Study of Biological Science

Basic Biological Science

2012-03-13T19:38:00.000+06:00

Biology - Is the study of life.

Life - The actual definition of life is yet been established, according the views of modern science the definition of life – is nothing but the activities of Protoplasm.

Anatomy - Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body.

Physiology - Physiology is the study of the functions of normal human body.

Pharma

2012-03-10T19:34:00.001+06:00

Training manual for pharma field force. That is a very helpful manual informations of Basic biological science, Cell, Tissue, Eye, Ear, Skin, Systems of human body, skeletal system, Muscular System, Organs of Digestive System, Urinary System, Respiratory System, Classification of Nervous System, Endocrine System, Limbic System, Reproductive System, Lymphatic System, Microbiology, Pharmacology, Detailing practice. Product Information's, Detailing Practice on pharma & pharma, Selling Skill etc.

Type of Cell

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Cell is the structural & functional unit of living organism.

Type of cell:

On the basis of the structure of nucleus cell is of two types –

Prokaryotic cell (e.g Bacteria)
Eukaryotic cell (e.g Human cell)

On the basis of physiological function cell is of two types -

Somatic cell (Body cell)
Sex cell (Reproductive cell)

Function of a cell:

1. Function & assimilation – the process by which food substances are taken into the cells of the body after they have been digested & absorbed.

2. Growth & repair – Development & regeneration of organs.

3. Metabolism – the sum of all the chemical & physical changes that takes place within the body.

4. Respiration – the process of gaseous exchange.

5. Excretion - elimination of wastes product from the body.

6. Irritability & conductivity – Response to stimuli & communication with other cell.

Organelles (components) of cell:

A cell consists of –

1. Cell membrane – a semi-permeable membrane covering protoplasm. It protect the cell organelles.

2. protoplasm – it consist of Cytoplasm & Nucleus.

3. Cytoplasm – Except nucleus the rest of cell body is called Cytoplasm.

Organelles of Cytoplasm :

It consist of-
mitochondria: Rod-lide structure & is called power house of cell. Energy stored as ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).
Endoplasmic Reticulum: It is a system of interconnecting membrane bound channels within the cytoplasm. Participate in protein synthesis.
Golgy body : Canal – like structure that helps in synthesis of carbohydrate cell membrane.
Lysosome: Are tiny granules composed of RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid) (65% & Protein (35%). It consists of subunits: Large – 50s & Smaller – 30s. Synthesize cytoplasmic protein.

Nucleus:

Centrally located a round mass is called nucleus. It is separated from cytoplasm gy a nuclear membrane. It contains 46 chromosomes of which 23 from mother & 23 from father that contain genes. Genes are composed of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid – double helix structure of (chromosomes).

Chromosome:

There is some chromatin threads present in
the nucleus, called chromosome.
Chromosomes are the vital to the
everyday activities of the cell &
responsible for determining the hereditary
characteristics of the human body.

Functions of Nucleus:

It produces Ribosome.
Synthesize RNA & protein.
It inherits the character to the offspring through genes.
It influences growth & initiates divisions or reproduction of cell.

Parts of nucleus

Nuclear membrane
Nucleoplasm
Nucleolus
Nuclear reticulum or chromatin.

Structure of a cell

Types of Tissue

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Collection of cell having similar structure & performing a common physiological function is called tissue.

Types of Tissue:

Epithelial tissue: Covering the external & internal body surfaces. e.g. – Skin, internal covering of GIT.
Connective tissue: Connects different structures of the body & also helps to provide framework of the body. e.g. – Blood, Bones.
Muscular tissue;: Muscular tissues make up the major part of the soft tissues of the body & by means of its contraction power helps in locomotion. e.g. – Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle.
Nervous tissue: Nervous tissue is highly specialized tissue which controls & co-ordinates the body functions by forming nervous system. e.g – Neuralgia, White matter, Grey matter.

The Human Ear

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The ear is the organ of hearing & also plays an important part in the maintenance of balance. It has three parts- outer, middle & inner. The outer ear consists of ear canal & eardrum. The middle ear consists of ear ossicles (Malleus, Incus, Stapes), Eustachian tube & Cavity. The inner ear consist of semicircular canals, fenestra ovalis, vestibule cochlear nerve, fenestra rotunda & cochlea.

The Ear

The Human Eye

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The eye is the organ of sight & is situated in the orbit which protects it from injury. The eye is spherical in shape & embedded in fat. it has three coats – the outer fibrous coat, the middle vascular coat & the inner nervous coat. the outer coat consist of Sclera, Conjunctiva & Cornea. the middle coat consist Choroid, Cilliary body & Iris. The inner coat is Retina.

Human Eye

The Human Skin

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The skin is one of the human body’s largest organs. Skin contains sensory devices that monitor the external environment. The nerves in skin receive the stimuli that are then interpreted by the brain as touch, heat, & cold.

Skin is composed of three layers:

1. Epidermis - the outer layer.

2. Dermis - the middle layer.

3. Subcutaneous - the inner layer.

The Human Heart

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The heart is a conical, hollow muscular organ. It is a central pumping station. I t pumps blood to all parts of the body. It is covered with a thin cover – Pericardium.

Features:

Four chambers

Left atrium
Right atrium
Left ventricle &
RIght ventricle

Four valves

Pulmonary,
Tricuspid,
Mitral&
Aortic valves.

Three layers

Epicardium (outer)
Myocardium (middle) &
Endocardium (inner)

Interior View of the HEART

Organ

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Definition

Collection of tissues united together to perform a particular function is called organ.

11 System of the Human body

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When a number of organs work together in the body to perform a general function the then it is called a system.

Organ work in a coordinated way as a member of the system.

There are 11 Systems of the Human body.

1. Skeletal System : Functions – Protection/Support.

Organs - All bones of the body.

2. Muscular System : Functions - Movement

Organs - Muscles of the limbs & Trunks.

3. Digestive System : Function - Food processing.

Organs- GIT, GIG

4. Urinary System : Function- Excretion.

Organs- Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder & Urethra.

5. Respiratory System : Function- Breathing.

Organs- Lungs, Trachea, Bronchi &
Bronchioles.

6. Circulatory System : Function - Transport.

Organs- Heart, Blood & Blood Vessels.

7. Nervous System : Function - Response to stimuli.

Organs - Brain, Spinal cord & Nerves.

8. Limbic System : Function - Intelligence, Emotion

Organs - Thalamus, Basal ganglia & Amygdale.

9. Endocrine System : Function - Growth & Development.

Organs - All ductless glands.

10. Reproductive System : Function - Reproduction.

Organs - All sense organs of Male &
Female.

11. Lymphatic System : Function- Defense.

Organs - Lymph node, Lymph vessel, Lymph
glands.

What is Microbiology

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Microbiology: is the study of living organism of microscopic size (Microorganisms).

Microorganisms:

Microorganisms are minute living body not perceptible to the naked eye, e.g. bacteria

Classification of microorganisms:

microbiology consists of five groups of organisms-

1. Bacteria

2. Virus

3. Protozoa

4. Algae

5. Fungi

Living cells are divided into two major types –

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, on the basis of their genetic organization.

Prokaryotes:

1. In prokaryotes the DNA is free in the cytoplasm.

2. Prokaryotic cell do not contain membrance–bound organelles such as mitochondria or chloroplasts, as eukaryotes do.

3. Bacteria (including the blue green “algae”) are prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes: Definite nucleus in the cell i.e. nucleus surrounded by membrane.

1. Higher organisms together with microorganisms such as fungi, algae and protozoa are eukaryotes.

2. In eukaryotes the genetic information is separated from the rest of the cell in a membrane bound compartment – the nucleus.

3. Eukaryotic cells contain several membrane – bound organelles and membrane systems.

Bacteriology

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Bacteriology – Science that deals with Bacteria.

Bacteriology - A unicellular organisms without a true nucleus.

Mycoplasmas are bacteria that have no cell wall and therefore have no definite shape.

Internal Structure

Bacteria have a very simple internal structure, and no membrane-bound organelles.

Nucleoid: DNA in the bacterial cell is generally confined to this central region. Though it isn’t bounded by a membrane, it is visibly distinct (by transmission microscopy) from the rest of the cell interior.

DNA- Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid is single long circular molecule. It contains all genetic information for the structure & function of a bacterium under its optimum conditions.

Ribosome

Ribosome gives the cytoplasm of bacteria a granular appearance in electron micrographs. It is important in translating the genetic massage in messenger RNA ( Ribo Nucleic Acid) into the production of peptide sequences (proteins). It is responsible for protein synthesis.

Storage Granules

Nutrients and reserves may be stored in the cytoplasm in the form of glycogen, lipids, polyphosphate, or in some cases, sulfur or nitrogen.

Endospore

Some bacteria, like clostridium botulinum, form spores that are highly resistant to drought, high temperature and other environmental hazards. Once the hazard is removed, the spore germinates to create a new population.

Capsule

This layer of polysaccharide (sometimes proteins) protects the bacterial cell and is often associated with pathogenic vacteria because it serves as a barrier against phagocytosis by white blood cells.

Outer membrane

This lipid bilayer is found in Gram negative bacteria and is the source of lipo-polysaccharides (LPS) in these bacteria. LPS is toxic and turns on the immune system of, but not in Gram positive bacteria.

Cell wall

This is the complex & semi-rigid outermost layer. It gives shape to the bacterial cell & protects it from external environment. It is composed of peptidoglycan (polysaccharides + protein); the cell wall maintains the overall shape of a bacterial cell.

Periplasmic Space

This cellular compartment is found only in those bacteria that have both an outer membrane and plasma membrane (e.g. Gram negative bacteria). In the space are enzymes and other proteins that help digest and move nutrients into the cell.

Plasma membrane

This is a lipid bilayer much like the cytoplasmic (plasma) membrane of other cells. There are numerous proteins moving within or upon this layer that are primarily responsible for transport of ions, nutrients and waste across the membrane.

Appendages:

Bacteria may gave the following appendages ( a tail or a limb attached to a major part):

Pili

Pili: These are hollow, hair like structures made of protein allow bacteria to attach to other cells. A specialized pilus, the sex pilus, allows the transfer from one bacterial cell to another. pili (sing; pilus) are also called fimbriae (sing; fimbria).

Flagella

The purpose of flagella (sing; flagellum) is motility. flagella are long appendages which rotate by means of a “motor” located just under the cytoplasmic membrane. Bacteria may have one, a few or many flagella in different positions on the cell.

Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria can be classified in many ways but three are important –

1. Classification on the basis of morphology (Shape & Size):

a) Coccus (Spherical) – round shaped. e.g. Streptococcus, Pneumococcus.

b) Bacillus (Cylindrical) – Rod-Shaped. e.g. E. coli.

c) SPirillum (Spirocheate) – Spiral-shaped. e.g Treponema pallidum.

d) Vibrio – Comma-shaped. e.g. Vibrio cholerae

e) Filamentous – threadlike. e.g. Actinomyces israelli.

2. Classification on the basis of Gram staining:

Taxonomists divide bacteria into various subgroups including –

a. Gram-positive bacteria & b. gram-negative bacteria

Most species of bacteria can be grouped into two categories based on their response to a laboratory technique called Gram Staining. (These are terms for the way bacteria respond to a procedure called Gram-staining).

Gram-staining procedure:

Dr. Hans Christian Gram, a Danish Microbiologist, developed the Gram-stain technique in 1884. The technique involves stainig bacteria with a Purple Dye (Crystal Violet), & Iodine, & Rinesd with Alcohol. Then Re-stained with a Pink Dye (Safranin). Depending on Structure of their Cell Walls, the Bacteria absorb either the Purple. Gram-Negative Bacteria will appear PINK from the pink dye.

Gram-positive bacteria

Have a thicker layer of Peptidoglycan in their cell walls, made of a Protein-Sugar complex that takes on the Purple color during Gram Staining.

Gram-negative bacteria

Have an extra layer of lipid on the out side of the cell wall & appear Pink color after Gram Staining.

Examples of Gram-Positive & Gram-Negative bacteria:

Organisms	Types of & or site of infection
A. Gram-Positive Bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus	Pneumonia, Boils, post-operative bone/joints.
Streptococcus pneumoniae	Pneumonia, meningitis, otitis media, sinusitis, septicemia
Streptococcus pyogenes	pharyngitis, impetigo
Streptococcus viridans	Endocarditis
B. Gram-Negative Bacteria
Escherichia coli (E. coli)	Urinary tract, pyelonephritis, peritonitis
Haemophilus influenzae	Pneumonia, meningitis, otitis media.
Klebsiella pneumoniae	Pneumonia, wounds
Neisseria gonorrhoeae	Gonorrhea
Salmonella typhi	Typhoid fever
Vibrio cholerae	Cholera

3. Classification on the basis of Oxygen requirement:
a, Aerobes – can not survive without atmospheric oxygen.
b, Anaerobes – can survive without atmospheric oxygen.
c, Facultative – can survive with or without atmospheric oxygen.

Mycology

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Mycology – Science that deals with Fungi.

Fungi

Fungi are hererotrophic organism & generally multicellular & filamentous. Mostly they are Gram positive & non pathogenic. Only a few are pathogenic & can cause diseases in plants, man & animals.

Fungi comprise the moulds & yeast. Whereas moulds are filamentous & multicelular, yeasts are usually unicellular.

Characteristics of Fungi:

1, Nucleated

2, Spore bearing protistas

3, Lack of chlorophyll

4, Reproduce both sexually & asexually.

5, Somatic cell walls composed of polysaccharide.

6, Saprophytic

7, Wide spread disease producing

Classification of Fungi:

1, Moulds (Dermatophytes)

2, Yeast (Cryptococcus neoformans)

3, Yeast like fungi (Candida albicans)

4, Dimorphic fungi (Blastomyces)

Important fungal diseases:

Candidiasis (Candida albicans):

They are non-capsulated cyst. They reside normally in the oral cavity, intestine & vagina. They are also present in the skin.

Dermatophyte infection:

It is caused by moulds or filamentous fungi. At different parts of the body it is caused by different species. Diseases are named according to the site of localization.

a, Tinea unguium- Infection of the nail.

b, Tinea corporis- Infection of the skin anywhere of the body.

c, Tinea corporis- Infection of the scalp.

d, Tinea cruris- Infection of the groin (the depressed part of the body between the belly & the thigh)

Special Feature: Antibiotics (the first of the wonder drugs, Penicillin) was isolated from the fungus Penicillium notatum.

DNA and RNA Virus

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Virology – Science that deals with Virus.

Virus

Viruses are unique group of living agents extremely small in size, usually beyond the resolution of light microscope, posses’ higher state of parasitism & may be responsible for a wide range of infections.

They do not have nucleus but they have nuclear material like DNA & RNA. These are nucleic acids. These RNA & DNA are covered by capsid. Other than nucleic acids viruses also contain protein, fat & carbohydrate.

Types of Virus

DNA virus:

1, Pox Virus

2, Herpes virus

3, Adeno virus

RNA virus:

1, Parmayxo virus

2, Picoma virus

3, Rhabdo virus

4, Retro virus

5, Human lmmune

Deficiency virus (HIV)

Cefixime Injection

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Trade name: loxime injection

GENERIC NAME: Cefixime BP

THERAPEUTIC CLASS: Antibacterial (3^rd generation Cephalosporin)

DESCRIPTION: Cefixime BP is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic. Like other third-generation cephalosporins, it has broad spectrum activity against Gram positive and gram negative bacteria.

1^st generation cephalosporins: First generation cephalosporins are moderate spectrum agents, with a spectrum of activity that includes penecillinase-producing, methicillin-susceptible staphylococci and streptococci, though they are not the drugs of choice for such infactions. E.g. Cefadroxi (Sefadol), Cephradine (Dolocef), ceftezole etc.

2nd generation cephalosporins : The second generation cephalosporins have grater Gram-negative spectrum while retaining some activity against Gram-posotive cocci. They are also more resistant to beta-lactamase. e.g. Cefaclor (Dolocef), Cefuroxime, Cefonicid etc.

3^rd generation cephalosporins: Third generation cephalosporins have a board spectrum of activity and further increased activity against Gram-negative organisms. e.g. Ceftriaxone (cefixon), Cefixime (Loxim), Cefpodoxime etc.

4th generation cephalosporins: Fourth generation cephalosporins are extended-spectrum agents with similar activity against Gram-positive organisms as first-generation cephalosporins & more active against Gram-negative organism e.g. Cefipime, Cefpirome etc.

FORMULATION

Loxim 200mg tablet: Each tablet contains Cefixime Trihydrate BP equivalent to Cefixime 200 mg.

Loxim 400mg tablet: Each tablet contains Cefixime Trihydrate BP equivalent to Cefixime 400 mg.

Loxim 100mg/5ml dry syrup (50ml): After reconstitution, each 5ml contains Cefixime Trihydrate BP epuivalent to cefixime 100mg.

MECHANISM OF ACTION

Loxim belongs to a group of antibiotics called the cephalosporin. It kills bacteria by interfering with transpeptidase enzyme which is responsible for the synthesis of bacterial cell wall, peptidoglycan. The bacteria therefore break up and die

Transpeptidation

| Transpeptidation < - Cefixon

Peptidoglycan

Stability & rigidity of bacterial cell wall

MICROBIOLOGY

Loxim is effective grampositive microoganisma such as - Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae etc.

Loxim is effective grampositive microoganisma such as - Heamophilus parainfluenzae, Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella species, Shigella species etc.

CLINICAL INDICATIONS

Infections caused by pathogens sensitive to Cefixime, e.g.:

· Upper respiratory tract infections: Pharyngitis, tonsillitis.

· Lower respiratory tract infections: Pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis

· Urinary tract infections

· Ear, lung, throat infections

· Uncomplicated gonorrhoea.

DOSAGE & ADMINISTRATION

Adults: The recommended dose of Loxim is 400mg daily. This may be given as a 400 mg tablet daily or as 200mg tablet every 12 hours.

For the treatment of uncomplicated cervical/urethral gonococcal infections, a single oral dose of 400mg is recommended.

Children: The recommended dose is 8 mg /kg/day of the suspension.

This may be administered as a single daily dose or may be given in two divided doses, as 4mg/kg every 12 hours 7 to14 days according to the severity of infection or for children of age:

1/2-1 year : 3.75 ml or mg

1-4year : 5 ml or 100mg

5-10year : 10 ml or 200mg

11-12year : 15 ml or 300mg

Above12year : Adult dose

SIDE EFFECTS

· Upset stomach, diarrhea, vomiting, mild skin rash, itching

· Headache, hives

· Difficulty breathing or swallowing

· Wheezing

· Vaginal infection etc.

DRUG INTERACTIONS

Oral contraceptive: Cephalosporins such as cefixime may reduce the effectiveness of the combined oral contraceptive pill.

Probenecid: The removal of cefixime from the body may be slowed if given with probenecid.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

Loxim is contraindicated in patients with know allergy to the cephalosporin class of antibiotics.

BRAND INFORMATION

Preparation	Pack size	MRP/box	MRP/unit
Loxim 200mg tablet	1*10	250	25
Loxim 400mg tablet	1*6	270	45
Loxim 100mg/5ml dry syrup	50ml	190	190

PRODUCT POSTING

Shows higher success rate in respiratory tract infections.

Pharyngitis 94%
Otitis media 96%
Pneumonia 100%
Bronchitis 98%

Provides excellent therapy in gonococcal infection (caused by N. gonorrhoeae)

Eradication rate 98%

Ensures effect treatment success in UTI’s

Cure rate 99%

Offers outstanding success rate in multidrug resistant fever in children.

Clinical response 100%

TAARGET DOCTORS

Medicine Specialists
Urologists
Gynecologists
Pulmonologists
ENT specialists
GP’s
DGP’s

COMPETITIVE PRICE

Loxim 200mg tablet
Competitor	Brand name	Pack size	MRP/box	MRP/UNIT
Opsonin	Ceftid	6’S	270	45
Renata	Orcef	8’s	270	33.75
Popular	Zemicef	8’s	200	25
Techno Drugs	Loxim	12’s	300	25

Loxim 100mg/5ml dry syrup

Competitor	Brand name	Pack size	MRP/box	MRP/UNIT
Opsonin	Ceftid	50ml	275	275
Silva	Supraxim	50ml	250	250
Orion	Truso	50ml	160	160
Techno Drugs	Loxim	50m	190	190

Disease of Protozoa

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Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms & belong to the animal kingdom. They are more complex than bacteria & often motile.

Structure of Protozoa

1, Cytoplasmic body.

2, Nucleus

Pathogenesis:

Name of protozoa	Disease
Entamoeba histolytica	Amoebiasis (amebic dysentery), Liver abscess.
Giardia lamblia	Giardiasis (dysentery)
Trichomonas vaginalis	Trichomoniasis
Plasmodium vivax, P. ovale P. malaria, P. falciparum	Malaria
Pneumocystis cannii	Pneumonia

Definition of some terms

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Pathogen: Microorganisms that are capable of producing diseases are called pathogen.

Pathogenic- Microorganisms produce diseases are called Pathogenic.

Non-Pathogenic- Microorganisms that are not producing diseases are called Non-Pathogenic.

Antibiotics: Drugs that are produced from microorganisms & used to kill the microorganism are called antibiotics.

Bacteriostatic agent: Drugs that inhibit the bacterial growth are called bacteriostatic agent.

For Example, clarithromycin, Azithromicin.

Bactericidal agent: Drugs that kill the bacteria directly are called bactericidal agent. For example, Amoxicillin, cephradine.

Broad spectrum antibiotic- Antibiotic that are effective against a wide variety of microorganisms are called Broad spectrum antibiotic.

Narrow spectrum antibiotic- Antibiotic that are effective on a single or limited group of microorganisms are called Narrow spectrum antibiotic.

Chemotherapeutic Agents- Chemotheapeutic Agents are chemical substance that are synthesized in the laboratory & used to kill microorganisms.

MIC (Minimum inhibitory concentration):

The minimum concentration of drug that is needed to inhibit the bacterial growth, is called MIC of that drug.

Sterilization:

The process by which microorganisms are removed or killed from any products is called sterilization.

Types of sterilization:

a, Autoclave or moist heat sterilization.

b. Dry heat sterilization.

c, Gaseous sterilization

d, Radiation

Inflammation:

Inflammation is tissue reaction to injury. Inflammation may be result of Blows Foreign bodies, Chemicals, Microoganisms, Surgery, lonized chemotherapy.

Syndrome of inflammation:

1, Redness

2, Temperature

3, Swelling

4, Pain

5, Loss of function.

Infection:

When microorganism invades to our body & produce diseases is called infection. Virulence of infection depends on –

1, Number of microorganism in the body.

2, Route of entry of microorganism in the body.

3, Pathogenicity of microorganism.

4, Power & degree of microorganism to produce diseases.

5, Resistance of the bod (Host).

Pharmacology

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Greek Word “Pharmacon” means drug & “Logos” means knowledge. so, Pharmacology is the science of drug, which deals with the detail study of sources, chemical nature, therapeutic & other uses & side effects of drugs.

Types of Pharmacology –

1, Pharmacokinetics

2, Pharmacodynamics

1, Pharmacodynamics

Greek word Kinesis means movement. Pharmacokinetics deals with the study of absorption. distribution, metabolism (biotransformation) & excretion of drugs.

in short, what the body does to the drug is Pharmacokinetics.

Pharmacokinetics deals with ADME i.e., absorption, distribution, metabolism (biotransformation) & excretion of drugs.

Absorption

Absorption means the passage of drugs from its site administration into systemic circulation through some barrier or biological membrane.

Distribution

Spreading of a drug throughout the body in tissue & plasma after administration of a drug

is called distribution of drug. Some of the areas of the body are not accessible to drug due to anatomic barrier (B.B.B).

Metabolism (biotransformation)

Molecular Alteration of a drug within the living body by the action of enzyme is called (biotransformation) or metabolism.

Excretion

Removal of unchanged & its metabolism (products of metabolism) from the body (by the kidney & liver, the major drug eliminating organs in the body, also bile, sweat, saliva, gastric juice & lungs).

2.pharmacodynamic –

pharmacodynamic deals with the bioch biochemical & physiological effect & the mechanism of actions of drugs in the body. In short Pharmacodynamics means what a drug does with the body.

Mechanism of Action – Mechanism of action is the way by which a drug exerts its effect.

Side effect – Unwanted effect of drug in the body.

Drug interaction – When a drug changes its action by combining with other drug.

Route of Drug Administration

1, Enteral - Oral, Rectal, Vaginal, Sublingual.

2, Parenteral - Intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), Subcutaneous, Intra arterial

3, Transdermal - within the skin.

4, Topical – local application, e.g., Ointment.

5, Inhalation - Inhaler.

Pharmaceutical Dosage Form

Dosage Form – These are the forms in which medicinal agents are administered or supplied. Every dosage form contains active ingredients & excipients.

Types of Dosage Form

1, Solid form - Tablet, Capsule, Suppository, Pill, Powder.

2, Semi-Solid form - Ointment, Cream, Lotion, Gel.

3, Liquid form - Syrup, Solution, Suspension, Emulsion, Injectable.

4, Gaseous form - inhaler.

Important Definition of Pharmacology

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Drug: Drugs are any substance other than food which acts on the living body to modify the function of cell, are used for the prevention, diagnosis & treatment of diseases in human beings or other animals.

Medicine: A medicine is a preparation containing one or more drugs mixed in a suitable dosage form in a proper container with a label.

Example of medicine: Ranitidine for treatment of peptic ulcer diseases. Metronidazole for the treatment of amoebic dysentery.

O.T.C Drug (Over the counter drug): Drugs that can be used or supplied without prescription are called O.T.C drug.

Excepients- Substances that are added to medicine to permit to be formed into the proper shape & consistency are called excipients.

Solution – Liquid dosage form where two liquid are completely mixed with each other but does not contain any sugar.

Syrup – It is a concentrated solution of sugar.

Suspension – Liquid dosage form where finely divided solid dispersed in another liquid. In suspension, solid particles are deposited if it remains without agitation.

PFS- PFS is dry powder to produce suspension during use

Dose: Amount of drug or medicinal preparation to be administered at one time is called dose.

Dosage: Determination of the amount, frequency & number of doses of drug for a patient is called dosage.

Therapeutic dose: Dose Required to produce the optimal therapeutic effect is called Therapeutic dode.

Bioavailability: The rate & extent to which active drug enters into general circulation, & subsequently at the site of action is called bioavailability.

Svailability of active drugs in the blood is called bioavailability

Potency of a drug: Amount of drug required to produce a therapeutic response, is called potency of a drug

Efficacy of a drug: Ability of a drug to produce a therapeutic response, is called Efficacy of a drug

Falf Life: Time taken by a drug to be reduced by half of its original amount is called half life of that drug.

Importance: Half life determines the dosage frequency of a drug

Elimination Half-life – It is the time required for a given urine concentration of drug to decrease into half of its original concentration.

Receptor: Receptors are macromecular protein structure located at the surface of cell membrane or inside the cell & to which drugs bind to produce a pharmacological effect.

Protein binding: Binding of a drug with plasma protein is called protein biding of that drug.

Importance: More the protein binding prolonged the duration of action of a drug.

Plasma Concentration – Plasma Concentration is the amount of drug per unit volume of blood.

Peak Plasma Concentration – Peal plasma Concentration is the maximum amount of drug per unit volume of blood.

What is the skeletal system

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Anatomy: Is the study of the structure of the body.

Skeletal System

Osteology is the branch of anatomy that describes the structure & functions of the human skeletal system. the adult human skeletal system is composed of 206 bones, numerous ligaments & cartilage, the skeleton is the bony framework that gives shape of the body by making joints with each other provides attachment of the muscles & tendons & tendons & protects the vital organs from external injury.

Skeleton: Bone & cartilaginous framework of the body.

Bone: Are the strong & hardly structure. Most of the bones are hollow & contains bone marrow, which produces red blood cells & white blood cells also a great reservoir of calcium ions.

Ligament – a white fibrous connective tissue that links two bones together at a joint.

cartilage - a dense connective tissue composed of a matrix produced by cells called chondroblasts, embedded in the matrix as chondrocytes, white or gray color.

Tendon – a fibrous connective tissue that attach a muscle to a bone.

Joint – It may be defined as union of two or more bones or cartilages in a particular point of capsule. Joints are of three types –

Fibrous joints – Fixed joints, e.g. joints of skull bones.
Cartilaginous joints – Slightly movable joints, e.g. intervertebral joints.
Synovial Joints – Freely movable joints, e.g. elbow joints.

Organs of Skeletal System: Human skeleton consists of 206 bones –

Skull – 29 (facial – 14 Cranial – 14, Hyoid – 1)
Vertebrae – 26 {Cervical-7, Thoracic- 12, Lumberus-5, Sacrum-1(5), Coccyx-1(5),Coccyx-1(4)}
Upper limbs – 26 {Clavicle-1,Scapula-1, Humerus-1,Ulna-1, Radius-1,Carpal-8,Metacarpals-5,Phalanges-14)
Lower limbs – (Hipbone-1,Femur-1,Tibia-1,Fibula-1,Patella-1,Tarsal-7,Metatarsal-5,Phalanges-14)\
Sternum – 1
Ribs – 24

Common Disorders:

Pain & Inflammation _ Redness, Temperature, Swelling, Loss of function.
Fracture – a complete or incomplete structure breaks or crack in the normal Continuity of a bone.
dislocation – total disruption of joint.
Sprain – Injury to ligaments or joint capsule.
Tendonitis – Inflammation of tendon.
Osteomylitis – Infection of tissue of bone as well as bone marrow.
Spondylitis – Inflammation involving the vertebral column.
Osteoporosis – A state of decreased bone mass.
Arthritis – Inflammation of joint, Osteoarthritis (inflammation of joint surface), arthritis (destructive changes insynovial membrane)

What is the Muscular System

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Myology is the branch of anatomy, which describes the muscular system, its components, structure & functions. it forms the flesh of the flesh of the body, which fives the body strength & helps for locomootion (movement).

The muscular system functions in close relation with the skeletal system & sometime regarded as one system called musculoskeletal system.

Muscles are composed of muscle fibers & grossly of three types:

1, Smoth muscles (Visceral muscle) are involuntary, present in the wall of GIT, blood vessel & other internal organs that are innervated by autonomic nervous system.

2, Cardiac muscle or involuntary, present in the heart only. it has a special property that it can produce its own impulses through SA & AV nodes & also innevated by autonomic nervous system.

3, Skeletal muscle or striated muscles are voluntary, present in relation with skeleton, which give the fleshy appearance of the body & are innervated by somatic nerve.The body has about 656 skeletal muscle (i.e. muscles attached to skeleton) Muscles account for about 42% of weight in males & 36% in females.

Some Common Disease
1, myositis – is inflammation of muscles.
2, Muscular atrophy – is muscle degeneration leading to its becoming smaller & weaker.

Back pain, Dental pain,

Postoperative pain,

Pharyngotonsilitis pain,

Dysmenorrhoea, Frozen Shoulder (chronic pain ful stiffness), Otitis, etc.

Organs of Digestive System

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Digestion: it is a physiological process by which complex complex food particles are broken down into simple form for absorption & subsequent utilization.

Organs of Digestive System:

Gastrointestinal Tract

1, Oral Cavity (Mouth)
2, Oropharynx

3, Esophagus
4, Stomach
5, Small Intestine

a) Duodenum

b) Jejunum

c) Ileum

6, Large Intestine –

a. Caecum b. Ascending Colon

c. Transverse Colon d. Descending Colon

e. Sigmoid Colon f. Rectum,

g. Anal Canal h. Anus.

Accessory Organ

1, Teeth
2, Tongue
3, Salivary gland
4, Pancreas
5, Liver
6, Gallbladder

Gastrointestinal Gland

1, Salivary gland
2, Pancreas
3, Liver
4, Gallbladder

Functions of Digestive System:

1, Ingestion – The process by which food is taken into the Digestive tract.
2, Digestion – the process in which ingested food is broken down in the Digestive tract into

a form that can be absorbed & assimilated by the tissue of the body.
3, Absorption – the uptake of fluids by the tissues of the body.
4, Excretion – the elimination of waste products from the body.

Digestion Process:

Food enters into the GIT (Gastro-intestinal tract); different types of enzymes are secreted from various parts of the GI tract. These enzymes convert various food materials into small units for absorption into blood.

The digestive end products of different types of food

Food	Responsible Enzyme	Digestive end products
Carbohydrates	Amylase, Maltase, Sucrase	Gulcose, Fructose, Galactose
Proteins	Pepsin, Trypsin	Amino acids
Fat	Lipase	Fattu acids & Glycerol

Some common GI problems:
1, Dyspepsia (Indigestion); Dyspepsia is definedd as pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen may be associated with nausea, vomiting, fullness, bloating & heartburn.

2, Nausea and Vomiting: Disagreeable sensation of sickness wanting to vomit;

3, Anorexia : Loss of appetite ;

4, Constipation ; Infrequent passage of hard stool with difficult and painful defecation .

5, Diarrhoea: An increased stool frequency and loose watery stools ;

6, Stomatitis: Inflammation of the buccal mucous membrane.

7, Glossitis: Inflammation of the tongue.

8, Pyrrhoea: Inflammation of the gum.

9, Peptic Ulcer; Gastric ulcer and duodenal ulcer is known as peptic ulcer.

10, Gastric ulcer – ulcer within the inner wall (mucus membrane) of the Stomach.

11, Duodenal ulcer – ulcer within the duodenum.

Ulcer: a break in the skin or in the mucous membrane lining to GI tract that fails to heal & is often accompanied by inflammation.

12, Intestinal Amoebiasis: It is an infectious disease by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica characterized by loose or semi formed stools with abdominal cramps.

13, Bacillary Dysentery/Shigellosis: A common disease caused by Shigella characterized by acute inflammation, diarrhea with blood & mucous in the stool.

14, Jaundice: Increased bilirubin concentration in the body fluid.

15, Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver.

16, Hepatic Amoebiasis: Liver infection by amoeba.

17, Cirrhosis: Hepatic cellular damage.

18, Cholecystitis: Inflammation of the gallbladder.

19, Enteric fever: Intestinal fever caused by salmonella typhae / S. Paratyphae.

20, Appendicitis: Inflammation of appendix.

The Urinary System

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Excretion: It is a process by which the unwanted & end product of our body are removed from the body.
Excretory System includes: Urinary system, The Bowels, The skin, the Lungs, Saliva, Breast milk.

Urinary system: is the major excretory system. the Organs of Urinary System are –
1, Two Kidnneys- the major excretory organ.
2, Two Ureter- the tube which collect urine from kidney to Urinary Bladder.
3, One Urinary Bladder- the bladder which acts as a reservoir of urine.
4, Urethra- the small tube which expel urine from body to outside.

Urination Process: Urine is collected from Kidney to urinary bladder through ureter. Then expelled out by urethra.

Some common diseases of Urinary System:
1, Urethritis – Inflammation of urethra.
2, Cystitis – Inflammation of urinary bladder.
3, Pyelonephritis – Inflammation of pelvic & nephron.
4, Nephritis – Inflammarion of nephron (Kidney).
5, Renal failure – Total failure of the Kidney.

Nephron: is the structural & functional unit of kidney. It acts as a filter for blood.

Parts of Nephron: Each nephron consists of two parts –

1, Glomerulus – The network of blood capillaries contained within the Bowman’s capsule of nephron.

2, Renal tubule: parts of renal tubule are –
a, Bowmen’s Capsule
b, Proximal tubule
c, Loop of Henle
e, Distal tubule
f, Collecting t6ubule (duct)

Loop of Henle

Respiratory System

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Respiration: It is the process by which oxygen ( O2 ) is carried from the atmosphere to the tissue for oxidation & carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) formed in the tissue is expired out. The system involved in this process is called Respiratory system.
Organs of Respiratory system: It is divided into two parts.

Upper Respiratory Tract
1, Nasal cavity
2, Pharynx
3, Larynx
4, Trachea

Lower Respiratory Tract
1, Lungs
2, Bronchi
3, Bronchiole
4, Alveolar duct
5, Alveoli

Special Organs
1, Tonsils
2, Sinus
3, Ear

Sinus – an air cavity within the bones of Skull (or face).

Tonsil – a mass of lymphoid tissue on either side of the back of mouth. It protects

infection.

Lymphoid tissue – responsible for the production of lymphocytes ( a variety of WBC 0 & antibody.

Antibody – a special kind of blood protein that is synthesized in lymphoid tissue to protect infection.

Oxidation - the process of a substance combining with oxygen.

Common Diseases of Respiratory Tract:

1, Pneumonia – Chracterized by inflammatory changes in the lung parenchyma due to bacterial infections.

2, CAP ( Community Acquired Pneumonia ) : Pneumonia acquired from the community.

3, Nosocomial Pneumonia: Pneumonia acquired from the hospital.

4, Common Cold (Viral Rhinitis): Non – specific inflammatory symptoms characterized by headache, nasal congestion, watery rhinorrhoea, sneezing & sore throat.

5, Tonsillitis – Inflammation of tonsils.

6, Sinusitis – Inflammation of sinus.

7, Pharyngitis – Inflammation of pharynx.

8, Laryngitis – Inflammation of larynx.

9, Trachitis – Inflammation of trachea.

10, Bronchitis – Inflammation of bronchi

11, Bronchiolitis – Inflammation of bronchiole.

12, Bronchiolitis – Inflammation o bronchiole.

13, Alveolitis – Inflammation of alveolus.

14, Pleurisy – Inflammation of pleura ( thin outer layer of lungs).

15, COPD ( Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease ) – Characterized by airflow obstruction may be associated with chronic bronchitis.

16, Asthma – Characterized by breathlessness, chest tightness & wheezing.

17, Otitis media – Infection of middle ear, Otitis externa – Infection of outer ear.

Cardiovascular/ Cieculatory System

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Kardia ( latin word ) means Heart & Vasculum ( latin word ) means Vessele. So Cardiovascular system consists of Heart & Blood Vessele. So Cardiovascular system consists of Heart & Blood vessels. Cardiovascular system also known as Blood Circulatory System (as it circulates blood in the body).

Definition: The circulatory system is an organ system that moves nutrients, gases & wastes to & from cells, helps fight diseases & helps stabilize body temperature & pG to maintain homeostasis (equilibrium).

Organs of Cardiovascular system:
1, Heart
2, Blood vessels
3, Blood

Heart: It is a central pumping station which circulates blood to/from body by contraction & dilation. Heart receives blood by coronary blood vessel.

Blood Vessels: A tube carrying blood away from or toward the heart. Blood vessels are the means by which blood circulates throughout the body. Blood vessels are of two types – Artery & vein.

Artery: Carry blood (oxygenated blood) away from the heart except pulmonary artery. Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from heart to lung. Artery divides into small branches – arterioles, leading into many smaller vessels – capillaries.

Vein: Conveying blood (deoxygenated blood) toward the heart except pulmonary vein. Pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from lung to heart. Vein divides into small branches – venule, leading into many smaller vessels – capillaries.

Capillary: an extremely narrow blood vessel. Capillaries form networks in most tissues; they are supplied with blood by arterioles & drained by cenules. The vessel wall is only one cell thick, which enables exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, salts, etc. between the blood & the tissues.

In capillary blood supply O2 to the tissue & receive CO2 from the tissue. This blood is known as deoxygenated blood. This deoxygenated blood goes to the heart through vein & then to lung through pulmonary artery. In lung this blood (deoxygenated blood) expelled out CO2 & receive O2 (become oxygenated). This oxygenated blood goes to heart through pulmonary vein. Then this blood ( oxygenated blood) become circulates to the body through artery. In this way exchange of gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide) by the blood takes place in capillary.

Blood: Blood is a liquid connective tissue consists of blood plasma & blood cells.

Blood plasma (55%) consist of –

Water (90%), Mineral salt, Plasma protein, Food stuff, Gases in solution, Waste Products, Antibodies & antitoxins, Hormones from ductless glands, Enzymes, etc.

Blood cells (45%) consists of-
1, Red Blood Cell (RBC)
2, White Blood Cell (WBC)
3, Platelets

Red Blood Cell (RBC) – also known as erythrocyte containing the pigment “hemoglobin”, The principal function of which is the transport of oxygen ( as oxyhemoglobin). Oxyhemoglobin is a bright red substance formed after combines reversibly with oxygen. RBC is produced in red bone marrow of spongy bone.

White Blood Cell (WBC) – also known as leukocyte produced in red bone marrow of lymph node & spleen. It involved in protecting the body against foreign substances & in antibody production. Thus it plays an important role in body immune system.

Platelets – also known as thrombocyte plays an important role in blood coagulation.

Functions of blood:
1, It transport gases (O2 & C2), nutrients, hormones, enzymes, vitamins, etc.
2. Regulates body temperature, blood pressure, water & electrolytes balance.
3, Prevent hemorrhage (bleeding).

Blood Pressured:
It is the lateral pressure exerted by the blood to the vessel wall while flowing through it Blood

Pressure is of the following types:

1, Systolic blood pressure- maximum pressure during systole (contraction of heart)

Normal range: 100 – 140 mmHg

2, Diastolic blood pressure- minimum pressure during diastole (dilation of heart).
Normal range: 60 – 90 mmHg

Types of Circulatory system:
There are mainly three types of circulation occurs in human body & these are:

1, Systemic circulation- is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygenated blood away from the heart, to the body, & returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

2. Pulmonary circulation- is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen- depleted blood away from the heart, to the lungs, & returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.

3, Coronary circulation- It provides a blood supply to the heart.

Blood flow in the body:

In capillary level blood receive CO2 from the tissue. This blood is called deoxygenated blood This deoxygenated blood drain to Heart (Right Atrium) through Capillary, Venule & vein. From Right Atrium blood goes to Right Ventricle of the Heart. Then this deoxygenated blood goes to Lung from Right Ventricle through pulmonary artery. In Lung this blood (deoxygenated blood) expelled out CO2 & receive O2 (become oxygenated) This oxygenated blood goes to Heart (Left Atrium) through pulmonary vein. From Left Atrium blood goes to Left Ventricle. Then this blood (oxygenated blood) become circulates to the tissues of the body from Left Ventricle of the Heart through Artery, Arteriole & Capillary. This oxygenated blood becomes deoxygenated after using by the tissues of the body. Again this deoxygenated blood goes to Lung for oxygenation & circulates in the body by the above way.

Common Diseases:

1, Hypercholesterolemia (hyperlipidaemia) – Raised cholesterol above normal limit in blood

1, Hypertension – Raised & sustained BP above normal limit is called hypertension.

3, Myocardial Infarction: Necrosis of heart muscle due to short supply of blood.

4, Ischemic Heart disease: Deficiency of blood supply in the heart.

5, Angina: Severe heart pain due to ischemia (inadequate blood flow to the heart).

Atherosclerosis:

Fatty deposits, celled plaque, may accumulate on the interior surface of the coronary arteries. This is particularly common in people who have high levels of cholesterol in their blood. Plaque deposits reduce the bore of the coronary arteries and thus the amount of blood they can carry.

So limit the blood supply to the heart that during times of stress the heart muscle is so deprived of oxygen that the pain of angina is created.

Trigger the formation of a clot causing a coronary thrombosis. this stops the flow of blood through the vessel and the capillary network it supplies causing a heart attack. The portion of the heart muscle deprived of oxygen dies quickly of oxygen starvation. If the area is not too large, the undamaged part of the heart can, in time, compensate for the damage.