboratory Measurements

You will often be required to gather date by making measurements. To measure means to determine the dimension, capacity, weight, etc., of materials by comparison with a given standard. Man has prepared several standards and the English and the Metric Systems of Measurements maybe cited as examples. At present, however, a concerted effort is being made to adopt the SI units (Le Systems International d’ Unites) for all scientific works. During this period of change from the English to the new system, you need to be familiar with both.

Precision in Measurement

The precision of an experimental result means the agreement between such result and another obtained by duplicate measurement under similar conditions. The student should always report his results in such a way as to give the correct information about the precision of his measuring instrument. He does this by recording his data with the correct number of significant figures.

Accuracy in Measurement

The accuracy of an experimental result means the degree of agreement between it and the true value. Greater accuracy maybe obtained by making more that 1 trial and getting the average value of these trials. A result maybe judged accurate if its percentage of error is small.

Difference between Experimental Value and True Value

% error = -------------------------------------------------------------------- x 100

True Value

Significant Figures

Significant figures are numbers which express the result of a measurement such that only the last digit is doubtful. The proper number of significant figures indicates how accurately the measurements are made. In a given numerical result, the following digits are considered significant.

1. All none-zero digits
2. Zero between two non-zero digits
3. In decimal numbers greater than 1, zeros before and after the decimal point.
4. In decimal numbers less than 1, zeros after the first non-zero digit. Zeros before the decimal point and preceding digits are not significant.
5. Zeros before and unexpressed decimal point may or may not be significant. Confusion is avoided by writing the number in exponential form.
6. Terminal zeros with a specified notation on the last digit (using a bar above the last 0 or with an expressed decimal point).
7. Zeros in money.

Round off of Numbers

1. When the number to be dropped is less than 5, the preceding number remains unchanged.
2. When the number to be dropped is greater than 5, 1 is added to the preceding number.
3. When the number to be dropped is exactly 5, if the preceding number is ever, it remains unchanged; if the preceding number is odd, 1 is added to it.

Note: Number dropped may be taken a 5, 50, 500…….

Scientific Notation

In scientific notation, very large numbers and very small numbers are conveniently expressed as powers of 10. To convert a decimal number greater than 1 to scientific notation, move the decimal point to the left until the decimal point is in its standard position and multiply by a power of 10 (positive exponent). To convert a decimal number less than 1 to a scientific notation, move the decimal point to the right until the decimal point is in its standard position and multiply by a power of 10 (negative exponent).

Procedure in Measurement

A. Dimension

With the use of a foot rule, measure in cm. the length, width thickness of the regular solids provided b y your instructor.

B. Measurement of Volume

Practice measuring 100 ml of dilute water by the use of graduated cylinder, adding and removing water from its until the lower meniscus coincides with the 100 ml graduation. Read the volume of the liquid by holding the cylinder vertically at eye level and look at the lower meniscus (convex curve). Make three (3) trials.

Now practice measuring 100 ml of dilute KMn0₄ using the same graduated cylinder. This time get the reading of which is the upper meniscus, the part where the liquid gets is contact with the glass.

C. Measurement of Density

1. Density of Liquid

Weigh a clean and dry graduated cylinder in the balance and record the weight. Pour 20 ml of a sample of liquid (to be assigned by your instructor) to the cylinder and record the volume. Weigh the cylinder and its contents. Calculate the weight and density of the liquid. Get the correct density of the liquid from your instructor. Calculate the % error.

2. Density of a Solid

Weigh a pebble or any irregular solid in the weighing balance. Pour 20 ml of water into clean dry graduated cylinder. Record this as initial volume. Then drop the pebble or any solid to the cylinder and record the final volume obtained. Calculate the volume of the solid and its density.

D. Measurement of Temperature

Place a thermometer in a beaker with tap water. After a minute, read the thermometer and record the temperature of the water in ^oC and convert this to ^oF. When making the reading, do not let the thermometer bulb touch the sides or the bottom of the beaker.

What are the Science Laboratory Tools and Equipment?

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What are the Science Laboratory Tools and Equipment?

What the tools of life science (Grade 5 Assignment)

When I was in my Intermediate Grades, I had never experienced this tough of studying like my son now. So advance, lots of resources but limited time, yet with my analysis not all of these teachings are being absorbed by the pupils. Is it because of time pressure, maybe, or they have lots to things to think, and things to do or want to do. Pouring liquid in a hole gradually is better than doing it in a sudden and volume. A Simple life is still a happy life.

What the tools of life science are

A science laboratory would not be complete without tools. The most important tools are the mind and the imagination of the scientist. Without these there would be no science. Some of the tools of a life scientist are beakers, test tubes, and a heat source. Glassware that is heated must withstand heating, or it will break. Hot plates or burners can be used to heat various chemicals.

Science Laboratory Tools

Beakers: They are used for routine mixing & heating where a larger opening is more convenient than a narrow mouth & the greater accuracy of a graduated cylinder is not required. Although it can be used for measuring, a chemistry beaker is only about 10% accurate & should not be used for precision measurement.
Graduated cylinders: are useful for measuring out liquids or for calibrating beakers and erlenmeyer flasks. They are useful for doing displacement/density measurements as well as basic volume measuring.
Erlenmeyer flasks : They can be used for general measuring or even juice containers. An erlenmeyer flask can be sealed with parafilm or rubber or cork stoppers. They are of similar accuracy to science lab beakers but less than graduated cylinders.
Watchglasses - Beaker Covers: Watch glasses have all kinds of uses. They that can be used as beaker lids, to hold small invertebrates for viewing under a microscope or to dissolve crystals & powders. Make an ice lens!
Boiling (Florence) Flasks:The boiling flasks shown in the picture have round bottoms and need a 4 fingered support clamp and bosshead as shown. The
flat bottom versions are identical except that the bottom is flat and can stand upright without support.
Support Stands, Rings and Clamps:These are metal labwares that help support the various glass equipment.
Dissecting Instrument Kit:This basic dissecting kit is intended for elementary and middle school use for studying fish, worms, insects and invertebrates.
Forceps:The two fine tipped splinter forceps are shown to the left and the medium point forceps are shown to the right. Thumb dressing forceps are similar to the medium points but are slightly larger. Tissue forceps (not shown) have teeth on them for an extra firm hold; they are sometimes known as mouse or rat-tooth forceps.

Some of the Tools (with photos) used in the Laboratory are:

Test Tube
Test Tube Rack
Test Tube Holder
Reagent Bottle
Beaker
Bunsen Burner
Stand and Clamp
Crucible
Measuring Cylinder
Dropper
Electronic Balance
Evaporating Dish
Filter Funnel
Flat Bottomed Flask
Round Bottomed Flask
Safety Glasses
Mortar and Pestle
Spatula
Tripod

The following laboratory equipments that are usually used in the experiment activities. Individual pictures are also provided for easy recognition:

Beam Balance
Electronic Balance
Bunsen Burner
Sparker
Gas Jet and Outlet
Hot Plate
Ring Stand
Iron Ring
Wore Gauze
Typical Setup
Clamp
Tongs
Funnel
Massing Scoop
Goggles
Trough
Sink
Test Tube Rack
Test Tube
Pipe stem Triangle
Beaker
Erlenmeyer Flask
Volumetric Flask
Graduated Cylinder
Dropper Pipet
Glass Stirring Rod
Watch Glass
U Tube
Titration Setup

Apparatus used for Measuring in the Laboratory

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Apparatus Used For Measuring In The Laboratory

Here are the apparatus used for Measuring in the Laboratory:

1. Balance and Weights – this is used to weigh materials in the laboratory.

2. Buret – this is a graduated glass tube used in volumetric analysis for measuring definite and accurate amount of liquid.

3. Graduated Cylinder – a cylinder closed at one end and calibrated in the Metric system; used to measure the amount of liquid sample, never use it as a reaction vessel.

4. Dropper or pipettes – this is used to transfer / measure small amount of liquid samples.

5. Spatula – this is used to remove or scoop out solids from the container.

6. Thermometer – this is used to measure temperature, in Degree Celsius (⁰C) or Degree Fahrenheit (⁰F).

Apparatus used for holding and holding things in the Laboratory

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Apparatus Used For Holding And Holding Things In The Laboratory

Listed below are the apparatus used for holding and holding things in the Laboratory:

1. Clamps – this is used to support test tubes, flasks, burets, etc.

2. Clamp Holder – this is used to hold clamp in its proper position.

3. Funnel – this supports the filter paper and facilitates the introduction of liquid to prevent spilling.

4. Iron Ring – this is mounted on an iron stand to support beakers, flasks, etc.

5. Iron Stand or Ring Stand – this is used to mount apparatus.

6. Test Tube Holder – this is used to hold test tube while heating and when working with corrosive reagents.

7. Tripod – this is to support apparatus which does not have to be attached.

8. Test Tube Rack – this is used to keep a supply of test tubes for use.