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Regions of the Philippines

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Wed, 30 Nov 2011 01:22:00 -0800

In the Philippines, regions (Tagalog: rehiyon, ISO 3166-2:PH) are administrative divisions that serve primarily to organize the provinces (lalawigan) of the country for administrative convenience. Currently, the archipelagic republic of the Philippines is divided into 17 regions. Most government offices are established by region instead of individual provincial offices, usually (but not always) in the city designated as the regional center.

The regions themselves do not possess a separate local government, with the exception of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, which has an elected regional assembly and governor. The Cordillera Administrative Region was originally intended to be autonomous (Cordillera Autonomous Region), but the failure of two plebiscites for its establishment reduced it to a regular administrative region.

History

Regions first came to existence in on September 24, 1972 when the provinces of the Philippines were organized into 11 regions by Presidential Decree No. 1 as part of the Integrated Reorganization Plan of President Ferdinand Marcos.

Since that time, other regions have been created and some provinces have been transferred from one region to another.

July 7, 1975: Region XII created and minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions.
August 21, 1975: Region IX divided into Sub-Region IX-A' and Sub-Region IX-B. Minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions.
November 7, 1975: National Capital Region created.
August 1, 1989: Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao created.
October 23, 1989: Cordillera Administrative Region created.
October 12, 1990: Executive Order issued to reorganize the Mindanao regions but the reorganization never happened (possibly due to lack of government funds).
February 23, 1995: Region XIII (Caraga) created and minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions.
1997: Minor reorganization of some Mindanao regions.
September 19, 2001: Most Mindanao regions reorganized and some renamed.
May 17, 2002: Region IV-A (CALABARZON) and Region IV-B (MIMAROPA) created from the former Region IV (Southern Tagalog) region.
May 23, 2005: Palawan transferred from MIMAROPA to Western Visayas; MIMAROPA renamed to MIMARO.
August 19, 2005: The E.O. 429 of May 23, 2005 transferring Palawan from MIMAROPA to Western Visayas was later held in abeyance by Administrative Order #129.

As of June 2010, the Philippines consists of 17 administrative regions. Some of the region designations include numeric components, some do not.^[1] These regions are geographically combined into the three island groups of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Following is a list of the regions in their island groupings. To get overviews of the regions, see the respective articles on the island groups. The regions CALABARZON, MIMAROPA, and SOCCSKSARGEN are capitalized because they are acronyms that stand for their component provinces or cities.^[2]

Note that insofar as the Judiciary is concerned, specifically the first and second level courts, the country is divided into judicial regions as provided by Batas Pambansa Bilang 129. The coverage of these judicial regions generally coincides with that of the administrative regions in the Executive branch of government.

Luzon

Region (short name)	Regional center	Component local government units
National Capital Region (NCR; Metro Manila)	Manila	Caloocan City^[3] Las Piñas City^[3] Makati City^[3] Malabon City^[3] Mandaluyong City^[3] Manila^[3] Marikina City^[3] Muntinlupa City^[3] Navotas City^[3] Parañaque City^[3] Pasay City^[3] Pasig City^[3] Pateros^[4] Quezon City^[3] San Juan City^[3] Taguig City^[3] Valenzuela City^[3]
Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR)	Baguio City	Abra Apayao Baguio City^[3] Benguet Ifugao Kalinga Mountain Province
Ilocos Region (Region I)	San Fernando City, La Union	Ilocos Norte Ilocos Sur La Union Pangasinan Dagupan City^[5]
Cagayan Valley (Region II)	Tuguegarao City	Batanes Cagayan Isabela Santiago City^[5] Nueva Vizcaya Quirino
Central Luzon (Region III)	San Fernando City, Pampanga	Aurora Bataan Bulacan Nueva Ecija Pampanga Tarlac Zambales Angeles City
CALABARZON (Region IV-A)	Calamba City, Laguna	Batangas Cavite Quezon Rizal Laguna Lucena City
MIMAROPA (Region IV-B)	Calapan City	Marinduque Occidental Mindoro Oriental Mindoro Palawan Puerto Princesa City^[3] Romblon
Bicol Region (Region V)	Legazpi City	Albay Camarines Norte Camarines Sur Catanduanes Masbate Sorsogon Naga City

Visayas

Region (short name)	Regional center	Component local government units
Western Visayas (Region VI)	Iloilo City	Aklan Antique Capiz Guimaras Iloilo Iloilo City^[3] Negros Occidental Bacolod City^[3]
Central Visayas (Region VII)	Cebu City	Bohol Cebu Cebu City^[3] Lapu-Lapu City^[3] Mandaue City^[3] Negros Oriental Siquijor
Eastern Visayas (Region VIII)	Tacloban	Biliran Eastern Samar Leyte Northern Samar Ormoc City^[5] Samar Southern Leyte Tacloban City^[3]

Mindanao

Region (short name)	Regional center	Component local government units
Zamboanga Peninsula (Region IX)	Zamboanga City	Isabela City^[6] Zamboanga City^[3] Zamboanga del Norte Zamboanga del Sur Zamboanga Sibugay
Northern Mindanao (Region X)	Cagayan de Oro	Bukidnon Cagayan de Oro City^[3] Camiguin Iligan City^[3] Lanao del Norte Misamis Occidental Misamis Oriental
Davao Region (Region XI)	Davao City	Compostela Valley Davao City^[3] Davao del Norte Davao del Sur Davao Oriental
SOCCSKSARGEN (Region XII)	Koronadal	Cotabato Cotabato City^[5] General Santos City^[3] Sarangani South Cotabato Sultan Kudarat
Caraga Region (Region XIII)	Butuan	Agusan del Norte Agusan del Sur Butuan City^[3] Dinagat Islands Surigao del Norte Surigao del Sur
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM)	Cotabato City	Basilan (excluding Isabela City) Lanao del Sur Maguindanao Sulu Tawi-Tawi

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:55:00 -0800

"INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS"

United Nations

Preamble of the United Nations Charter

The Charter of the United Nations was adopted at the San Francisco Conference of 1945. The complete text is available on the UN website, www.un.org/aboutun/charter.

We the peoples of the United Nations determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and

To reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and

To establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and

To promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, and for these ends

To practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, and

To unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and

To insure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and

To employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish these aims.

Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations.

"Principal Organs of the United Nations"

Secretariat

This is the directorate on UN operations, apart from political decisions. The staff works under the secretary-general, whom it assists and advises.

Secretaries-General

Ban Ki-moon, South Korea, Jan. 1, 2007
Kofi Annan, Ghana, 1997–2006
Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egypt, 1992–1996
Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peru, 1982–1991
Kurt Waldheim, Austria, 1972–1981
U Thant, Burma (Myanmar), 1961–1971
Dag Hammarskjöld, Sweden, 1953–1961
Trygve Lie, Norway, 1946–1953

General Assembly

The General Assembly is the world's forum for discussing matters affecting world peace and security, and for making recommendations concerning them. It has no power to enforce decisions. It is composed of the 51 original member nations and those admitted since, totaling 192. On important questions, including international peace and security, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Decisions on other questions are made by a simple majority. Emphasis is given to questions relating to international peace and security brought before it by members, the Security Council, or nonmembers. It also maintains a broad program of international cooperation in economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields, and for assisting in human rights and freedoms.

International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice is the UN's principal judicial organ. Based in The Hague, Netherlands, the Court pursues two primary objectives: (1) settling legal disputes submitted by states in accordance with international law, and (2) advising on legal questions brought by authorized international organs and agencies. The Court consists of 15 judges elected to 9-year terms by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council during independent sittings.

No more than one judge of any nationality may serve simultaneously, and judges are in all respects required to act as independent magistrates. The Court's jurisdiction and competency in settling disputes is dependent upon a state's acceptance of its jurisdiction thereof.

The Court rules in accordance with international treaties, conventions, international custom, general principles of law, and, when relevant, judicial decision or teachings of the “most highly qualified publicists.”

Security Council

The Security Council is the primary instrument for establishing and maintaining international peace. Its main purpose is to prevent war by settling disputes between nations. Under the charter, the council is permitted to dispatch a UN force to stop aggression. All member nations undertake to make available armed forces, assistance, and facilities to maintain international peace and security.

The Security Council has 15 members. There are five permanent members: the United States, the Russian Federation, Britain, France, and China; and ten temporary members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms, from five different regions of the world. Voting on procedural matters requires a nine-vote majority to carry. However, on questions of substance, the vote of each of the five permanent members is required. As of Jan. 2009, the ten elected nonpermanent members were Austria, Japan, Uganda, Mexico, Turkey, Burkina Faso, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Vietnam, Costa Rica, and Croatia. In Jan. 2010 the terms of Burkina Faso, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Vietnam, Costa Rica, and Croatia will expire.

Economic and Social Council

This council is composed of 54 members elected by the General Assembly to three-year terms. It works under the authority of the General Assembly and seeks to promote progress in terms of higher standards of living, full employment, and economic and social viability; it also seeks solutions to international socioeconomic, health, and other problems through international and cultural cooperation. Finally, it advocates for the universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.

Trusteeship Council

The UN charter originally established the Trusteeship Council as a main organ of the UN and entrusted it with the administration of territories placed under the trusteeship system.

The Trusteeship Council suspended operations on Nov. 1, 1994, after the October independence of Palau, the last UN territory. In a May 1994 resolution, the Trusteeship Council amended its rules of procedure, agreeing to meet only as occasion required (by its decision or by request of a majority of its own General Assembly/Security Council members) rather than annually.

The Trusteeship Council is comprised of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Now that the aims of th

The Books of the Bible

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:32:00 -0800

"The Books of the Bible"

Below is the Protestant canon of the Bible (New Revised Standard Version). The Roman Catholic canon also includes the Deuterocanonical books as part of the Old Testament (these are considered apocryphal by most Protestants). The Hebrew Bible recognizes the books referred to as the Old Testament in the Protestant Bible, but not the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical books or the New Testament.
See also The King James Bible, Old Testament Names, and Kings of Judah & Israel

The Old Testament with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books

The Hebrew Scriptures
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1 Samuel
2 Samuel
1 Kings
2 Kings
1 Chronicles
2 Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song of Solomon
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Ezekiel
Daniel
Hosea
Joel

Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
The Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books
Tobit
Judith
Additions to the Book of Esther
Wisdom of Solomon
Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach
Baruch
The Letter of Jeremiah
The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Jews
Susanna
Bel and the Dragon
1 Maccabees
2 Maccabees
1 Esdras
Prayer of Manasseh
Psalm 151
3 Maccabees
2 Esdras
4 Maccabees

The New Testament

Matthew
Mark
Luke
John
Acts of the Apostles
Romans
1 Corinthians
2 Corinthians
Galatians
Ephesians
Philippians
Colossians
1 Thessalonians
2 Thessalonians

1 Timothy
2 Timothy
Titus
Philemon
Hebrews
James
1 Peter
2 Peter
1 John
2 John
3 John
Jude
Revelation

The Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments, also called the Decalogue (Greek, “ten words”), were divine laws revealed to Moses by God on Mt. Sinai. Appearing in both Exodus (Ex. 20: 2–17) and Deuteronomy (Deut. 5:6–21), the commandments are numbered differently depending on whether they appear in a Catholic, Protestant, or Hebrew Bible. The following is the version given in the Revised Standard Version of the Bible.

You shall have no other gods before me.

You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments.

You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain.

Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, and do all your work; but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God; in it you shall not do any work, you, or your son, or your daughter, your manservant, or your maidservant, or your cattle, or the sojourner who is within your gates; for in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested the seventh day; therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and hallowed it.

Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long in the land which the Lord your God gives you.

You shall not kill.

You shall not commit adultery.

You shall not steal.

You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.

You shall not covet your neighbor's wife, or his manservant, or his maidservant, or his ox, or his ass, or anything that is your neighbor's.

Source: Revised Standard Version of the Bible (Ex. 20: 2–17).

Old Testament Names

We do not pretend that this list is all-inclusive. We list only those names that occur most often in crossword puzzles.

Aaron: First high priest of Jews; son of Amram; brother of Miriam and Moses; father of Abihu, Eleazer, Ithamar, and Nadab.
Abel: Son of Adam and Eve; slain by Cain.
Abigail: Wife of Nabal; later, wife of David.
Abihu: Son of Aaron.
Abimelech: King of Gerar.
Abner: Commander of army of Saul and Ishbosheth; slain by Joab.
Abraham (or Abram): Patriarch; forefather of the Jews; son of Terah; husband of Sarah; father of Isaac and Ishmael.
Absalom: Son of David and Maacah; revolted against David; slain by Joab.
Achish: King of Gath; gave refuge to David.
Achsa (or Achsah): Daughter of Caleb; wife of Othniel.
Adah: Wife of Lamech.
Adam: First man; husband of Eve; father of Cain, Abel, and Seth.
Adonijah: Son of David and Haggith.
Agag: King of Amalek; spared by Saul; slain by Samuel.
Ahasuerus: King of Persia; husband of Vashti and, later, Esther; sometimes identified with Xerxes the Great.
Ahijah: Prophet; foretold accession of Jeroboam.
Ahinoam: Wife of David.
Amasa: Commander of army of David; slain by Joab.
Amnon: Son of David and Ahinoam; raped Tamar; slain by Absalom.
Amram: Husband of Jochebed; father of Aaron, Miriam and Moses.
Asenath: Wife of Joseph.
Asher: Son of Jacob and Zilpah.
Balaam: Prophet; rebuked by his donkey for cursing God.
Barak: Jewish captain; associated with Deborah.
Baruch: Secretary to Jeremiah.
Bathsheba: Wife of Uriah; later, wife of David.
Belshazzar: Crown prince of Babylon.
Benaiah: Warrior of David; proclaimed Solomon King.
Ben-Hadad: Name of several kings of Damascus.
Benjamin: Son of Jacob and Rachel.
Bezaleel: Chief architect of Tabernacle.
Bilbah: Servant of Rachel; mistress of Jacob.
Bildad: Comforter of Job.
Boaz: Husband of Ruth; father of Obed.
Cain: Son of Adam and Eve; slayer of Abel; father of Enoch.
Cainan: Son of Enos.
Caleb: Spy sent out by Moses to visit Canaan; father of Achsa.
Canaan: Son of Ham.
Chilion: Son of Elimelech; husband of Orpah.
Cush: Son of Ham; father of Nimrod.
Dan: Son of Jacob and Bilhah.
Daniel: Prophet; saved from lions by God.
Deborah: Hebrew prophetess and judge; helped Israelites conquer Canaanites.
Delilah: Mistress and betrayer of Samson.
Elam: Son of Shem.
Eleazar: Son of Aaron; succeeded him as high priest.
Eli: High priest and judge; teacher of Samuel; father of Hophni and Phinehas.
Eliakim: Chief minister of Hezekiah.
Eliezer: Servant of Abraham.
Elihu: Comforter of Job.
Elijah (or Elias): Prophet; went to heaven in chariot of fire.
Elimelech: Husband of Naomi; father of Chilion and Mahlon.
Eliphaz: Comforter of Job.
Elisha (or Eliseus): Prophet; successor of Elijah.
Elkanah: Husband of Hannah; father of Samuel.
Enoch: Son of Cain.
Enoch: Father of Methuselah.
Enos: Son of Seth; father of Cainan.
Ephraim: Son of Joseph.
Esau: Son of Isaac and Rebecca; sold his birthright to his twin brother Jacob.
Esther: Jewish wife of Ahasuerus; saved Jews from Haman's plotting.
Eve: First woman; wife of Adam.
Ezra (or Esdras): Hebrew scribe and priest.
Gad: Son of Jacob and Zilpah.
Gehazi: Servant of Elisha.
Gideon: Israelite hero; defeated Midianites.
Goliath: Philistine giant; slain by David.
Hagar: Handmaid of Sarah; concubine of Abraham; mother of Ishmael.
Haggith: Mother of Adonijah.
Ham: Son of Noah; father of Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan.
Haman: Chief minister of Ahasuerus; hanged on gallows prepared for Mordecai.
Hannah: Wife of Elkanah; mother of Samuel.
Hanun: King of Ammonites.
Haran: Brother of Abraham; father of Lot.
Hazael: King of Damascus.
Hephzi-Bah: Wife of Hezekiah; mother of Mannaseh.
Hiram: King of Tyre.
Holofernes: General of Nebuchadnezzar; slain by Judith.
Hophni: Son of Eli.
Isaac: Hebrew patriarch; son of Abraham and Sarah; half brother of Ishmael; husband of Rebecca; father of Esau and Jacob.
Ishmael: Son of Abraham and Hagar; half brother of Isaac.
Issachar: Son of Jacob and Leah.
Ithamar: Son of Aaron.
Jabal: Son of Lamech and Adah.
Jabin: King of Hazor.
Jacob: Hebrew patriarch; founder of Israel; son of Isaac and Rebecca; husband of Leah and Rachel; father of sons Asher, Benjamin, Dan, Gad, Issachar, Joseph, Judah, Levi, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon, and Zebulun, and daughter Dinah.
Jael: Slayer of Sisera.
Japheth:Son of Noah.
Jehoiada: High priest; husband of Jehoshabeath; revolted against Athaliah and made Joash King of Judah.
Jehoshabeath (or Jehosheba): Daughter of Jehoram of Judah; wife of Jehoiada.
Jephthah: Judge in Israel; sacrificed his only daughter because of vow.
Jesse: Son of Obed; father of David.
Jethro: Midianite priest; father of Zipporah.
Jezebel: Phoenician princess; wife of Ahab; mother of Ahaziah, Athaliah, and Jehoram.
Joab: Commander in chief under David; slayer of Abner, Absalom, and Amasa.
Job: Patriarch; underwent many afflictions; comforted by Bildad, Elihu, Eliphaz and Zophar.
Jochebed: Wife of Amram.
Jonah: Prophet; cast into sea and swallowed by great fish.
Jonathan: Son of Saul; friend of David.
Joseph: Son of Jacob and Rachel; sold into slavery by his brothers; husband of Asenath; father of Ephraim and Manassah.
Joshua: Successor of Moses; son of Nun.
Jubal: Son of Lamech and Adah.
Judah: Son of Jacob and Leah.
Judith: Slayer of Holofernes.
Kish: Father of Saul.
Laban: Father of Leah and Rachel.
Lamech: Son of Methuselah; father of Noah.
Lamech: Husband of Adah and Zillah; father of Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal-Cain.
Leah: Daughter of Laban; wife of Jacob; sister of Rachel.
Levi: Son of Jacob and Leah.
Lot: Son of Haran; escaped destruction of Sodom.
Maacah: Mother of Absalom and Tamar.
Mahlon: Son of Elimelech; first husband of Ruth.
Manasseh: Son of Joseph.
Melchizedek: King of Salem.
Methuselah: Patriarch; son of Enoch; father of Lamech.
Michal: Daughter of Saul; wife of David.
Miriam: Prophetess; daughter of Amram; sister of Aaron and Moses.
Mizraim: Son of Ham.
Mordecai: Uncle of Esther; with her aid, saved Jews from Haman's plotting.
Moses: Prophet and lawgiver; son of Amram; brother of Aaron and Miriam; husband of Zipporah.
Naaman: Syrian captain; cured of leprosy by Elisha.
Nabal: Husband of Abigail.
Naboth: Owner of vineyard; stoned to death because he would not sell it to Ahab.
Nadab: Son of Aaron.
Nahor: Father of Terah.
Naomi: Wife of Elimelech; mother-in-law of Ruth.
Naphtali: Son of Jacob and Bilhah.
Nathan: Prophet; reproved David for causing Uriah's death.
Nebuchadnezzar (or Nebuchadrezzar): King of Babylon; destroyer of Jerusalem.
Nehemiah: Jewish leader; empowered by Artaxerxes to rebuild Jerusalem.
Nimrod: Mighty hunter; son of Cush.
Noah: Patriarch; son of Lamech; escaped Deluge by building Ark; father of Ham, Japheth and Shem.
Nun (or Non): Father of Joshua.
Obed: Son of Boaz; father of Jesse.
Og: King of Bashan.
Orpah: Wife of Chilion.
Othniel: Kenezite; judge of Israel; husband of Achsa.
Phinehas: Son of Eleazer.
Phinehas: Son of Eli.
Phut (or Put): Son of Ham.
Potiphar: Egyptian official; bought Joseph.
Rachel: Wife of Jacob; mother of Joseph; sister of Leah.
Rebecca (or Rebekah): Wife of Isaac; mother of Esau and Jacob.
Reuben: Son of Jacob and Leah.
Ruth: Wife of Mahlon, later of Boaz; daughter-in-law of Naomi.
Samson: Judge of Israel; famed for strength; betrayed by Delilah.
Samuel: Hebrew judge and prophet; son of Elkanah.
Sarah (or Sara, Sarai): Wife of Abraham; mother of Isaac.
Sennacherib: King of Assyria.
Seth: Son of Adam; father of Enos.
Shem: Son of Noah; father of Elam.
Simeon: Son of Jacob and Leah.
Sisera: Canaanite captain; slain by Jael.
Tamar: Daughter of David and Maachah; raped by Amnon.
Terah: Son of Nahor; father of Abraham.
Tubal-Cain: Son of Lamech and Zillah.
Uriah: Husband of Bathsheba; sent to death in battle by David.
Vashti: Wife of Ahasuerus; set aside by him.
Zadok: High priest during David's reign.
Zebulun (or Zabulon): Son of Jacob and Leah.
Zillah: Wife of Lamech.
Zilpah: Servant of Leah; mistress of Jacob.
Zipporah: Daughter of Jethro; wife of Moses.
Zophar: Comforter of Job.

"Kings of Judah and Israel"

Kings Before Division of Kingdom

Saul: First King of Israel; son of Kish; father of Ish-Bosheth, Jonathan and Michal.
Ish-Bosheth (or Eshbaal): King of Israel; son of Saul.
David: King of Judah; later of Israel; son of Jesse; husband of Abigail, Ahinoam, Bathsheba, Michal, etc.; father of Absalom, Adonijah, Amnon, Solomon, Tamar, etc.
Solomon: King of Israel and Judah; son of David; father of Rehoboam.
Rehoboam: Son of Solomon; during his reign the kingdom was divided into Judah and Israel.

Kings of Judah (Southern Kingdom)

Rehoboam: First King.
Abijah (or Abijam or Abia): Son of Rehoboam.
Asa: Probably son of Abijah.
Jehoshaphat: Son of Asa.
Jehoram (or Joram): Son of Jehoshaphat; husband of Athaliah.
Ahaziah: Son of Jehoram and Athaliah.
Athaliah: Daughter of King Ahab of Israel and Jezebel; wife of Jehoram; only queen to occupy the throne of Judah.
Joash (or Jehoash): Son of Ahaziah.
Amaziah: Son of Joash.
Uzziah (or Azariah): Son of Amaziah.
Jotham: Regent, later King; son of Uzziah.
Ahaz: Son of Jotham.
Hezekiah: Son of Ahaz; husband of Hephzi-Bah.
Manasseh: Son of Hezekiah and Hephzi-Bah.
Amon: Son of Manasseh.
Josiah (or Josias): Son of Amon.
Jehoahaz (or Joahaz): Son of Josiah.
Jehoiakim: Son of Josiah.
Jehoiachin: Son of Jehoiakim.
Zedekiah: Son of Josiah; kingdom overthrown by Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar.

Kings of Israel (Northern Kingdom)

Jeroboam I: Led secession of Israel.
Nadab: Son of Jeroboam I.
Baasha: Overthrew Nadab.
Elah: Son of Baasha.
Zimri: Overthrew Elah.
Omri: Overthrew Zimri.
Ahab: Son of Omri; husband of Jezebel.
Ahaziah: Son of Ahab.
Jehoram (or Joram): Son of Ahab.
Jehu: Overthrew Jehoram.
Jehoahaz (or Joahaz): Son of Jehu.
Jehoash (or Joash): Son of Jehoahaz.
Jeroboam Il: Son of Jehoash.
Zechariah: Son of Jeroboam II.
Shallum: Overthrew Zechariah.
Menahem: Overthrew Shallum.
Pekahiah: Son of Menahem.
Pekah: Overthrew Pekahiah.
Hoshea: Overthrew Pekah; kingdom overthrown by Assyrians under Sargon II.

Prophets

Major. Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel.
Minor. Hosea, Obadiah, Nahum, Haggai, Joel, Jonah, Habakkuk, Zechariah, Amos, Micah, Zephaniah, Malachi.

"The Dead Sea Scrolls"

Discovery of the Scrolls

The first of the Dead Sea Scroll discoveries occurred in 1947 in Qumran, a village situated about twenty miles east of Jerusalem on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea. A young Bedouin shepherd, following a goat that had gone astray, tossed a rock into one of the caves along the seacliffs and heard a cracking sound: the rock had hit a ceramic pot containing leather and papyrus scrolls that were later determined to be nearly twenty centuries old. Ten years and many searches later, eleven caves around the Dead Sea were found to contain tens of thousands of scroll fragments dating from the third century B.C. to A.D. 68 and representing an estimated eight hundred separate works.
The Dead Sea Scrolls comprise a vast collection of Jewish documents written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, and encompassing many subjects and literary styles. They include manuscripts or fragments of every book in the Hebrew Bible except the Book of Esther, all of them created nearly one thousand years earlier than any previously known biblical manuscripts. The scrolls also contain the earliest existing biblical commentary, on the Book of Habakkuk, and many other writings, among them religious works pertaining to Jewish sects of the time.

The Controversy Begins

The shepherd who made the discovery at Qumran brought the seven intact scrolls he found there to an antique dealer. Three were sold to a scholar at Hebrew University and four were sold to the Archbishop of Syria, who tried for years to place them with a reputable academic institution and ultimately sold them in 1954 through a classified ad in The Wall Street Journal. The ad was answered by Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin, who donated these scrolls to the state of Israel and established a museum for them, The Shrine of the Book, at Hebrew University.
Control of the remaining tens of thousands of scroll fragments, however, was not soon resolved. One year after the discovery at Qumran, the United Nations partitioned Palestine and war began. Meanwhile, a U.N.-appointed, Jesuit-trained official had summoned Roland de Vaux, director of the Ecole Biblique, a French Catholic Theological School in Arab East Jerusalem, to oversee research on the scrolls. The slow pace of publication and the extreme secrecy of de Vaux's almost entirely Catholic group fueled the theory that the Vatican wished to suppress information in the scrolls.
Then, in 1967, Zionists seized East Jerusalem and the Israel Antiquities Authority took control of the scrolls. Access, however, was merely transferred to yet another small group that seemed determined to hide them from the rest of the world. Israeli officials told prominent visiting scholars that they “would not see the scrolls in [their] lifetimes.” The building media frenzy was furthered by the 1990 dismissal of the project's editor-in-chief, Harvard Divinity School professor Dr. John Strugnell, after he publicly criticized Judaism and the Israeli state. A breakthrough came in September 1990, when the Huntington Library in California made available unauthorized photographs of the scrolls. The following year, text and translations of fifty scrolls were published in book form.

Judaism, Christianity, and the Scrolls

The Dead Sea Scrolls offer unprecedented information about Jewish religious and political life in Palestine during the turbulent late Second Temple Period (200 B.C. to A.D. 70), a time of great corruption and conflict under Roman rule in Palestine. Scholars estimate that the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden in A.D. 68, when Roman legions reached the Dead Sea during the emperor Vespasian's campaign to Jericho. The discovery of the scrolls established that Jewish culture was far richer and more diverse at this time than scholars had previously believed. Three main groups of Jews were prominent during the late Second Temple Period: the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes. Many other sects and political parties also flourished. This pluralism ended in A.D. 70 when, six years after the start of the First Jewish Rebellion, the Romans sieged Jerusalem, killing or enslaving half the Jewish population and destroying Herod's Temple. The capitol fell to the Romans, and only the Judaism of the dominant Pharisees survived.
The scrolls also shed light on the time when Jesus and John the Baptist lived and early Christians began to organize. Specifically, they offer evidence that early Christian beliefs and practices had precedents in the Jewish sects of the time. Sectarian scrolls tell of people who, like the early Christians, did not believe in the Temple worship of the Pharisees, people who had their own literature, their own rituals—including baptism—and their own beliefs, most significantly beliefs in a messiah, a divine judgment, and an apocalypse. Three different scrolls depict a sacred meal of bread and wine. These similarities as well as parallels between the literary style of certain scrolls and that of the New Testament have led some scholars to claim that Jesus and John the Baptist were either part of or strongly influenced by a sect at the Dead Sea. But no direct link has been established, and it is likely that similarities can be attributed to each being derived from a like strain of Judaism. Still, this debate has furthered speculation about the historical Jesus, such as the claim that he was a Zealot rather than a pacifist, a theory that does not fit with New Testament tradition but does fit with the history of this period. And one of the most important discoveries in the scrolls has been the use of the name Son of God to refer to someone other than Jesus, implying a cultural use of the term that was not itself synonymous with God.

Who Hid the Scrolls?

Debate continues about who actually wrote, copied, and stored the scrolls. The most prevalent theory is that this was done by an ascetic group of Essenes who had retreated to the desert to await a Messiah, and who lived at Qumran in a community guided by the Manual of Discipline, or Community Rule, a scroll detailing the beliefs and practices of a messianic sect. In the 1950s, Roland de Vaux excavated a site between the Qumran caves and the Dead Sea that he claimed was a monastic library where Essenes had copied the scrolls. Recent archaeologists, however, think that what de Vaux believed to be the remains of desks and ink bottles are in fact remains of dining tables and perfume bottles, suggesting that the site was a Roman-style villa whose occupants were engaged in the lucrative perfume trade. Furthermore, not a single manuscript fragment has ever been found on this site. Some scholars believe that Sadducees lived at the Qumran site. Others believe that the scrolls were kept not by a religious sect but by a militant, nationalistic group, and that the Qumran site was in fact a fortress. It has been argued also that the people who lived at the Qumran site were not the same people who hid the scrolls in the caves. Still other scholars reject the idea that the scrolls can be identified with a single group, suggesting instead that the scrolls describe the beliefs and rituals of the many Jewish sects of the time. These scholars propose that the scrolls are copies of manuscripts from libraries throughout Jerusalem that Jews sought to preserve as the Romans encroached upon the capitol. One scroll, called the Copper Scroll, offers a detailed description of efforts to hide documents.

The Scrolls Today

More than fifty years after their discovery, no one can claim to know the absolute truth about the Dead Sea Scrolls, although academics and amateurs alike generate ever more intriguing theories, wild claims, and media attention. It is a complicating factor that almost all the scrolls are copies of other manuscripts—some perhaps historical, others certainly fictitious, and all together, transcribed over the course of nearly three hundred years. It will probably never be possible to know for sure what among the scrolls is fact, when exactly it was recorded, and why: their origins, scribes, keepers, and meanings will likely remain a mystery.
—Holly Hartman

The Seven Deadly Sins

In Christianity, the seven deadly sins are considered “deadly” because it is believed they can do terrible damage to the soul. The now-famous list does not appear in the Bible and may have been formulated by Gregory the Great (540–604). The deadly sins are sometimes known as “capital” or “cardinal” sins: pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, anger, and sloth.

Major Religions of the World

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:24:00 -0800

"Major Religions of the World"

Judaism

Judaism is the oldest of the monotheistic faiths. It affirms the existence of one God, Yahweh, who entered into covenant with the descendants of Abraham, God's chosen people. Judaism's holy writings reveal how God has been present with them throughout their history. These writings are known as the Torah, specifically the five books of Moses, but most broadly conceived as the Hebrew Scriptures (traditionally called the Old Testament by Christians) and the compilation of oral tradition known as the Talmud (which includes the Mishnah, the oral law).

According to Scripture, the Hebrew patriarch Abraham (20th century? B.C.) founded the faith that would become known as Judaism. He obeyed the call of God to depart northern Mesopotamia and travel to Canaan. God promised to bless his descendants if they remained faithful in worship. Abraham's line descended through Isaac, then Jacob (also called Israel; his descendants came to be called Israelites). According to Scripture, 12 families that descended from Jacob migrated to Egypt, where they were enslaved. They were led out of bondage (13th century? B.C.) by Moses, who united them in the worship of Yahweh. The Hebrews returned to Canaan after a 40-year sojourn in the desert, conquering from the local peoples the “promised land” that God had provided for them.

The 12 tribes of Israel lived in a covenant association during the period of the judges (1200?–1000? B.C.), leaders known for wisdom and heroism. Saul first established a monarchy (r. 1025?–1005? B.C.); his successor, David (r. 1005?–965? B.C.), unified the land of Israel and made Jerusalem its religious and political center. Under his son, Solomon (r. 968?–928? B.C.), a golden era culminated in the building of a temple, replacing the portable sanctuary in use until that time. Following Solomon's death, the kingdom was split into Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Political conflicts resulted in the conquest of Israel by Assyria (721 B.C.) and the defeat of Judah by Babylon (586 B.C.). Jerusalem and its temple were destroyed, and many Judeans were exiled to Babylon.

During the era of the kings, the prophets were active in Israel and Judah. Their writings emphasize faith in Yahweh as God of Israel and of the entire universe, and they warn of the dangers of worshiping other gods. They also cry out for social justice.

The Judeans were permitted to return in 539 B.C. to Judea, where they were ruled as a Persian province. Though temple and cult were restored in Jerusalem, during the exile a new class of religious leaders had emerged—the scribes. They became rivals to the temple hierarchy and would eventually evolve into the party known as the Pharisees.

Persian rule ended when Alexander the Great conquered Palestine in 332 B.C. After his death, rule of Judea alternated between Egypt and Syria. When the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes tried to prevent the practice of Judaism, a revolt was led by the Maccabees (a Jewish family), winning Jewish independence in 128 B.C. The Romans conquered Jerusalem in 63 B.C.

During this period the Sadducees (temple priests) and the Pharisees (teachers of the law in the synagogues) offered different interpretations of Judaism. Smaller groups that emerged were the Essenes, a religious order; the Apocalyptists, who expected divine deliverance led by the Messiah; and the Zealots, who were prepared to fight for national independence. Hellenism also influenced Judaism at this time.

When the Zealots revolted, the Roman armies destroyed Jerusalem and its temple (A.D. 70). The Jews were scattered in the Diaspora (dispersion) and experienced much persecution. Rabbinic Judaism, developed according to Pharisaic practice and centered on Torah and synagogue, became the primary expression of faith. The Scriptures became codified, and the Talmud took shape. In the 12th century Maimonides formulated the influential 13 Articles of Faith, including belief in God, God's oneness and lack of physical or other form, the changelessness of Torah, restoration of the monarchy under the Messiah, and resurrection of the dead.

Two branches of European Judaism developed during the Middle Ages: the Sephardic, based in Spain and with an affinity to Babylonian Jews; and the Ashkenazic, based in Franco-German lands and affiliated with Rome and Palestine. Two forms of Jewish mysticism also arose at this time: medieval Hasidism and attention to the Kabbalah (a mystical interpretation of Scripture).

After a respite during the 18th-century Enlightenment, anti-Semitism again plagued European Jews in the 19th century, sparking the Zionist movement that culminated in the founding of the state of Israel in 1948. The Holocaust of World War II took the lives of more than 6 million Jews.

Jews today continue synagogue worship, which includes readings from the Law and the Prophets and prayers, such as the Shema (Hear, O Israel) and the Amidah (the 18 Benedictions). Religious life is guided by the commandments of the Torah, which include the practice of circumcision and Sabbath observance.

Present-day Judaism has three main expressions: Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Reform movements, resulting from the Haskala (Jewish Enlightenment) of the 18th century, began in western Europe but took root in North America. Reform Jews do not hold the oral law (Talmud) to be a divine revelation, and they emphasize ethical and moral teachings. Orthodox Jews follow the traditional faith and practice with great seriousness. They follow a strict kosher diet and keep the Sabbath with care. Conservative Judaism, which developed in the mid-18th century, holds the Talmud to be authoritative and follows most traditional practices, yet tries to make Judaism relevant for each generation, believing that change and tradition can complement each other. Because a Jewish identity is not dependent upon accepting the Torah, a strong secular movement also exists within Jewish life, including atheist and agnostic elements.

In general, Jews do not proselytize, but they do welcome newcomers to their faith.

Christianity

After his death his followers came to believe in him as the Christ, the Messiah. The Gospels report his resurrection and how the risen Jesus was witnessed by many of his followers. The apostle Paul helped spread the new faith in his missionary travels. Historically, Christianity arose out of Judaism and claims that Jesus fulfilled many of the promises of the Hebrew Scripture (often referred to as the Old Testament).Christianity is a monotheistic religion founded by the followers of Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus, a Jew, was born in about 7 B.C. and assumed his public life, probably after his 30th year, in Galilee. The New Testament Gospels describe Jesus as a teacher and miracle worker. He proclaimed the kingdom of God, a future reality that is at the same time already present. Jesus set the requirements for participation in the kingdom of God as a change of heart and repentance for sins, love of God and neighbor, and concern for justice. Circa A.D. 30 he was executed on a cross in Jerusalem, a brutal form of punishment for those considered a political threat to the Roman Empire.

The new religion spread rapidly throughout the Roman Empire. In its first two centuries, Christianity began to take shape as an organization, developing distinctive doctrine, liturgy, and ministry. By the fourth century the Christian church had taken root in countries stretching from Spain in the West to Persia and India in the East. Christians had been subject to persecution by the Roman state, but gained tolerance under Constantine the Great (A.D. 313). The church became favored under his successors, and in 380 the emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the state religion. Other religions were suppressed.

Because differences in doctrine threatened to divide the church, a standard Christian creed was formulated by bishops at successive ecumenical councils, the first of which was held in A.D. 325 (Nicaea). Important doctrines were defined concerning the Trinity—in other words, that there is one God in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Constantinople, A.D. 381), and the nature of Christ as both divine and human (Chalcedon, A.D. 541). Christians came to accept both Hebrew Scripture and the New Testament as authoritative. The New Testament comprises four Gospels (narratives of Jesus' life), 21 Epistles, The Acts of the Apostles, and Revelation.

Because of differences between Christians of the East and West, the unity of the church was broken in 1054. The religious center for the Eastern Orthodox Church was Constantinople, and the Roman Catholic Church defined doctrine and practice for Christians in the West. In 1517 the Reformation began, which ultimately caused a schism in the Western church. Reformers wished to correct certain practices within the Roman church, but they also came to view the Christian faith in a distinctly new way. The major Protestant denominations (Lutheran, Presbyterian, Reformed, and Anglican [Episcopalian]) thus came into being. Over the centuries, numerous denominations have broken with these major traditions, resulting in a spectrum of Christian expression.

In the 21st century, many Christians hope to regain a sense of unity through dialogue and cooperation among different traditions. The ecumenical movement led to the formation of the World Council of Churches in 1948 (Amsterdam), which has since been joined by many denominations.

Through its missionary activity Christianity has spread to most parts of the globe.

Islam

Islam, one of the three major monotheistic faiths, was founded in Arabia by Muhammad between 610 and 632. There are an estimated 4.6 million Muslims in North America and 1.57 billion Muslims worldwide.

Muhammad was born in A.D. 570 at Mecca and belonged to the Quraysh tribe, which was active in the caravan trade. At the age of 25 he joined the trade from Mecca to Syria in the employment of a rich widow, Khadija, whom he later married. Critical of the lax moral standards and polytheistic practices of the inhabitants of Mecca, he began to lead a contemplative life in the desert. In a dramatic religious vision, the angel Gabriel announced to Muhammad that he was to be a prophet. Encouraged by Khadija, he devoted himself to the reform of religion and society. Polytheism was to be abandoned. But leaders of the Quraysh generally rejected his teaching, and Muhammad gained only a small following and suffered persecution. He eventually fled Mecca.

The Hegira (Hijra, meaning "emigration") of Muhammad from Mecca, where he was not honored, to Medina, where he was well received, occurred in 622 and marks the beginning of the Muslim era. After a number of military conflicts with Mecca, in 630 he marched on Mecca and conquered it. Muhammad died at Medina in 632. His grave there has since been a place of pilgrimage.

Muhammad's followers, called Muslims, revered him as the prophet of Allah (God), the only God. Muslims consider Muhammad to be the last in the line of prophets that included Abraham and Jesus. Islam spread quickly, stretching from Spain in the west to India in the east within a century after the prophet's death. Sources of the Islamic faith are the Qur'an (Koran), regarded as the uncreated, eternal Word of God, and tradition (hadith) regarding sayings and deeds of the prophet.

Islam means "surrender to the will of Allah," the all-powerful, who determines humanity's fate. Good deeds will be rewarded at the Last Judgment in paradise, and evil deeds will be punished in hell.

The Five Pillars, or primary duties, of Islam are profession of faith; prayer, to be performed five times a day; almsgiving to the poor and the mosque (house of worship); fasting during daylight hours in the month of Ramadan; and pilgrimage to Mecca (the hajj) at least once in a Muslim's lifetime, if it is physically and financially possible. The pilgrimage includes homage to the ancient shrine of the Ka'aba, the most sacred site in Islam.

Muslims gather for corporate worship on Fridays. Prayers and a sermon take place at the mosque, which is also a center for teaching of the Qur'an. The community leader, the imam, is considered a teacher and prayer leader.

Islam succeeded in uniting an Arab world of separate tribes and castes, but disagreements concerning the succession of the prophet caused a division in Islam between two groups, Sunnis and Shi'ites. The Shi'ites rejected the first three successors to Muhammad as usurpers, claiming the fourth, Muhammad's son-in-law Ali, as the rightful leader. The Sunnis (from the word tradition), the largest division of Islam (today more than 87%), believe in the legitimacy of the first three successors. Among these, other sects arose (such as the conservative Wahhabi of Saudi Arabia), as well as different schools of theology. Another development within Islam, beginning in the eighth and ninth centuries, was Sufism, a form of mysticism. This movement was influential for many centuries and was instrumental in the spread of Islam in Asia and Africa.

Islam has expanded greatly under Muhammad's successors. It is the principal religion of the Middle East, Asia, and the northern half of Africa.

See also Encyclopedia: Islam.

See also Text: The Koran.

Countries with the Largest Muslim Populations

1. Indonesia
2. Pakistan
3. India
4. Bangladesh
5. Egypt
6. Nigeria
7. Iran
8. Turkey
9. Algeria
10. Morocco

Hinduism

Hinduism is the major religion of India, practiced by more than 80% of the population. In contrast to other religions, it has no founder. Considered the oldest religion in the world, it dates back, perhaps, to prehistoric times.

No single creed or doctrine binds Hindus together. Intellectually there is complete freedom of belief, and one can be monotheist, polytheist, or atheist. Hinduism is a syncretic religion, welcoming and incorporating a variety of outside influences.

The most ancient sacred texts of the Hindu religion are written in Sanskrit and called the Vedas (vedah means “knowledge”). There are four Vedic books, of which the Rig-Veda is the oldest. It discusses multiple gods, the universe, and creation. The dates of these works are unknown (1000 B.C.?). Present-day Hindus rarely refer to these texts but do venerate them.

The Upanishads (dated 1000–300 B.C.), commentaries on the Vedic texts, speculate on the origin of the universe and the nature of deity, and atman (the individual soul) and its relationship to Brahman (the universal soul). They introduce the doctrine of karma and recommend meditation and the practice of yoga.

Further important sacred writings include the Epics, which contain legendary stories about gods and humans. They are the Mahabharata (composed between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200) and the Ramayana. The former includes the Bhagavad-Gita (Song of the Lord), an influential text that describes the three paths to salvation. The Puranas (stories in verse, probably written between the 6th and 13th centuries) detail myths of Hindu gods and heroes and also comment on religious practice and cosmology.

According to Hindu beliefs, Brahman is the principle and source of the universe. This divine intelligence pervades all beings, including the individual soul. Thus the many Hindu deities are manifestations of the one Brahman. Hinduism is based on the concept of reincarnation, in which all living beings, from plants on earth to gods above, are caught in a cosmic cycle of becoming and perishing.

Life is determined by the law of karma—one is reborn to a higher level of existence based on moral behavior in a previous phase of existence. Life on earth is regarded as transient and a burden. The goal of existence is liberation from the cycle of rebirth and death and entrance into the indescribable state of moksha (liberation).

The practice of Hinduism consists of rites and ceremonies centering on birth, marriage, and death. There are many Hindu temples, which are considered to be dwelling places of the deities and to which people bring offerings. Places of pilgrimage include Benares on the Ganges, the most sacred river in India. Of the many Hindu deities, the most popular are the cults of Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti, and their various incarnations. Also important is Brahma, the creator god. Hindus also venerate human saints.

Orthodox Hindu society in India was divided into four major hereditary classes: (1) the Brahmin (priestly and learned class); (2) the Kshatriya (military, professional, ruling, and governing occupations); (3) the Vaishya (landowners, merchants, and business occupations); and (4) the Sudra (artisans, laborers, and peasants). Below the Sudra was a fifth group, the Untouchables (lowest menial occupations and no social standing). The Indian government banned discrimination against the Untouchables in the constitution of India in 1950. Observance of class and caste distinctions varies throughout India.

In modern times work has been done to reform and revive Hinduism. One of the outstanding reformers was Ramakrishna (1836–1886), who inspired many followers, one of whom founded the Ramakrishna mission. The mission is active both in India and in other countries and is known for its scholarly and humanitarian works.

Buddhism

Buddhism was founded in the fourth or fifth century B.C. in northern India by a man known traditionally as Siddhartha (meaning “he who has reached the goal”) Gautama, the son of a warrior prince. Some scholars believe that he lived from 563 to 483 B.C., though his exact life span is uncertain. Troubled by the inevitability of suffering in human life, he left home and a pampered life at the age of 29 to wander as an ascetic, seeking religious insight and a solution to the struggles of human existence. He passed through many trials and practiced extreme self-denial. Finally, while meditating under the bodhi tree (“tree of perfect knowledge”), he reached enlightenment and taught his followers about his new spiritual understanding.

Gautama's teachings differed from the Hindu faith prevalent in India at the time. Whereas in Hinduism the Brahmin caste alone performed religious functions and attained the highest spiritual understanding, Gautama's beliefs were more egalitarian, accessible to all who wished to be enlightened. At the core of his understanding were the Four Noble Truths: (1) all living beings suffer; (2) the origin of this suffering is desire—for material possessions, power, and so on; (3) desire can be overcome; and (4) there is a path that leads to release from desire. This way is called the Noble Eightfold Path: right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right concentration, and right ecstasy.

Gautama promoted the concept of anatman (that a person has no actual self) and the idea that existence is characterized by impermanence. This realization helps one let go of desire for transient things. Still, Gautama did not recommend extreme self-denial but rather a disciplined life called the Middle Way. Like the Hindus, he believed that existence consisted of reincarnation, a cycle of birth and death. He held that it could be broken only by reaching complete detachment from worldly cares. Then the soul could be released into nirvana (literally “blowing out”)—an indescribable state of total transcendence. Gautama traveled to preach the dharma (sacred truth) and was recognized as the Buddha (enlightened one). After his death his followers continued to develop doctrine and practice, which came to center on the Three Jewels: the dharma (the sacred teachings of Buddhism), the sangha (the community of followers, which now includes nuns, monks, and laity), and the Buddha. Under the patronage of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (third century B.C.), Buddhism spread throughout India and to other parts of Asia. Monasteries were established, as well as temples dedicated to Buddha; at shrines his relics were venerated. Though by the fourth century A.D. Buddhist presence in India had dwindled, it flourished in other parts of Asia.

Numerous Buddhist sects have emerged. The oldest, called the Theravada (Way of the Elders) tradition, interprets Buddha as a great sage but not a deity. It emphasizes meditation and ritual practices that help the individual become an arhat, an enlightened being. Its followers emphasize the authority of the earliest Buddhist scriptures, the Tripitaka (Three Baskets), a compilation of sermons, rules for celibates, and doctrine. This sect is prevalent in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. It is sometimes called the Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) tradition (once considered a pejorative term).

Between the second century B.C. and the second century A.D., the Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) tradition refocused Buddhism to concentrate less on individual attainment of enlightenment and more on concern for humanity. It promotes the ideal of the bodhisattva (enlightened being), who shuns entering nirvana until all sentient beings can do so as well, willingly remaining in the painful cycle of birth and death to perform works of compassion. Members of this tradition conceive of Buddha as an eternal being to whom prayers can be made; other Buddhas are revered as well, adding a polytheistic dimension to the religion. Numerous sects have developed from the Mahayana tradition, which has been influential in China, Korea, and Japan.

A third broad tradition, variously called Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle), Mantrayana (Vehicle of the Mantra), or Tantric Buddhism, offers a quicker, more demanding way to achieve nirvana. Because of its level of challenge—enabling one to reach enlightenment in one lifetime—it requires the guidance of a spiritual leader. It is most prominent in Tibet and Mongolia.

Zen Buddhism encourages individuals to seek the Buddha nature within themselves and to practice a disciplined form of sitting meditation in order to reach satori—spiritual enlightenment.

Sikhism

A major religion of India and the fifth-largest faith in the world, Sikhism emerged in the Punjab under the guidance of the guru Nanak (1469–1539?). This region had been influenced by the Hindu bhakti movement, which promoted both the idea that God comprises one reality alone as well as the practice of devotional singing and prayer. The Muslim mystical tradition of Sufism, with its emphasis on meditation, also had some prominence there. Drawing on these resources, Nanak forged a new spiritual path.

In his youth, Nanak began to compose hymns. At the age of 29, he had a mystical experience that led him to proclaim “There is no Hindu; there is no Muslim.” A strict monotheist, he rejected Hindu polytheism but accepted the Hindu concept of life as a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth; moksha, release from this cycle into unity with God, could be achieved only with the help of a guru, or spiritual teacher. Nanak believed that communion with God could be gained through devotional repetition of the divine name, singing of hymns and praises, and adherence to a demanding ethical code. He rejected idols and the Hindu caste system; it became a custom for Sikhs of all social ranks to take meals together. These beliefs are still central to modern Sikhism.

Nanak was first in a line of ten gurus who shaped and inspired Sikhism. The fifth, Arjun (1563–1606), compiled hymns and other writings by earlier Sikh gurus, as well as medieval Hindu and Muslim saints, in the Adi Granth (First Book), or Guru Granth Sahib (the Granth Personified). This book became the sacred scripture of Sikhism. In addition to his spiritual leadership, Arjun wielded considerable secular power as he grappled with leaders of the Mughal Empire.

The tenth guru, Gobind Singh (1666–1708), was both a scholar and a military hero. He established the Khalsa (community of pure ones), an order that combined spiritual devotion, personal discipline, and ideals of military valor. Baptism initiates new members into the Khalsa. The Adi Granth took its final form under the supervision of Gobind Singh, as did the Dasam Granth (Tenth Book), a collection of prayers, poetry, and narrative. After the deaths of his four sons, Gobind Singh declared the line of gurus at an end. The Adi Granth would instead be reverenced in houses of worship, taking the place of a living guru.

Today, Sikhs worship at gurdwaras (temples), where the Adi Granth is the object of devotion. This book is consulted regarding questions of faith and practice. On certain occasions, it is recited in its entirety (requiring more than a day) or carried in procession; offerings may be placed before it. Worshipful singing, meditation, and focus on the divine name remain essential to spiritual life. Some Sikhs undertake pilgrimages to historical gurdwaras, such as the Golden Temple of Amritsar, that are associated with the gurus. Some become disciples of living saints. There is no established Sikh priesthood.

Confucianism

Confucius (K'ung Fu-tzu), born in the state of Lu (northern China), lived from 551 to 479 B.C. He was a brilliant teacher, viewing education not merely as the accumulation of knowledge but as a means of self-transformation. His legacy was a system of thought emphasizing education, proper behavior, and loyalty. His effect on Chinese culture was immense.

The teachings of Confucius are contained in the Analects, a collection of his sayings as remembered by his students. They were further developed by philosophers such as Mencius (Meng Tse, fl. 400 B.C.). Confucianism is little concerned with metaphysical discussion of religion or with spiritual attainments. It instead emphasizes moral conduct and right relationships in the human sphere.

Cultivation of virtue is a central tenet of Confucianism. Two important virtues are jen, a benevolent and humanitarian attitude, and li, maintaining proper relationships and rituals that enhance the life of the individual, the family, and the state. The “five relations,” between king and subject, father and son, man and wife, older and younger brother, and friend and friend, are of utmost importance. These relationships are reinforced by participation in rituals, including the formal procedures of court life and religious rituals such as ancestor worship.

Confucius revolutionized educational thought in China. He believed that learning was not to be focused only on attaining the skills for a particular profession, but for growth in moral judgment and self-realization. Confucius's standards for the proper conduct of government shaped the statecraft of China for centuries. Hundreds of temples in honor of Confucius testify to his stature as sage and teacher.

Confucianism was far less dominant in 20th-century China, at least on an official level. The state cult of Confucius was ended in 1911. Still, Confucian traditions and moral standards are part of the cultural essence of China and other East Asian countries.

Shinto

Shinto comprises the religious ideas and practices indigenous to Japan. Ancient Shinto focused on the worship of the kami, a host of supernatural beings that could be known through forms (objects of nature, remarkable people, abstract concepts such as justice) but were ultimately mysterious. Shinto has no formal dogma and no holy writ, though early collections of Japanese religious thought and practice (Kojiki, “Records of Ancient Matters,” A.D. 712, and Nihon shoki, “Chronicles of Japan,” A.D. 720) are highly regarded.

Shinto has been influenced by Confucianism and by Buddhism, which was introduced in Japan in the 6th century. Syncretic schools (such as Ryobu Shinto) emerged, as did other sects that rejected Buddhism (such as Ise Shinto).

Under the reign of the emperor Meiji (1868–1912), Shinto became the official state religion. State Shinto, the national cult, emphasized the divinity of the emperor, whose succession was traced back to the first emperor, Jimmu (660 B.C.), and beyond him to the sun goddess Amaterasu-o-mi-kami. State Shinto was disestablished after World War II.

Sect Shinto, deriving from sects that developed during the 19th and 20th centuries, continues to thrive in Japan. Shrines dedicated to particular kami are visited by parishioners for prayer and traditional ceremonies, such as presenting a newborn child to the kami. Traditional festivals celebrated at the shrines include purification rites, presentation of food offerings, prayer, sacred music and dance, and a feast.

No particular day of the week is set aside for prayer. A person may visit a shrine at will, entering through the torii (gateway). It is believed that the kami can respond to prayer and can offer protection and guidance.

A variety of Shinto sects and practices exist today. Ten-rikyo emphasizes faith healing. Folk Shinto is characterized by veneration of roadside shrines and rites related to agriculture. Buddhist priests serve at many Shinto shrines, and many families keep a small shrine, or god-shelf, at home. Veneration of ancestors and pilgrimage are also common practices.

Taoism

Taoism, one of the major religions of China, is based on ancient philosophical works, primarily the Tao Te Ching, “Classic of Tao and Its Virtue.” Traditionally, this book was thought to be the work of Lao-tzu, a quasi-historical philosopher of the 6th century B.C.; scholars now believe that the book dates from about the 3rd century B.C. The philosopher Chuang Tzu (4th–3rd centuries B.C.) also contributed to the seminal ideas of Taoism.

Tao, “the Way,” is the ultimate reality of the universe, according to Taoism. It is a creative process, and humans can live in harmony with it by clearing the self of obstacles. By cultivating wu-wei, a type of inaction characterized by humility and prudence, a person can participate in the simplicity and spontaneity of Tao. Striving to attain virtue or achievement is counterproductive and unnecessary. Taoism values mystical contemplation and balance. The human being is viewed as a microcosm of the universe, and the Chinese principle of yin-yang, complementary duality, is a model of harmony.

The religious practices of Taoism emerged from these ancient philosophies and from Chinese shamanistic tradition; by the 2nd century A.D., it constituted an organized religion. Longevity and immortality were sought through regulating the energies of the body through breathing exercises, meditation, and use of medicinal plants, talismans, and magical formulas. A cult of immortals, including the divinized Lao-tzu, also developed. Influenced by Buddhism, Taoists organized monastic orders. Temple worship and forms of divination, including the I ching, were practiced.

Since its beginnings, many sects have arisen within Taoism. All subscribe to the philosophical origins of the religion; some have emphasized faith healing, exorcism, the worship of the immortals, meditation, or alchemy. Buddhism and Confucianism influenced some sects; some operated as secret societies.

Though the present Chinese government has tried to suppress it, Taoism is still practiced in mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. It profoundly influenced Chinese art and literature, and Taoist ideas have become popular in the West.

Disaster Survival Guide

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:13:00 -0800

Disaster Survival Guide

You never know when disaster will strike. If it does, it’s important to be prepared. Your life—or the lives of others—may depend on knowing how get out of a tough jam. Here are some tricks that experts say will increase a person’s chances of surviving a sticky situation.

You are bitten by a snake

Even if you once saw it done in a movie, don’t try to suck the venom and spit it out. This will only make you absorb even more venom. Remain calm-most snake bites aren’t fatal. Panic will only make your heart beat faster, speeding the venom through your body. Clean the wound the way you would any other type of wound. Then tie a band between the wound and your heart to keep the venom from spreading too quickly. Don’t make the band as tight as a tourniquet. Seek medical attention right away. If you are in the woods and can’t easily get to a doctor, go to a road and wave down a car.

You are in water with sharks

Try to keep still, to keep the shark from noticing you. If you think it’s attacking, hit it in the eyes or gills. (Punch the nose only if you can’t reach the eyes or gills.) Use your fists or any hard object. Sharks aren’t interested in going after prey that fights back, so it will probably swim away. To avoid this frightening problem, it’s best not to swim alone far from the ocean’s shore. Don’t swim during the twilight or evening or wear brightly colored swimwear. Don’t swim if you have an open wound.

You are attacked by a bear

Don’t turn your back on the bear and run away. The bear will think you are prey and chase you. There’s no way you can outrun a bear. Nor can you out-climb one. Bears will chase you up a tree, where there’s no escape. Your best hope is lie down and play dead. The bear might come over and inspect you, maybe even swipe at you with its claws. With any luck, it will lose interest and leave.

Your car is sinking

First and most importantly, open the car windows. You want water to fill the car so the pressure on the car’s inside and outside will be equal. Now you will be able to open the doors. Get out of the car as quickly as possible. If you can’t open the windows, try to break them. If that doesn’t work, wait while the car slowly fills with water. Once the water has reached your head, the water pressure should be equalized. Hold your breath, open the door and swim out.

You are in a lightning storm

It’s not what you do—it’s what you shouldn’t do: don’t stay in high places or open ground. Don’t stand under a tree or flagpole or in a picnic area, baseball dugout or bleachers. Don’t go near metal fences and any body of water. It’s better to stand inside a large building than a small one. Once inside, don’t touch anything conductive that leads to the outside, such as window frames, showers and pipes. Don’t pick up a telephone or use a computer or TV. If you’re inside a car, roll up the windows and try not to touch anything that can conduct electricity.

Your tongue is stuck to a cold pole

This isn’t life-threatening—but it’s painful and embarrassing. The best advice is not to put your tongue on a freezing pole in the first place. But if you do, don’t try to quickly pull your tongue off the pole—you’ll rip it! Instead, move your hands (they should be in gloves!) over the pole near your tongue. This should warm the pole enough to let you slowly pull your tongue off. If warm water is nearby, splash it over your tongue to thaw it. Don’t put cool water or your saliva over the area: they will both freeze, making the situation stickier.

Tsunami in Japan 2011

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:11:00 -0800

Tsunami in Japan 2011: Waves Stirred Up by Earthquake Cause Wide Destruction

Learn about the science behind tsunamis and earthquakes

by Borgna Brunner and Beth Rowen

Location of the earthquake. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Tsunami

Tsunami in Japan

Japan was hit by an enormous earthquake on March 11, 2011, that triggered a deadly 23-foot tsunami in the country's north. The giant waves deluged cities and rural areas alike, sweeping away cars, homes, buildings, a train, and boats, leaving a path of death and devastation in its wake. Video footage showed cars racing away from surging waves. The United States Geological Survey reported the earthquake and on Monday revised its magnitude from 8.9 to 9.0, which is the largest in Japan's history. The earthquake struck about 230 miles northeast of Tokyo. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued warnings for Russia, Taiwan, Hawaii, Indonesia, the Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Australia, and the west coasts the U.S., Mexico, Central America, and South America. As of June, tens of thousands of people were still in temporary shelters and over 24,000 were confirmed dead or missing.

Earthquake Causes Nuclear Disaster

Disaster struck again on Saturday, March 12, when about 26 hours after the earthquake, an explosion in reactor No. 1 at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station caused one of the buildings to crumble to the ground. The cooling system at the reactor failed shortly after the earthquake. Officials feared that a meltdown may occur, and radioactive material was detected outside the plant. These fears were realized on Sunday, when officials said they believed that partial meltdowns occurred at reactors No. 1 and No. 3. The cooling systems at another plant, Fukushima Daini, were also compromised but the situation there seemed to be less precarious. More than 200,000 residents were evacuated from areas surrounding both facilities. Problems were later reported at two other nuclear facilities. By Tuesday, two more explosions and a fire had officials and workers at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station struggling to regain control of four reactors. The fire, which happened at reactor No. 4, released radioactivity directly into the atmosphere. The Japanese government told people living within 20 miles of the Daiichi plant to stay indoors, not use air conditioning, and keep their windows closed. More than 100,000 people are in the area. On Wednesday, March 16, while safety workers were still trying to contain the fire at reactor No. 4, officials announced that reactor No. 3 may have ruptured and appeared to be releasing radioactive steam. According to Tokyo Electric Power, the plant's operator, 5 workers have died and 22 more have suffered various injuries since the quake.

At a news conference on Sunday, Prime Minister Naoto Kan emphasized the gravity of the situation. "I think that the earthquake, tsunami, and the situation at our nuclear reactors makes up the worst crisis in the 65 years since the war. If the nation works together, we will overcome," he said. The government called in 100,000 troops to aid in the relief effort. The deployment is the largest since World War II.

The tsunami in Japan recalled the 2004 disaster in the Indian Ocean. On Dec. 26, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake—the largest earthquake in 40 years—ruptured in the Indian Ocean, off the northwest coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The earthquake stirred up the deadliest tsunami in world history, so powerful that the waves caused loss of life on the coast of Africa and were even detected on the East Coast of the United States. More than 225,000 people died from the disaster, a half a million were injured, and millions were left homeless.

See statistics on Deadliest Tsunamis and Deadliest Earthquakes.

The Science of Tsunami

A tsunami (pronounced soo-NAHM-ee) is a series of huge waves that occur as the result of a violent underwater disturbance, such as an earthquake or volcanic eruption. The waves travel in all directions from the epicenter of the disturbance. The waves may travel in the open sea as fast as 450 miles per hour. As they travel in the open ocean, tsunami waves are generally not particularly large—hence the difficulty in detecting the approach of a tsunami. But as these powerful waves approach shallow waters along the coast, their velocity is slowed and they consequently grow to a great height before smashing into the shore. They can grow as high as 100 feet; the Indian Ocean tsunami generated waves reaching 30 feet.

Tsunami is the Japanese word for "harbor wave." They are sometimes mistakenly referred to as tidal waves, but tsunamis have nothing to do with the tides. Tsunamis have been relatively rare in the Indian Ocean, and are most common in the Pacific Ocean.

The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:10:00 -0800

The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake

The worst natural disaster in U.S. history

by Chris Frantz

San Francisco, California, April 1906

Uncertain Death Toll

In 1906 San Francisco was the ninth largest U.S. city with a population of 400,000, and over 225,000 were left homeless by the disaster. The death toll is uncertain. City officials estimated the casualties at 700 but more modern calculations say about 3,000 lost their lives. The lowballing city figures may have been a public relations ploy to downplay the disaster with an eye on rebuilding the city. On April 20, the U.S.S. Chicago rescued 20,000 victims, one of the largest sea evacuations in history, rivaling Dunkirk in World War II. Martial law was not declared, but some 500 looters were shot by police and the military.

Shifting Seismologic Knowledge

The epicenter of this earthquake has moved around in the past 100 years, as advances in seismology have been made. It was first thought to have been in Marin County, then northwest of the Golden Gate, and most recently, in the Pacific Ocean about two miles west of San Francisco. The plate-tectonics theory that would shed some light on the quake wasn't formulated until the 1920s and not embraced until some three decades later. The San Andreas fault is on the boundary between the Pacific plate and the North American plate. During the earthquake, the ground west of the fault tended to move northward and, in the most extreme instance, a 21-foot shift was measured. Earthquake ruptures are fast movers—seismologists estimated the average speed of this rupture to have been 8,300 mi/hr going north, and 6,300 mi/hr traveling south. The quake was felt from southern Oregon to south of Los Angeles and inland as far as central Nevada.

Magnitude

Charles Richter developed his scale in 1935 to measure the amount of seismic energy released, the magnitude, of an earthquake. Seismologists found the Richter scale fine for lower magnitude quakes, but inaccurate for higher magnitude ones. The 1906 earthquake was assigned a Richter rating of 8.3, but on the newer moment magnitude scale it has been demoted to one measuring 7.8 or 7.9.

"The Big One"

On Oct. 17, 1989, at 5:04 p.m., at the height of the rush hour, Bay Area residents thought the "big one" had struck. The 7.1 Richter scale (6.9 moment magnitude) Loma Prieta earthquake, with its epicenter about 60 miles from San Francisco, was the largest one to hit the region since 1906. Sixty to 70 deaths were reported, freeways and bridges were damaged, and the World Series between the Oakland and San Francisco teams was postponed for 10 days. Property damage was estimated at $6 billion dollars, making this the costliest natural disaster to that date. But seismologists said this was not the major earthquake feared by all. That one is still in the future.

In 1906 there were only about 650,000 people living in the area, but today more than 7 million people make their homes in the San Francisco Bay region. Scientists in 2003 estimated that there is a 62% probability of a 6.7 magnitude or larger earthquake hitting the Bay Area in the next 30 years and Californians live in the shadow of "the big one."

Tornadoes

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:09:00 -0800

Tornadoes

Facts and figures about twisters

by Ann Marie Imbornoni

Tornadoes

U.S. Tornadoes: 1840 to present

Deadliest U.S. Tornadoes

Tornado Facts & Myths

Tornado Safety (Ask the Editors)

Disaster Quiz

Tornado Index

Average number of tornadoes per year (1950–2010):about 1,000

Top 5 states with highest incidence of tornadoes (average per year, 1950–2007):Texas (139), Oklahoma (57), Kansas (55), Florida (55), Nebraska (45)

States with lowest incidence of tornadoes (total number, 1950–2004): Alaska (2), Rhode Island (9), Hawaii (31), Vermont (37), Oregon (87)

Most tornadoes in one month: 543 (May 2003)

Most tornado deaths in one year:519 (1953)

Fewest tornado deaths in one year:15 (1986)

Source: Storm Prediction Centerat the National Weather Service

Although tornadoes can happen at any time of year, they are especially common during the spring and early summer. May and June are the peak months in terms of numbers of tornadoes, but April appears to be the deadliest month. Two of the all-time worst tornado disasters occurred in April. On April 3-4, 1974, 148 twisters struck 13 states, causing more than 300 deaths, and on April 27, 2011, 137 reported tornadoes swept through the south, killing nearly 300 people in six states. Most of the fatalities occurred in Alabama. May holds the record for experiencing the most tornadoes. In May 2003, there were 543 recorded tornadoes. On average, 60 people die each year as a result of tornadoes, mostly from flying and falling debris.

What Is a Tornado?

A tornado is a dark funnel-shaped cloud made up of violently rotating winds that can reach speeds of up to 300 m.p.h. The diameter of a tornado can vary between a few feet and a mile, and its track can extend from less than a mile to several hundred miles. Tornadoes generally travel in a northeast direction (depending on the prevailing winds) at speeds ranging from 20-60 m.p.h.

What Causes a Tornado?

Tornadoes are most often spawned by giant thunderstorms known as "supercells." These powerful, highly organized storms form when warm, moist air along the ground rushes upward, meeting cooler, drier air. As the rising warm air cools, the moisture it carries condenses, forming a massive thundercloud, sometimes growing to as much as 50,000 ft. in height. Variable winds at different levels of the atmosphere feed the updraft and cause the formation of the tornado's characteristic funnel shape.

Did you know?

April is the deadliest month for tornadoes [more]

Where Do Tornadoes Occur?

The conditions that lead to the formation of tornadoes are most often met in the central and southern U.S., where warm, humid air from the Gulf of Mexico collides with cool, dry air from the Rockies and Canada. This area, dubbed "tornado alley," extends roughly from the Rocky Mountains to the Appalachians, and from Iowa and Nebraska to the Gulf of Mexico. Tornadoes can also occur elsewhere, though, including all U.S. states, Europe, Asia, and Australia.

What Kind of Destruction Do Tornadoes Cause?

The Fujita scale classifies tornadoes according to the damage they cause. Almost half of all tornadoes fall into the F1 or "moderate damage" category. These tornadoes reach speeds of 73-112 m.p.h. and can overturn automobiles and mobile homes, rip off the roofs of houses, and uproot trees. Only about 1 percent of tornadoes are classified as F5, causing "incredible damage." With wind speeds in excess of 261 m.p.h., these tornadoes are capable of lifting houses off their foundations and hurling them considerable distances.

Lightning

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:08:00 -0800

Lightning

Zeus, park rangers, and the probability of being struck by lightning

by Borgna Brunner

Lightning Links

Don't Become A Statistic

Here are a few things to bear in mind if you don't want to become a victim of a "fiery flaming thunderbolt," as Homer called Zeus's favorite weapon:

Avoid Florida, Texas, andNorth Carolina—the states with the greatest number of lightning deaths.
Especially avoid these states in June (the worst month for lightning), followed by August, July, April, and September.

open spaces, fields, andballparks (location of 28% of deaths and 29% of lightning injuries)
standing under trees (18% of deaths and 13% of injuries)
boating, fishing, and other water-related activities (13% of deaths and 6% of injuries)
golf courses, tractors or heavy road equipment, and telephone booths
airplanes are also a bad idea—the deadliest lightning strike ever was of a Boeing 707 near Elkton, Maryland, on Dec. 8, 1963. The plane then crashed, killing 81 people.

Zeus, the Greek king of the gods, punished wayward mortals and miscreant gods by hurling thunderbolts at them. Sky deities from many world religions, including Zeus's Roman counterpart Jupiter, the Germanic Thor, the Mayan Chac, and the Slavic Perun, all used the thunderbolt as the paramount symbol of power.

Whether deserving the wrath of the gods or not, chances are slim that you'll meet your end from a bolt of lightning. Lightning causes only an average of 57 deaths and 300 injuries in the United States each year. The National Weather Service publication Storm Data recorded a total of 3,919 deaths and more than 10,000 injuries from lightning strikes between 1959 and 2009. In 2010, there were 29 lightning fatalities in the U.S.

Dead Ringers

Whatever your strategy for avoiding lightning, be sure to stay clear of church bells. During the Middle Ages, their ringing was believed to diffuse lightning, and many medieval bells were engraved with Fulgura frango ("I break up the lightning"). This suspect theory was discredited by a medieval scholar who observed that over a 33-year period, there were 386 lightning strikes on church towers and 103 fatalities among bell ringers.

Shocking Humor

Should you live to tell the tale of being struck by lightning, you can join the Lightning Strike and Electric Shock Survivors International, Inc. (LSESSI), a non-profit support group for such survivors. With its motto, "Join us if it strikes you," and newsletter, Hit or Miss, the group emphasizes the necessity of a sense of humor in overcoming trauma.

One LSESSI member has been victimized both indoors and outdoors. The record holder, however, is Roy C. Sullivan, an ex-park ranger who survived seven different lightning strikes. According to the Guinness Book of Records, Sullivan was first hit by lightning in 1942, which caused him to lose his big toenail. Over the next 35 years, lightning burned off Sullivan's eyebrows, seared his left shoulders, set his hair on fire, struck his legs, injured his ankle, and burned his stomach and chest.

Safe Spots

The safest place to be during a thunderstorm is in a building, preferably one with a lightning rod. The rod offers protection by intercepting lightning—an electrical charge—and transmitting its current into the ground. Made out of metal so that it conducts the charge, it is usually located as high as possible because of lightning's tendency to strike the nearest object to it. (And yes, Benjamin Franklin did invent the lightning rod, as well as prove that lightning was actually electricity through his flying-a-kite-during-a-thunderstorm experiment.)

The other safe place is a car with the windows rolled up, as long as you don't touch any of the metal parts. If lightning strikes, the car's metal body will conduct the charge down to the ground—contrary to popular belief, the rubber of the wheels offers no protection.

Major Terrorist Acts Suspected of or Inspired by al-Qaeda

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:07:00 -0800

Major Terrorist Acts Suspected of or Inspired by al-Qaeda

The following list includes the date, target of attacks, and casualties of significant attacks by the terrorist goup al-Qaeda.

1993 (Feb.): Bombing of World Trade Center (WTC); 6 killed.
1993 (Oct.): Killing of U.S. soldiers in Somalia.
1996 (June): Truck bombing at Khobar Towers barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killed 19 Americans.
1998 (Aug.): Bombing of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania; 224 killed, including 12 Americans.
1999 (Dec.): Plot to bomb millennium celebrations in Seattle foiled when customs agents arrest an Algerian smuggling explosives into the U.S.
2000 (Oct.): Bombing of the USS Cole in port in Yemen; 17 U.S. sailors killed.
2001 (Sept.): Destruction of WTC; attack on Pentagon. Total dead 2,992.
2001 (Dec.): Man tried to denote shoe bomb on flight from Paris to Miami.
2002 (April): Explosion at historic synagogue in Tunisia left 21 dead, including 11 German tourists.
2002 (May): Car exploded outside hotel in Karachi, Pakistan, killing 14, including 11 French citizens.
2002 (June): Bomb exploded outside American consulate in Karachi, Pakistan, killing 12.
2002 (Oct.): Boat crashed into oil tanker off Yemen coast, killing 1.
2002 (Oct.): Nightclub bombings in Bali, Indonesia, killed 202, mostly Australian citizens.
2002 (Nov.): Suicide attack on a hotel in Mombasa, Kenya, killed 16.
2003 (May): Suicide bombers killed 34, including 8 Americans, at housing compounds for Westerners in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
2003 (May): 4 bombs killed 33 people targeting Jewish, Spanish, and Belgian sites in Casablanca, Morocco.
2003 (Aug.): Suicide car-bomb killed 12, injured 150 at Marriott Hotel in Jakarta, Indonesia.
2003 (Nov.): Explosions rocked a Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, housing compound, killing 17.
2003 (Nov.): Suicide car-bombers simultaneously attacked 2 synagogues in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 25 and injuring hundreds.
2003 (Nov.): Truck bombs detonated at London bank and British consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, killing 26.
2004 (March): 10 bombs on 4 trains exploded almost simultaneously during the morning rush hour in Madrid, Spain, killing 191 and injuring more than 1,500.
2004 (May): Terrorists attacked Saudi oil company offices in Khobar, Saudi Arabia, killing 22.
2004 (June): Terrorists kidnapped and executed American Paul Johnson, Jr., in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
2004 (Sept.): Car bomb outside the Australian embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia, killed 9.
2004 (Dec.): Terrorists entered the U.S. Consulate in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, killing 9 (including 4 attackers).
2005 (July): Bombs exploded on 3 trains and a bus in London, England, killing 52.
2005 (Oct.): 22 killed by 3 suicide bombs in Bali, Indonesia.
2005 (Nov.): 57 killed at 3 American hotels in Amman, Jordan.
2006 (Jan.): Two suicide bombers carrying police badges blow themselves up near a celebration at the Police Academy in Baghdad, killing nearly 20 police officers. Al-Qaeda in Iraq takes responsibility.
2006 (Aug.): Police arrest 24 British-born Muslims, most of whom have ties to Pakistan, who had allegedly plotted to blow up as many as 10 planes using liquid explosives. Officials say details of the plan were similar to other schemes devised by al-Qaeda.
2007 (April): Suicide bombers attack a government building in Algeria's capital, Algiers, killing 35 and wounding hundreds more. Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb claims responsibility.
2007 (April): Eight people, including two Iraqi legislators, die when a suicide bomber strikes inside the Parliament building in Baghdad. An organization that includes al-Qaeda in Mesopotamia claims responsibility. In another attack, the Sarafiya Bridge that spans the Tigris River is destroyed.
2007 (June): British police find car bombs in two vehicles in London. The attackers reportedly tried to detonate the bombs using cell phones but failed. Government officials say al-Qaeda is linked to the attempted attack. The following day, an SUV carrying bombs bursts into flames after it slams into an entrance to Glasgow Airport. Officials say the attacks are connected.
2007 (Dec.): As many as 60 people are killed in two suicide attacks near United Nations offices and government buildings in Algiers, Algeria. The bombings occur within minutes of each other. Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, formerly called the Salafist Group for Preaching, claims responsibility. It's the worst attack in the Algeria in more than 10 years.
2007 (Dec.): Benazir Bhutto, former Pakistani prime minister, is assassinated in a suicide attack on Dec. 27, 2007, at a campaign rally in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. President Pervez Musharraf blames al Qaeda for the attack, which kills 23 other people. Baitullah Mehsud, a Taliban leader with close ties to al Qaeda is later cited as the assassin.
2008 (Jan.): In the worst attack in Iraq in months, a suicide bomber kills 30 people at a home where mourners were paying their respects to the family of a man killed in a car bomb. The Iraqi military blames the attack on al-Qaeda in Iraq.
2008 (Feb.): Nearly 100 people die when two women suicide bombers, who are believed to be mentally impaired, attack crowded pet markets in eastern Baghdad. The U.S. military says al-Qaeda in Iraq has been recruiting female patients at psychiatric hospitals to become suicide bombers.
2008 (April): A suicide bomber attacks the funeral for two nephews of a prominent Sunni tribal leader, Sheik Kareem Kamil al-Azawi, killing 30 people in Iraq's Diyala Province.
2008 (April): A suicide car bomber kills 40 people in Baquba, the capital of Diyala Province in Iraq.
2008 (April): Thirty-five people die and 62 are injured when a woman detonates explosives that she was carrying under her dress in a busy shopping district in Iraq’s Diyala Province.
2008 (May): At least 12 worshipers are killed and 44 more injured when a bomb explodes in the Bin Salman mosque near Sana, Yemen.
2008 (May): An al-Qaeda suicide bomber detonates explosives in Hit, a city in the Anbar Province of Iraq, killing six policemen and four civilians, and injuring 12 other people.
2008 (June): A car bomb explodes outside the Danish Embassy in Pakistan, killing six people and injuring dozens. Al-Qaeda claims responsibility, saying the attack was retaliation for the 2006 publication of political cartoons in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten that depicted the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
2008 (June): A female suicide bomber kills 15 and wounds 40 others, including seven Iraqi policemen, near a courthouse in Baquba, Iraq.
2008 (June): A suicide bomber kills at least 20 people at a meeting between sheiks and Americans in Karmah, a town west of Baghdad.
2008 (Aug.): About two dozens worshippers are killed in three separate attacks as they make their way toward Karbala to celebrate the birthday of 9th-century imam Muhammad al-Mahdi. Iraqi officials blame al-Qaeda in Iraq for the attacks.
2008 (Aug.): A bomb left on the street explodes and tears through a bus carrying Lebanese troops, killing 15 people, nine of them soldiers. No one claims responsibility for the attack, but in 2007, the army fought an al-Qaeda linked Islamist group in Tripoli.
2008 (Aug.): At least 43 people are killed when a suicide bomber drives an explosives-laden car into a police academy in Issers, a town in northern Algeria.
2008 (Aug.): Two car bombs explode at a military command and a hotel in Bouira, killing a dozen people. No group takes responsibility for either attack, Algerian officials said they suspect al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb is behind the bombings.
2008 (Sept.): In its first acknowledged ground attack inside Pakistan, U.S. commandos raid a village that is home to al-Qaeda militants in the tribal region near the border with Afghanistan. The number of casualties is unclear.
2008 (Sept.): A car bomb and a rocket strike the U.S. embassy in Yemen as staff arrived to work, killing 16 people, including 4 civilians. At least 25 suspected al-Qaeda militants are arrested for the attack.
2008 (Nov.): at least 28 people die and over 60 more are injured when three bombs explode minutes apart in Baghdad, Iraq. Officials suspect the explosions are linked to al-Qaeda.
2009 (April): on April 6 in Baghdad, a series of six attacks kills 36 people and injure more than 100 in Shiite neighborhoods; April 23: at least 80 people are killed in three separate suicide bombings in Baghdad. This is the largest single-day death toll due to attacks since February 2008. One of the bombings is reportedly set off by a female, who was standing among a group of women and children receiving food aid.
2009 (Dec.): A Nigerian man on a flight from Amsterdam to Detroit attempted to ignite an explosive device hidden in his underwear. The explosive device that failed to detonate was a mixture of powder and liquid that did not alert security personnel in the airport. The alleged bomber, Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, told officials later that he was directed by the terrorist group al-Qaeda. The suspect was already on the government's watch list when he attempted the bombing; his father, a respected Nigerian banker, had told the U.S. government that he was worried about his son's increased extremism.
2009 (Dec.): A suicide bomber kills eight Americans civilians, seven of them CIA agents, at a base in Afghanistan. It's the deadliest attack on the agency since 9/11. The attacker is reportedly a double agent from Jordan who was acting on behalf of al-Qaeda.
2010 (Oct.): Two packages are found on separate cargo planes. Each package contains a bomb consisting of 300 to 400 grams (11-14 oz) of plastic explosives and a detonating mechanism. The bombs are discovered as a result of intelligence received from Saudi Arabia's security chief. The packages, bound from Yemen to the United States, are discovered at en route stop-overs, one in England and one in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. A week after the packages are found, al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) takes responsibility for the plot.
2011 (Jan.): Two Frenchmen are killed in Niger. France highly suspects the al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM).
2011 (April): Men claiming to be Moroccan members of AQIM appear on the internet and threaten to attack Moroccan interests. The following week a bomb killing 15 people, including 10 foreigners, explodes in Marrakesh, Morocco.

September 11, 2001: Timeline of Terrorism

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:07:00 -0800

September 11, 2001: Timeline of Terrorism

(all times are eastern daylight time)

An American Airlines Boeing 767 and a United Airlines Boeing 767, both en route from Boston to Los Angeles, were hijacked and flown only minutes apart into the north and south towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Shortly afterward, an American Airlines Boeing 757, en route from Washington, DC, to Los Angeles, crashed into the Pentagon. A fourth hijacked plane, operated by United and headed from Newark to San Francisco, crashed in a field near Shanksville, Pa. Both World Trade Center towers collapsed, and a section of the Pentagon was destroyed. All 266 people aboard the planes were killed; the total number of dead and missing was 3,038 (including the 19 hijackers). The names of the hijackers, Islamic radicals part of the al-Qaeda terrorist organization, were released a few days after the attacks.
8:45 A.M.—American Airlines Flight 11, Boston to Los Angeles, with 92 people aboard, crashes into the north tower of the World Trade Center in New York City.
9:03 A.M.—United Airlines Flight 175, Boston to Los Angeles, with 65 people aboard, flies into the south tower of the World Trade Center.
9:40 A.M.—American Flight 77, Washington, DC, to Los Angeles, with 64 people aboard, crashes into the Pentagon.
9:48 A.M.—The U.S. Capitol and the West Wing of the White House are evacuated.
9:49 A.M.—The Federal Aviation Administration orders all aircraft grounded in the United States.
9:50 A.M.—South tower of the World Trade Center collapses.
9:58 A.M.—Emergency operator in Pennsylvania receives a call from a passenger on United Flight 93, Newark to San Francisco, with 45 people aboard, stating the plane was being hijacked.
10:00 A.M.—United Flight 93 crashes about 80 mi southeast of Pittsburgh. Passengers apparently attempted to overpower the hijackers, who were heading the plane toward Washington, DC.
10:29 A.M.—North tower of the World Trade Center collapses.
5:20 P.M.—Another World Trade Center building collapses.

Miscellaneous Disasters

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:06:00 -0800

Miscellaneous Disasters

1952: Dec. 4–7, London, England: high-pressure system settled over London, trapping pollution near the ground. Some 4,000 people died in “Great Smog,” mostly from respiratory and cardiac distress.

1981: July 18, Kansas City, Mo.: suspended walkway in Hyatt Regency Hotel collapsed; 113 dead, 186 injured.

1982: Sept. 29–Oct. 1: seven people in the Chicago area were killed after taking Extra-Strength Tylenol capsules laced with cyanide. 31 million bottles of Tylenol were eventually taken off the market. The murderer was never caught.

1990: July 2, Mecca, Saudi Arabia: a stampede in a 1,800-foot-long pedestrian tunnel leading from Mecca to a tent city for pilgrims resulted in the deaths of 1,426 pilgrims.

1991: Nov. 29, nr. Coalinga, Calif.: a massive traffic accident during a severe dust storm involved 104 vehicles in a pileup on Interstate 5; 17 killed.

1995: June 29, Seoul, Korea: five-story wing of Sampoong Department Store collapsed, killing at least 206 people, injuring 910 others.

1996: May 10–11, Mt. Everest, Nepal: 8 climbers died near summit during storm on mountain. A total of 15 climbers died that season, the worst single loss of life on Everest.

1997: April 15, Mecca, Saudi Arabia: fire and stampede in pilgrim's encampment killed 217 and injured at least 1,300.

2004: Feb. 1, Mecca, Saudi Arabia: a stampede at the Hajj pilgrimage, during the stone-throwing ritual, killed 251 pilgrims.

2005: Aug. 31, Baghdad, Iraq: rumor of a bomber led to a stampede of Shiite pilgrims on a bridge over the Tigris, killing more than 950.

2006: Jan. 12, Mecca, Saudi Arabia: a stampede by pilgrims on the annual hajj killed at least 360.; Jan. 28, Katowice, Poland: 67 people died from the collapse of the roof of. the International Exhibition Hall. There had been 500 people inside at the time.; Feb. 21, Moscow, Russia: a market roof collapsed, killing 56 people.; April 17, Mexico: an overcrowded tour bus returning from a religious festival veered off the road and plunged down a ravine, killing 47.
2007: June 17, Nashville, Tenn.: A race-car driver performing a stunt at a children's charity event lost control of his car and crashed into bystanders, killing 6.; Aug. 1, Minneapolis, Minn.: An eight-lane interstate bridge packed with cars broke into sections and collapsed into the Mississippi River, killing at least nine and injuring at least 60. The bridge was in the midst of repairs when it buckled and broke apart.; Aug. 14, Hunan province, China: A bridge undergoing construction collapsed in southern China, killing at least 28 people.
2008: Feb. 21, Venezuela: a Venezuelan passenger plane crashes into an Andean Mountain within the Sierra La Culata National Park killing all 46 people aboard.; June 21, the Philippines: a ferry, the Princess of the Stars, is struck by Typhoon Fengshen, killing most of the 865 passengers and crew. There are 59 known survivors. Almost 500 other people die during the storm.; Aug. 1, Pakistan: a large mass of ice breaks on K2, the world's second-highest mountain, causing an avalanche that kills 11 climbers and injures several others.; Aug. 4, Himachal Pradesh: almost 150 people die when rumors of a landslide cause pilgrims to stampede during a festival celebrating the Hindu mother goddess at Naina Devi temple in northern India.; Sept. 30, India: over 100 people die and hundreds more are seriously injured when a wall of the Chamunda Devi temple in Jodhpur, northern India, collapses during the Navratra religious festival and causes a stampede.

Terrorist Attacks in the U.S. or Against Americans

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:06:00 -0800

Terrorist Attacks in the U.S. or Against Americans

The following timeline lists terrorist attacks against the United States and Americans living either in the U.S. or abroad.

1920: Sept. 16, New York City: TNT bomb planted in unattended horse-drawn wagon exploded on Wall Street opposite House of Morgan, killing 35 people and injuring hundreds more. Bolshevist or anarchist terrorists believed responsible, but crime never solved.

1975: Jan. 24, New York City: bomb set off in historic Fraunces Tavern killed 4 and injured more than 50 people. Puerto Rican nationalist group (FALN) claimed responsibility, and police tied 13 other bombings to the group.

1979: Nov. 4, Tehran, Iran: Iranian radical students seized the U.S. embassy, taking 66 hostages. 14 were later released. The remaining 52 were freed after 444 days on the day of President Reagan's inauguration.

1982–1991: Lebanon: Thirty US and other Western hostages kidnapped in Lebanon by Hezbollah. Some were killed, some died in captivity, and some were eventually released. Terry Anderson was held for 2,454 days.

1983: April 18, Beirut, Lebanon: U.S. embassy destroyed in suicide car-bomb attack; 63 dead, including 17 Americans. The Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility.; Oct. 23, Beirut, Lebanon: Shiite suicide bombers exploded truck near U.S. military barracks at Beirut airport, killing 241 marines. Minutes later a second bomb killed 58 French paratroopers in their barracks in West Beirut.; Dec. 12, Kuwait City, Kuwait: Shiite truck bombers attacked the U.S. embassy and other targets, killing 5 and injuring 80.

1984: Sept. 20, east Beirut, Lebanon: truck bomb exploded outside the U.S. embassy annex, killing 24, including 2 U.S. military.; Dec. 3, Beirut, Lebanon: Kuwait Airways Flight 221, from Kuwait to Pakistan, hijacked and diverted to Tehran. 2 Americans killed.

1985: April 12, Madrid, Spain: Bombing at restaurant frequented by U.S. soldiers, killed 18 Spaniards and injured 82.; June 14, Beirut, Lebanon: TWA Flight 847 en route from Athens to Rome hijacked to Beirut by Hezbollah terrorists and held for 17 days. A U.S. Navy diver executed.; Oct. 7, Mediterranean Sea: gunmen attack Italian cruise ship, Achille Lauro. One U.S. tourist killed. Hijacking linked to Libya.; Dec. 18, Rome, Italy, and Vienna, Austria: airports in Rome and Vienna were bombed, killing 20 people, 5 of whom were Americans. Bombing linked to Libya.

1986: April 2, Athens, Greece:A bomb exploded aboard TWA flight 840 en route from Rome to Athens, killing 4 Americans and injuring 9.; April 5, West Berlin, Germany: Libyans bombed a disco frequented by U.S. servicemen, killing 2 and injuring hundreds.

1988: Dec. 21, Lockerbie, Scotland: N.Y.-bound Pan-Am Boeing 747 exploded in flight from a terrorist bomb and crashed into Scottish village, killing all 259 aboard and 11 on the ground. Passengers included 35 Syracuse University students and many U.S. military personnel. Libya formally admitted responsibility 15 years later (Aug. 2003) and offered $2.7 billion compensation to victims' families.

1993: Feb. 26, New York City: bomb exploded in basement garage of World Trade Center, killing 6 and injuring at least 1,040 others. In 1995, militant Islamist Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman and 9 others were convicted of conspiracy charges, and in 1998, Ramzi Yousef, believed to have been the mastermind, was convicted of the bombing. Al-Qaeda involvement is suspected.

1995: April 19, Oklahoma City: car bomb exploded outside federal office building, collapsing wall and floors. 168 people were killed, including 19 children and 1 person who died in rescue effort. Over 220 buildings sustained damage. Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols later convicted in the antigovernment plot to avenge the Branch Davidian standoff in Waco, Tex., exactly 2 years earlier. (See Miscellaneous Disasters.); Nov. 13, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: car bomb exploded at U.S. military headquarters, killing 5 U.S. military servicemen.

1996: June 25, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia: truck bomb exploded outside Khobar Towers military complex, killing 19 American servicemen and injuring hundreds of others. 13 Saudis and a Lebanese, all alleged members of Islamic militant group Hezbollah, were indicted on charges relating to the attack in June 2001.

1998: Aug. 7, Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: truck bombs exploded almost simultaneously near 2 U.S. embassies, killing 224 (213 in Kenya and 11 in Tanzania) and injuring about 4,500. 4 men connected with al-Qaeda 2 of whom had received training at al-Qaeda camps inside Afghanistan, were convicted of the killings in May 2001 and later sentenced to life in prison. A federal grand jury had indicted 22 men in connection with the attacks, including Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden, who remained at large.

2000: Oct. 12, Aden, Yemen: U.S. Navy destroyer USS Cole heavily damaged when a small boat loaded with explosives blew up alongside it. 17 sailors killed. Linked to Osama bin Laden, or members of al-Qaeda terrorist network.

2001: Sept. 11, New York City, Arlington, Va., and Shanksville, Pa.: hijackers crashed 2 commercial jets into twin towers of World Trade Center; 2 more hijacked jets were crashed into the Pentagon and a field in rural Pa. Total dead and missing numbered 2,992¹: 2,749 in New York City, 184 at the Pentagon, 40 in Pa., and 19 hijackers. Islamic al-Qaeda terrorist group blamed. (See September 11, 2001: Timeline of Terrorism.)

2002: June 14, Karachi, Pakistan: bomb explodes outside American consulate in Karachi, Pakistan, killing 12. Linked to al-Qaeda.

2003 ¹: May 12, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: suicide bombers kill 34, including 8 Americans, at housing compounds for Westerners. Al-Qaeda suspected.

2004: May 29–31, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: terrorists attack the offices of a Saudi oil company in Khobar, Saudi Arabia, take foreign oil workers hostage in a nearby residential compound, leaving 22 people dead including one American.; June 11–19, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: terrorists kidnap and execute Paul Johnson Jr., an American, in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. 2 other Americans and BBC cameraman killed by gun attacks.; Dec. 6, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: terrorists storm the U.S. consulate, killing 5 consulate employees. 4 terrorists were killed by Saudi security.

2005: Nov. 9, Amman, Jordan: suicide bombers hit 3 American hotels, Radisson, Grand Hyatt, and Days Inn, in Amman, Jordan, killing 57. Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility.

2006: Sept. 13, Damascus, Syria: an attack by four gunman on the American embassy is foiled.

2007: Jan. 12, Athens, Greece: the U.S. embassy is fired on by an anti-tank missile causing damage but no injuries.; Dec. 11, Algeria: more than 60 people are killed, including 11 United Nations staff members, when Al Qaeda terrorists detonate two car bombs near Algeria's Constitutional Council and the United Nations offices.
2008: May 26, Iraq: a suicide bomber on a motorcycle kills six U.S. soldiers and wounds 18 others in Tarmiya.; June 24, Iraq: a suicide bomber kills at least 20 people, including three U.S. Marines, at a meeting between sheiks and Americans in Karmah, a town west of Baghdad.; June 12, Afghanistan: four American servicemen are killed when a roadside bomb explodes near a U.S. military vehicle in Farah Province.; July 13, Afghanistan: nine U.S.soldiers and at least 15 NATO troops die when Taliban militants boldly attack an American base in Kunar Province, which borders Pakistan. It's the most deadly against U.S. troops in three years.; Aug. 18 and 19, Afghanistan: as many as 15 suicide bombers backed by about 30 militants attack a U.S. military base, Camp Salerno, in Bamiyan. Fighting between U.S. troops and members of the Taliban rages overnight. No U.S. troops are killed.; Sept. 16, Yemen: a car bomb and a rocket strike the U.S. embassy in Yemen as staff arrived to work, killing 16 people, including 4 civilians. At least 25 suspected al-Qaeda militants are arrested for the attack.; Nov. 26, India: in a series of attacks on several of Mumbai's landmarks and commercial hubs that are popular with Americans and other foreign tourists, including at least two five-star hotels, a hospital, a train station, and a cinema. About 300 people are wounded and nearly 190 people die, including at least 5 Americans.
2009: Feb. 9, Iraq: a suicide bomber kills four American soldiers and their Iraqi translator near a police checkpoint.; April 10, Iraq: a suicide attack kills five American soldiers and two Iraqi policemen.; June 1, Little Rock, Arkansas: Abdulhakim Muhammed, a Muslim convert from Memphis, Tennessee, is charged with shooting two soldiers outside a military recruiting center. One is killed and the other is wounded. In a January 2010 letter to the judge hearing his case, Muhammed asked to change his plea from not guilty to guilty, claimed ties to al-Qaeda, and called the shooting a jihadi attack "to fight those who wage war on Islam and Muslims."; Dec. 25: A Nigerian man on a flight from Amsterdam to Detroit attempted to ignite an explosive device hidden in his underwear. The explosive device that failed to detonate was a mixture of powder and liquid that did not alert security personnel in the airport. The alleged bomber, Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, told officials later that he was directed by the terrorist group Al Qaeda. The suspect was already on the government's watch list when he attempted the bombing; his father, a respected Nigerian banker, had told the U.S. government that he was worried about his son's increased extremism.; Dec. 30, Iraq: a suicide bomber kills eight Americans civilians, seven of them CIA agents, at a base in Afghanistan. It's the deadliest attack on the agency since 9/11. The attacker is reportedly a double agent from Jordan who was acting on behalf of al-Qaeda.
2010: May 1, New York City: a car bomb is discovered in Times Square, New York City after smoke is seen coming from a vehicle. The bomb was ignited, but failed to detonate and was disarmed before it could cause any harm. Times Square was evacuated as a safety precaution. Faisal Shahzad pleads guilty to placing the bomb as well as 10 terrorism and weapons charges.; May 10, Jacksonville, Florida: a pipe bomb explodes while approximately 60 Muslims are praying in the mosque. The attack causes no injuries.; Oct. 29: two packages are found on separate cargo planes. Each package contains a bomb consisting of 300 to 400 grams (11-14 oz) of plastic explosives and a detonating mechanism. The bombs are discovered as a result of intelligence received from Saudi Arabia's security chief. The packages, bound from Yemen to the United States, are discovered at en route stop-overs, one in England and one in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates.
2011: Jan. 17, Spokane, Washington: a pipe bomb is discovered along the route of the Martin Luther King, Jr. memorial march. The bomb, a "viable device" set up to spray marchers with shrapnel and to cause multiple casualties, is defused without any injuries.

Sports Disasters

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:05:00 -0800

Sports Disasters

1955: June 11, Le Mans, France: racing car in Grand Prix hurtled into grandstand, killing 82 spectators.

1964: May 24, Lima, Peru: more than 300 soccer fans killed and over 500 injured during riot and panic following unpopular ruling by referee in Peru vs. Argentina soccer game. It is worst soccer disaster on record.

1971: Jan. 2, Glasgow, Scotland: 66 killed in crush at Glasgow Rangers home stadium when soccer fans trying to leave encountered fans trying to return to stadium after hearing that a late goal had been scored.

1972: Sept. 5, Munich, Germany: Arab terrorists invaded the Olympic village killing 2 Israeli athletes and taking 9 hostage. In shootout, 9 athletes, 5 guerrillas, and 1 policeman killed.

1980: Jan. 20, Sincelejo, Colombia: bleachers at a bullring collapsed, leaving 222 dead.

1982: Oct. 20, Moscow: according to Sovietsky Sport, as many as 340 died at Lenin Stadium when exiting soccer fans collided with returning fans after final goal was scored. All the fans had been crowded into one section of stadium by police.

1985: May 11, Bradford, England: 56 burned to death and over 200 injured when fire engulfed main grandstand at Bradford's soccer stadium.; May 29, Brussels, Belgium: when British Liverpool club fans attacked rival Italian supporters of Juventus team at the Heysel Stadium before the European Champion's Cup final, a concrete retaining wall collapsed and 39 people were trampled to death. More than 400 people were injured.

1988: March 12, Katmandu, Nepal: some 80 soccer fans seeking cover during a violent hail storm at the national stadium were trampled to death in a stampede because the stadium doors were locked.

1989: April 15, Sheffield, England: 96 people were killed at Hillsborough stadium during a semifinal match between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest. Most of the victims, who were Liverpool fans, were crushed against a barrier on an overcrowded area behind one of the goals. It is Britain's worst soccer disaster.

1996: Oct. 16, Guatemala City: at least 84 killed and 147 injured by stampeding soccer fans before a 1998 World Cup qualifying match between Guatemala and Costa Rica held at Mateo Flores National Stadium.

2001: May 9, Accra, Ghana: at least 120 people were killed in a stampede at a soccer match. It was Africa's worst soccer-related disaster.

2007 Disasters

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:04:00 -0800

2007 Disasters

January 2007 Disasters

Jan. 1, Indonesia: Adam Air Flight KI-574, flying from Java to Manado, crashed in stormy weather and strong winds, killing all of the 102 people on board.
Jan. 12, Athens, Greece: the U.S. embassy was fired on by an anti-tank missile causing damage but no injuries.
Jan. 12–16, Tex., Okla, Mo., Mich., Ind., Iowa, N.Y., N.H., Maine: a winter storm with heavy sleet, ice, and snow moved across 9 states, from Texas to Maine, resulting in extensive power outages and causing 65 storm-related deaths of which 23 were in Oklahoma. Washington state, Oregon, and California also experienced freezing weather.
Jan. 16, Louisville, Ky.: a CSX freight train carrying chemical cargo derailed and 14 cars ignited, forcing the evacuation of homes and closing roads including 20 miles of Interstate 65. There were no injuries.

February 2007 Disasters

Feb. 2, Florida: At least 20 people died when tornadoes and thunderstorms ripped through central Florida.
Feb. 18, India: Two homemade bombs exploded on a train headed for Pakistan from India, killing at least 70.
Feb. 18, Thailand: Some 30 coordinated bombs exploded at bars, hotels, and electricity transmitters in Pattani Province, killing or wounding 60 people.

March 2007 Disasters

March 1, Ala., Minn., Miss., and Ga.: Storms hit Alabama, Minnesota, Missouri, and Georgia, killing about 20 people, including eight high school students.
March 6, Sumatra, Indonesia: Two earthquakes, magnitudes 6.4 and 6.3, struck the island of Sumatra two hours apart, killing at least 70 people.
March 7, Yogyakarta, Indonesia: A Garuda Indonesia Airlines plane overshot the runway and crashed, killing 22 of the 140 people on board.
March 19, Ulyanovskaya, Russia: A methane explosion killed 110 people in a coal mine. It was the worst mine disaster in recent Russian history.

April 2007 Disasters

April 1, Honiara, Solomon Islands: Magnitude 8.1 earthquake and ensuing tsunami left at least 34 dead and thousands homeless.
April 16, Blacksburg, Va.: A Virginia Tech student killed 32 fellow students and then himself in the most deadly shooting rampage in U.S. history.

May 2007 Disasters

May 5, Doula, Cameroon: A Kenya-bound Kenya Airways plane took off in stormy weather and crashed moments later, killing all 114 people on board.
May 7, Greensburg, Kansas: A tornado destroyed a small farming town, killing 10.
May 24, Novokuznetsk, Russia: A methane explosion killed 38 coal miners in Yubileinaya, two months after a similiar explosion in a nearby town killed 110.

June 2007 Disasters

June 10, Chittagong, Bangladesh and Beijing, China: Mudslides set off by heavy monsoon rains killed at least 62 people in Bangladesh. Torrential rains in southern China caused flooding in small cities and farming villages, killing at least 66.
June 18, Charleston, S.C.: Nine firefighters died when a roof collapsed during a fire in a furniture warehouse.
June 24, Karachi, Pakistan: More than 200 people died during severe storms in Karachi, Pakistan's biggest city.

July 2007 Disasters

July 8, West Bengal, India: Monsoon rains and flooding left 660 dead and more than a million stranded.
July 17, Niigata, Japan: 6.8 magnitude earthquake left at least 11 dead and injured more than 900. A nuclear power plant in nearby Kashiwazaki sustained significant damage, including minor radiation leaks, ruptured pipes, flooding, and a fire.
July 17, Sao Paulo, Brazil: More than 176 people were killed when an Airbus skidded off the runway at Congonhas Airport in rainy weather. It was the worst aviation accident in Brazil's history.

August 2007 Disasters

August 1, Minneapolis, Minn.: An eight-lane interstate bridge packed with cars broke into sections and collapsed into the Mississippi River, killing at least nine, and injuring at least 60. The bridge was in the midst of repairs when it buckled and broke apart.
August 1, Benaleka, Congo: A passenger train running between Ilebo and Kananga derailed after the brakes failed, killing about 100 people.
August 14, North Korea: Hundreds are reported dead or missing after a week of heavy rain in central and southern North Korea. Huge areas of farmland were washed away, provoking fears that North Korea's food crisis could worsen.
August 14, Hunan province, China: A bridge undergoing construction collapsed in southern China, killing at least 28 people.
August 15, coast of central Peru: A 8.0-magnitude earthquake 95 miles southeast of Lima, Peru, leaves at least 337 people dead, and injures hundreds more.
August 25–27, Greece: Over 220 separate fires ravage the Greek countryside and endanger ancient Olympic sites around Athens. At least 59 people die in the blazes.

September 2007 Disasters

September 12 and 13, Sumatra, Indonesia: More than a dozen people die on the island of Sumatra when three earthquakes, one with a magnitude of 8.4, strike.
September 16, Phuket, Bangkok: A McDonnell Douglas MD-82 plane, which took off from Bangkok, skids off the runway and bursts into flames during heavy rain in Phuket. At least 88 people are killed.
September 24, Sudan: Over 20 people die, at least 13,000 livestock are lost, and 65 people are injured by flooding in central Sudan during August and September. Over half a million people countrywide are affected by the floods. Clean water is provided to 2.2 million people to prevent deadly epidemics.

October 2007 Disasters

October 13, southern Colombia: 21 people die and another 26 are injured in a landslide that was triggered by local residents digging for rumored gold deposits in an abandoned mine.

October 21–28, southern Calif.: 24 wildfires from Simi Valley to the Mexican border are fanned by 50 to 60 mph winds burning more than 516,000 acres. Seven people die, close to 90 people are injured, more than 2,000 homes are destroyed, and over 500,000 people evacuate their homes. A 10-year-old boy admits to accidentally starting one of the fires while playing with matches.

October 31, Carribean: 107 people die during Tropical Storm Noel. 66 people die, 27 are missing, 6,300 homes are destroyed, and more than 62,000 people are homeless when two rivers burst 26 miles outside Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. At least 40 people die and 400 homes are destroyed in Haiti. In Cuba, 24,000 people are evacuated from low-lying areas and 2,000 homes are damaged by floods.

November 2007 Disasters

November 3, Mexico: Villahermosa, the capital of the southeastern state of Tabasco, remains paralyzed with no clean drinking water and electricity after severe flooding caused by five days of torrential rain. At least 300,000 people evacuate their homes, and one person dies. Most of the state's crops are destroyed and 4,000 schools are damaged.

November 12, southern Russia: During a severe storm in the Black Sea 11 ships sink, 3 people die, and 20 sailors go missing. The tanker, Volganeft-139, splits apart and dumps 1,300 tons (about 360,000 gallons) of oil into the sea killing marine habitat, and fish, and covering 30,000 seabirds in oil.

November 15, Bangladesh: Cyclone Sidr, with winds over 100 miles per hour, kills nearly 3,500 people in southern Bangladesh. The United Nations reports that a million people are without homes.

November 18, Donetsk, Ukraine: 90 people die and 10 are missing in the deadliest mining explosion since 1991.
November 23, Antarctica: The Explorer strikes ice during an adventure cruise in the Antarctic causing the ship to sink. The National Geographic Endeavour and the Norwegian cruise liner, Nordnorge, resue all 100 passengers and 50 staff members.
November 30, western Turkey: A passenger jet, the McDonnell Douglas MD-83, crashes seven miles from its destination airport in Isparta, killing all 56 passengers.

December 2007 Disasters

December 5, Omaha, Nebraska: Robert Hawkins, 19, of Bellevue, Nebraska, kills eight people before turning the gun on himself at the Von Maur department store in the Westroads Mall in Omaha. Five people are also wounded.
December 7, South Korea: Oil spill causes environmental disaster, destroying beaches, coating birds and oysters with oil, and driving away tourists with its stench. The Hebei Spirit collides with a steel wire connecting a tug boat and barge five miles off South Korea's west coast, spilling 2.8 million gallons of crude oil. Seven thousand people are trying to clean up 12 miles of oil-coated coast.

2008 Disasters

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:03:00 -0800

2008 Disasters

January 2008 Disasters

Jan. 1–4, Kenya: more than 300 people are killed and thousands of houses, farms, and businesses are burned nationwide in violent riots between Luo and Kikuyu tribes after incumbent president Mwai Kibaki, a Kikuyu, defeats opposition candidate Raila Odinga, a Luo, in the presidential election.

Jan. 7–8, Ark., Ill., Mo., Wis.: a series of tornadoes caused by record-breaking temperatures kill at least six people, including two children, destroy houses, and flood roads.

Jan. 28, eastern and southern China: severe snowstorms leave at least 24 people dead and affect 78 million people overall, including 827,000 emergency evacuees. About half of the 31 provinces are without power, which strands at least 600,000 train passengers, and at least 19 major airports close. The economic cost of the storm is projected to be $3.2 billion.

February 2008 Disasters

Feb. 3, Dem. Rep. of the Congo: at least 45 people are killed and about 450 more are injured after two strong earthquakes, one at 6.0 magnitude and the other at 5.0, strike the Congo.
Feb. 5–6, Tenn., Ark., Ala., Ky., Mo.: at least 55 people are killed and hundreds more are injured after violent tornadoes rip through the southern United States. According to emergency officials, the victims include 31 people in Tennessee, 13 in Arkansas, 7 in Kentucky, and 3 in Alabama.
Feb. 7, Georgia, U.S.: an explosion at an Imperial Sugar Refinery near Savannah, Georgia kills 14 people and injures many more.
Feb. 21, Venezuela: a Venezuelan passenger plane crashes into an Andean Mountain within the Sierra La Culata National Park killing all 46 people aboard.

March 2008 Disasters

March 14–15, Georgia: two people are killed and at least 30 people are injured when violent tornadoes strike Atlanta and northwestern counties of Georgia including Polk County and Floyd County. The storms cause damage to the CNN Center, the Georgia Dome, and the Convention Center in Atlanta, and leave thousands of homes without power statewide.
March 17–19, Ark., Ill., Ky., Mo., Ohio: thirteen people die, hundreds of people are evacuated from their homes, and hundreds of roads are closed during major floods that stretch from Texas to Pennsylvania.

April 2008 Disasters

Ongoing since January, Brazil: More than 80 people have died and at least 75,399 are infected in Rio de Janeiro since January during a dengue fever outbreak. In March, the Brazilian military opened three field hospitals to help control the epidemic. In April, after a month of heavy rains, trained members of the army and navy start a 30-day tour in the Rio State to idenitify mosquito breeding grounds and educate residents on dengue fever prevention.
April 29, Virginia: Three tornadoes strike Norfolk, Suffolk, and Colonial Heights, injuring over 200 people and destroying at least 140 homes.

May 2008 Disasters

May 1–2, Arkansas: seven people are killed and 13 more are injured in Arkansas when storms hit 16 counties.
May 3, Myanmar: Cyclone Nargis hits the Irrawaddy Delta and the city of Yangon, killing about 78,000 people. Most of the deaths and destruction were caused by a 12-foot-high tidal wave that formed during the storm. Cyclone Nargis is the worst natural disaster since the tsunami in 2004.
May 11, Okla., Mo., Ga.: more than 20 people die and hundreds more are injured when tornadoes hit Missouri, Oklahoma, and Georgia. Racine, a town about 170 miles south of Kansas City, Missouri saw the most damage, leaving about 9,000 people without electricity for over three days.
May 12, China: over 67,000 people die and hundreds of thousands more are injured when a 7.9 magnitude earthquake strikes Sichuan, Gansu, and Yunnan Provinces in western China. Nearly 900 students are trapped when Juyuan Middle School in the Sichuan Province collapses from the quake. On May 19, 158 rescue workers are killed in landslides caused by rain and floods. On May 27, 150,000 people are evacuated from the Sichuan Province in anticipation of major floods.

June 2008 Disasters

June 9–18, Ind., Iowa, Ill., Mo. and Wis.: severe flooding from storms cause already-swollen rivers and lakes to flood, killing 10 people, breaking three dams, and causing thousands to evacuate their homes. In addition, at least 90 roads are closed. According to the National Weather Service, the Cedar River is 17 feet above flood stage, the worst flooding Cedar Rapids has ever seen.
June 11, Iowa: a tornado kills 4 Boy Scouts and injures 48 others when it tears through the Little Sioux Scout Ranch in western Iowa. The tornado also touched down in Kansas, killing two people.
June 17, southern China: the worst flooding in 50 years kills over 60 people, destroys 5.4 million acres of crops, causes landslides, and leaves 13 people missing in nine southern Chinese provinces.
June 21, the Philippines: a ferry, the Princess of the Stars, is struck by Typhoon Fengshen, killing most of the 865 passengers and crew. There are 59 known survivors. Almost 500 other people die during the storm.

July 2008 Disasters

July 24, Japan: at least 90 people are injured and thousands of homes lose power when a 6.8 magnitude earthquake strikes 67 miles below the earth's surface in the region of Iwate.
July 27, southeastern Europe: five days of heavy rain cause major flooding in the Ukraine and Romania, killing 18 people and causing at least $300 million in damages.

August 2008 Disasters

Aug. 1, Pakistan: a large mass of ice breaks on K2, the world's second-highest mountain, causing an avalanche that kills 11 climbers and injures several others.
Aug. 4, Himachal Pradesh, India: almost 150 people die when rumors of a landslide cause pilgrims to stampede during a festival celebrating the Hindu mother goddess at Naina Devi temple in India.
Aug. 5, northern California: nine firefighters die when a helicopter crashes and burns in Shasta-Trinity National Forest. The cause of the crash is unknown.
Aug. 10, Toronto, Canada: explosions at the Sunrise Propane Industrial Gasses facility force thousands of people in Toronto to evacuate their homes. Some residents suffer injuries and one firefighter dies.
Aug. 20, Madrid, Spain: at least 153 people die when a 160-person passenger plane skids off the runway and bursts into flames during takeoff at Barajas airport in Madrid.
Aug. 23, southern U.S.: at least 12 people die and thousands of homes and businesses are flooded when the slow-moving tropical storm Fay makes landfall four times in Florida and Georgia.
Aug. 25, Chamonix, France: eight climbers die after an avalanche near Mount Blanc bury them under 165 feet of ice.
Aug. 28–Sept. 1, India: flooding from the Kosi River in the northern state of Bihar causes the deaths of at least 75 people and the displacement of over 2 million more. At least half a million people are left stranded, while half a million others are living in unsanitary relief camps.
Aug. 28–30, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti: at least 137 people die and many more are injured when Hurricane Gustav makes landfall in the Caribbean. Thousands are left homeless and without food and water.

September 2008 Disasters

Sept. 1, U.S. Gulf Coast: Hurricane Gustav forces the entire city of New Orleans to evacuate, leaves more than one million homes without power, and kills at least 26 people in Louisiana, Georgia, and Mississippi.
Sept. 5, Haiti: Tropical Storm Hanna strikes Haiti, killing hundreds of people and leaving many more injured or missing in the port city of Gonaives.
Sept. 7–8, Haiti, Cuba, Turks and Caicos islands: at least 61 people die in Haiti, 4 more are killed in Cuba, and 80% of homes are destroyed on Turks and Caicos islands when Hurricane Ike strikes the Caribbean.
Sept. 12, California: a metrolink commuter train collides with a freight train northwest of Los Angeles, killing 25 passengers.
Sept. 13–14, southern U.S.: Hurricane Ike hits Texas and causes at least 50 deaths, thousands more to evacuate their homes, and millions to lose power in Houston alone. Ike hits the island city of Galveston Bay the hardest, knocking out water, power, and sewer lines. Despite requests to evacuate, at least 15,000 people remained in Galveston amid worsening sanitary conditions.
Sept. 14–16, midwestern U.S.: as Ike travels inland, the storm weakens to a tropical depression, but torrential rain causes severe flooding and power outages in parts of Louisiana, Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois. At least 17 people die and more than two million homes and businesses lose power.
Sept. 30, India: over 100 people die and hundreds more are seriously injured when a wall of the Chamunda Devi temple in Jodhpur, northern India, collapses during the Navratra religious festival and causes a stampede.

October 2008 Disasters

Oct. 6, Kyrgyzstan: at least 70 people die, hundreds more are injured, and hundreds of homes are destroyed when a 6.6 magnitude earthquake strikes the Osh region, leveling the entire town of Nura.
Oct. 8, Nepal: a Yeti Airlines passenger plane, flying from Kathmandu to Lukla in eastern Nepal, bursts into flames on the runway while landing in heavy cloud, killing 18 of the 19 people on board—only the Nepalese pilot survived.
Oct. 29, Pakistan: a 6.4 magnitude earthquake hits southwestern Pakistan, killing at least 170 people and destroying over 15,000 homes.
Oct. 30, India: a series of explosions in the northeastern region of Assam kill at least 55 people and wound more than 200 more.

November 2008 Disasters

Nov. 7, Haiti: over 90 students die and over a hundred more are injured when a poorly constructed church-run school collapses on the outskirts of Port-au-Prince.
Nov. 9, the Sea of Japan: in the most deadly accident on a Russian submarine since 2000, 20 people die and 21 more are injured when two compartments of a new Russian nuclear submarine flood with Freon gas during tests in the Sea of Japan.
Nov. 15–18, California, U.S.: fueled by hurricane-strength Santa Ana winds, three fires burn for several days, consuming 40,000 acres of land and hundreds of homes. A state of emergency is called in five counties.
Nov. 22–23, Brazil: at least 119 people die and over 80,000 homes are destroyed when heavy rains dump more water on the southern state of Santa Catarina than it normally gets in months, causing floods and mudslides throughout the region.

December 2008 Disasters

Dec. 11, New England, U.S.: at least 800,000 homes are left without electricity for several days after an ice storm hits New England. President Bush declares a state of emergency in parts of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, sending in FEMA to set up shelters and National Guard troops to help restore power lines.
Dec. 28, Canada: eleven people on snowmobiles are buried when two avalanches hit Harvey Pass, a popular backcountry snowmobile destination in British Columbia. Three snowmobilers survive, while eight others remain buried.

2009 Disasters

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 15:01:00 -0800

2009 Disasters

January 2009 Disasters

Jan. 9, Costa Rica: at least 20 are killed and thousands more are left homeless after a 6.2 magnitude earthquake strikes the verdant mountains of northern Costa Rica, setting off landslides.

Jan. 12, Indonesia: more than 200 people are missing and feared dead when a 250-passenger ferry sinks off the coast of the Indonesian island of Sulawesi during a storm. A fishing boat finds and rescues 18 passengers and the captain floating in life rafts.

Jan. 24, France and Spain: at least 15 people die and more than one million homes are left without power when winds of more than 100 mph swept across France and Spain during the most severe storm to hit the region since 1999.

Jan. 26, Turkey: an avalanche slams into a group of 17 Turkish hikers on Mount Zigana, dragging them more than 1,640 ft and killing 10 of them.

Jan. 27-28, Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Texas: at least 23 people die due to severe storms that covered roads and power lines with snow and ice. Schools close and more than a million homes are left without electricity.

February 2009 Disasters

Feb. 9, Australia: over 160 people die when arsonists start fires that result in about 400 wildfires—some of the worst wildfires in Australia's history.

Feb. 10, Oklahoma, U.S.: a cluster of tornadoes rip through Oklahoma, killing eight people and injuring over a dozen more.
Feb. 12, New York, U.S.: all 45 passengers and 4 crew members die when a Continental flight from Newark to Buffalo crashes five minutes outside Buffalo airport, damaging homes, and killing one person on the ground.

March 2009 Disasters

March 10, Alabama, U.S.: Michael Kenneth McClendon, 28, kills at least 10 people during a shooting spree in Geneva County, Alabama. Several of McClendon's victims were members of his own family.
March 11, Germany: fifteen people are shot and killed at Albertville Technical High School in southwestern Germany by a 17-year-old boy who graduated from the school a year earlier.
March 27, North Dakota and Minnesota, U.S.: Flooding of the Red River causes the evacuation of about 150 homes in the Fargo, North Dakota area. The neighboring town of Moorhead, MN is also evacuated and President Obama declares a state of emergency in Minnesota.

April 2009 Disasters

April 3, New York, U.S.: Jiverly Wong kills 13 people in an immigration center in Binghamton, NY before turning the gun on himself. Most of his victims were imigrants taking an English class.
April 6, Italy: an earthquake of magnitude 6.3 strikes central Italy, killing more than 200 people and injuring another 1,000. The town of L'Aquila is the epicenter of the earthquake, but as many as 26 towns in the area are affected.

June 2009 Disasters

June 1, Brazil: in the worst aviation disaster since 2001, Air France Airbus A330 disappears somewhere off the northeast coast of Brazil with 228 passengers on board, en route from Rio de Janeiro to Paris. No mayday signals were sent before crashing.
June 16, Indonesia: an explosion at a coal mine in the West Sumatra province kills six people and traps at least 24 more in the 300-foot mine.
June 22, Washington D.C.: nine people die and over 70 more are injured when a subway train crashes at rush hour.
June 30, Italy: a freight train that was traveling from La Spezia to Pisa derails and crashes into a small Italian town, killing 12 people and injuring at least 50 more. One of the train cars was filled with liquefied natural gas, which exploded during the crash.
June 30, Indian Ocean: a Yemenia Jet, on its way to Comoros, crashes into the Indian Ocean in an attempt to land. There are 153 people on board, with only one survivor, a 14-year-old girl. Severe weather and turbulence are believed to be the cause of the crash.

July 2009 Disasters

July 6, China: rioting in Urumqi, China between two ethnic groups—Muslim Uighurs and Han Chinese—and the police force kills at least 156 people. Riot police lock down the Uighur portion of the city to try and stop the protests.
July 15, Iran: a Caspian Airlines plane crashes en route from Tehran to Yerevan, Armenia, killing all 168 passengers on impact.
July 24, Iran: at least 16 people died when an Aria Air flight skidded off the runway and caught fire in Mashhad, Iran.

August 2009 Disasters

August 7, Philippines: at least 22 tourists on Mount Pinatubo were trapped and killed when heavy rain caused flooding and landslides.
August 8, New York: a helicopter and plane collided over the Hudson River, killing all nine people on the private plane.
August 10, Taiwan: Typhoon Morakot caused a mudslide that buried schools, homes, and at least 600 people in southern Taiwan.

September 2009 Disasters

September 2, Indonesia: about 60 people die when a 7.1-magnitude earthquake hits the island of Java, which is the most populous area of the country.
September 9, Turkey: more than 30 people are killed when fast-moving floods caused by heavy rain sweep through Istanbul.
September 28, Philippines: almost 90 people die in and around Manila in flooding caused by Tropical Storm Ketsana, which drops about 17 inches of rain in 12 hours. The floods are Manila's worst in about 50 years.
September 29, Samoa and American Samoa: an underwater 8.0-magnitude earthquake causes a tsunami that kills more than 115 people.
September 30, Indonesia: a 7.6-magnitude earthquake hits the island of Sumatra, leaving more than 1,000 people dead and thousands trapped under the rubble of collapsed buildings in the city of Padang.

October 2009 Disasters

October 26, Afghanistan: 14 Americans–11 American troops and three civilians–are killed in two separate helicopter crashes in Afghanistan. The casualities contribute to one of the deadliest days of the 8-year war.

November 2009 Disasters

November 9, El Salvador: a small, low-pressure storm originating in the western part of the country brings an enormous amount of rainfall that causes flooding and mudslides. About 140 people are killed and some 1,500 homes are destroyed. The unnamed storm coincided with Hurricane Ida. Initial reports blamed the devastation on Ida, but officials later said Ida was not responsible.
November 27, Russia: 26 people are killed when a bomb explodes on a luxury train that runs from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Chechen rebels claim responsibility for the attack.

December 2009 Disasters

December 7, Pakistan: a suicide bomber strikes at busy market in Lahore, killing about 50 people.
December 8, Iraq: a series of car bombs, said to be part of a coordinated attack, destroy government buildings in Baghdad. At least 121 people are dead and 400 wounded.
December 30, Afghanistan: a suicide bomber kills at least 8 Americans civilians, 7 of them CIA agents, at a base in Afghanistan. It's the deadliest attack on the agency since 9/11. The attacker is reportedly a double agent from Jordan who was acting on behalf of al-Qaeda.

Principal Types of Volcanoes

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 14:56:00 -0800

Principal Types of Volcanoes

Geologists generally group volcanoes into four main kinds—cinder cones, composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes, and lava domes.

Cinder Cones

Cinder cones are the simplest type of volcano. They are built from particles and blobs of congealed lava ejected from a single vent. As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as cinders around the vent to form a circular or oval cone. Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit and rarely rise more than a thousand feet or so above their surroundings. Cinder cones are numerous in western North America as well as throughout other volcanic terrains of the world.

Composite Volcanoes

Composite volcanoes, sometimes called stratovolcanoes, are typically deep-sided, symmetrical cones of large dimension built of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders, blocks, and bombs and may rise as much as 8,000 ft above their bases. Some of the most beautiful mountains in the world are composite volcanoes, including Mount Fuji in Japan, Mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Mount Shasta in California, Mount Hood in Oregon, and Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier in Washington.

Most composite volcanoes have a crater at the summit that contains a central vent or a clustered group of vents. Lavas either flow through breaks in the crater wall or issue from fissures on the flanks of the cone. Lava, solidified within the fissures, forms dikes that act as ribs which greatly strengthen the cone.

The essential feature of a composite volcano is a conduit system through which magma from a reservoir deep in Earth's crust rises to the surface. The volcano is built up by the accumulation of material erupted through the conduit and increases in size as lava, cinders, and ash are added to its slopes.

Shield Volcanoes

Shield volcanoes are built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. Flow after flow pours out in all directions from a central summit vent, or group of vents, building a broad, gently sloping cone of flat, domical shape, with a profile much like that of a warrior's shield. They are built up slowly by the accretion of thousands of flows of highly fluid basaltic (from basalt, a hard, dense dark volcanic rock) lava that spread widely over great distances, and then cool as thin, gently dipping sheets. Lavas also commonly erupt from vents along fractures (rift zones) that develop on the flanks of the cone. Some of the largest volcanoes in the world are shield volcanoes. In northern California and Oregon, many shield volcanoes have diameters of 3 or 4 mi and heights of 1,500 to 2,000 ft. The Hawaiian Islands are composed of linear chains of these volcanoes, including Kilauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii.

In some shield volcano eruptions, basaltic lava pours out quietly from long fissures instead of central vents and floods the surrounding countryside, forming broad plateaus. Lava plateaus of this type can be seen in Iceland, southeast Washington, eastern Oregon, and southern Idaho.

Lava Domes

Volcanic or lava domes are formed by relatively small, bulbous masses of lava too viscous to flow any great distance; consequently, on extrusion, the lava piles over and around its vent. A dome grows largely by expansion from within. As it grows, its outer surface cools and hardens, then shatters, spilling loose fragments down its sides. Some domes form craggy knobs or spines over the volcanic vent, whereas others form short, steep-sided lava flows known as coulees. Volcanic domes commonly occur within the craters or on the flanks of large composite volcanoes. The nearly circular Novarupta Dome that formed during the 1912 eruption of Katmai Volcano, Alaska, measures 800 ft across and 200 ft high. The internal structure of this dome—defined by layering of lava fanning upward and outward from the center—indicates that it grew largely by expansion from within. Mount Pelée in Martinique, West Indies, and Lassen Peak and Mono domes in California are examples of lava domes.

Submarine Volcanoes

Submarine volcanoes and volcanic vents are common features on certain zones of the ocean floor. Some are active at the present time and, in shallow water, disclose their presence by blasting steam and rock-debris high above the surface of the sea.
Many others lie at such great depths that the tremendous weight of the water above them results in high, confining pressure and prevents the formation and release of steam and gases. Even very large, deepwater eruptions may not disturb the ocean floor.
The famous black sand beaches of Hawaii were created virtually instantaneously by the violent interaction between hot lava and seawater.

The Nature of Volcanoes

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 14:48:00 -0800

The Nature of Volcanoes

Volcanoes are built by the accumulation of their own eruptive products—lava, bombs (crusted over ash flows), and tephra (airborne ash and dust). A volcano is most commonly a conical hill or mountain built around a vent that connects with reservoirs of molten rock below the surface of Earth. The term volcano also refers to the opening or vent through which molten rock and gases are expelled.

Driven by buoyancy and gas pressure, the molten rock, which is lighter than the surrounding solid rock, forces its way upward and may ultimately break though zones of weaknesses in Earth's crust. If so, an eruption begins, and the molten rock may pour from the vent as nonexplosive lava flows, or it may shoot violently into the air as dense clouds of lava fragments. Larger fragments fall back around the vent, and accumulations of fall-back fragments may move downslope as ash flows under the force of gravity. Some of the finer ejected materials may be carried by the wind and fall to the ground many miles away. The finest ash particles may be injected miles into the atmosphere and carried many times around the world by stratospheric winds before settling out.

Molten rock below the surface of Earth that rises in volcanic vents is known as magma, but after it erupts from a volcano it is called lava. Originating many tens of miles beneath the ground, the ascending magma commonly contains some crystals, fragments of surrounding (unmelted) rocks, and dissolved gases, but it is primarily a liquid composed of oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, titanium, and manganese. Upon cooling, the liquid magma solidifies to form an igneous or magmatic rock.

Lava is red-hot when it pours or blasts out of a vent but soon changes to dark red, gray, black, or some other color as it cools and solidifies. Very hot, gas-rich lava containing abundant iron and magnesium is fluid and flows like hot tar, whereas cooler, gas-poor lava high in silicon, sodium, and potassium flows sluggishly, like thick honey, or in other cases, like pasty, blocky masses.

All magmas contain dissolved gases, and as they rise to the surface to erupt, the confining pressures are reduced and the dissolved gases are liberated either quietly or explosively. If the lava is a thin fluid (not viscous), the gases may escape easily. But if the lava is thick and pasty (highly viscous), the gases will not move freely but will build up tremendous pressure and ultimately escape with explosive violence, throwing out great masses of solid rock as well as lava, dust, and ashes.

The violent separation of gas from lava may produce rock froth called pumice. Some of this froth is so light—because of the many gas bubbles—that it floats on water.

Recent Volcanic Activity

(Bold indicates activity in 2008, 2009, and 2010)

The following table shows the recent and ongoing volcanic history around the world by year of activity and volcano name.

Volcano	Year of last eruption or activity
Adatara, Honshu, Japan	1997
Akan, Hokkaido, Japan	2006
Akutan, Alaska	1996
Ambrym Island, Vanuatu	2007
Amukta, Alaska	1996
Anatahan, Mariana Islands	2007
Aoba, Ambae Island, Vanuatu	2006
Arenal, Costa Rica	ongoing
Asama, Honshu, Japan	2003
Aso, Kyushu, Japan	2004
Atka, Aleutian Islands, United States	2006
Augustine, Cook Inlet, Alaska, United States	2006
Axial Seamount	1998
Bamus, New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea	2006
Bandai, Honshu, Japan	2000
Bagana, Bougainville, Papua New Guinea	ongoing
Barren Island, Indian Ocean	2008
Batu Tara, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia	2007
Bezymianny, Kamchatka, Russia	2009
Bromo, Java, Indonesia	2000
Bulusan, Philippines	2007
Mount Cameroon, Cameroon	2000
Canlaon, Philippines	2006
Cerro Azul, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador	1998
Cerro Negro, Nicaragua	1999
Chaitén, Chile	2008
Chikurachki, Kurile Islands, Russia	2005
Chiginagak, Alaska	1997
Chuginadak, Alaska	2005
Cleveland, Chuginadak Island, Alaska	2008
Colima, Mexico	ongoing
Conception, Island of Ometepe, Nicaragua	2010
Copahue, Argentina and Chile	2000
Dempo, Sumatra Indonesia	2006
Dukono, Indonesia	ongoing
East Epi, Vanuatu	2004
Eastern Gemini Seamount, Vanuatu	1996
Ebeko, Kuril Islands, Russia	2007
Egoni, Indonesia	2004
Erta Ale, Ethiopia	2003
Etna, Sicily, Italy	2007
Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland	2010
Fernandina, Galápagos	1995
Fogo, Cape Verde	1995
Piton de la Fournaise, France	2010
Fourpeaked, Alaska Peninsula, United States	2006
Fuego, Guatemala	ongoing
Fukutoku-Okanoba, Japan	2010
Galeras, Colombia	2008
Gamalama, Indonesia	2003
Gaua, Vanuatu	2009
Grimsvotn, Iceland	1998
Guagua Pichincha, Ecuador	2006
Hachijo-Jima, Izu Islands, Japan	2002
Hakkoda, Japan	1997
Heard Island, Southern Indian Ocean, Australia	2006
Hekla, Iceland	2000
Mount Hili Aludo, Indonesia	1997
Hokkaido, Japan	2006
Home Reef, Tonga Islands, Tonga	2006
Hosho, Kyushu, Japan	1995
Ijen, Java, Indonesia	2001
Iwate-san, Honshu, Japan	1998
Jackson Segment, N. Gorda Ridge (nr. Oregon)	2001
Kaba, Sumatra, Indonesia	2000
Mount Karangetang, Indonesia	2007
Karthala, Comoros Islands, Indian Ocean	2007
Karymsky, Kamchatka, Russia	ongoing
Kavachi Seamount, Solomon Islands	2004
Kelut, Java, Indonesia	2006
Kick-'em-Jenny (nr. Grenada)	2003
Kikai, Japan	2004
Kilauea, Hawaii	ongoing
Kirishima, Japan	2010
Kliuchevskoi, Kamchatka, Russia	2009
Komagatake, Hokkaido, Japan	2000
Korovin, Alaska	1998
Krakatau, Indonesia	2001
Langila, New Britain, P.N.G.	2007
Lamongan, Indonesia	2003
Lascar, Chile	2007
Leroboleng, Indonesia	2003
Mount Lewotobi, Indonesia	2003
Llaima, Chile	2008
Loihi Seamount, Hawaii	1996
Lokon, Sulawesi, Indonesia	2003
Long Valley caldera, California	1996
Lopevi, Central Islands, Vanuatu	2007
La Madera, Nicaragua	1996
Manam, Papua New Guinea	ongoing
Maroa, New Zealand	2001
Masaya, Nicaragua	ongoing
Mauna Loa, Hawaii	2003
Mayon, Philippines	2009
McDonald Island, Australia	1996
Merapi, Indonesia	2007
Metis Shoal, Tonga	1995
Momotombo, Nicaragua	1996
Monowai Seamount, Kermadec Islands	1997
Nevado Del Huila, Colombia	2007
Nyamuragira, Congo (Dem. Rep.)	2010
Nyiragongo, Congo (Dem. Rep.)	2003
Okmok, Alaska	1997
Ol Doinya Lengai, Tanzania, Africa	2006
Oyama, Miyake-jima, Izu Islands, Japan	2006
Pacaya, Guatemala	2007
Pagan, Mariana Islands, central Pacific Ocean	2006
Pago, Papua New Guinea	2004
Papandayan, Java, Indonesia	2002
Pavlof, Alaska	1997
Peuet Sague, Indonesia	1998
Piparo, Trinidad	1997
Piton de la Fournaise, Réunion	2007
Poas, Costa Rica	2006
Popocatepetl, Mexico	2007
Rabaul, Papua New Guinea	2008
Raoul Island, New Zealand	2006
Redoubt, Alaska	2009
Reventador, Ecuador	2007
Rincon de la Vieja, Costa Rica	1998
Ritter Island, Papua New Guinea	2006
Rotorua, New Zealand	2001
Ruapehu, New Zealand	2006
Ruby Seamount, Mariana Islands	1995
Mount St. Helens, Washington	ongoing
Sakura-Jima, Japan	ongoing
San Cristobal, Nicaragua	2006
San Miguel, El Salvador	2006
Sangay, Ecuador	ongoing
Santa Ana, El Salvador	2006
Santa Maria, Guatemala	ongoing
Semeru, Java, Indonesia	ongoing
Shiveluch, Kamchatka, Russia	ongoing
Shin-dake, Kuchinoerabujima Island, Japan	1999
Shishaldin, Unimak Island, Alaska	2000
Simbo, Solomon Islands	2006
Slamet, Java Indonesia	2007
Soputan, Indonesia	2006
Soufriere Hills, Montserrat, West Indies	ongoing
South Sister, Oregon	2001
Stromboli, Italy	ongoing
Sulu Range, New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea	2006
Suwanose-Jima Ryukyu Islands, Japan	ongoing
Tavurvur, Papua New Guinea	2000
Taal, Philippines	2006
Talang, Indonesia	2007
Telica, Nicaragua	2007
Tengger Caldera, Java, Indonesia	2006
Terceira, Azores	1999
Tonga (unnamed volcano)	1999
Tongariro Volcanic Centre, New Zealand	2006
Tungurahua, Ecuador	ongoing
Turrialba, Costa Rica	2010
Ubinas, Peru	2007
Ulawun, Papua New Guinea	2007
Usu, Japan	2000
Veniaminof, Alaska	2006
Villarrica, Chile	2009
White Island, New Zealand	2007
Yasur, Tanna Island, Vanuatu	2004
Yellowstone, Wyoming	1998
Zacatecas, Mexico	1997

The Continents

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 14:45:00 -0800

The Continents

A continent is defined as a large unbroken land mass completely surrounded by water, although in some cases continents are (or were in part) connected by land bridges. The seven continents are North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica. The island groups in the Pacific are often called Oceania but this name does not imply that scientists consider them the remains of a continent.

Political considerations have often overridden geographical facts when it came to naming continents. Geographically, Europe, including the British Isles, is a large western peninsula of the continent of Asia; and many geographers, when referring to Europe and Asia, speak of the Eurasian continent. But traditionally, Europe is counted as a separate continent, with the Ural and the Caucasus mountains forming the line of demarcation between Europe and Asia. To the south of Europe, Asia has an odd-shaped peninsula jutting westward, which has a large number of political subdivisions. The northern section is taken up by Turkey; to the south of Turkey there are Syria, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and a number of smaller Arab countries. All these are part of Asia. Traditionally, the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean is also considered to be part of Asia. The Caribbean islands, Central America, and Greenland are considered part of North America.

Continental Drift and Plate-Tectonics Theory

Source: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey

According to the theory of continental drift, the world was made up of a single continent through most of geologic time. That continent eventually separated and drifted apart, forming into the seven continents we have today. The first comprehensive theory of continental drift was suggested by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1912. The hypothesis asserts that the continents consist of lighter rocks that rest on heavier crustal material—similar to the manner in which icebergs float on water. Wegener contended that the relative positions of the continents are not rigidly fixed but are slowly moving—at a rate of about one yard per century.

According to the generally accepted plate-tectonics theory, scientists believe that Earth's surface is broken into a number of shifting slabs or plates, which average about 50 miles in thickness. These plates move relative to one another above a hotter, deeper, more mobile zone at average rates as great as a few inches per year. Most of the world's active volcanoes are located along or near the boundaries between shifting plates and are called plate-boundary volcanoes.

The peripheral areas of the Pacific Ocean Basin, containing the boundaries of several plates, are dotted with many active volcanoes that form the so-called Ring of Fire. The Ring provides excellent examples of plate-boundary volcanoes, including Mount St. Helens.

However, some active volcanoes are not associated with plate boundaries, and many of these so-called intra-plate volcanoes form roughly linear chains in the interior of some oceanic plates. The Hawaiian Islands provide perhaps the best example of an intra-plate volcanic chain, developed by the northwest-moving Pacific plate passing over an inferred “hot spot” that initiates the magma-generation and volcano-formation process.

Plate-Tectonics Theory—The Lithosphere Plates of Earth

This figure shows the boundaries of lithosphere plates that are active at present. The double lines indicate zones of spreading from which plates are moving apart. The lines with barbs show zones of underthrusting (subduction), where one plate is sliding beneath another. The barbs on the lines indicate the overriding plate. The single line defines a strike-slip fault along which plates are sliding horizontally past one another. The stippled areas indicate a part of a continent, exclusive of that along a plate boundary, which is undergoing active extensional, compressional, or strike-slip faulting.

Source: U.S. Geological Survey.

World Geography Glossary

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 14:43:00 -0800

World Geography Glossary

geography: The study of the physical features of the earth. Includes study of regional formations and their relation to humans.
latitude lines: Imaginary lines running horizontally around the globe. Also called parallels, latitude lines are equidistant from each other. Each degree of latitude is about 69 miles (110 km) apart. Zero degrees (0°) latitude is the equator, the widest circumference of the globe. Latitude is measured from 0° to 90° north and 0° to 90° south—90° north is the North Pole and 90° south is the South Pole.
longitude lines: Imaginary lines, also called meridians, running vertically around the globe. Unlike latitude lines, longitude lines are not parallel. Meridians meet at the poles and are widest apart at the equator. Zero degrees longitude (0°) is called the prime meridian. The degrees of longitude run 180° east and 180° west from the prime meridian.
geographic coordinates: Latitude and longitude lines form an imaginary grid over the Earth's surface. By combining longitude and latitude measurements, any location on earth can be determined. The units of measurement for geographic coordinates are degrees (°), minutes ('), and seconds ("). Like a circle, the Earth has 360 degrees. Each degree is divided into 60 minutes, which in turn is divided into 60 seconds. Latitude and longitude coordinates also include cardinal directions: north or south of the equator for latitude, and east or west of the prime meridian for longitude. The geographic coordinates of New York City, for example, are 40° N, 74° W, meaning that it is located 40 degrees north latitude and 74 degrees west longitude. Using minutes and seconds as well as degrees, the coordinates for New York would be 40°42'51" N, 74°0'23" W. (Latitude is always listed first.) A less common format for listing coordinates is in decimal degrees. The Tropic of Cancer, for example, can be expressed in degrees and minutes (23°30' N) or in decimal degrees (23.5° N).
continental drift: Theory that the earth's continents at one time were once part of a singular landmass. It is believed that the continents have spread out due to plate tectonics.
hemisphere: A hemisphere is half the Earth's surface. The four hemispheres are the Northern and Southern hemispheres, divided by the equator (0° latitude), and the Eastern and Western hemispheres, divided by the prime meridian (0° longitude) and the International Date Line (180°).
equator: Zero degrees latitude. The Sun is directly overhead the equator at noon on the two equinoxes (March and Sept. 20 or 21). The equator divides the globe into the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The equator appears halfway between the North and South poles, at the widest circumference of the globe. It is 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km) long.
prime meridian: Zero degrees longitude (0°). The prime meridian runs through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England (the location was established in 1884 by international agreement). The prime meridian divides the globe into the Western and Eastern hemispheres. The Earth's time zones are measured from the prime meridian. The time at 0° is called Universal Time (UT) or Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). With the Greenwich meridian as the starting point, each 15° east and west marks a new time zone. The 24 time zones extend east and west around the globe for 180° to the International Date Line. When it is noon along the prime meridian, it is midnight along the International Date Line.
International Date Line: Located at 180° longitude (180° E and 180° W are the same meridian). Regions to the east of the International Date Line are counted as being one calendar day earlier than the regions to the west. Although the International Date Line generally follows the 180° meridian (most of which lies in the Pacific Ocean), it does diverge in places. Since 180° runs through several countries, it would divide those countries not simply into two different time zones, but into two different calendar days. To avoid such unnecessary confusion, the date line dips and bends around countries to permit them to share the same time.
tropics: Also referred to as the torrid zone or tropical zone, all the water and land of the earth between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The tropics experience at least one day per year in which the sun passes directly overhead.
Tropic of Cancer: A line of latitude located at 23°30' north of the equator. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer on the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere (June 20 or 21). It marks the northernmost point of the tropics, which falls between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
Tropic of Capricorn: A line of latitude located at 23°30' south. The Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Capricorn on the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere (Dec. 20 or 21). It marks the southernmost point of the tropics.
Arctic Circle: A line of latitude located at 66°30' north, delineating the Northern Frigid Zone of the Earth.
Antarctic Circle: A line of latitude located at 66°30' south, delineating the Southern Frigid Zone of the Earth.
globe: The most accurate map of the Earth, duplicating its spherical shape and relative size.
pole: Point at which the earth turns; the north and south poles illustrate the axis on which the earth rotates.
map: Representation of a physical plane with selective information. Maps represent a definite area and contain detailed geographical information.
atlas: Combination of maps and charts. An atlas usually includes geographical information, as well as varied non-geographical information (population statistics, sea levels, etc.) about a particular location.
compass: A directional device that is made of a magnetic needle that synchronizes with the north and south poles.
climate maps: Give general information about the climate and precipitation (rain and snow) of a region. Cartographers, or mapmakers, use colors to show different climate or precipitation zones.
economic or resource maps: Feature the type of natural resources or economic activity that dominates an area. Cartographers use symbols to show the locations of natural resources or economic activities. For example, oranges on a map of Florida tell you that oranges are grown there.
physical maps: Illustrate the physical features of an area, such as the mountains, rivers and lakes. The water is usually shown in blue. Colors are used to show relief-differences in land elevations. Green is typically used at lower elevations, and orange or brown indicate higher elevations.
political maps: Do not show physical features. Instead, they indicate state and national boundaries and capital and major cities. A capital city is usually marked with a star within a circle.
road maps: Show major-some minor highways-and roads, airports, railroad tracks, cities and other points of interest in an area. People use road maps to plan trips and for driving directions.
topographic maps: Include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area. Lines that are close together indicate steep terrain, and lines that are far apart indicate flat terrain.
map projections: Two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional Earth. Because projections attempt to present the spherical Earth on a flat plane, they inevitably produce distortions. Map projections are numerous and complex (e.g., there are a variety of cylindrical, conic, or azimuthal projections). Each projection has advantages and serves different purposes, and each produces different types of distortions in direction, distance, shape, and relative size of areas. One of the most famous projections is the Mercator, created by Geradus Mercator in 1569. It is a rectangular-shaped map in which all longitude and latitude lines are parallel and intersect at right angles (on a globe, meridians are not parallel, but grow narrower, eventually converging at the poles). Near the equator, the scale of the Mercator is accurate, but the farther one moves toward the poles, the greater the distortion—Antarctica in the far south and Greenland in the far north, for example, appear gigantic. The Mercator projection was used well into the 20th century, but has now been superseded by others, including the widely used Robinson projection. The Robinson projection is an elliptical-shaped map with a flat top and bottom. Developed in 1963 by Arthur H. Robinson, it is an orthophanic (“right appearing”) projection, which attempts to reflect the spherical appearance of the Earth. The meridians, for example, are curved arcs, which gives the flat map a three-dimensional appearance. But to convey the likeness of a curved, three-dimensional globe, the Robinson projection must in fact distort shape, area, scale, and distance. The Albers, Lambert, Mollweide, and Winkel Tripel are some of the other commonly used map projections.

Egyptian Mythology

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 01:47:00 -0800

Egyptian Mythology

This glossary introduces characters from the stories and legends of Egyptian Mythology.

Aaru: Abode of the blessed dead.
Amen (Amon, Ammdn): One of chief Theban deities; united with sun god under form of Amen-Ra; husband of Mut.
Amenti: Region of dead where souls were judged by Osiris.
Anubis: Guide of souls to Amenti; son of Osiris; jackal-headed.
Apis: Sacred bull, an embodiment of Ptah; identified with Osiris as Osiris-Apis or Serapis.
Geb (Keb, Seb): Earth god; father of Osiris; represented with goose on head.
Hathor (Athor): Goddess of love and mirth; cow-headed.
Horus: God of day; son of Osiris and Isis; hawk-headed.
Isis: Goddess of motherhood and fertility; sister and wife of Osiris.
Khepera: God of morning sun.
Khnemu (Khnum, Chnuphis, Chnemu, Chnum): Ram-headed god.
Khonsu (Khensu, Khuns): Son of Amen and Mut.
Mentu (Ment): Solar deity, sometimes considered god of war; falcon-headed.
Min (Khem, Chem): Principle of physical life.
Mut (Maut): Wife of Amen.
Nephthys: Goddess of the dead; sister and wife of Set.
Nu: Chaos from which world was created, personified as a god.
Nut: Goddess of heavens; consort of Geb.
Osiris: God of underworld and judge of dead; son of Geb and Nut; brother and husband of Isis.
Ptah (Phtha): Chief deity of Memphis.
Ra: God of the Sun, the supreme god; son of Nut; Pharaohs claimed descent from him; represented as lion, cat, or falcon.
Serapis: God uniting attributes of Osiris and Apis.
Set (Seth): God of darkness or evil; brother and enemy of Osiris; brother and husband of Nephthys.
Shu: Solar deity; son of Ra and Hathor.
Tem (Atmu, Atum, Tum): Solar deity.
Thoth (Dhouti): God of wisdom and magic; scribe of gods; ibis-headed.

Norse Mythology

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 01:47:00 -0800

Norse Mythology

This glossary of Norse Mythology gives brief descriptions of the many characters involved in the stories and legends of Norse mythology.

Aesir: Chief gods of Asgard.
Andvari: Dwarf; robbed of gold and magic ring by Loki.
Angerbotha (Angrbotha): Giantess; mother by Loki of Fenrir, Hel, and Midgard serpent.
Asgard (Asgarth): Abode of gods.
Ask (Aske, Askr): First man; created by Odin, Hoenir, and Lothur.
Asynjur: Goddesses of Asgard.
Atli: Second husband of Gudrun; invited Gunnar and Hogni to his court, where they were slain; slain by Gudrun.
Audhumia (Audhumbla): Cow that nourished Ymir; created Buri by licking ice cliff.
Balder (Baldr, Baldur): God of light, spring, peace, joy; son of Odin; slain by Hoth at instigation of Loki.
Bifrost: Rainbow bridge connecting Midgard and Asgard.
Bragi (Brage): God of poetry; husband of Ithunn.
Branstock: Great oak in hall of Volsungs; into it, Odin thrust Gram, which only Sigmund could draw forth.
Brynhild: Valkyrie; wakened from magic sleep by Sigurd; married Gunnar; instigated death of Sigurd; killed herself and was burned on pyre beside Sigurd.
Bur (Bor): Son of Buri; father of Odin, Hoenir, and Lothur.
Buri (Bori): Progenitor of gods; father of Bur; created by Audhumla.
Embla: First woman; created by Odin, Hoenir, and Lothur.
Fafnir: Son of Rodmar, whom he slew for gold in Otter's skin; in form of dragon, guarded gold; slain by Sigurd.
Fenrir: Wolf; offspring of Loki; swallows Odin at Ragnarok and is slain by Vitharr.
Forseti: Son of Balder.
Frey (Freyr): God of fertility and crops; son of Njorth; originally one of Vanir.
Freya (Freyja): Goddess of love and beauty; sister of Frey; originally one of Vanir.
Frigg (Frigga): Goddess of sky; wife of Odin.
Garm: Watchdog of Hel; slays, and is slain by, Tyr at Ragnarok.
Gimle: Home of blessed after Ragnarok.
Giuki: King of Nibelungs; father of Gunnar, Hogni, Guttorm, and Gudrun.
Glathsehim (Gladsheim): Hall of gods in Asgard.
Gram (meaning “Angry”): Sigmund's sword; rewelded by Regin; used by Sigurd to slay Fafnir.
Greyfell: Sigmund's horse; descended from Sleipnir.
Grimhild: Mother of Gudrun; administered magic potion to Sigurd which made him forget Brynhild.
Gudrun: Daughter of Giuki; wife of Sigurd; later wife of Atli and Jonakr.
Gunnar: Son of Giuki; in his semblance Sigurd won Brynhild for him; slain at hall of Atli.
Guttorm: Son of Giuki; slew Sigurd at Brynhild's request.
Heimdall (Heimdallr): Guardian of Asgard.
Hel: Goddess of dead and queen of underworld; daughter of Loki.
Hiordis: Wife of Sigmund; mother of Sigurd.
Hoenir: One of creators of Ask and Embla; son of Bur.
Hogni: Son of Giuki; slain at hall of Atli.
Hoth (Hoder, Hodur): Blind god of night and darkness; slayer of Balder at instigation of Loki.
Ithunn (Ithun, Iduna): Keeper of golden apples of youth; wife of Bragi.
Jonakr: Third husband of Gudrun.
Jormunrek: Slayer of Swanhild; slain by sons of Gudrun.
Jotunnheim (Jotunheim): Abode of giants.
Lif and Lifthrasir: First man and woman after Ragnarok.
Loki: God of evil and mischief; instigator of Balder's death.
Lothur (Lodur): One of creators of Ask and Embla.
Midgard (Midgarth): Abode of mankind; the earth.
Midgard Serpent: Sea monster; offspring of Loki; slays, and is slain by, Thor at Ragnarok.
Mimir: Giant; guardian of well in Jotunnheim at root of Yggdrasill; knower of past and future.
Mjollnir: Magic hammer of Thor.
Nagifar: Ship to be used by giants in attacking Asgard at Ragnarok; built from nails of dead men.
Nanna: Wife of Balder.
Nibelungs: Dwellers in northern kingdom ruled by Giuki.
Niflheim (Nifelheim): Outer region of cold and darkness; abode of Hel.
Njorth: Father of Frey and Freya; originally one of Vanir.
Norns: Demigoddesses of fate: Urth (Urdur) (past), Verthandi (Verdandi) (present), Skuld (future).
Odin (Othin): Head of Aesir; creator of world with Vili and Ve; equivalent to Woden (Wodan, Wotan) in Teutonic mythology.
Otter: Son of Rodmar; slain by Loki; his skin filled with gold hoard of Andvari to appease Rodmar.
Ragnarok: Final destruction of present world in battle between gods and giants; some minor gods will survive, and Lif and Lifthrasir will repeople world.
Regin: Blacksmith; son of Rodmar; foster-father of Sigurd.
Rerir: King of Huns; son of Sigi.
Rodmar: Father of Regin, Otter, and Fafnir; demanded Otter's skin be filled with gold; slain by Fafnir, who stole gold.
Sif: Wife of Thor.
Siggeir: King of Goths; husband of Signy; he and his sons slew Volsung and his sons, except Sigmund; slain by Sigmund and Sinflotli.
Sigi: King of Huns; son of Odin.
Sigmund: Son of Volsung; brother of Signy, who bore him Sinflotli; husband of Hiordis, who bore him Sigurd.
Signy: Daughter of Volsung; sister of Sigmund; wife of Siggeir; mother by Sigmund of Sinflotli.
Sigurd: Son of Sigmund and Hiordis; wakened Brynhild from magic sleep; married Gudrun; slain by Guttorm at instigation of Brynhild.
Sigyn: Wife of Loki.
Sinflotli: Son of Sigmund and Signy.
Skuld: One of several Norns.
Sleipnir (Sleipner): Eight-legged horse of Odin.
Surt (Surtr): Fire demon; slays Frey at Ragnarok.
Svartalfaheim: Abode of dwarfs.
Swanhild: Daughter of Sigurd and Gudrun; slain by Jormunrek.
Thor: God of thunder; oldest son of Odin; equivalent to Germanic deity Donar.
Tyr: God of war; son of Odin; equivalent to Tiu in Teutonic mythology.
Ull (Ullr): Son of Sif; stepson of Thor.
Urth: One of several Norns.
Valhalla (Valhall): Great hall in Asgard where Odin received souls of heroes killed in battle.
Vali: Odin's son: Ragnarok survivor.
Valkyries: Virgins, messengers of Odin, who selected heroes to die in battle and took them to Valhalla; generally considered as nine in number.
Vanir: Early race of gods; three survivors, Njorth, Frey, and Freya, are associated with Aesir.
Ve: Brother of Odin; one of creators of world.
Verthandi: One of several Norns.
Vili: Brother of Odin; one of creators of world.
Vingolf: Abode of goddesses in Asgard.
Vitharr (Vithar): Son of Odin; survivor of Ragnarok.
Volsung: Descendant of Odin, and father of Signy, Sigmund; his descendants were called Volsungs.
Yggdrasill: Giant ash tree springing from body of Ymir and supporting universe; its roots extended to Asgard, Jotunnheim, and Niffheim.
Ymir (Ymer): Primeval frost giant killed by Odin, Vili, and Ve; world created from his body; also, from his body sprang Yggdrasill.

The Nine Muses

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 01:46:00 -0800

The Nine Muses

The Nine Muses were Greek goddesses who ruled over the arts and sciences and offered inspiration in those subjects. They were the daughters of Zeus, lord of all gods, and Mnemosyne, who represented memory. Memory was important for the Muses because in ancient times, when there were no books, poets had to carry their work in their memories.

Calliope was the muse of epic poetry.

Clio was the muse of history.

Erato was the muse of love poetry.

Euterpe was the muse of music.

Melpomene was the muse of tragedy.

Polyhymnia was the muse of sacred poetry.

Terpsichore was the muse of dance.

Thalia was the muse of comedy.

Urania was the muse of astronomy.

Monsters in Greek Mythology

khilven.laudo@gmail.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 14 Nov 2011 01:46:00 -0800

Monsters in Greek Mythology

Argus

Argus may have had as many as one hundred eyes, which were located all over his body. Hera employed him as a guard. He was killed by Hermes. Afterward, Hera put Argus's eyes in the tail of the peacock, her favorite bird.

Cerberus

Cerberus was a huge and powerful three-headed dog. He was owned by Hades, god of the dead, who used the fearsome hound to guard the entrance to the underworld. In his final labor, Hercules went to the underworld and kidnapped Cerberus.

Cyclopes

Each of the Cyclopes was gigantic and had a single eye in the middle of its forehead. The Cyclopes made lightning and thunderbolts for Zeus to use. The brutal Polyphemus, a Cyclops and a son of Poseidon, lived on an island, where he was blinded by Odysseus.

Gorgons

The Gorgons were horrifyingly ugly monsters who lived at the edge of the world. Their hair was made of serpents, and one look from a Gorgon's eyes would turn a man to stone. Perseus killed the Gorgon Medusa by beheading her while looking only at her reflection.

The Hydra

Hydra

The Hydra was a massive and poisonous serpent with nine heads. Every time one head was injured, another two grew in its place. Hercules sought out the monster in its dark marsh and succeeded in destroying it.

Minotaur

The Minotaur was a man-eating monster with the head of a bull. King Minos kept it hidden in a labyrinth (a maze) in Knossos, on the island of Crete, where he used it to frighten his enemies. Theseus killed the Minotaur.

The Minotaur

Scylla and Charybdis

The powerful monsters Scylla and Charybdis lived together in a sea cave. Scylla had many fierce dog heads and ate sailors alive; Charybdis created whirlpools by sucking in and spitting out seawater. Both Jason and Odysseus safely traveled by these monsters.

Sirens

The Sirens were giant, winged creatures with the heads of women. They lived on rocks on the sea, where their beautiful singing lured sailors to shipwreck. Odysseus filled his sailors' ears with wax so that they might sail safely past the Sirens.

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