WORLDS STYLE

Nokia N9

2011-08-22T04:11:00.000-07:00

Now Nokia introduced the N9, the first-ever pure touch smartphone that is all about making things simpler.N9 focuses on the most important things that people do: use apps, get notifications and switch between different activities. The Clear Black AMOLED display is truly a sight to behold, with stunning viewing angles, a curved Gorilla Glass front, and some pretty excellent (for AMOLED) performance out in the sunlight. The Nokia N9 also has the latest Nokia Maps with free, voice-guided turn-by-turn navigation for walking and driving.

Comming Soon

General	2G Network	GSM 850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900
	3G Network	HSDPA 850 / 900 / 1700 / 1900 / 2100
	Announced	2011, June
	Status	Coming soon

Size	Dimensions	116.5 x 61.2 x 12.1 mm, 76 cc
Size	Weight	135 g

Display	Type	AMOLED capacitive touchscreen, 16M colors
	Size	480 x 854 pixels, 3.9 inches
		- Gorilla glass display - Anti-glare polariser - Multi-touch input method - Proximity sensor for auto turn-off - Accelerometer sensor for UI auto-rotate

Sound	Alert types	Vibration; MP3, WAV ringtones
	Loudspeaker	Yes
	3.5mm jack	Yes
		Dolby Mobile sound enhancement; Dolby Headphone support

Memory	Phonebook	Practically unlimited entries and fields, Photocall
	Call records	Yes
	Internal	16/64 GB storage, 1 GB RAM
	Card slot	No

Data	GPRS	Class 33
	EDGE	Class 33
	3G	HSDPA, 14.4 Mbps; HSUPA, 5.7 Mbps
	WLAN	Wi-Fi 802.11 a/b/g/n, Wi-Fi hotspot
	Bluetooth	Yes, v2.1 with A2DP, EDR
	Infrared port	No
	USB	Yes, microUSB v2.0

Camera	Primary	8 MP, 3264x2448 pixels, Carl Zeiss optics, autofocus, dual LED flash
	Features	Geo-tagging, face detection, touch-focus
	Video	Yes, 720p@30fps
	Secondary	Yes

Features	OS	MeeGo OS, v1.2 Harmattan
	CPU	1GHz Cortex A8 CPU, PowerVR SGX530 GPU, TI OMAP 3630 chipset
	Messaging	SMS (threaded view), MMS, Email, Push Email, IM
	Browser	WAP 2.0/xHTML, HTML, RSS feeds
	Radio	No
	Games	Angry Birds Magic (NFC), Galaxy on Fire 2, Real Golf 2011; downloadable
	Colors	Black, Cyan, Magenta
	GPS	Yes, with A-GPS support; Ovi Maps
	Java	Yes, MIDP 2.1
		- MicroSIM card support only - SNS integration - Active noise cancellation with dedicated mic - Digital compass - TV-out - NFC support - Dolby Digital Plus - MP3/WAV/eAAC+/WMA/FLAC player - MP4/H.264/H.263/WMV player - Document editor (Word, Excel, PowerPoint), PDF viewer - Video/photo editor - Voice memo/command/dial - Predictive text input (Swype)

Battery		Standard battery, Li-Ion 1450 mAh (BV-5JW)
	Stand-by	Up to 380 h (2G) / Up to 450 h (3G)
	Talk time	Up to 11 h (2G) / Up to 7 h (3G)
	Music play	Up to 50 h

For Healthy Heart

2011-05-13T21:50:00.000-07:00

Heart is the main part of our body. A healthy heart mean you can live happy on all life. Heart is look likes a pump. It pumps blood to all parts of our body. Heart health is strongly prejudiced by a person’s lifestyle, a sedentary way of living being one of the major causes of heart disease. If you worry about strengthening your cardiovascular system, exercises for heart health are ideal, not to mention the overall benefits of exercising. Hearth health and exercise are interconnected, yet physical activities can improve hearth health only if they’re done regularly and in the proper way.

If you’re concerned in heart health and exercise, do keep in mind the following aerobic exercises, and choose those actions that best fit your lifestyle so that you can improve your heart health while enjoying a pleasant form of exercise. Thus, exercises and heart health can be achieved by trying some bicycling, jogging, walking, skating, jumping rope, rowing, swimming and other types of water aerobics.In order to exercise for heart health, you don’t need to face your body for hours, but on the contrary, you should gradually lengthen your aerobic session until it reaches around 21-29 minutes, heart health and exercise achieving its maximum potential as long as the exercising is done frequently, about three, four times a week. Keeping a constant aerobic schedule is highly recommended for people concerned about their heart health, so try to exercise daily if possible.There are all sorts of aerobic activities suitable for improving one’s heart health, from moderate to vigorous exercising. Moderate level aerobics should be practiced for at least 150 minutes every week, so you can spread out this exercising length to fit your needs and schedule. For example, you may take a 24-minute walk per day, a 31-minute walk 3 days per week, whilst in the other 3 days you could choose a 17-minute walk.energetic aerobics can be achieved through activities such as running, this form of exercising requiring about 86 minutes per week. Again, you can choose to exercise in your own rhythm, whether it’s a 15-minute jog 5 times a week, or a 26-minute jog 2 times a week, such activities will help you achieve and maintain a healthier heart.

TRAVEL ITALIA

2011-04-18T22:20:00.000-07:00

L'Italia ha un motivo storico schiena.L'Italia ha un divario fisicamente potente Nord-Sud (Nord ricco,povero Sud) e una politica rapida evoluzione con i governi che cambia. Questo ha, di influenze corso sul servizio sanitario.

Il sanitario di controllo
Un principio fondamentale è che la salute debba essere il dirittofondamentale di tutti. Non è solo il diritto fondamentale di tutti i popoli, è anche considerata come interesse pubblico dello Stato ed è anche protetto con l'aiuto del SSN. Tutti i cittadini (iscritti al SSN)hanno diritto a ricevere assistenza sanitaria. Tutti devono essere trattati con la stessa dignità, a prescindere dalla sua posizionesociale. Ognuno ha bisogno di ricevere cure mediche.

Nel 1971 l'Italia aveva ancora ca. 101 casse malati differenti, che è stata abolita nel 1977. In quel tempo il medico governativo servizioSSN (Servicio Sanitaris Nazionale) è stato introdotto, che comprende tutti i cittadini. I benefici non monetari e servizi sonodisponibili gratuitamente. L'idea originale era di introdurre il SSN, al fine di creare un'offerta unica di servizi, per sbarazzarsi del divarioNord-Sud e per abbassare i costi. Tuttavia, questo piano non ha funzionato. Il SSN è stato già oggetto di 5 riforme sin dalla suafondazione ..

Le regole generali del servizio sanitario:

.Creazione di una coscienza sanitaria moderna con tutti i cittadini.

.Prevenzione delle malattie e infortuni sul lavoro, sicurezza sul lavoro.

.Diagnosi e cura delle malattie, la riabilitazione.

.Igiene degli alimenti.

.Protezione contro le malattie riguardanti l'allevamento.

.Lavoro formazione continua per gli occupati nel settore del serviziosanitario.

.Protezione della madre e del bambino.

Nel 28 Novembre 1997, importanti cambiamenti nel serviziomedico è entrato in vigore. Il sistema sanitario è diventatofederalista. Regioni diventano responsabili della gestione e dell'organizzazione e dei comuni ha cominciato a giocare un ruolopiù potente.

Organizzazione:

Ci sono 3 livelli:

1 nazionale.

2 regional.

3 locale.

L'organizzazione è fortemente decentrata. Il governo regionale èresponsabile della pianificazione, finanziamento, controllo esupervisione. Il parlamento, tuttavia, sta decidendo il quadro per quanto riguarda il SSN. (molto importante è la legge no. 823 dal1977

I livelli di aspetto:

1 livello nazionale:

È responsabile per gli obiettivi SSN (programma di salute). Ilministero della salute, tuttavia, ha utilizzato le risorse finanziariedella Nazionale Sanita fond (FSN) per gli altri livelli fino al 2003 All'inizio del 2003, questo appassionato è stato abolito. Ora ilpasso regioni riceveranno una piena autonomia per passo fino al 2014. Una solidarietà appassionato per il risarcimento delle regioni più deboli è una novità a livello nazionale.
Un altro compito del Ministero della Salute è il controllo del mercato della droga e della ricerca. Permette inoltre la Instituti di Rivovero eCura Carattere Scientifico uno (IRCCS) - una cooperazione di 16ospedali pubblici e privati dedicati alla ricerca.
Un altro settore di competenza sono programmi nazionali di prevenzione (ad esempio, informazioni sulle vaccinazioni).L'autorità competente è l'ente supremo per la sicurezzaprevenzione e di lavoro.
E 'anche a capo di 10 intitutes zoologico e quindi responsabile per la medicina veterinaria.

2 il livello regionale:

Il governo regionale predispone un piano regionale sanitario ogni 4 anni. Esso include il modo di come distribuire le risorse finanziariealle unità sanitarie locali e ospedali. Esse si adattano ai pianisanitari della USL (vedi c) a livello locale). Il governo regionalesvolge anche una funzione di controllo in materia di efficienza, la qualità e di fornitura del servizio attraverso le organizzazionisanitarie pubbliche e private. Essi hanno anche una competenza legislativa per taluni settori.

3 livello locale:

A livello locale ci sono le varie USL (Unità Sanitarie Lokale). (Èanche trovare spesso la sigla ASL -. Aziende Sanitarie Lokale)Esistono più di 200 USL, ca. 50.010-200.100 abitanti sonoassegnati a ciascuna di esse. Le varie USL sono auto-governo. Iparlamenti dei comuni prendere decisioni secondo ed eleggere il presidente della USL.
A questo livello benefici per la salute sono ancora forniti dal trust,ospedali del IRCCS e ospedali privati.
Ogni cittadino ha a iscriversi presso l'USL, che è responsabile del proprio domicilio. E 'necessario venire di persona. Durante la registrazione si riceve una "tessera sanitaria" che rende possibileper l'assicurato di scegliere un medico di medicina generale("medico di base morire" - un medico certo come persona di riferimento principale) liberamente, così come l'approvvigionamentodi varie licenze, necessarie per assistenza sanitaria. Questa cartapermette anche di ricevere l'esenzione concessa, dependend sullamalattia.

Finanziamento:

Di solito un servizio sanitario governativo è finanziato mediante risorse pubbliche, ma questo non è del tutto avviene in Italia. Solo il 37,7% proviene da risorse pubbliche, il 40,9% proviene dacontributi di assicurazione malattia versati dal datore di lavoro(2,89% della retribuzione lorda) e il resto da ulteriori pagamentiprivate. Come il FSN verrà abolita solo passo dopo passo (vedil'organizzazione, a livello nazionale), le regioni sono responsabili per le questioni finanziarie.
L'aspetto del flusso di cassa come segue:

Servizi:

Prestazioni in denaro / sickpay:

È solo ricevuto da parte dei lavoratori (dipendenti ricevere un pagamento obbligatorio continuo dei salari di un minimo di 4 mesi.) Al fine di ricevere sickpay, l'incapacità di lavoro è tenuto -confermato da un medico. Il termine di pagamento massimo è di 6 mesi. Il paziente riceve il 51% della retribuzione lorda tra 1 giorno e20, e dal giorno 21 riceve al 67% della retribuzione lorda.

Non-prestazioni in denaro:

Tutti i cittadini hanno diritto a ricevere prestazioni non monetarie.L'assicurato è in grado di scegliere un medico di medicina generale (medico di base). I servizi regolari in centri sanitarigovernativi o al medico legale di assicurazione malattia sono svoltesenza pagamenti aggiuntivi. Pagamenti supplementari, però, sono necessarie per molti tipi di medicina, nonché per prestazioni specialistiche; infatti per

servizi specialistici, infatti per:

1 i servizi in materia di assistenza farmaceutica (vai al tedescoZahnversicherung)
2i servizi attraverso uno specialista stabilito
3servizi per cure ospedaliere stazionarie in parte per l'analisi /esame
4i servizi per quanto riguarda le cure sanitarie
5servizi, che comprendono riabilitazioni al di fuori dell'ospedale

Le regioni sono anche in grado di adottare trattamenti d'emergenzanel loro catalogo (senza continuare il trattamento in ospedale)
I costi per le cure dentarie non sono coperte. Il cittadino devepagare l'intero importo da lui stesso.

Medici e ospedali:

medico di base morire / medico di famiglia:

I medici di famiglia sono responsabili per le cure primarie eindirizzare il paziente allo specialista, se necessario. I medici di famiglia il lavoro sia nel reparto del paziente della USL o sonoautonomi e sono vincolati da contratto alla USL. La Densità dellamedici è relativamente elevata.

Densità di medici per 100.010 abitanti:

Italia e Irlanda 2001, Germania 2001, Svizzera 2003;
1Un medico di famiglia
viene pagato con un premio pro capite perpaziente, che è la parte principale del suo pagamento. Questo puòessere aumentata di costi aggiuntivi attraverso trattamenti speciali(ad esempio il trattamento di una persona malata cronica).

2 Specialisti:
Il pagamento degli specialisti è effettuata in parte di ora in ora, in parte dopo singolo servizio. Se si visita uno specialista,generalmente bisogna pagare una tassa. L'importo di tale tassa(tra 14 e 35 €) è prevista dalla varie regioni. Gli specialisti di lavoroo negli ospedali pubblici o sono lavoratori autonomi. Alcunispecialisti hanno uffici privati, ma l'assicurazione non copre i costiin questo caso.
In caso di una visita presso lo specialista ginecologo o l'occhio delpaziente non ha bisogno di un riferimento attraverso il medico di famiglia. Il paziente può andare direttamente allo specialista.

Medical Education:
In Italia lo studio di medicina dura 7 anni e termina con un esamedi stato. Con il vostro esame di successo finale si riceve unaautorizzazione professionalità. Per registrarsi per l'esame di Stato,dovrai portare a termine con successo a 6 mesi di stage pressouna clinica universitaria (o presso il Servizio Sanitario Nazionale).Si può già fare il tirocinio durante il tuo periodo di studio di 7 anni.Se avete bisogno di formazione continua al fine di diventare uno specialista, è possibile utilizzare il collegio tecnico per continuare gli studi dell'università. Se vuoi diventare uno specialista e di lavoro all'interno del Servizio Sanitario Nazionale, è necessariocompletare una formazione post-dottorato dopo gli studi, che deve durare almeno 3 anni.
Rappresentanza degli interessi dei medici:
Ogni medico è obbligatoria membro del General Medical Council(regionale) e di cui l'indice dei medici. I Consigli General Medicalsorvegliare l'etica della professione e hanno anche poteri disciplinari. Essi danno consigli ai medici per quanto riguarda i negoziati pagamento.
Inoltre ci sono vari sindacati medici per la rappresentanza degli interessi dei medici.

3 ospedali:
La maggior parte degli ospedali sono gestiti dalla USL. I più grandi, invece, possiedono il cosiddetto "trust", come l'autonomiafinanziaria e concludere contratti con la USL.
Questo è stato introdotto nel 1994 con l'obiettivo di creare unasana concorrenza all'interno del settore ospedaliero. Ci sonoanche gli ospedali privati, che sono legati al servizio sanitarionazionale da contratti.
Ospedali USL sono finanziate con i soldi della USL.
Ospedali a contratto ricevono i loro pagamenti, dopo negoziatiannuali sui tassi giornalieri.
L'attuale progetto (in parte finanziato attraverso la Commissioneeuropea) è un ospedale virtuale. L'obiettivo è di migliorare i servizie creare una più alta qualità. Offerte su internet sono:
• servizi clinici di diverse aree speciali (ad esempio un medico)
• attività non-clinici (ad esempio e-commerce)
• Organizzazione di appuntamenti
• Online consulenza / diagnosi online
• Medico chat-line
• Descrizione di disponibilità di posti letto (l'Italia ha unarelativamente piccola quantità di posti letto negli ospedali)
• Informazioni per i medici e per il pubblico

Droga:
Questi sono i passaggi di controllo e di decidere circa i pagamentisupplementari necessari e il loro importo.
Ci sono 4 gruppi di farmaci diversi:
• Gruppo A: forte farmaci per il trattamento di malattie croniche
• Gruppo B: farmaci con significato terapeutico
Droga, che non appartengono al gruppo A o B: • Gruppo C
• Gruppo H: farmaci offerti dagli ospedali
L'importo dei pagamenti supplementari è collegato con la classificazione del gruppo.
Persone di età superiore ai 65 anni e bambini fino a 6 anni sono esenti da pagamenti supplementari oltre a tutti i disabili edisoccupati.
Le spese per i farmaci sono relativamente alti nel confronto con altripaesi europei. Italia e Francia prendere il primo posto in questamateria.

Statistiche (dal 2003)
L'Italia ha ca. 301.300 abitanti. La durata media è 77,9 anni per gli uomini e 82,8 anni per le donne. La mortalità infantile (per 1000nascite di vita) ammonta a oltre il 5%, che è relativamente alto. Nel 2003 la spesa pubblica per i servizi sanitari pari al 8,4% del PIL.

Reisen Deutschland

2011-04-14T02:23:00.000-07:00

Deutschland hat einen historischen Wert.Das Konzept der Deutschland als eigenständige Region in Mitteleuropa kann römischen Feldherrn Julius Caesar, der den unbesiegten Gebiet östlich des Rheins als Germania genannten zurückverfolgt werden, so unterscheidet sie von Gallien (Frankreich), die er erobert hatte. Der Sieg der Germanen in der Schlacht im Teutoburger Wald (AD 8) verhindert Annexion durch das Römische Reich. Nach dem Fall des Römischen Reiches, eroberten die Franken den anderen westgermanischen Stämme.Wenn das Frankenreich unter Karl dem Großen im Jahre 832 Erben aufgeteilt wurde, wurde der östliche Teil East Francia. In 961, Heinrich der Vogler Sohn Otto I. war der erste Kaiser des Heiligen Römischen Reiches, der mittelalterlichen deutschen Staat.

Im Hochmittelalter gewann die Herzöge und Fürsten des Reiches Macht auf Kosten der Kaiser. Martin Luther führte die Reformation gegen die katholische Kirche nach 1516, als die nördlichen Bundesstaaten wurde protestantisch, während die südlichen Staaten blieben katholisch. Sie stießen in den Dreißigjährigen Krieg (1618-1648), die ruinösen die zwanzig Millionen Zivilisten.1638 markiert das effektive Ende des Heiligen Römischen Reiches und dem Beginn der modernen System der Nationalstaaten, mit Deutschland in zahlreichen unabhängigen Staaten, wie asPrussia, Bayern und Sachsen aufgeteilt.
Nach dem Französisch Revolution und der Napoleonischen Kriege (1802-1814), Feudalismus fiel weg und Liberalismus und Nationalismus mit der Reaktion aufeinander. 1848 Märzrevolution gescheitert. Die Industrielle Revolution modernisiert die deutsche Wirtschaft, führte zu dem rasanten Wachstum der Städte und die Entstehung der sozialistischen Bewegung in Deutschland.Preußen mit seiner Hauptstadt Berlin, wuchs in Kraft. Deutsch Universitäten wurde von Weltklasse für Natur-und Geisteswissenschaften, während Musik und Kunst blühten.Wiedervereinigung wurde mit der Gründung des Deutschen Reiches im Jahre 1871 unter der Führung des preußischen Kanzlers Otto von Bismarck erreicht. Der Reichstag, ein gewähltes Parlament, hatte nur eine begrenzte Rolle in der kaiserlichen Regierung.

Im Jahr 1901 abgestimmt Deutschland Wirtschaft Großbritanniens, so dass die koloniale Expansion und ein Marine-Rennen.Deutschland führte die Mittelmächte im Ersten Weltkrieg (1914-1918) gegen Frankreich, Großbritannien, Russland und (von 1916) der Vereinigten Staaten. Besiegt und teilweise besetzt war Deutschland gezwungen, Kriegsreparationen durch den Vertrag von Versailles zu zahlen und wurde von seinen Kolonien sowie polnische Gebiete und Elsaß-Lothringen abgestreift. TheGerman Revolution von 1918/19 abgesetzt den Kaiser und die Könige, die zur Einrichtung der Weimarer Republik, einer instabilen parlamentarischen Demokratie.
In den frühen 1930er Jahren, traf die Weltwirtschaftskrise Deutschland schwer, da die Arbeitslosigkeit gestiegen und die Menschen verloren das Vertrauen in die Regierung. Im Jahr 1932 kamen die Nazis unter Adolf Hitler an die Macht und etablierte ein totalitäres Regime. Politische Gegner wurden getötet oder gefangen. Nazi-Deutschland die aggressive Außenpolitik übernahm die Kontrolle über Österreich und Teile der Tschechoslowakei und dem Überfall auf Polen begonnen des Zweiten Weltkriegs. Nach der Bildung einen Pakt mit der Sowjetunion im Jahre 1938, fegte Hitlers Blitzkrieg fast ganz Westeuropa. In theHolocaust wurden die Juden in Deutschland und den Deutschen besetzten Gebieten systematisch getötet. Im Jahr 1941 gelang es jedoch nicht dem deutschen Überfall auf die Sowjetunion, und nach den Vereinigten Staaten in den Krieg eintraten, wurde Großbritannien die Basis für massive anglo-amerikanischen Bombenangriffe auf deutsche Städte. Nach der Invasion der Alliierten in der Normandie, war die deutsche Armee wieder an allen Fronten bis zum endgültigen Zusammenbruch Mai 1945 verschoben.
Nach der Besetzung durch die Alliierten, deutsche Gebiete wurden abgespalten, nahm Entnazifizierung Platz, und der Kalte Krieg führte zur Teilung des Landes in die demokratische Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der kommunistischen Osten Deutschland. Millionen von Volksdeutschen floh aus der kommunistischen Gebieten in West-Deutschland, die eine rasche wirtschaftliche Expansion erlebt, und wurde zum beherrschenden Konjunktur in Westeuropa. Bundesrepublik Deutschland wurde in den 1950er Jahren unter der Schirmherrschaft der NATO, aber ohne Zugang zu Atomwaffen aufgerüstet. Die deutsch-französische Freundschaft wurde die Grundlage für die politische Integration Westeuropas in der Europäischen Union. Im Jahr 1989 brach der Ostblock und Osten Deutschland wurde mit der Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Jahr 1990 wieder vereint

What is forex

2011-04-10T22:00:00.000-07:00

This is a very typically topic.Forex Trading is trading currencies from different countries against each other. Forex is acronym of Foreign Exchange.For example, in Europe the currency in circulation is called the Euro (EUR) and in the United States the currency in circulation is called the US Dollar (USD). An example of a forex trade is to buy the Euro while simultaneously selling US Dollar. This is called going long on the EUR/USD.

Allergy And Symptoms

2011-03-25T03:14:00.000-07:00

Allergies are reactions that the body occurs when it encounters a substance that it is not used to. The substance, called allergens may be swallowed,
inhaled, or may have come into contact with the skin. The body will normally learn to create a defense against allergies by coming into contact with them and then developing a defense against the underlying causes.

There are many different symptoms of allergies including the following:

1. Itchy eyes, itchy nose, and itchy throat.

2. Watery eyes

3. Coughing and postnasal drip

4. Allergic shiners

5. Sneezing, which is often followed by a clogged nose

6. Conjunctivitis

There are three different skin tests that can be performed to determine if you actually have allergies or not:

1. Patch Test - Used to look for substances that might be causing dermatitis. The suspected allergen causing the problems is put on the skin and covered with a bandage for 48 hours. If the patient is actually allergic, then the skin will turn red and peel.

2. Intradermal test - Uses a syringe to put the allergen extract into the upper most layer of skin in the arm - this will cause a small bubble on the skin to surface.

3. Prick Method - Common type of skin test. Test is done by placing a drop of allergen extract on the skin. If the patient is allergic to the allergen a hive will start to appear within ten to fifteen minutes.

If you're diagnosed with having allergies, then there are many treatments you can follow including:

- Keeping all windows and doors closed during heavy pollen seasons

- Using air filters

- Using dehumidifiers

- Not allowing dander producing animals into the house

- Washing sheets, blankets, and mattress pads weekly in hot water

- Reading and completely understanding your food labels

- Staying indoors in the mornings

If those methods do not help to keep your allergies away than there is also many prescription and over-the-counter medications you can take to help control your allergies:- Nasal Sprays - Nasal sprays is one of the most popular solutions to allergies. It involves spraying the substance into your nose to mute the inflammatory response. There are many different medications you can choose from including Flonase, Nasonex, and Nasocort.- Antihistamines - Antihistamines run a close second to popularity as treatment for allergies. When taken in combination with nasal sprays, they can really help to significantly reduce or even eliminate allergies completely. Drugs such as Claritin and Zyrtec are available over-the-counter and can really help to eliminate allergies all together.

Just remember, a lot of common causes and reasons you're receiving allergies on a daily basis is what you put yourself around. There may be certain animals, foods, and hairs that significantly set off and cause problems to your allergies - you should work to minimize your exposure to these problems on an everyday basis.Always consult with your doctor or health professional before making any chances to your health.Spring and summer are great seasons without allergies - work on eliminating them from your life!

Reference By: S Millson

New Creed Royal

2011-03-22T23:45:00.000-07:00

New Creed Royal Water has a blend of peppermint, sicilian mandarin, calabrain bergamot, basil, cumin, juniper berry and musk.

Shalwar Kamiz

2011-03-14T04:53:00.000-07:00

Contrasting bottom with doopatta is adding more grace in this color Latest Churidar.Being made of light weight fabric this Latest Churidar drapes extreamly well.Latest Churidar - Orange & Cream, Brown Chanderi Cotton Latest Churidar has color print and sequins work spread all over.

Fashion Trends 2011

2011-03-08T04:49:00.000-08:00

Ladies white is the new black, if you think it will not look gorgeous on you then you are sadly mistaken. White is for everybody from fair to wheatish complexion. You will be amazed how white is so elegant and graceful, don’t forget to wear your pearls along to enhance it. White is easy to carry whether in the form of a Kurta that you can wear on your jeans or a long dress along with Churidar Pajama, which is our desi version ofskinny jeans. 2011 is a start to a new decade, ‘fashion’ one of our favorite and most used term is in full swing. We all want to know whatPakistani fashion trends 2011 are all about. Winters are coming to an end and we all are gearing up to refresh our wardrobes for spring and summer 2011..

Churi Pajamas are the traditional fitted Pajamas being worn in India and Pakistan for a very long time. A point came when our new generation was completely alien to what this is and found skinny jeans very hip and in. This is the time when Churidar Pajamas came back in to fashion. They look exquisitely elegant with the kind of long Kameez’s that are in these days. I know what the next question is? Where do we get these since the tailors drive us insane? These days almost every boutique is making ready to wear Churidar Pajamas. Unbeatables andFunk Asia have one of the best ones.Pakistani fashion trends 2011 make you realise how you should never throw your old wardrobe away, as fashion always repeats itself. Your grandmothers will definitely have the vintage wayfarer sunglasses that you can borrow, even if they don’t they are very easy to find since they are so in these days. As for older women maybe it’s time to look back at your favourite movie star Audrey Hepburn and the kind of sunglasses that she used to wear.How can we miss out on accessories, we all are so immensely attracted towards them since we were little, always copying our mothers and wanting to wear their rings and pieces of jewellery. Fashion 2011 brings in another piece of jewellery because of the high rated gold. Kundan, the most traditional jewellery in our culture is catching up its pace again. It is one of those things which will never go out of fashion. It looks elegant with whatever you are wearing; it can be in the form of big chunky rings to small earrings. To have a piece of this jewellery you definitely not need to be rich as Kundan is very affordable yet gives a royal look.Pakistani fashion trends 2011 also give you a free reign over your fashion sense. You always have the liberty to bring out your own fashion. Always remember you look the best in what you are comfortable and know how to carry around. You can wear skinny jeans under a traditional Kurta with funky long necklaces, bangles and yet look very stylish. But in case you are a hard core fashion follower then Pakistani fashion trends 2011 is all about bright colours such as cherry red and fuchsia pink. Enjoy 2011 wearing those bright colours with matching accessories and having your confidence. Bright colours make you feel younger and look gorgeous.

Health Tips

2011-03-02T20:41:00.000-08:00

This is an interesting Topic, Are you looking for amazing health tips? Dr. Zee health tips include noshing on the best foods for your brain, how to breath correctly in yoga to discovering what types of mildew and bacteria live in your kitchen sponge. For even more amazing tips from amazing experts. His show first aired in the fall of 2009. His health tips are all about you and your health! The style of the show is just like him fun, full of energy and surprises! Dr. Zee goes to great lengths to make sure you feel safe and informed after asking a question. His show also has a "Ask Dr. Zee" section where he covers everything from relationships, money, sexual health and breast cancer. Get ready to have your door knocked on because Dr. Zee is traveling across America to help people improve their life.

1. Health Tip -- Eat Breakfast

When wakeup ,Getting your fiber in the morning results in less hunger later in the day and reduces your cravings for sugar. For breakfast Dr. Zee eats steel-cut oatmeal often with walnuts flaxseed oil and raisins. Eating breakfast also fires up your metabolism for the rest of the day. Guess what? That's right-- people who eat breakfast are also thinner than people who skip it.

2. Heath Tip -- Floss Floss Floss

The only thing you plan on eating in your golden years is applesauce get flossing. You could brush all day and still not reach the entire area of your teeth. Hygiene isn't the only hazard. You increase you risk of heart disease with lingering bacteria. Dr. Zee uses Ultraclean floss because it strectches to glide between teeth.

3. Heath Tip -- Drink Green tea

Dr. Zee drinks green tea three times a day. It's loaded with heart-boosting and cancer-fighting polyphenols that's missing in black tea. (These polyphenols are destroyed when it's fermented.)

4. Heath Tip -- Breath Deeply

Because your lungs will fill with nitric oxide, a chemical located at the back of your nose that dialates blood vessals. Here's how: push out your stomach and inhale air through your nose to fill your lungs. This level of oxygen will make you more alert and feel happier. This is one of Dr. Zee's secret strategies to calm himself before his show.

5. Heath Tip -- Go yoga

We know yoga looks like a bunch of people tied up like pretzels and some of that stuff looks like it would really hurt. Och! but stick with me. Yoga is Dr. Zee's most important excercise of the day. He says being surrounded with beautiful women in spandex should be a BIG enough reason to join a class but if you need more inspiration factor this: Yoga reduces stress, reduces bloodpressure,reduces heart and rate adds flexibility. Dr. Zee's favorite move is the sun salutation.

6. Heath Tip -- Get Your Sleep!

jay Leno is funny, but your health is more important. Seven hours of sleep a night not only helps you live longer, but also improves your memory, reduces your stress and reduces cravings for foods that can make you bust out of your pants. Get on a regular bedtime schedule.

7. Heath Tip -- Colorize Your Diet

Taste the color of the of the rainbow. No I don't mean skittles-- I mean nine fistfuls of vibrantly colored vegetables and fuits every day. These foods don't just look pretty-- they are loaded with powerful compounds carotenoids and flavonoids that bind the destructive free radicals in your body reducing inflammation. Dr. Zee claims these foods are often more powerful than pharmacy drugs. His favorites are blueberries and arugula.

8. Health Tip -- Control your Health

Your doctor can support your health but the greatest responsibilty is yours. You should always get a second opion because according to Dr. Zee 30 percent of the time that opinon it will change the plan or diagnosis. Learn about any family medical concerns and keep a written medical history. Consider Google Health or Microsoft Health Vault so your your files are accessible if you are ever far from home and in danger.

9. Health Tip -- Seek Love and Support

Do you know why women live longer than men? Talking about their problems with there tight networks is one BIG reason. Don't face life's challenges alone or it will age you. Bankruptcy is one heartbreak that can cause tremendous stress on your body. With enough love and support you can slow this aging process.

10. Health Tip -- Forget fad diets

"The secret to weight loss is not to avoid carbs, fats, yellow foods, solid foods, or foods that start with the letter G. The real trick is to lower your daily intake by about 100 calories. You'll hardly notice, but it'll add up to a loss of about 10 pounds in a year. Calorie restriction has been shown to lengthen life (in rats and monkeys)." Dr. Zee reduces his calories once a year to reset his appetite and tastebuds. This makes healthy food taste great!

Top10Mobiles

2011-02-24T20:01:00.000-08:00

1. Apple iPhone 5

Sorry folks, we couldn’t ignore the next-gen Jesus phone. Nobody knows anything reliable about the upcoming iPhone, although noisy blog speculation is already in full force. We don’t know if it will be called iPhone 5, iPhone 4G, or something else. But we’re pretty sure it’s coming in June or July—iPhones always do. Surely Apple will have plenty of surprises for us, and it’s likely that a new iPhone will come with industry-leading features. The real question is, with a Verizon iPhone 4 coming in early February—can you wait that long?

2. Motorola Atrix (AT&T)

The most interesting phone I saw at CES and the one I’m personally waiting most anxiously for, the Motorola Atrix is an Android phone that turns into a Linux-powered, desktop or laptop PC when it’s popped into the appropriate dock. Could this replace a tablet, a netbook, or a home media center? I really want to find out.

3. Motorola Droid Bionic (Verizon Wireless)

The dual-core, NVIDIA Tegra 2 processor in the Motorola Droid Bionic means this 4G LTE phone will be up to twice as fast as other top smartphones. I’ve seen the Tegra difference when playing games, and it means sharper backgrounds, better shadows, and more enemies to fight. The Droid Bionic may very well be Verizon’s power leader when it launches.

4. T-Mobile Sidekick 4G

The T-Mobile Sidekick is a cult device with an intensely faithful following. After Sidekick-maker Danger was bought by Microsoft, fans thought they’d never see a new model. T-Mobile recently said the Sidekick is coming back as a 4G HSPA+ Android phone, but didn’t give many details. This image seems to hint that it will eschew a swiveling screen for a slider design.

5. HTC Thunderbolt (Verizon Wireless)

HTC is beloved for giving a bit more style and finish to its Android phones than some other manufacturers, and the 4G HTC Thunderbolt comes with the company’s award-winning Sense UI overlay. It also has an 8-megapixel camera and an HD video recorder, which may make this an excellent 4G phone for YouTube devotees.

6. Samsung Infuse 4G (AT&T)

Super-thin, with a super-huge, Super AMOLED Plus screen, the Samsung Infuse will give you a truly cinematic Android experience. The 4.5-inch display carries the same 800-by-480 resolution as most other smart phones, but Samsung says Super AMOLED Plus will improve its colors. The Infuse will be one of the first phones to run on AT&T’s fast HSPA+ network.

7. Samsung Galaxy S 4G (T-Mobile)

T-Mobile’s Editors’ Choice-winning Samsung Vibrant is getting a faster cousin on February 13 with the introduction of the Galaxy S 4G, which T-Mobile pre-announced on January 20. We don’t know much about the new generation Galaxy S, although we’re hoping T-Mobile’s phone is the same as the dual-core Galaxy S lineup that Samsung is promising.

8. LG Revolution (Verizon Wireless)

Verizon debuted four new LTE, Android-based phones at CES this year. The LG Revolution’s key features include 1080p HD video capture and the ability to organize your Android apps into folders, preventing your app tray from getting much too long.

9. HTC 7 Pro (Sprint)

Windows Phone 7 will debut on Sprint very, very soon with this big, sliding-QWERTY-keyboard model. Like many other Windows Phone 7 devices, the 7 Pro has a 1GHz processor and a 5-megapixel camera. The form factor is the selling point here, with a tilting screen that makes it look like a little laptop.

10. Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc (AT&T?)

Sony Ericsson’s comeback could come from this Android 2.3 "Gingerbread" phone with a razor-sharp screen, spectacular camera, and the ability to be manipulated by your TV’s remote control. While the company told us it wants to sell this phone here in the U.S, we’ve put it in last place on this list because Sony Ericsson has a lousy track record of getting its phones picked up by U.S. carriers. If it does appear, the Xperia Arc will most likely show up on AT&T.Also notable: Sony Ericsson is expected to debut a "PlayStation phone" next month, though we don’t know whether that’s ever coming to the U.S. We should know more when MWC commences on Feb. 13.

Android Samsung

2011-02-17T20:49:00.000-08:00

The Samsung Behold II will be launched into the market this holiday season.
It will come with Samsung Touch Wiz UI featuring a Cube menu, 3.2-inch AMOLED touch screen display, 5MP camera with Auto focus & Flash, up to 16GB external memory, A-GPS, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth 2.1, music player and Android market.T-Mobile is soon going to launch a new Android Smartphone known as the Samsung Behold II. Samsung Behold was originally launched as a feature phone but now Samsung has decided to transform the Behold into a full featured Smartphone device.

ANDROID POWERED SAMSUNG BEHOLD II

Envy Iphones

2011-02-15T04:56:00.000-08:00

Companies should be cautious to not evoke the more negative form of envy that drives people away from products. "Advertisers should make sure that the celebrities they want to use in their ads actually deserve their status," the authors write. "If they do not, these celebrities might actually trigger malicious envy and the sales of products from a competitor could even go up".People are willing to pay more for products that elicit their envybut that's only when they are motivated by a positive, non-malignant form of envy, as per a newly released study in the Journal of Consumer Research"Our studies showed that people who had been made envious of someone who owned an iPhone were willing to pay 80 Euros more on average," write authors Niels van de Ven, Marcel Zeelenberg, and Rik Pieters (Tilburg University).The scientists made some important discoveries about the motivations that result from different kinds of envy. "Note that two types of envy exist: non-malignant and malicious envy," the authors explain. "Non-cancerous envy exists if the advantage of the other person is deserved, and motivates people to attain a coveted good or position for themselves. This more motivating type of envy makes people pay an envy premium for the products that elicited their envy." Conversely, malicious envy occurs if the other person is believed to be undeserving; it evokes a desire to "pull down" the other person.In a series of experiments, the authors compared non-malignant envy with its malicious cousin. They observed that only benignly envious people were willing to pay more for products that they coveted. Maliciously envious people were more likely to pay more for related but different products. For example, people who felt maliciously envious of someone with an iPhone were more likely to pay more for a BlackBerry.
In the experiments (which involved potential internships as well as products like iPhones), the participants were asked to imagine feeling jealousy and admiration for the fellow student (Non-cancerous Envy condition), to imagine feeling jealous and begrudging (the Malicious Envy condition), or just to imagine that they really liked the product (Control condition).

Evolution Of Mobils

2011-02-15T04:48:00.000-08:00

The speed of 4G technology will significantly increase the usage of mobile broadband and the mobile devices which were presented during CES 2011 will definitely change the user experience of mobile Internet browsing, video chatting and streaming.If you agree with the line of thinking that a picture can replace a thousand words, you would surely agree with the extension - that a model can replace a zillion pictures. So assuming that it would be boring to look at a chart, however well-done, to visualize the evolution of a device, give your eyes a treat by looking at this creation by UK-based designer Kyle Bean to demonstrate the evolution of the mobile phone.The design captures the evolution of the mobile phone in Russian Babushka doll style - starting from the earliest Motorola DynaTAC 8000X to the current Apple iPhone. A lesson or two for schools to make history more interesting.Telecommunication companies are going to change mobile phone plans in order to support the 4G mobile phones' download performance.

Bridal Lehenga

2011-02-12T02:10:00.000-08:00

This page contains all information about Stylish Bridal Lehenga and Stylish Bridal Lehenga ,Bridal Lehenga 2011 ,Bridal Lehenga designs ,Bridal Lehenga fashion 2011 ,latest Bridal Lehenga fashion .Latest Bridal Lehenga Collection. Browse our newly arrived Bridal Lehenga designs with heavy embroidery work. These Bridal Lehenga are for Party Wearand Wedding wear.

Fabric |     Georgette
Work |     Embroidered
Colour |     White
Occasion |     Wedding and Bridal
Heres your chance to worship your beauty with this White georgette embroidered lehenga intricate with resham thread, sequins, beads, zari thread, zardosi work, patch work, butta work, kasab and heavy work.This lehenga is paired with match dupatta and designer choli.There might be some color variation.

Today Bridal Lehenga is still used as a bridal wear in north India.Nimsdivine.com is your ideal destination to make a choice for this special outfit for the very special day. The Bridal Lehenga fashion 2011 are made with heavy embellishments andsequin work. You get these latest Bridal Lehenga fashion in a wide range of budget variation. Just note down your requirements and choices and get startled at our collection that is nevertheless to cease at any point.Bridal Lehenga is still considered to be one of the most graceful and sophisticated lehenga of Indian and Pakistani women.

Party Lehnga

2011-02-12T00:25:00.000-08:00

Beautiful party wear lehnga design with beautiful motif design in lehnga blouse , lehnga Choli and Lehnga dupatta also, Its a very Costly and beautiful hand made lehnga design for wedding, and mehndi party wear, this lehnga can also be used as bridal wear .

Beautiful Lehnga choli design having a beautiful blouse design because of heavy floral motif hand work on lehnga blouse , the Lehnga is also decorated with beautiful motif stars and lehnga dupatta is in net style .So nice Lehnga choli design with heavy motif and zari hand work on green lehnga and having a beautiful net dupatta style .Nice bridal Lehnga choli with fish style lehnga style and lehnga blouse has a beautiful neck design which is decorated with motif designs.

The lehnga blouse is in full sleeve style .
beautiful lehnga choli design in light maroon color for bridal wear , this lehnga choli has a beautiful motif neck design in round style and lehnga is also decorated in motif and zari designs, The lehnga is in Fish style and lehnga depatta is also decorated with motif borders.

Kurta Style

2011-02-10T03:16:00.000-08:00

Women often wear Kurtis as blouses, usually over jeans. These Kurtis are typically much shorter than the traditional garments and made with a lighter materials, like those used in sewing kameez .Women’s Kurta popularly known as kurti is a stylish and gorgeous clothing. It is a loose long sleeved shirt, from shoulders to the knees or something nearby it. The size comes in varying lengths. Some kurtis are as long as to knees whereas the length of some of the Kurtis are up to waist only.The arm width of the sleeve don’t change from shoulders to wrist.For different seasons, there are different types of Kurtis available. Usually it is worn with loose salwar pants and with churidar pants (pajamas) which is a tight-fitting variant of the salwar. Now-a-days it is designed to be wore on jeans or trousers. Kurtis are worn as daily casual wear as well as formal dress. Kurta is suitable for all occasions starting from home to college to office to any formal occasions which give a very elegant and graceful look.HistoryKurta is a Persian/Urdu word. It means a collarless shirt. It is a traditional type of dress worn generally by the people of Indian sub-continents. Kurta was used to be one of the main clothing for the natives of Asian countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. People used to wear it on different occasions like any festival or any fair or any family function. Kurta had different looks earlier. It came as sherwani, pathan-dress, golband and many more. Earlier kurta was the dress of gents only. But gradually it became the most sought after clothing for ladies.

Now-a-days it is designed to be wore on jeans or trousers. Kurtis are worn as daily casual wear as well as formal dress. Kurta is suitable for all occasions starting from home to college to office to any formal occasions which give a very elegant and graceful look.HistoryKurta is a Persian/Urdu word. It means a collarless shirt. It is a traditional type of dress worn generally by the people of Indian sub-continents. Kurta was used to be one of the main clothing for the natives of Asian countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. People used to wear it on different occasions like any festival or any fair or any family function. Kurta had different looks earlier. It came as sherwani, pathan-dress, golband and many more. Earlier kurta was the dress of gents only. But gradually it became the most sought after clothing for ladies.

Style
The kurtas come with and without collars. The type of collars are as in sherwani and achkans. It is generally U-shaped or V-shaped around the neck. Kurtis generally have a front opening. Some of them have buttons. The upper front portion is embroidered with threads of silk, cotton, gold, silver, or other material, upon any woven fabric, leather or paper.Embroidery, printed designs, embellishments with beads, laces, mirrors etc. also enhance the overall look of these fashionable kurtas. Beads and mirror work is used to beautify these kurtas.
Fabric
The fabric used in Kurtis mainly depend upon the seasons. Summer Kurtis are made of cotton fibers or thin silk threads. These are very light weight and soft. It gives a sexy look and comfort feel. Winter kurtis are made of thicker fabric such as wool or khadi silk, a thick, coarse, hand spun and handwoven mixed with other fibers. Winter Kurtis provide style, fashion along with protection from cold. The common fabrics used in Ladies Kurti are:
—Cotton
—Silk
–-Wool
—Georgette
—Chiffon
—Khadi silk
—Satin
—Crepe
Types of Kurtas
Ladies kurta can be of following types:
—Sleeveless Kurta
—Half sleeved Kurta
—Full sleeved Kurta
Kurta describes your personality and attitude in a stylish way . It defines your character and enhances your reputation. Wearing Kurta makes one feel taller.

Material

Kurtas worn in the summer months are usually made of thin silk or cotton fabrics; winter season kurtas are made of thicker fabric such as wool (as in Kashmiri kurtas) or Khadi silk, a thick, coarse, handspun and handwoven silk that may be mixed with other fibers.
Kurtas are typically fastened with tasseled ties, cloth balls and loops, or buttons. Ready-made kurtas often avoid the use of horn buttons, in deference to Hindu sentiments; such buttons are frequently made from cow or or horns. Buttons are often wood or plastic. Kurtas worn on formal occasions might feature decorative metal buttons, which are not sewn to the fabric, but, like cufflinks, are fastened into the cloth when needed. Such buttons can be decorated with jewels, enameling, and other traditional jewelers’ techniques

Tags: a thick, buffalo hooves, coarse, Cotton, cufflinks, embellishments with beads, golband, gold, gorgeous clothing, handspun, Khadi silk, kurta for women, laces, lighter materials, long sleeved shirt, mirrors, pathan-dress, sherwani, Silk, silver, thicker fabric, U-shaped or V-shaped, very elegant

Silver Garnet with Chain

2011-02-03T19:54:00.000-08:00

This fun pendant combines, the red hot garnet and the cool silver to perfection. The black enamel frame accentuates the hearts below. Adorn it on her with the complimentary silver finish chain and see her face come alive with joy.

Garnet Wt: 1/0.15 cts

Silver Wt: 4.000 gms

Silver Purity: 92.5%

Metal:Silver with black enamel

Chain Length:18 inches

Chain Metal: Silver finish metal

Pendant Height:2.70cm X 1.50cm

Price:$17.66 Rs.800.00

Valentine Silver Garnet Heart Pendant with Chain

Diamond Pendant

2011-02-03T19:46:00.000-08:00

When you fall in love, there are no boundaries and you go deeper till you reach a height of madness.

Diamond Pcs :1

Diamond Wt :0.04cts

Diamond Colour:- White H

Diamond Clarity :SI3 Eye Clean

Gold Wt :1.250gms

Gold Purity: 18kt.

Pendant Height :1.9cm & Width - 1.00 cm

Price:$113.69 Rs.5,150.00

Madly In Love Diamond Pendant

Political world history

2011-02-02T05:59:00.000-08:00

Political world history

Main article: history of political thinking

The political history of the world is the history of the various political entities created by the Human race throughout their existence on Earth and the way these states define their borders. The history of political thinking goes back to antiquity. Political history, and thus the history of political thinking throughout human existence stretches though up to Medieval period and the Renaissance. In the Age of Enlightenment, political entities expanded from basic systems of self-governance and monarchy to the complex democratic and communist systems that exist of the Industrialied and the Modern Era, in parallel, political systems have expanded from vaguely defined frontier-type boundaries, to the definite boundaries existing today.

Aspects of political history

The first "scientific" political history was written by Leopold von Ranke in Germany in the 19th century. His methodologies profoundly affected the way historians critically examine sources; see historiographyfor a more complete analysis of the methodology of various approaches to history. An important aspect of political history is the study of ideology as a force for historical change. One author asserts that "political history as a whole cannot exist without the study of ideological differences and their implications."^[6] Studies of political history typically centre around a single nation and its political change and development. Some historians identify the growing trend towards narrow specialization in political history during recent decades: "while a college professor in the 1940s sought to identify himself as a "historian", by the 1950s "American historian" was the designation."^[7]

From the 1970s onwards, new movements sought to challenge traditional approaches to political history. The development of social history and women's history shifted the emphasis away from the study of leaders and national decisions, and towards the role of ordinary citizens; "...by the 1970s "the new social history" began replacing the older style. Emphasis shifted to a broader spectrum of American life, including such topics as the history of urban life, public health, ethnicity, the media, and poverty."^[8] As such, political history is sometimes seen as the more 'traditional' kind of history, in contrast with the more 'modern' approaches of other fields of history.

Britain

Readman (2009) discusses the historiography of British political history in the 20th century. It describes how British political scholarship mostly ignored 20th century history due to temporal proximity to the recent past, the unavailability of primary sources, and the potential for bias. The article explores how transitions in scholarship have allowed for greater interest in 20th century history among scholars, which include less reliance on archival sources, methodological changes in historiography, and the flourishing of new forms of history such as oral history.

Germany

In the course of the 1960s, however, some German historians (notably Hans-Ulrich Wehler and his cohort) began to rebel against this idea, instead suggesting a "Primacy of Domestic Politics" (Primat der Innenpolitik), in which the insecurities of (in this case German) domestic policy drove the creation of foreign policy. This led to a considerable body of work interpreting the domestic policies of various states and the ways this influenced their conduct of foreign policy.

France

The French Annales School had already put an emphasis on the role of geography and economics on history, and of the importance of broad, slow cycles rather than the constant apparent movement of the "history of events" of high politics. It downplayed politics and diplomacy. The most important work of the Annales school, Fernand Braudel's The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, contains a traditional Rankean diplomatic history of Philip II's Mediterranean policy, but only as the third and shortest section of a work largely focusing on the broad cycles of history in the longue durée ("long term"). The Annales were broadly influential, leading to a turning away from political history towards an emphasis on broader trends of economic and environmental change.

Social history

In the 1960s and 1970s, an increasing emphasis on giving a voice to the voiceless and writing the history of the underclasses, whether by using the quantitative statistical methods of social history or the more qualitative assessments of cultural history, also undermined the centrality of diplomatic history to the historical discipline.

References:[From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia]

MY jewellery collection

2011-02-02T05:32:00.000-08:00

This is a beautiful style of jewelery .every human have right to take makeup and look beautifully .Here I brought the latest and remarkably designed Jewelry Polki and Diamond Collection. The stunning Jewelry Polki and Diamond collection includes the necklaces, both heavy and light, with and without stones, earrings, delicate and heavy, Bracelets, rings, etc

Music History

2011-02-02T04:37:00.000-08:00

(800 - 1400 C.E.)

The Medieval Era is the longest and most remote period of musical history. It is important to note that this musical era consists of almost a thousand years worth of music. For most of the middle ages, the Church was the focal point of social life, learning, and the arts. Saint Gregory, who was pope from 590 - 640 C.E., is said to have organized a huge repetoire of chants that developed during the first centuries of the Christian church. Thus the term of "Gregorian Chant" came about.Early Medieval music notation did not look like the notation that is used in present day music. The earliest signs of a notational system notational system for music used neumes. For a long time, musical notation consisted of the pitch or note that was to be sung. Other musical notation, such as rhythm didn't begin until the 12th or 13th centuries.Gregorian Chant is monophonic , having one melodic line without an accompaniment. It is said to be very serene, with pure shapes of melody. It is not known who wrote the melodies of the Gregorian Chant. Similar to folk melodies, it probably changed over time as it was passed down through generations.

Toward the latter part of the Middle Ages, music consisted of two or more melodic lines that were heard simultaneously, calledpolyphony . This appeared around the 1200s. Polyphony was more difficult to compose than the monophonic chant, because a composer had to combine multiple melodic lines in a way that would be pleasing to the listener. Most of the Medieval polyphonic music was anonymous, as the names of composers were never written down. However, there are a few exceptions, as some composers had works so important that their names were preserved along with their music.

Although little of it has been preserved, secular song was important to the medieval era.. Secular song was monophonic and stylistically more diversified than plain song. It was stronger, and utilized regular rhythms, and had short rhythmic patterns. It was generally modal but favored major (Ionian) and minor (Aeolian) modes.

THE MEDIEVAL ERA

VOCAL SECTION

During the Medieval Era, there were many forms of vocal music. They were very simplistic in nature.

FORMS

Plainsong
One of the most common vocal forms of the time was called plainchant, the Gregorian chant, or plainsong. It is known that this form of vocal music was the main root of polyphony during both the Medieval era and in the Renaissance era.

Secular Song
While little secular song had been preserved to date, it was still a very important musical form during the Medieval era. It was very similar to plainsong in that it had single note notation, had no accompaniment, and was written in the monophonic style. The difference between secular song and plainsong was its meter. It was mostly written in triple meter. Additionally, it also dealt with a wider range of subjects than the very religious plainsong. Furthermore, secular song had clear phrase and sectional structure , was written in most vernacular languages instead of the Latin-only plainsong, and used shorter and more regular rhythms.
Polyphony
One of the greatest musical achievements in the history of music occurred during the Medieval era. This was the coming of polyphony. Polyphony is two or more vocal parts, each with its own individual melodic importance within a work. The earliest known polyphony occurred in secular music of the 8th century. However, from the 9th to the 13th centuries, polyphony grew in style and popularity and evolved into church music, which was based on plainsong.

ARS ANTIQUA

Ars Antiqua is the time period between the mid 1100s to the end of the 1200s. This phrase means "The Old Art." This was a time during the Medieval Era when polyphony developed even further.

Notre Dame Organum
     The Notre Dame organum developed shortly after the year 1150. In this form of polyphony, there were two parts sung by solo voices, alternating with sections of plainsong sung by a choir. Appearing for the first time was dicant style. This style had sections in which the tenor part contained shorter and measured notes.
Polyphonic Conductus
     The polyphonic conductus was in wide usage during the beginning half of the 13th century. The tenor part of this musical form was composed, instead of borrowed from plainsong, as it was in organum. Additionally, the parts moved together rhythmically, and the piece was written for two to four parts. The polyphonic conductus was composed in non-liturgical or secular form.
Motet
     Around the year 1250, the motet became the main polyphonic form. It started to replace organum and conductus. A motet consisted of specific musical guidelines. A plainsong was sung by the tenor voice, and above it, two other parts were sung in faster moving notes. It was written in either sacred or secular style (in Latin or in vernacular) and usually was played in triple meter with clashes of dissonantintervals.
Hocket
     Hocket was a form of polyphony that was often found in the music of the late 1200s to the 1300s. It was a technique that interrupted the melody line by frequently placing rests (which alternated between two voice parts) into the piece.
Rota
     Although not many works had this form during the Ars Antiqua stage of the Medieval Era, the rota still was present. It was a round or cannon in which two or more parts carried the same melody at different times.
Rondellus
     The rondellus was a three part, secular form, in which exchange occured between the three different melodies. This polyphonic work involved all the parts starting together rather than starting consecutively. Each part then rotated the melody.

ARS NOVA

The Ars Nova, or "The New Art," took place during the end of the Medieval era while foreshadowing some of the Renaissance trends that were to ome.

Madrigal
     Written in two vocal parts, this musical form was the first polyphonic form to appear in Italy. The madrigal had each stanza written in duple time and ended with a ritornello section in triple meter.
Caccia
     The caccia was at its musical height from 1345 to 1370. It was the primary musical form that employed the canon within it. The canon was based on a continuous imitation of two or more parts. The two upper parts were sung in strict imitation with long intervals between the two parts while the third lowest part was composed in slow moving notes and was probably played on an instrument.
Ballata
     This form came about after the madrigal and the caccia and originated as a dance song. The ballata had a sectional structure with refrains, called ripresa sung at the beginning and end of each stanza.

The Medieval Era

(800 - 1400 C.E.)

Instrumental

Although very little instrumental music has been left intact from the composers of the time period, it is a well known fact that instruments were used throughout the Medieval era.

INSTRUMENTS

Bowed Instruments
The most important of the bowed instruments were the vielles. They were the precursors of the Renaissance viol family. Another bowed instrument used during the medieval times was the rebec, which was a pear shaped instrument. Later in the time period the tromba marina appeared. It was long in shape and usually had one string. Sometimes it had two strings that were tuned in unison.

Plucked Strings
     The most important plucked string instrument was the lute. It had an angled neck and a pear shaped body. The psaltery, a flat sounding board was another instrument similar to that of the zither.
Wind Instruments
     During this time period recorders, various kinds of trumpets, and horns were in use. The shawm, which was a double reed instrument, was also used.
Organs
     In the Medieval era, portative organs or organetto were used. They were small and were able to be moved around. The positive organ was a very important instrument of the time period. It was the first organ for which polyphonic music was composed. It was of medium size and could not be moved. During the 1300s larger organs started to appear usually in the churches of Europe. Some of them had up to 2,500 or more pipes.
Percussion Instruments
     Drums came in many different shapes and sizes and were used mainly for military and dance purposes. Kettledrums, also called nakers, were used in pairs during this time period. In addition, a cylidrical drum, known as the tabor, was used. Many kinds of bells and cymbals were also used during the Medieval era.
     During the Middle Ages, composers were not all that concerned with how their written music was performed. They gave little notice to what instrument(s) would play a piece and never indicated particular instruments within their scores. It is believed that there were basically five ways in which instruments were employed during this period in music history. According to Hugh M. Miller:

1. Vocal polyphony was occassionally played entirely by instruments
2. Instruments were used to double one or more vocal parts
3. Textless parts in polyphonic music were probably intended to be played by instruments as, for example, in 13th century motetsand 14th century cacce and ballate .
4. Music clearly intended for instrumental performance was mainly dance music and a few instrumental motets and conductus .
5. They may have been substituted for voices in one or more parts with texts

Dance Music

Almost every single one of the preserved dance forms were written in monophonic style. Folk or court dance music was made up on the spot or played from memory. The principal dance form of the 1400s was the estampie. This dance form had many repeated sections and was almost always played triple time. Some other famous dances were the danse royale and the Italian saltarello and istanpittafrom the 1500s. The ductia was also a popular dance that was written in three or four sections. The finale of a dance work was named a rotta, rotte, or rota, and involved a change of meter involved.

The Medieval Era

Composers

Dufay, Guillaume (1400-1474)

Guillaume Dufay composed music from the late Medieval era into the early Renaissance. He was born in the Duchy of Burgundy, which is today known as Cambrai, located in France. His birthplace was one of the major musical centers of the world. This area influenced many of the composers who lived during the Renaissance. Throughout his life, Dufay resided in many different Italian cities, which brought a high degree of worldliness to his music.
The music of Dufay was very calm, soothing, and had direction and clear distinctions. This was in opposition to the typical music of the late Medieval era, which was often harsh and rhythmically complex. As time progressed, and musical norms started changing, so did the music of Guillaume Dufay. He began to explore the music of four voice vocal texture, which became a distinct Renaissance musical characteristic. He was one of the catalysts who helped Medieval music to move forward and transition into the Renaissance age.

de Vitry, Phillipe (1291-1361)

Phillipe de Vitry was one of the most important composers involved with Medieval music. He was the author of a prominent music theory text, called the Ars Nova. In this work, he showed how he would like to expand the rhythmic resources offered to composers, introduced new rhythmic schemes and a new mensural notation system. This new system remained an important notational device for over a century after his death. He made the first use of binary rhythm and is thus considered to be a mathematical and philosophical genius of his time period. Additionally, he is credited with being one of the main developers of the motet. He is one of the first composers to discover and use isorhythm; a single rhythmic figure continually repeated by a voice.
The only surviving works of Phillipe de Vitry were his motets. They are mostly secular, although some took on religious tones. Most of his motets were on political, as opposed to romantic, topics. He wrote his secular pieces in Latin, instead of French. He was seen as a prodigy, as he wrote about the issues of his time period and put them into musical form. Vitry is hailed today for his music theory that spurned the whole Ars Nova era of the Medieval era and for his own emotional motets. He used new modes of musical idiom that would not be refined until years after his death. He left a lasting impression on the musical world.

de Machaut, Guillaume (1300-1377)

     Born around the year 1300 in France, Guillaume de Machaut was one of the most famous composer of the Medieval era. His most well known work is the Mass of Notre Dame. Written in four voice form, this piece showed his mastery of composition, and served as a textbook example of Medieval counterpoint. He was also well known for his French poetry, songs, and manuscripts prepared for French royalty.
     Guillaume de Machaut travelled Europe during his lifetime. In addition to composing, he also was involved with the political events of the time. He surrounded himself with royalty and honorary people.
     Guillame de Machaut is considered to be an avant garde composer. His style dominated the Ars Nova period of the Medieval Era. He made little changes to rhythm and meter in his music but added his own interpretation and emotional depth to his pieces. He was also famous for his poetry, which was often set to music and conveyed messages of love.

The Renaissance Period
(1400 - 1600 C.E.)

The Renaissance era encompasses Western music history from 1400 to the begining of the 1600’s. This period in time marked the rebirth of humanism, and the revival of cultural achievements for their own sake in all forms of art, including music. The word "Renaissance" in itself is defined as a "rebirth"or a "reconstruction".

     During this time, artists and musicians produced works that displayed more artistic freedom and individualism. This creativity allowed artists to abandon the stricter ways of the Medieval Era. Their art forms rediscovered the ancient Greek ideals. The great masters of the Renaissance were revered in their own lifetimes (rather than after their deaths), which was different from most of their Medieval predecessors. With the new printing techniques, music and musical ideas were able to be preserved and distributed to the people.
     The distinctive musical sounds of the Renaissance era were comprised of a smooth, imitative, polyphonic style, as seen in the music of Byrd, Palestrina, and Lassus. While sacred music remained of great importance, secular music was starting to become increasingly common. Therefore, the polyphonic style was not only used in sacred music, but also in secular madrigals .
     The repertoire of instrumental music also began to grow considerably. New instruments were invented, including two keyboard instruments called the clavichord and virginal. In addition, many existing instruments were enhanced. The lute became the favored instrument of the time period, and it was established as the standard instrument for family music making during the 16th century.
     Masses and motets were the primary forms for sacred vocal polyphony. These were accompanied by the lute or a small instrumental ensemble or consort. Secular vocal forms included motets, madrigals and songs, while instrumental pieces were usually short polyphonic works or music for dancing.
     Renaissance polyphony was harmonious when compared with the Medieval style. Imitation was a method that composers used to make elaborate music more coherent and to give the listener a sense of arrangement. Imitation, where one melodic line shares, or "imitates," the same musical theme as a previous melodic line became an important polyphonic technique. Imitative polyphony can be easily heard in the music of Byrd, Gibbons, and Gabrieli. Additionally, the masses and motets of composers such as Josquin also displayed the imitative polyphonic style. Imitative polyphony was so important that it continued into the Baroque period, especially in sacred music for the church.

THE RENAISSANCE ERA

VOCAL

15TH CENTURY

English and Burgundian Music

FORM

During the beginning of the Renaissance period, musical form followed the same basic principles that were used the Medieval era. However, techniques evolved and new styles emerged.

    The three main forms used up to the sixteenth century were mass , motet , and chanson. They were similar in that they all werepolyphonic in texture, had four to six parts, and were all composed for voice. Additionally, the carol was also a popular Renaissance form.

Mass
    The mass was a standard liturgical form. It was polyphonic in style, with plainsong used for the tenor parts. Sometimes secular tunes would be used for cantus firmus . The mass had a regal mood to it and was of considerable length. It was divided into five sections, or movements, and used sacred Latin text.
Motet
    A motet was a sacred choral composition based on a single Latin text and sung in all voice parts. The top voice was greatly emphasized. The motet short in length, and written in one continuous movement. It was also written on a variety of different subjects, usually derived from the Bible.
Chanson
    The most popular and common secular music during the early Renaissance was the polyphonic chanson. It was reminiscent of the solo song, which used the principal melody in the top voice. These secular texts were written in French. The chanson had the same polyphonic texture of the mass but was more rhythmic.
Carol
    During the Renaissance era, the carol was a popular music form in England. It consisted of two parts and was sung to a religious poem of numerous stanzas with the same music and refrain.

Franco-Flemish Music

FORM

The Franco-Flemish school of music was at its height during the 1400s. The Franco-Flemish composers were more interested in creating new techniques within the popular existing forms, as opposed to inventing new form types.

Canon
The cannon made its first appearance during the 1300s in the popular caccia of the Medieval era. It was abandoned at the turn of the next century and reappeared with new popularity during the latter part of the 1400s. The new canon employed some interesting techniques.

1. Mensuration canons-several voices carrying the same melody at different rates of speed.
2. Retrograde canons-the melody is sung backwards.
3. Augmentation canons-the time values of the notes increase in the imitating voice.
4. Double canons-four parts with two different melodies, each canonically imitated. (55)

Mass
    A new form of mass emerged, called the cantus firmus mass. Here, each successive section of the ordinary had the same melody. These cantus firmi were usually written in the plainsong style, but sometimes secular music was used. Most of the time, these masses were based on cantus firmus.
Motet
    Ther was less use of cantus firums in motets than in masses. The Franco-Flemish motet made use of sections written in duet style, chordal style, fugal or imitative style, and free non-imitative counterpoint .

Secular Music
    The chanson remained the dominant form of secular music, as it had been in the English style. The Franco-Flemish school made variations to it and made it less sectionalized. Lieder, a monophonic or polyphonic German secular work, gained popularity from the end of the 1400s to the end of the 1500s.

16TH CENTURY

It is in the 1500s that the Renaissance reached its height. In terms of vocal polyphony, the Renaissance exhibited monumental growth.

Throughout the sixteenth century, vocal polyphony reached its ultimate degree of perfection. Religious music was no longer led by the Roman Catholic Church, as Protestant music was also coming into common usage. While the vocal style still dominated the musical world, instrumental style began to increasingly appear. Secular music gained additional popularity, and schools besides the dominating Franco-Flemish one evolved all across the globe.

ROMAN CATHOLIC MUSIC

Form

Throughout the 1500s, liturgical music grew in size, technique, and usage. Religious music was still dominated by masses and motets. Also, some non-liturgical forms began to develop and became somewhat popular during the second half of the Renaissance.

Mass
    The main type of mass used during this time was the cantus firmus mass. It used plainsongs and secular melodies. Another common mass used during the sixteenth century was the parody mass, which had a complete secular chanson or motet altered to fit the text of the ordinary mass. After the early 1500s, completely canonic masses became less and less commonly used.
Motet
    The motet did not change much in form or technique. In fugal motets, each successive phrase of text introduced a new concept or theme that was then imitated in other voices. Some motets divided the text from one line to the next so that more than one voice sang each new line of text.
Non-liturgical forms
    The most popular non-liturgical form of the time period was the laude. This was a religious song of praise that was given a simple polyphonic setting in chordal style. Its text was in either Latin or Italian.
Schools
    Although the Franco-Flemish school still dominated the musical world, other schools became important, and developed music themselves. These schools were the Spanish school, the English school, the Venetian school, and the German school.

REFORMATION MUSIC

The Protestant Reformation led to many new developments in church music. Roman Catholic church music still dominated the era, but Protestantism added creative innovations to the music world.

Germany

Martin Luther, who sparked the Protestant Reformation, with his Ninety Five Theses, in 1517, believed strongly that music should be involved in church music. He felt that the congregation should participate in the service, especially in hymn singing.

Chorale
The chorale was one of the most important musical forms to come out of the Protestant Reformation. It was a hymn that was meant to be sung by the congregation. At first, chorales were monophonic and then progressed to four part harmony. Eventually, the chorales were used in more elaborate settings and were performed by choruses. Choral preludes , were contrapuntal arrangements of chorales which were played on an organ.

France

In France, the Huguenot movement yielded an important literature of psalms set to music.

Psalms
Biblical psalms were translated into French verse and then set to melodies. These psalms were meant to be sung in unison by the congregation and also to be sung at home. Additionally, four part harmonization and more elaborate contrapuntal arrangements of psalms were developed in this era.

England

Church Music
Psalm singing also became popular in England during the second half of the Renaissance. The English mass equivalent of the Catholic mass was called the "service." This mass was set to texts in a polyphonic manner. Besides services, two other forms of polyphony were present at this point in time. These were the Catholic anthem, which was a catholic motet with an English text, and the verse anthem, which alternated solo and choral sections and used organ or string accompaniment. In addition, Anglican chant was based upon Catholic plainsong. The English language now replaced Latin texts, and the melodies were given metrical organization.

SECULAR MUSIC

Secular music of the time developed into wider geographic areas during the second half of the Renaissance. It continued to grow and diversify in form and style well into the 1600s. Secular music of the time had specific rules, according to Hugh M. Miller:

1. As in the 14th century, secular music again rivaled sacred music, largely because of the widespread renaissance spirit of secularization and also because poetry was flourishing.
2. The rise of national schools was even more pronounced in secular that in sacred music, although the influence of Netherlands composers was still strong.
3. Secular music flourished in all European courts under the patronage of nobility
4. It should be remembered that Renaissance secular music everywhere was intended as entertainment for amateur performers rather than as concert music.
5. It was composed and performed as chamber music for a few participants rather than for large choral ensembles.

Italian Form

During the late 1400s, popular vocal forms, referred to collectively as the vocal canzoni, appeared in Italy. These forms of music were generally in four parts, strongly metrical, predominantly chordal, and had dance like rhythms to them. These forms came right before the 16th century madrigal . The madrigal developed from the 1500s to the 1600s, and had more expressiveness to it, was more contrapuntally elaborate, and was more polished overall.

French Form

The most popular secular form in France were the polyphonic chanson and the solo chanson with contrapuntal accompaniment. While some chansons were in chordal style, others had more elegant counterpoint with imitation. The chanson measures, a type of chanson from the late 1500s, made use of quantitative rhythms, which stressed syllables were given twice the note values of unstressed syllables, resulting in frequently shifting meters.

English Form

English madrigals were popular during the sixteenth century. An English madrigal used five voices. It was written in a light and leisurely manner. A form of the madrigal called ballett was also popular. It used refrains in lively contrapuntal style alternating with chordal style for the stanzas.

German Form

A popular type of secular music in Germany during this time was the polyphonic lied. This was written in four voices with imitative counterpoint. The basis for this form was often popular songs. Another popular German form during the Renaissance was quodlibet. This form had various popular tunes and their texts humorously combined in a contrapuntal manner.

Spanish Form

The main Spanish secular form during the Renaissance was the villancico. The villancico was a four part work, written mostly in chordal style, with a regular metric construction. This was based on a three stanza poem and was musically structured according to the formula A B B A. This form of music was performed as solo songs with instruments playing the lower parts.

The Renaissance Era

Instrumental

Even though the instrumental music of the Renaissance period did not equal the vocal music, in terms of quality and quantity, it still played an integral part of the era. Instrumental music gained in popularity and developeda musical form that was distinct from vocal music.

During the Renaissance era, instrumental music was written according to specific rules.

1. Improvisation was very important in performance and for melodic ornamentation.
2. Transcriptions of vocal music for instrumental performance were numerous.
3. Instruments were freely employed in the performance of vocal music.
4. Some instrumental forms were borrowed from vocal forms, while others were instrumentally invented.

Instrumental music also had specific characteristics during the Renaissance Era. The instrumental style of the Renaissance time period was also distinct.

1. Melodic range was wider than vocal limitations.
2. There was extensive ornamentation including coloration, embellishment, and figuration.
3. There was a much freer treatment of dissonance.
4. In lute and keyboard music contrapuntal parts were freely added or dropped without indicating rests.
5. There were exceedingly long and rapid scale passages.
6. There were numerous wide skips.

During this era, the instruments on which musicians played from day to day also improved. The instruments most commonly used were of keyboards, strings, and winds.

STRING INSTRUMENTS

Bowed Strings
Ancestors of the 17th century violin family, Renaissance viols, were fretted instruments with six strings tuned in fourths, with a third in the middle (A d g b e’ a’). They were used in various ensembles called consorts (consisting entirely of viols) or in mixed consorts, which had recorders and other instruments in it.

Plucked Strings
The most popular solo instrument of the Renaissance was the lute. It had an angled neck and pear shaped body. Lutes were fretted instruments. It had six strings tuned, as did viols, in fourths with a third in the middle (G c f a d’ g’). Lute music was often written in tablature, a special kind of musical notation that indicates the fret and string for a given note. Being extremely versatile, the lute was used for solo, accompaniment and for ensemble music purposes.

WIND INSTRUMENTS

The most important wind instrument of the Renaissance era was the recorder. The recorder was a hollow, end-blown wooden flute. The recorder was also a very versatile instrument and it was used in may different types of ensemble music. It ranged in size from treble to bass. Other notable wind instruments were the shawm and the cromorn (double reed woodwinds), coronets (soft toned instruments made out of wood or ivy), and early trumpets and trombones (restricted to the natural tone of the harmonic series). These instruments were first emerging and were confined to fanfares or to outdoor music festivals.

KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS

Organs and keyboards were the primary keyboard instruments used during the Renaissance era. They were commonly found in churches. In their earliest form, pedalboards were not built into such organs (except in Germany). Regals, or positive organs, were in wide use since the Medieval period, while the portative organ died out during the latter 1600s.

Additionally, there were two other types of keyboard instruments now present in the musical world. They were the clavichord and the harpsichord.
Keyboard instruments were mainly used for solo purposes during the Renaissance, and rarely accompanied vocal polyphony . It was an even rarer occurrence that a vocal or ensemble piece to be accompanied by a clavichord or harpsichord.

ENSEMBLES

The term Renaissance ensemble is meant to be used in a simplistic, unevolved form. Rarely did an ensemble match what we would today call an orchestra. Instead, ensembles were basically small chamber groups. Seldom was specific instrumentation for ensembles declared in a score.

FORMS OF MUSIC

Renaissance composers did not give much thought to whether their pieces would be vocal or instrumental. Most pieces of the time were written “per cantar e sonar”, which means “for singing and playing”. Composers wrote their works so that either the voice or instruments could be used to convey the message of their work. There was still a distinction between sacred and secular music during the 1700s.

Dance Music
     In its begining stages, dance music was written to accompany social gatherings. Later on, during the 1700s, a more structured and specifically styled dance form was developed. Dance music became popular and its form was filled with strong rhythm and repeating sections. The dances of the time were usually arranged in groups of 2 or 3 movements. In the typical dance pair, both sections had the same tune; the first dance was in slow tempo while the following one was faster with a change of meter. The lute, which was popular, helped to play dance music, while the harpsichord and small ensembles also contributed to this art form.
Cantus Firmus Forms
     The cantus firmus musical form was basically for use in the Church, as it was liturgical music. Usually, this type of music was played by an organist between verses of a hymn sung by the congregation or choir. Stylistically, a cantus firmus piece was based on simplisticplainsong or secular song, which was meant to be played by a harpsichord, organ, or an ensemble of viols.
Improvisational Forms
     The prelude was the main improvosational form during the Renaissance. Usually composed for keyboard or lute instruments, it was an instrumental type which made use of a collection of materials in order to give the listener a feeling of improvisation.
Variation Forms
     Variations were written in many different ways. Theme and variation form was based on a popular tune which itself was modified with each restatement. Another variation was called ground, which used short themes of four to eight measures in the bass and had a changingcounterpoint played above it. A cantus firmus variation used a single melody which was repeated a number of times. Each time the melody was repeated it was accompanied by a different counterpoint and in a different voice. English hexachord variations used as a theme the first 6 notes of a scale. This was most common in virginal music.

The Renaissance Era

Composers

Byrd, William (1543-1623)

     William Byrd was born in the county of Eincolnshire, England (the same place where Robin Hood lived). William Byrd was a composer of music for both the Protestant and Catholic churches. For the Protestant church, he composed Great Service and Short Service. For the Catholic church, he composed masses , hymns, and madrigals .
     During his childhood, he was probably one of the Children of the Chapel Royal in London, since it is known that Byrd was raised listening to music composed by Thomas Tallis. Tallis was the organist and choir director of that Chapel. At age twenty, he became Organist of the Lincoln Cathedral in his home town and later became a Gentleman at the Chapel Royal. He became the organist at the Chapel and worked along with his mentor Thomas Tallis.
     Byrd is famous for writing extraordinary masses, motets , vocal and solo songs, and for chamber music composed for strings without voice. He is well known for his madrigals as well. The Sweet and Merry Month of May is very typical of the madrigals that Byrd wrote. He was described as a man with natural gravity and piety. He was versatile in instrumental form too, as he also wrote chamber music. During his life, he was considered the foremost composer of keyboard music in all of Europe. Byrd composed and excelled in writing sacred, secular, vocal and instrumental music and left a lasting impression on the musical world.

Desprez, Josquin (1440-1521)

Throughout his life, he was by far the most sought after composer in all of Europe. He was born in the Duchy of Burgandy, now Beligium, and spent his life living in various Italian cites. He retired to Conde in Northeast France.
He helped to spread polyphony in Northern Italy. In Josquin's extended works, a certain subtlety and serenity were always included, (a characteristic of the Franco-Flemish school). The repetoire of his music surviving today is rather large and is made up of motets, masses and secular songs, in both French and Italian. He was a master of four-voice and other large textures, as well as parodies, light songs, and French chansons. Because of his human quality, quantity, and technical mastery, Josquin is still extremely renowned and respected as a composer today.

Gabrielli, Giovanni (1554-1612)

Born in Italy in 1554, Giovanni Gabrielli was a composer of sacred and secular vocal music. He also composed music for string, keyboard, and wind ensemble pieces. He is best known for his perfection of the cori spezzati musical form, in which choirs or performing groups are broken up into sections and dispersed in and around the performance space. Gabrielli was also famous for his chromatic motets written about damnation and hell. Additionally, he was a promoter of the music of Monteverdi.

Gibbons, Orlando (1583-1625)

Orlando Gibbons lived during the historical high point of English music. Gibbons is renowned as being the greatest English composer of his generation. He was born in Oxford, played and taught music to royalty, and died at the age 42.
Along with other composers of the time, Gibbons wrote new music and developed new techniques for consort music. He also is famous for his sacred choral music, English anthems, and verse anthems. Additionally, he wrote consort songs for vocal madrigals and solo songs with viol consort accompaniments. His madrigal The Silver Swan is well known. His music remains well loved today and his choral music is constantly played as part of the English Cathedral repetoire.

Ockeghem, Johannes (1410-1497)

Ockeghem is known as one of the fathers of Renaissance music. He was born in 1410 and became one of the most respected composers of the fifteenth century. Very little of his musical repetoire survives today. He is known for his motets, masses, and secular chansons.
Stylistically, Johannes Ockeghem was very distinct. In his vocal pieces, he placed an emphasis on expressive and complex bass lines. This new emphasis on lower textures allowed Renaissance composers to have a wide range of diversity in their music. Ockeghem has been described as a purely technical master. He is also considered to be a pioneer of western polyphony and one of the supreme masters of lyrical and contrapuntal invention.

Palestrina, Giovanni (1525-1594)

Giovanni Pierluigi de Palestrina was an Italian composer who wrote over one hundred settings of the mass. He composed sacred music and was an important musical figure of the Renaissance. He is best known for his "seamless texture" of polyphony.
His prominent works are his First Book of Masses, the Mass of Marcellus, and his First Book of Motets. He composed masses, motets, and sacred works. Adoramus te Christe is an example of his sacred music. His music is marked by purity, clarity, terseness, simplicity, and the omission of secular elements. Because of all of his worthy compositions, he earned the title "Prince of Music," which was engraved on the leaden plate that marks the tomb on his grave. He died in 1594, but his influence lasted for many eras past his death.

The Classical Era

(1750-1820 C.E.)

Although the Classical Era lasted for only 70 years, there was a substantial change in the music that was being produced. Classical music placed a greater stress on clarity with regard to melodic expression and instrumental color. Although opera and vocal music (both sacred and secular) were still being written, orchestral literature was performed on a much broader basis. The orchestra gained more color and flexibility as clarinets, flutes, oboes, and bassoons became permanent members of the orchestra.

     The classical style was dominated by homophony , which consisted of a single melodic line and an accompaniment. New forms of composition were developed to adapt to this style. The most important of these forms was the sonata which was in instrumental music. This form continued to change and evolve throughout the classical period, and it is important to note that the classical sonata was very different from the sonatas written by Baroque composers.
     The early 1700s reflected a musical style known as Rococo. This style served as a transition from the Baroque to the Classical Era. Rococo, which developed in France, is actually an art term that described a new art style which was both a light and embellished. Musically speaking, it is refered to as style galant. In Germany, after 1750, the style galant became empfindsamer stil. With this change in name came an added element of expressiveness and sentimentality.
     As classical music evolved, distinctive characteristics developed. Changes in form were seen along with changes in phrase structure. Shorter phraases and well defined cadences became more prevalent. During this time period, a favorite accompaniment pattern was the Alberti bass (name for Dominico Alberti), which featured a broken chord progression.
     The melodies of the Classical era were more compact and diatonic. Harmony was less structured. It used the tonic, dominant, and subdominant chords. In addition, during this period, diatonic harmony was more common then chromatic. Composers mainly used chords in triadic form and occasionally used seventh chords in their compositions.

The Modern/20th Century Era

(1900 - Present)

     With the coming of the 20th century another evolution in the musical world emerged. While some of the early 20th century music can be seen as extensions of the late Romantic style, much of 20th century music can be seen as a rebellion. Composers did not look to build on what was standard but again created music freely and used sounds that went against the current grain. Twentieth century music can be described as being more refined, vague in form, delicate, and having a mysterious atmosphere.
     Twentieth century music is an era that is hard to define in terms of musical style. The only easy way to define 20th century music is that it does not fit into the Romantic era's requirements. And because of its own expression and orchestral technique it does not fit into any other category but its own.
     This time period spawned many new terms for musical styles because of the diversity of music that was being written. Some common examples are atonality, expressionism (seen in Schoenberg's early music), neo-Romanticism , and neo-Classicism .
     As was true in the Romantic era, nationalism was still an important musical device used during the first half of the 20th century. Composers utilized folk songs to enriched their music. Examples can be seen in the music of Raplh Vaughan Williams (England), Bela Bartok (Hungary), Heitor Villa Lobos (Brazil) and Aaron Copland (USA). Jazz and popular musical styles influenced composers from both the United States and Europe.
     In 20th century musical styles traditional forms and structures were broken up and recreated or composed using non-Western musical techniques and abstract ideas. Technology also became an extremely important factor in the music making during this time period. Composers have been known to use recording tape as a compositional tool. Electronically created sounds are used in combination with other electronic sounds or played together with traditional music instruments. Most recently, the use of computer technology has affected the world of music making. Some ways in which computers currently alter the face of the music world are by manipulating the performance of instruments in real time.

     The four major composers of the Classical era were Haydn, Mozart, Gluck, and Beethoven. These composers wrote extensively for vocal and instrumental mediums.

The Modern/20^th Century

Trends

Throughout the twentieth century, many trends developed. These trends permeated all the different areas of music and did not specifically happen at a given point in time or take on a strict form. Some of these trends were incorporated together into the same piece of music. The twentieth century broke all the musical rules of the past and let one form and style flow right into another. It is still important to note that although much change came with the turn of the century, Romantic music continued throughout this era, and remained the dominant form for quite some time.

Impressionism
     Impressionism was the very first trend of significance which moved away from Romanticism and towards Modern era characteristics. Though this type of music was programmatic, it still started the movement away from the Romantic era. Impressionistic music was vague in form, delicate in nature, and had a mysterious atmosphere to it.
Expressionism
     Although not as important as Impressionism, Expressionism was a prominent early twentieth century movement. Stylistically, expressionistic music was very atonal and dissonant. It was a German movement away from French Impressionism. It was emotional and had a somewhat Romantic feel to it.
Neo-Classicism
     Neo-Classicism can be defined as the new classical movement. This movement started in the early 1920s and continued to be a leading musical movement throughout the century. This trend is still popular today. Neo-Classicism is a movement which incorporated the music of the Classical era, in terms of clarity of texture and objectivity. This trend not only based its music on the Classical era, but it also mixed Renaissance, Baroque, and some modern trends in with it.
Jazz
      Jazz is a musical movement which dominated the 1900s. It is mainly an American form and remains popular to this day. Jazz can be defined as anything from popular music of the twentieth century to the improvised sounds of a dance band. Some prominent forms of Jazz throughout the century have been Ragtime, Blues , Swing , Dixieland Jazz, Bop, and Boogie-Woogie. Since the second half of the 1900s, new forms and techniques of Jazz have come about. These include funky hard bop regression, cool jazz, progressive jazz, and rock and roll. Generally these newer styles have a greater range in harmony, rhythm, and melody, and are less oriented to dance music. They also sometimes borrow techniques and forms from classical music, and vice versa, as modern classical music often contains Jazz elements.
Aleatory Music or Chance Music
      Aleatory music is an extremely random style of music. The composer and/or the performer will randomly pick musical materials and make it into a piece of music. There are no rules to this form of music, and, thus, any kind of music can be created as a result. After the composer writes a piece in this unusual style, the performer then improvises on it, to make it stranger and more unique. Some techniques involved in aleatory music are having the audience improvise along with the performer, using electronic or computer media, or reading poetry somewhere inside of the work.
Electronic
     The newest trend of the twentieth century lies in electronic music. Electronic music takes electronically generated sounds and turns it into a work of music. Like conventional music, electronic music has four general properties to it. These are amplitude, pitch, duration, and timbre. Electronic music is typically composed on either a synthesizer or a computer. The most current trends in this form of music show electronic music in combination with Jazz.

The Modern/20^th Century

Techniques

During the Modern era, many new musical techniques emerged. They were seen in melody , harmony , rhythm, meter, texture, tonality, and sonority . It is important to note that during the twentieth century not all changes in music were a revolution or a return to old ideals.

Meter and Rhythm

Few changes occurred to the concepts of meter and rhythm during the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic eras. For the first time in hundreds of years, rhythm became a more important factor and took on characteristics of flexibility and variety.

New Time Signatures - Refers to odd time signatures, such as 5/8 and 7/8, are found in modern music.
Asymetrical Grouping - This is a grouping of notes within a measure to yield new rhythmic effects.
Non-metric Music - For non-metric flexibility, composers omit the bar line, this is limited to solo media.
Polymetric Music - This is music in which two or more meters are used simultaneously.
Multimetric Music - In this type of music frequent changes of time signature occur almost every measure.
Displaced Bar Line - This is a technique to make the barline seem as if it is misplaced or shifted. To do this, accents are put in recurring patterns to counter the normal accents in the measure.

Melody

During the 1900s, new changes to melody occured in the areas of style, scale bases, and the role of melody.

Style
     Melody in music has generally remained traditional throughout the Modern era, but there have been exceptions as some extreme forms of melody have occured.
Scale Bases
     New melodic and harmonic styles appear during this era, as a result of the use of unconventional scales. Composers have borrowed scales from old church modes and have used them in a neomodal settings.
The Role of Melody
     Up until the twentieth century melody was the most important element in any work of music. Now, the role of melody has greatly changed. It is still important in music with contrapuntal texture, but its importance is greatly diminished in music having great emphasis on harmony and rhythm, and virtually nonexistent in some forms of electronic music with nontonal sound.
Texture
     Contrapuntal textures in music dominate the Modern era. While, homophonic textures are present, it is to a lesser degree and with less importance. Texture is especially evident in neo-Classicism , where contrapuntal forms from the Baroque, such as the cannon and fugue , are used.
Sonority
     Sonority of the modern era takes on the characteristics of being thin, clear, and transparent. This resembles music of the Classical era, thus showing once again the importance of neo-Classicism in the twentieth century. Pointillism, a very thin sonority is also present in this modern era. It involves fragmentary lines, a combination of various tones sounding simultaneously, frequently changed timbres, and widely spaced registers.
Serialism & Twelve Tone Music
     Serial music is based on a repeating series of rhythms, dynamics, tones, or timbres in a work. This form first appeared in the 1920s and relates to new concepts of formal structure in music and atonality.
     Twelve tone music is a form of serialism that is based on a series of twelve different pitches called a tone row. A tone row contains all twelve tones of the octave arranged in such an order that any implication of tonic or key center is avoided. Melody, harmony, and themes are derived from the tone row, which replaces scales as the basis of composition.

The Modern/20^th Century

Composers

Bartok, Bela (1881-1945)

Bela Bartok was a famous Hungarian composer who transcribed Hungarian folk songs and also wrote his own orchestral, opera, ballet, and chamber music. Stylistically, he mixed his innate musical talent along with his intellectual skill to create his mastery of modern form. His most famous works are the Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion, Concerto for Orchestra, and Mikrokosmos.

Britten, Benjamin (1913-1976)

Born in 1913, Benjamin Britten was an English composer. He wrote music in choral, orchestral, solo vocal, and operatic styles. He is also well known as being a significant composer of opera. He used various themes from American, Japanese, and British cultures in his works. His most famous opera is Peter Grimes. Britten was very opposed to war, and this can be seen in his War Requiem, which was a statement about his ojection against militarism.

Bernstein, Leonard (1918-1990)

     Leonard Bernstein was one of the most influential composers of the 20th century. He was a virtuoso pianist, a television star, a gifted conductor, a businessman, and a classroom teacher.
     Bernstein was first inspired by music when, at eight years old, he heard music played in his first trip to a synagogue. He was moved to tears by the choir and the organ sounds. He would never be the same again, and the musical world can be thankful for that. He learned how to play the piano, and continued playing and performimg for the rest of his life. Composer Serge Koussevitsky gave him positive encouragement and helped him to become a successful conductor when he was only in his twenties. Some of the famous groups that he conducted were the New York Philharmonic, The New York City Symphony Orchestra, and the Boston, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Israeli orchestras.
     Some of his well known works are the symphony Jeremiah and Serenade for Violin Solo, String Orchestra and Percussion. His compositions Masque and Turkey Trot are known for being very lively and rhythmic. He is also known for his ballet Fancy Free, his musical, On the Town, and his opera Candide.

Copland, Aaron (1900-1990)

     The composer Aaron Copland was born in 1900 in Brooklyn, New York. His personality often clashed with his musical compositions, as he was a quiet and soft-spoken man, while his music was loud, brilliant, and tense. As a child, he studied the piano and music theory. When he was old enough to leave home, he traveled to France to further immerse himself in the musical world. There he made his first business mistake, as he sold a short composition of his, The Cat and The Mouse, for twenty-five dollars. Thousands of copies were sold and he did not receive and royalties from the song.
     Copland returned to New York after his education in France. While back in the United States, he composed his famous Symphony for Organ and Orchestra. He went on to become the director of many musical foundations such as the International Society for Contemporary Music, the League of Composers, and his own foundation.
     Copland was very interested in educating people about modern music. He gave concerts with fellow friend and composer Roger Sessions. These Copland-Sessions concerts, served to educate audiences about the new and dissonant music that he and Sessions composed. He was also the director of the Berkshire School of Music in Tanglewood, Massachusetts after the great conductor Serge Koussevitzky died.
     Some of his most famous works are Lincoln Portrait, a large orchestral piece with text from the Gettysburg address, andAppalachian Spring, which was a Pulitzer Prize and Critic's Circle of New York winning ballet. Additional songs for which he is known are Hoedown and Simple Gifts. Copalnd was an extremely versatile composer and composed music for choruses, orchestras, theater, and chamber music groups. It is a special honor of his that he was one of the first major composers asked to write a piece of music for a radio broadcast. Additionally, he wrote the scores for the films The Heiress, The City, Our Town, and Of Mice and Men. His compositions for film are emotional and have also been performed in concert halls.
     Aaron Copland retired from composing music in 1965. This was due to the fact that younger composers were ignoring him, and the general public did not receive his newer works very well. Among these works that were ignored by the public was Inscapes, one of the great postwar American scores. From then on, Copland focused on a conducting career, specializing in his own scores.

Gershwin, George (1898-1937)

     American born composer George Gershwin was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1898. He was a composer of both pop and concert music. As a child, Gershwin learned about music by playing the piano. At age sixteen, he received additional piano practice at a job where he played popular song hits all day long. He began to compose and play some of his original works but was largely ignored.
     Eventually, Gershwin took a job as a rehearsal pianist at a Ziegfeld production. At this point in his life, he wrote his first musical comedy, La La Lucille, which turned out to be a hit. From then on he rapidly turned out Broadway successes. These were the famous Oh Kay, Strike Up the Band, Girl Crazy, Funny Face, Of Thee I Sing, Lady Be Good, and George White's Scandals. These scores contained songs that the country would grow to love, full of popular music and touches of early rock and roll.
     Soon after, George Gershwin produced another one of his most famous works, Rhapsody in Blue. This was a jazz piece written as a form of art. This whole philosophy was very new to the public, and yet they instantaneously fell in love with this piece. It was performed in concerts, broadcast on radio stations, and recorded and distributed in high volume, making it a well-known musical composition throughout the world. After Rhapsody in Blue, he composed two very famous compositions, American in Paris and the Cuban Overture.
      Porgy and Bess was George Gershwin's last important composition. This was a grand opera folk opera written about the African American Southern culture. The all-African cast was so important that it was hailed as the first completely successful and completely American opera. It was written so emotionally and dramatically that members of the cast could not believe that the opera's composer wasn't at least partially African American. Porgy and Bess exemplified the skill and talent that George Gershwin possessed.
     Tragically, Gershwin died at the young age of thirty-nine due to a cancerous brain tumor. His legacy continued on and Gershwin's music is still influential today, making him one of the most important composers of the twentieth century.

Ives, Charles (1874-1954)

     Charles Ives was born in 1874 in Danbury, Connecticut. He learned about music from his father who was the lead member of the town band. At Yale he took a course in music, but rather than use conventional notation, he invented his own musical alphabet. Ives' unusual philosophy certainly did not make him a conservative musician.
     From 1906 to 1930, when he retired, Ives was a businessman at an insurance company. From that point on he focused wholeheartedly on his music. Throughout his life, he tried not to miss a musical affair in his hometown of Danbury. He attended performances by the town band and played the organ in church. When he wrote music he incorporated the sounds he heard in town performances into it, faults and all. Some typical characteristics of his music were off-key singing, squeaky and out of tune violin playing, and the wheeze of the harmonium.
     Ives wrote his music in a manner as cryptic as its sound. His score would have notes jotted all over the page with no bar separations and strange chords, rhythms, and quarter tones. One of his most famous works, written in this style, is his second sonata for the piano, entitled Concord, Massachusetts. This was arranged into four movements known separately as "Emerson," "Hawthorne," "The Alcotts," and "Thoreau." This piece brought out the spirit of Concord in the middle of the century, and was hailed for its power and display of emotion. Another popular piece of Charles Ives' was his Symphony for Orchestra and Piano.
     Charles Ives was certainly one of the most influential, original, and unique composers of the 20th century. He died at eighty years of age, leaving eleven volumes of chamber music and six volumes of orchestral scores, most never performed. He was only semi appreciated in his lifetime, but the world today now appreciates his importance to the world of music. He was innovative, well ahead of his time, and risky and bold in his musical experimentation. Ives and his music are studied today for their freshness and daring.

Stravinsky, Igor (1882-1971)

     Igor Stravinsky was born in Russia in 1882. His earlier works, such as his symphony No. 1 in E Flat, showed the old school Romantic musical style of Russia. However, Stravinsky began to turn away from this style of music and progressed towards the music of Claude Debussy, while adding a Russian flavor to it. Some of the works he completed in this new style were The Faun and the Shepherdess, Fireworks, and the major ballet Firebird. In these compositions, clean orchestral textures, irregular rhythms, and emphasis on stamping were used. Two additional ballets written in this style were Le Sacre du Printemps and Petrouchka. These works were less Romantic and had more of a barbaric feeling to them.
     Eventually tiring of this style, Stravinsky decided to search for a new style of music once again. In this transitional peroid, he wrote the opera Le Rossignol, and Symphonies for Wind Instruments. After World War I, he moved further away from his fiery ballets by composing Tango, Ragtime, and L'Histoire du Soldat. These new scores were less aesthetically pleasing but used more objectification. At this time, he also reworked the old masterpieces of Pulcinella and Oedipus Rex. This style was called neo-Classicism , which was a return to classical music with modern day elements added in. Stravinsky is regarded as the most influential modern composer in both France and America. His most famous Neoclassicist works are the Concerto for Two Solo Pianofortes, the ballets Apollo and Jeu de Cartes, Symphony in Three Movements, Symphony in C, Ebony Concerto, Mass, Symphony of Psalms, and the classic full length opera, The Rake's Progress.
     After Stravinsky finished The Rake's Progress he moved away from neo-Classicism and towards the serial music style. His most famous works in this category were Movements for Piano and Orchestra, Cantata, In Memoriam Dylan Thomas, Three Shakespeare Songs, Threni, Introit, The Dove Descending Breaks the Air for chorus, and Requiem Canticles. Stravinksy was a multifaceted and talented man who left an impression still burning on the musical world today.

Vaughn Williams, Ralph (1872-1958)

     Ralph Vaughan Williams was born in England during the year 1872. Composers influenced in the musical style of Brahms were his musical mentors. His earlier music showed the influence of Brahms, yet they also has Williams' unique and original sound to them. Throughout his life, he was fascinated by the English folk song.
     Vaughan Williams had the unique talent of being able to absorb musical techniques and styles from other composers while still remaining true and original to himself. Composers who influenced him were Stravinksy, Bach, Brahms, Byrd, and Debussy. His earliest compositions were French impressionist music, such as his In the Fen Country, and String Quartet No. 1. He soon changed his musical style to incidental music. In this format, his famous works were The Wasps, the song cycle On Wenlock Edge and Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis.
     Vaughan Williams was a composer in almost every category of music. He wrote a few of operas, none which had success on stage, even though they were filled with artistically pleasing music. His other major musical compositions were Hodie, Merciless Beauty, Serenade to Music, 10 Blake Songs, Five Mystical Songs, Dona nobis pacem, and Sancta Civitas. All of his symphonies show Ralph Vaughan Williams' wide range of style and form, each piece having a truly unique sound. His music was always original and unique, with much drama and emotion.

Fine and Fake Jewelery

2011-02-02T02:48:00.000-08:00

Gold in Egypt 3000 BC

In the ancient world gold was the preferred metal for making jewellery. It was rare, did not tarnish and best of all it was malleable, so it could be worked fairly easily.

Magnificent bracelets, pendants, necklaces, rings, armlets, earrings, diadems, head ornaments, pectoral ornaments and collars of gold were all produced in ancient

Egypt

, the land of the Pharaohs.Excavations by Howard Carter in 1922 led to the great discovery ofTutankhamun's tomb and many gold funerary artefacts, all showing the art work of ancient

Egypt

Left - Gold funeral mask of King Tutankhamun.

Gold and Gems in Greece 1400 BC

In ancient Greece, beads shaped as natural forms like shells, flowers and beetles were manufactured on a large scale. Beautiful and delicate necklaces and earrings were found in burial sites in Northern Greece. By 300 BC the Greeks were making multi coloured jewellery and used emeralds, garnets, amethysts and pearls. Right - Greek earrings.

They also used coloured stones, glass and enamel. Carved cameos of Indian Sardonyx (a striped brown pink and cream agate stone) along with filigree gold work were widely made. Beads were made by joining two flat pieces of gold and filling them with sand.

Italian Gold and Roman Coinage

Eight centuries BC the Italian Etruscans in the Tuscany region produced granulated textured gold work. They made large fibulae or clasps, necklaces, bracelets and earrings. They also made pendants that were hollow and could be filled with perfume. The Italians are still renowned for high quality stylish trend making gold work today.

In coinage the Romans used 18 and 24 carat gold. Being fairly easily available the coinage was the craftsman's raw material for decorative jewel work. 2000 years ago the Romans were using sapphires from Sri Lanka, cloudy emeralds, garnets, amber and Indian diamond crystals. When England was under Roman rule, fossilized wood called jet from the North of England was carved into interesting pieces.

C13^th Medieval Sumptuary Laws

Sumptuary Laws in C13^th Medieval Europe came into force and capped luxury in dress and jewellery. Townspeople in France, were not allowed to wear girdles or coronals made of pearls, gemstones, gold or silver. Similar laws existed in England. The fact that these laws forbade yeomen and artisans from wearing gold and silver indicates how the status of jewellery and sumptuous dress had become widespread beyond just the nobility.

Gems and Pearls Real and Fake

Jewels have always been used as love tokens and whilst many pieces were fine gems and precious metals, good fake jewellery intended to deceive existed. True gemstones and pearls originated from the east and were bought chiefly by the Italians. The Italian merchants then sold the goods on in Europe. Good glass imitations were often used and sometimes with intent as in royal funerary robes and children's jewellery.

Flawless, round, natural, large white pearls were prized more than precious gemstones. The finest of pearls were provided by South India and the Persian Gulf. The Italians, particularly the Venetians and people from Murano, could make imitation glass gems and pearls that were very good likenesses of the real jewels. Recipes for false pearls existed in 1300 when white powdered glass mixed with albumen (egg white) and snail slime, produced beads that were used as imitation pearls.

The Importance of C17^th Earrings and Dress Ornaments

In the C17^th a woman always donned her earrings whether dressed or undressed. By day fake pearl earrings and paste earrings to coordinate with clothing were acceptable. Fine diamond jewellery was kept for evening and embroidered stomachers which formed part of the dress frontage, could be decorated by jewels.

Suites of left and right coordinating jewelled pieces called dress ornaments decreased in size as they were placed down the stomacher. Sometimes the sleeves or skirts were decorated with smaller matching brooches.

Dress ornaments in the form of diamond bows and shuttles. As many as 42 shuttles could be used to decorate a dress.

17^th Century Fake Pearls and Strass Paste Gems

In the 1630s large quantities of pearls were used as clothing accessories. To be truly fashionable pearls needed to be worn in abundance. In the C17^th, Jaquin of Paris patented a method of making fake pearls. He coated blown glass hollow balls with varnish mixed with iridescent ground fish scales. The hollow balls were then filled with wax to strengthen them. This method made Paris the main producer of fake pearls for over 200 years.

Paste is a compound of glass containing white lead oxide and potash. Paste jewellery was usual in the 1670s and was worn at court. The best and most long lasting paste jewellery was produced after 1734 by Georges Strass. Most fake jewellery was Paris led. Just about any kind of fake gem could be made, including fake opals. Many pieces of fake jewellery have survived in their original setting, but fine estate pieces of real gems were often broken up for resetting into more fashionable styles of the era.

After 1760 the production of fake jewellery spread to London and to Birmingham. Steel which was produced easily during the industrial revolution was used for settings for marcasite and jasper ware cameos. Glass and Wedgwood porcelain paste cameos were made in English factories and were very popular too.

Ornate shoe buckles of paste, steel and tin were part of fashionable dress. A similar fad at this time were elaborate paste jewelled buttons, fashionable in British society. As well as fake jewellery gaining popularity, semi precious jewels such as uncut garnets became usual as part of less formal day dress.

Empire Jewellery

When Napoleon eventually emerged as Emperor of France in 1804 he revived jewellery and fashion as a new court of pomp and ostentatious display evolved.

'Joailliers' worked fine jewellery and 'bijoutiers' used less precious materials.

The members of the new French imperial family had the former French royal family gems re-set in the latest neo-classical style. These new trends in jewellery were copied in Europe and particularly England. Greek and Roman architecture were the main influence for designs as famous discoveries of ancient treasure had not yet happened.

Parures

Parures were a matching suite of coordinating precious gems which could include a necklace, a comb, a tiara, a diadem, a bandeau, a pair of bracelets, pins, rings, drop earrings or and cluster stud earrings and possibly a belt clasp. BothJosephine and later Napoleon's second wife had magnificent sets of Parures.

Right - Parure consisting of bracelet, necklace, ring and earrings.

Cameos

After Napoleon's cameo decorated coronation crown was seen, cameos were the rage.

Sometimes cameos were carved from hardstone, but more often from substitutes like conch shells and set pieces of Wedgwood porcelain.

Victorian Jewellery

When Queen Victoria came to the throne in 1837 jewellery was romantic and nationalistic. It gave attention to the pressure of European folk art, which later influenced the Arts and Crafts Movement. Until mid century most western jewellery came from Europe, but soon jewellery began to be made in America and

Australia

Although jewellery had been made by multiple methods of production for centuries, mid Victorian mass production in Birmingham (England), Germany and Providence, Rhode Island meant that standards were lowered.

Victorian women rebelled when they saw some of the machine made jewellery on offer, although much of what has survived is of good quality. Many wore no jewellery at all, or bought from the artist craftsman jewellers who emerged at much the same time.

Some jewellers like Tiffany began to make fine jewellery of such high standard that they soon opened shops in main cities of Europe.

Right - Victorian garnet necklace.

Mourning Jewellery

There was a huge fashion for mourning jewellery which highlights how sentimental the Victorian age was. The initial months of mourning were unadorned by jewellery of any kind. As the mourning rituals increased, mourning jewellery developed as a fashion item. Jet jewellery was worn a great deal by Queen Victoria after Prince Albert's death.

Jet from Whitby, North of England was set into mourning pieces. All types of material that were black were used and almost all included a lock of the dead loved one's hair. Hair was also plaited, braided or twisted very tightly until it became hard and thread like. To many of us living in the twenty first century the use of hair is an unattractive side of some antique jewellery.

Arts and Crafts Jewellery

The new design philosophy of Arts and Crafts that sprang up after 1870 was a reaction to mass produced goods and inferior machine made products. It was a reaction to the shoddy interior and ornamental products of the industrial revolution. Leaders of the movement in England included William Morris and John Ruskinand they promoted simple Arts and Crafts of designs based on floral, primitive or Celtic forms worked as wallpapers, furniture and jewellery.

The polished stones used in Arts and Crafts jewellery gave a medieval, simpler, gentler, tooled hand made look and feel to items. People inspired by the movement to produce work of a more individual nature included Liberty of London and Renee Mackintosh of Glasgow. By 1900, Arts and Crafts as a movement declined, so Art Nouveau, a more ostentatious version started in France took root.

Art Nouveau

Art Nouveau jewellery follows curving sinuous organic lines of romantic and imaginary dreaminess, with long limbed ethereal beauties sometimes turning into winged bird and flower forms. The movement began in Paris and its influence went throughout the Western world.

The Frenchman René Lalique was the master goldsmith of the era of Art Nouveau producing exquisite one off pieces. As an art movement today, the style is still admired and still copied.

Magnificent floral and botanical forms often worked in enamel were inexpensive and became so popular once mass-produced, that the Art Nouveau style declined.

Queen Alexandra's Pearls

Most fine jewellery in the 1900s was white and made from either diamonds or pearls. Queen Alexandra initially wore dog collar chokers, called a 'collier de chien' to cover a small scar on her neck.

Left - Queen Alexandra who wore pearls from neck to waist.

For state occasions and formal events she plastered herself in arrangements of pearl necklaces. The rarity value of real pearls then was such that an American skyscraper exchanged hands for the price of a pearl necklace.

This is not so ridiculous as it seems, as fine south sea pearls still command a high price.

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Mikimoto Pearls

Pearls were very fashionable, but still very, very costly. After the 1890s Kokichi Mikimoto of Japan produced highly acceptable cultured pearls by placing a small bead into an oyster shell. The bead coated itself with nacre (mother of pearl) and so good looking pearl jewels became more affordable.

When I see Mikimoto pearls today I always think their lustre far surpasses any other pearl made this way.

Pearls

Various combinations of pearl necklaces come in and out of fashion with regularity so pearls too are a must. Both fake and real freshwater or cultured pearls are very affordable today. Many are now bought from China since trade opened up in the nineties. The price of pearls has dropped by about a fifth in the past 10 years and the Chinese are making waves in the pearl world with their cheaper prices. The Japanese have suffered disease in their pearl beds as well as facing competition and are finding it hard to compete with China's prices.

Pearl necklaces and pearl earrings can lift a complexion and bring light and radiance to the face taking years off a woman whatever her age. If you can afford it, invest in a pair of Mabe pearl earrings. They have a wonderful white glow with a size about one centimetre across and look expensive. Expect to pay about £300 for a pair trimmed with 9^ct gold. Look after them by rubbing gently with a pure silk scarf, store in their original box and always put them on after applying perfume and hair products. A matching real pearl necklace freshwater or cultured, will enhance them and you.

Pearls are currently back in fashion again and with the modern twist of being interspaced on gold wire or floating on special synthetic cord they are essential to the millennium look. Look out for variations too on drop pearl earrings in the next year or so. PP

Cocktail Jewellery

In the 1920s Lalique designed good mass produced quality glass jewellery. Fake, or costume jewellery was sometimes then called cocktail jewellery. It was greatly influenced by Coco Chanel (1883-1971) and Elsa Schiaparelli (1890-1973). They both encouraged clients to use costume jewellery and to mix it with genuine gem pieces they already owned. Both designers offered imagination and fun and both often sported fabulous fakes.

In the late 1930s Napier of the USA was at the forefront of manufacturing fake cocktail jewels, which offered glamour and escapism. Napier still produces excellent contemporary costume pieces.

Hollywood Influence

By the 1940s and 1950s American culture was very dominant in Europe. The influence of movie films and the prominence of film stars set the fashion in manners, make-up, hair and clothes. People wanted look alike copies of outfits and jewellery worn by screen idols. It was widely believed that Hollywood glamour would rub off on you if you had the clothes and developed the look.

The Second World War in Europe halted production of fine jewellery when metals were rationed. New estate type, fine precious metal and gem jewellery was simply not available. Quality costume jewellery which was flourishing in America, became much more acceptable and was a real alternative to fine jewellery.

Because of technical advances in production methods, a huge range of styles was available from America, and since it was so popular the market became dynamic and inventive and affordable.

1980's Television Influence - Dynasty, Dallas and Diamante

In the 1980s there was a huge revival of costume jewellery after the glitzy scenes from the television soap operas Dynasty and Dallas were watched by 250 million viewers in the consumer boon of the 1980s. Diamante by day became the norm in reality and earrings reached such huge proportions that the 1990s saw a reaction which quickly dated lavish dress jewellery as the fashion for tiny real diamond studs or a fine stud pearls became the only earring to wear. As soon as the fashion was declared dead by everyone, including grandmothers, it was revived again in 2000AD by the fashion cognoscenti. Now fabulous fakes, especially brooches have gained ground once more.

Jewellery for the 21^st Century

Costume jewellery can enliven a fashion wardrobe and bring a dash of panache especially for one off special occasions. Costume jewellery can be superb. The superb is usually plated at least seven times with 18 or 22 ct gold.

For example Joan Rivers does a range of good costume jewellery modelled on original fine gem pieces. One of her trademarks is to make jewellery doubly useful and she produces sets of interchangeable earrings, pendants and tennis bracelets. For example you might be able to slip a range of up to 10 different coloured stones, pearls or Swarovski crystals into an 18^ct gold plated earring to vary the look. Her jewellery is exclusive to the QVC shopping channel in the UK and she is constantly working on new ideas such is her enthusiasm.

Highest grade Cubic Zirconium man made imitation diamonds often set in precious metals is of such a good standard that almost everyone can afford to have attractive jewellery.

The best crystals used in costume jewellery are the first grade crystals that the top Austrian firm Swarovski can offer. Butler and Wilson costume brooch.

Some of the costume jewellery I have come to love, comes from companies like Ciro, Adrian Buckley, Butler and Wilson, Swarovski Crystal Jewelry Napier, Joan Rivers, Joan Collins, Christian Dior, California Crystal, Property of A Lady and of course Kenneth J Lane.

Cancer Treatment

2011-02-01T22:47:00.000-08:00

God bless on all of us.Cancer is a virus in which a group of cells start to grow wildly. Cancer cells invade and infect the cells in adjacent tissues and sometimes spread inside the body using blood. Most of the cancers form tumor except in case of leukemia. The cancer tumor are different from the benign tumors. The benign tumors do not invade or spread through the body. Oncology is the branch of medical science that deals with study, diagnosis and cure of Cancer.The Cancer can happen at any period However, the risk factor of having cancer increases with the age. Cancer is caused due to rude changes in the inherited material of the transformed cells. The abnormalities in the genetic material occur due to radiation, Tobacco smoke, chemicals and infectious agents. The other two reasons are; error in DNA duplication and hereditary. Cancer is a disease known to men from the ancient time. The treat for Cancer has always remained elusive. However, in the modern times, with host of technically advanced treatment methods, the medical fraternity has achieved to cure a few of the cancers and prolong the patient life for most of the Cancer ailments.
The in depth knowledge of metastasis or the process of Cancer spreading in the body has helped the doctors chalk out plans to restrict the infected Cancer cells. The lumpectomy or taking away of the cancer infected tumor is carried out initially. Once the majority of the Cancerous cells are removed from the body; radiation therapy and chemotherapy are used to restrict the spread of Cancer cells and to kill those few remaining after the operation. The modern day medical science employs various types of Cancer treatments. The Cryosurgery is used to treat prostate cancer by freezing the cells with metal probe. The hormone therapy is one popular method to fight against cancer. Molecular Targeted Drugs are used to stop the growth and spread of Cancer. It is a cancer treatmentprocess in which these drugs interact with the cancer cells and destroy them. The Photo dynamic therapy of cancer is a modern cancer treatment procedure. In this case, special type of drug and light is used to destroy the cancer cells. These drugs are light sensitive and produces a form of oxygen when interact with light. This oxygen kills the cancer cells and stops cancer from spreading. The human immune system has the capacity to fight Cancer and to minimize the side effects. The Biological therapy utilizes this property of the immune system to minimize cancer cell growth, to kill the cancer cells and to stop the cancer cells from spreading.
Chemotherapy is the widely used Cancer treatment. Chemotherapy is used to kill Cancer cells using cytotoxic drugs. The cytotoxic drugs affect rapidly dividing cells, the signature of Cancerous cells. The combination chemotherapy uses two or more drugs simultaneously for the treatment.The technical advancement and knowledge of modern biology are changing the process of Cancer treatment. Angiogenesis, Signal Transduction and Genetic therapy are the new and evolving processes of Cancer treatment.

Top 10 Expensive Mobiles

2011-02-01T04:10:00.000-08:00

Until recently, the vast majority of mobile phones had been priced between £100 and £300 with only Vertu, a division of Nokia, manufacturing uber-premium phones. With prices starting at around £4,000 Vertu phones are only for the filthy rich and the super famous.However, Vertu’s monopoly of the luxury phone market is coming to an end with the launch of several new luxury mobile makers including Gresso, Mobiado and GoldVish. A load of other mobile phone manufacturers are also working up partnerships with luxury brands get a piece of the action. We’re beginning to see premium mobile phones emerge from couplings such as LG and Prada, D&G and Motorola, and now Tag Heuer and Modelabs. Finally, there are the ridiculous, super-expensive one-offs made purely for headline grabbing such as Goldvish’s “Le million”, worth a cool $1,000,000, see below for details!

Goldvish “Le million” = $1,000,000 (£540,540)

A PR stunt it may be and they surely can’t be expecting to sell any, but the Goldvish “Le million” is officially the most expensive mobile phone in the world, according the Guiness Books of Records. There has even been talk of a $1.3million phone, but this has fewer diamonds than the Goldvish so I can’t see where the extra expense comes from! The “Le million” is a one off piece featuring a blinding 120 carats worth of VVS-1 grade diamonds, according to designer Emmanuel Gueit. If $1 million is out of your price range the Geneva-based Goldvish also offer several other diamond-encrusted 18k gold models in your choice of rose, yellow or white starting at a much more reasonable $25,600 (£13,837).

Vertu Signature Cobra = $310,000 (£167,567)

Vertu is now taking orders for the Signature Cobra which is designed by French jeweler Boucheron, but you had better be quick as only 8 are being made. The Cobra will feature one pear-cut diamond, one round white diamond, two emerald eyes and 439 rubies. Vertu will also be offering a “cheaper” version, ruby free at $115,000 (£62,162).

Sony Ericsson Black Diamond = $300,000 (£162,162)

Apparently the Black Diamond will be available in 2007, not from Sony Ericsson but by a company called VIPN. Initially only 5 unique numered pieces will be available for the unbelievable price of, wait for it… $300,000.With regards to the specifications, don’t expect anything remarkable for your money. It will have Quad-band with Wi-Fi, an Intel 400Mhz processor running Windows Mobile 5 and a touch sensitive 2″ screen. It will also include internal memory of 128mb and will come with a 2Gb SD card for external storage plus a respectable 4 Megapixel camera.The designer Jaren Goh has used some pretty impressive materials for the build, featuring titane with polycarbonate, mirror-finish cladding and diamonds.

Vertu Diamond = $88,000 (£47,567)

The Diamond is Vertu’s premium range of high-end mobile phones. As the name suggests the handsets in the Diamond range are diamond-encrusted handsets made from platinum. Only 200 of the handsets are being produced, the most expensive believed to be worth an estimated £50,000.

Motorola V220 Special Edition = £28,000 ($51,800)

Austrian designer Peter Aloisson has taken a standard Motorola, studded it with 1,200 diamonds and added a keyboard inlaid with 18 carat gold. The outcome is a £28,000 handset, suitable only for footballers and film stars!

Gold Edition Nokia 8800 Phone = $2,700 (£1,459)

If you have $2,700 to spare, you can now buy the Nokia 8800 in 24K gold. However, be warned if you think you’ll be getting a better phone for your extra cash, you wont! The features found on the Gold Edition are the standard 8800 features which are pretty basic. It includes a 0.5 Mega pixel SVGA camera, 64 MB of internal memory, 64 voice polyphonic rigntones, FM Radio, Mp3 Player, video recording and 180 mins talktime. However, the Gold Edition does includes a special edition box and charging dock!

Mobiado Professional EM (wood) = $1,900 (£1,027)

The Mobiado Professional EM is a wood-clad upgrade of their earlier Nokia-based phone that includes a 1.3 megapixel camera, music player, FM radio, Bluetooth and according to Mobiado it’s the first production phone with Titanium buttons. Only 200 are being made and each one has its limited number engraved on the back. At $1,900 however, you’re still paying an awfully high premium for a fairly basic phone encased in wood!

Bang & Olufsen (Samsung) Serene = $1,250 (£675)

Bang & Olufsen hooked up with Samsung to design the sleek but unconventional Serene. It’s not a bad looking phone and even has a built-in motor to assist you in opening and closing the phone. It’s not very practical however, requiring a special screwdriver to access the battery and the SIM card and the circular keypad will take some getting used to. Also for some strange reason they have positioned the camera lens on the side of the device, which will make it difficult to align snapshots via the viewfinder on the display.

Lamborghini 8800 Sirocco from Nokia = $To be announced

The Lamborghini Nokia 8800 Sirocco is another special edition, like the previously launch Aston Martin branded Sirocco. It will ultimately be a standard 8800 Sirocco but with the addition of the famous Lamborghini logo engraved on the font and the back, plus ball bearings from the auto company to in the slider phone mechanism. The Lamborghini phone will be a limited edition with only 500 being made. It will also feature Lamborghini graphics as wallpapers, screensavers, ringtones and even has a short documentary video.

Gresso Luxury Phone = £expensive

The Russia based Gresso, is a new entry into the luxury phone market. Their aptly name “Gresso Luxury Phone” is made of gold and African Blackwood. Apparently they will be releasing a collection of five models called the Black Aura collection, and the designer is a “well known” Italian designer. Currently there are two versions of the African Blackwood phone, one with pink gold highlights named the Gresso Blackwood Gold Edition and one made entirely of African Blackwood. In addition to the two African Blackwood phones Gresso also make a phone made entirely of pink gold named the Gresso Gold phone. Initially, the phones will be on sale only in Russia

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Music History

(800 - 1400 C.E.)

THE MEDIEVAL ERA

VOCAL SECTION

The Medieval Era

(800 - 1400 C.E.)

Instrumental

The Medieval Era

Composers

Dufay, Guillaume (1400-1474)

de Vitry, Phillipe (1291-1361)

de Machaut, Guillaume (1300-1377)

The Renaissance Period (1400 - 1600 C.E.)

THE RENAISSANCE ERA

VOCAL

The Renaissance Era

Instrumental

The Renaissance Era

Composers

Byrd, William (1543-1623)

Desprez, Josquin (1440-1521)

Gabrielli, Giovanni (1554-1612)

Gibbons, Orlando (1583-1625)

Ockeghem, Johannes (1410-1497)

Palestrina, Giovanni (1525-1594)

The Classical Era

(1750-1820 C.E.)

The Modern/20th Century Era

(1900 - Present)

The Modern/20th Century

Trends

The Modern/20th Century

Techniques

The Modern/20th Century

Composers

Bartok, Bela (1881-1945)

Britten, Benjamin (1913-1976)

Bernstein, Leonard (1918-1990)

Copland, Aaron (1900-1990)

Gershwin, George (1898-1937)

Ives, Charles (1874-1954)

Stravinsky, Igor (1882-1971)

Vaughn Williams, Ralph (1872-1958)

Fine and Fake Jewelery

Gold in Egypt 3000 BC

Gold and Gems in Greece 1400 BC

Italian Gold and Roman Coinage

C13th Medieval Sumptuary Laws

Gems and Pearls Real and Fake

The Importance of C17th Earrings and Dress Ornaments

17th Century Fake Pearls and Strass Paste Gems

Empire Jewellery

Parures

Cameos

Victorian Jewellery

The Renaissance Period
(1400 - 1600 C.E.)

The Modern/20^th Century

The Modern/20^th Century

The Modern/20^th Century

C13^th Medieval Sumptuary Laws

The Importance of C17^th Earrings and Dress Ornaments

17^th Century Fake Pearls and Strass Paste Gems

Jewellery for the 21^st Century