TuLu Studies

295. Sankesha: the Conch colony

2012-02-01T09:07:00.000+05:30

There are numerous ancient localities all over peninsular India named as Sankesha. People in general have forgotten the word Sankesha as it is not in general usage. On first impression, you may feel that it is something to do with hairs (‘kesha’) or a hairy person. Or you may think it as another name of Lord Shankara, the Easha.

The Sankesha is a widely used ancient Indian word and the Tulu Nighantu (dictionary) describes it as a residence or colony of houses. There are several houses, places and hamlets in Tulunadu as well as outside Karavali known as Sankesha. A few Sankesha hamlets located within Karavali villages have been enlisted here: 1.Near Kottara, Mangalore, 2. Markanja, Sullia Taluk, 3. Doddathota, Sullia Taluk, 4. Koila, Puttur Taluk.5, Punacha, Bantval Taluk.

However, the Sankesha is not exclusive to Tulunadu. This place name can be found all over southern and eastern India. An area and nalla named as Sankesha can be found in Rayagad district of Orissa. Usage of Sankesha name can be found in Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Sankeshwar(a)

Sankeshwara, near Belgaum (Karnataka) and another Sankeshwara in Gujarat are the place names modified after the original hamlets of Sankesha. During the period of ascent of Shaiva cult in India, ca 4 to 7 century CE, many of the villages were converted into place names ending with the suffix of –eshwar, such as Rameshwar (from Rama), Pandeshwar (from Pandi), Murudeshwar (from Murud), Mahabaleshwar (from Mahabali), Neeleshwar (from Neela), Sankeshwar( from Sankesha) etc.

Sankesha

The word Sankesha can be analysed as Sanka+sha. The suffix’ sa or sha’ is a spatial attribute as found in ancient Coastal place names like Belshe (Kumta Taluk, Uttara Kannada District), Amashe (-bail), Kundapura Taluk, Avarshe,( Udupi Taluk,District), Kervashe (Karkal Taluk, Udupi District), Anshi,( Belgaum district) , Shimsha( Mandya district). etc.

Thus the place name and the word ‘Sankesha’ basically means a colony of conches, wherein the conch represents a protective home.

Sanka: protective home

The prefix Sanka (Shanka) basically refers to conch, the sea shells of Gastropoda group of organisms. The shell of Conch has deep rooted cultural and religious significance, revered as an auspicious item since antiquity. The ancient religiousness of the conches is well defined in the visualization of Hindu Gods who sport Shanka (Conch) in one hand and Chakra (Wheel) on the other. Some of the cultural ramifications based on the concept of conch during the course of evolution can be traced.

Sanka: Conches, conch flags ,cowries and Saligrama

The blowing the conch at the initiation of ceremonies was a traditional practice during Mahabharata period. Lord Krishna carried conch (sanka) and wheel (chakra) in his hands. The Travancore (Tiruvanantapura) Kings had conch emblem in their royal flag.

The convoluted shape of a conch shell symbolized protectiveness, and the early dwelling houses that protected people from the vagaries of nature were likened to conch shells. Thus the ‘sanka’ represented a protective dwelling house to the early cultures and the usage ‘shanku stāpane’ meant laying foundation for a dwelling house. The ‘shanku kamba’ (Tulu Nighantu, p.) in the houses represented a symbolic Vāstu structure.

Sanka; mystery

The convoluted covered shape of conch also meant mystery or hiding the secret. It was a symbol of secretiveness, therefore ‘sanke’ (Tulu, Kannada) also meant doubt or suspicion. Thus the Tulu word ‘sankalpu’ means suspicion.

Saligrama

The ‘Saligrama’ revered and worshipped in many Hindu religious circles as symbol of divinity is a fossil shell of an organism known as Ammonites. During Paleozoic to Cretaceous periods of Geological history, before 60 Million years, the Ammonites, a genus of organisms characterized by circular,coiled shell forms were surviving in the Earth.

Sanka: the name

People were named after the Sanka (conch) in olden days. Sankappa, Sankaru, Sankanne etc. in Tulunadu and elsewhere. A ‘ Sankaru poonjedi’ was the mother in law of Tulunada Siri. However the ancient name Sanka is not exclusive to Tulunadu or southern India. Traces of personal name Sanka can be found in Africa, Jamaica and Brazil suggesting the trail of human migrations during the course of evolution and also the antiquity of the word. Similarly a nomadic tribe in Japan are known as Sanka.

Cowries

Smaller Gastropoda shells like cowries (‘kavaDe’) were used as coins in ancient Africa, India and China. Cowries were also used for counting as well for finding numerological and astrological answers to mundane problems (also known as conch divining ) was prevalent almost all over the world. Conch divining was in practice since antiquity in parts of Africa, Brazil, India etc.

Sankhe, Sanketa

Thus conch represented symbols (sanketa) to begin with and since cowries were used for counting the words ‘Sankhe’ or ‘Sankhya’ (number) were possibly derived from the ancient word Sanka.

Sanka²: bridge

The word Sanka² in Tulu has another meaning of bridge across a river or streamlet. The sanka² is possibly a word originated from another ancient tribal culture and language that eventually merged with Tulu linguistic groups.

Sanka³pāla: serpent

There is a third possible meaning for the word Sanka³. The Tulu word ‘sankapāla’ refers to a serpent, usually the cobra type. Similarly the Tulu word ‘sanka-pāshaNa’ refers to deeply potent poison, possibly the venom of a cobra. These analogies indicate that the word Sanka³ refer to a serpent or cobra, that was intensively revered and worshipped in ancient cultures and the practice of serpent worship (Nāgaradhane) continues even today. It can be mentioned that the conical shape of cobra hood resembles the overall shape of a conch or sanka.

Tanka: guts

Last but not the least we cite here, the Tulu word ‘tanka’ which means the guts or the essential inner part of the body like, heart or the liver. The word tanka is cited here because, in some dialectical variants of Tulu, the consonants ‘ta’ and ‘sa’ are exchanged intermittently and ‘sanka’ becomes ‘tanka’ in those dialectical forms.

294. Mystery of Ekkār.

2012-01-20T08:39:00.000+05:30

It is well known that the Tulu language shares many of its basic words with its sister languages like Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam and Telugu. Some of the ancient words might have become extinct in some of these languages because of various factors during the course of evolution, but preserved somehow in other languages that serve as a reminder to the past heritage.

Let us examine the case of the word Ekkār. The Ekkar (or Yekkar) is a well-known place name in Mangalore Taluk. However, meaning of the word ‘Ekkar’ has not been enlisted in Tulu Lexicon, indirectly suggesting that the original meaning of word might have been forgotten, in Tulunadu, with passage of time due to lingua-cultural changes. The Dravidian Etymological dictionary(DED) contains the word Ekkar (or Ekkal or Ekkali), which broadly means Sand dunes or beach sands (ie Sand heaped up by waves, or the sand caste ashore by rivers etc) in Tamil, Malayalam and Telugu languages. The lost meaning of Ekkar is significant as it throws light on the heretofore undocumented geomorphological past of the Karavali Karnataka.

Ekkār!

The DED Entry # 770 reveals that in Tamil, ‘ekkar’ or ‘ekkal’ means a sandy area or sand heaped up (as by waves)or sand-hill. ‘Ekku/Ekki’ has the meaning of ‘to be heaped up’ (as sand on the shore). Similarly, in Telugu, ‘Ekkali’ means sand washed down by a river (DED 657)and in Malayalam, ‘Ekkal/Ekka’ means sand cast ashore by rivers.

Yekkar

Ekkar ( usually written as, Yekkar) is a large composite village in Mangalore Taluk, located about six kms East of the present Sea coast (as crow flies), presently divided into northern ‘Badaga Yekkar’ and southern ‘Tenka Yekkār’ administrative villages. [‘Badaga’=northern;’ Tenka’=southern]. The west flowing River Pāvanje (alternately known as Nandini or Kateel stream) traverses through these village. The holy shrine of Kateel (dedicated to Goddess Jaladurga or Durga Parameshwari) is located on an island within this river. Yekkar villages are also known for the native Jarandaya and Kodamanittaya spirit shrines and the villages were in news recently for the vehement protest against the acquisition of the region for the second phase expansion of Special economic Zone (SEZ).

Kateel

The place name Kateel (or Katil) is also interesting. There are some strange interpretations for this word wherein the word ‘kati’ has been interpreted as hip or waist (of the Goddess). However, if you accept it as a simple Tulu word, then the Tulu term ‘Kateel’ represents a built house [kaTee + illu ]. Traditionally, it is a common practice in Tulunadu to refer to houses as Posalla (new house), Paddayill (Western house), Mittill (upper house), Kedill (house beside lake) etc. Therefore, Katil in this series, simply means a later constructed house in contrast with ancient traditional house. Thus basically the place name Katil refers to a landmark house.

The famous temple of Kateel Durga Parameshwari is located on a minor rocky island [made of dolerite] between the braided river of Nandini/Pavanje. The river island abode earns the epithet of ’Jaladurga’ to the Goddess.

Alternate Possibilities

There are several other possible meanings for the forgotten word Ekkar, which we shall discuss briefly before arriving at conclusion:

1. Ekk, ekka

The word Ekkār could be split in possible either ways: (1) Ekk+ār or (2) Ek(k)+kār. It is clear that in Tulu language, both ār and kār do exist as spatial suffixes in place names as discussed in several older posts herein. The suffix ār means an open ground or field (for example Bayar, Bolar, Mangar etc), whereas the kār means a forest or wooded area (for example, Ajekar, Kadekar, Kajekar, Alankar etc) in general.

The prefix ‘Ekka’ survives in place names such as Ekkar, Ekkundi and Ekkadka. The Ekka could have been short for the Ekkamāle, a rustic herbal flowering plant which is also known as Ekka (in Kannada).

The root ‘ekk’ has several shades of meaning possibly suggesting sequential evolution under diverse cultural environments and subsequent admixture of sub-cultures in the antiquity. Check up the following shades of meanings offered by the word: ekk.

Ekk ¹ represents wide, vast stretch or spacious as in the Tulu usage Ekka-samudra (=Vast ocean). Therfore, Ekkar could be a spacious open field (for example like a beach).

Ekk ² (verb) = to stretch (for example, ekkal or ekkol toopini= to stretch ones neck in order to observe) or to reach or touch (for example, to reach or touch a distant object by stretching the hand).

Ekk ³= (a) breath. (b) breathlessness, or choked breath (as in ekk kaTTuni). (c) to become weak (as in ekku paaruni). (d) hiccup (as in ekkude). (e)breath in or draw the stomach in (as if in hunger).(f) decline, etc.

Ekk ⁴ = specific time in the recent past; at that time; a while ago (as in ekaD or ekaT).

Ekk ⁵(a) = to gin or clear the cotton. (b) Ekka-sakka means haphazardly or disorderly.

2. Ekkala

Besides the above usages covered by the Tulu Nighantu, there are some more similar sounding analogous words like:

Ekkala = wild hog, porcupine; Ekkale =cockroach; Ekka= A tribe called Ekka or Yaksha. Derived from’ Yaksha.’ (The term Ekkalagāna was used for Yakshagāna in medieval Kannada literature).
In Tamil, Ekkaru also means 'a strong desire'. It is 'Ekkanale' in Tulu (a gluttonous and greedy person).

Badaga & Tenka Yekkar Villages: Ancient beach line (ca 500 BC) and Regression of Sea.

(Y)ekkar: a place name

There are several places in southern India, Srilanka, Thailand and Mali that carry the name of Ekkar, suggesting the ancient distribution of common ancient words as well as shared tribal cultures attributable to human migrations. For example, in Changkam diction (Sangam Tamil usage), ‘vaal ekkar’ in Srilanka means white sand dunes or sandy stretches (Refer the Etymology section of Tamilnet). Since diverse regions in southern India share similar historical place names we can conclude that Ekkar in coastal Mangalore Taluk originally referred to a sandy stretch of land.

Receded beach-line

After overall analysis and correlation with available geological data we would like to conclude that the word/place name Ekkar (Yekkar) originally referred to a sand stretch of ancient beach that existed in the area sometime around 400 to 800 BC. It appears that the Ekkar village represents a former beach front that receded with passage of time. The Sea-fronts and the Beaches all over the world are known to change their playing grounds during different periods of history, depending upon the fluctuating regional climatic conditions and ambient geological events.

On-going geological research and indirect historical evidences provides ample scope for such a proposal. The surrealistic scheme also conforms to the legend of Lord Parasurama prevalent in the West Coast of India.

Parasurama Shristi!

According to legends, a valiant sage known by the name of Parasurama ( A Rama with an axe; parasu=axe) requested Varuna, the Lord of Arabian Sea to recede back up to the mark delimited by the axe thrown by Parasurama into the Sea. The Puranic 'fairy' tale appears to have been actually based on a geological event of regression of Sea that occurred in the (geologically) recent past probably around 200-100 BC.

We shall discuss more details of this regression event of the Arabian Sea in a later post.

-Ravi .&. Vishwanath.

293. Peenya, Bangalore

2012-01-10T08:56:00.003+05:30

Some of the newcomers to the Karavali coast, used to express that there are a large number of odd sounding place names in Tulunadu. The Place names sound odd when we find it difficult to understand their meaning in the currently prevalent language in usage in that area. Odd sounding place names are not exclusive to Karavali; you can find them all over India.

The Bangalore city, the capital of Karnataka, contains several such place names. Peenya is one such place name, of which most of have to struggle to understand the meaning of the word.

Peenya

Peenya is a industrial hub in the NW part of Bangalore city, now under burgeoning under fast paced flyovers and metro developmental works.

The place name’ Peenya’ (peeN+iya) is interesting. The global suffix ‘–iya’ represents a land or region as we see in diverse place names such as Asia, Libya, Arabia, Tunisia, Australia on one hand and Sullia, Iddya, Sampya, Murulia; Purulia, etc.

Then what is ‘piN’ or ‘peeN’? The word Peen was a tribal name. Persons were named Peena, Peenanna etc in the past. One Ajila jain chieftain who ruled Venur region in the Karavali in the pre-British era was known as Pinnāna Ajila (1490-1515). The personal name Pinnāna could have been a modification of Pinnanna (the Pinna brother), the suffix ‘anna’ being an honorific south Indian appendage meaning an elder brother. Or as per the pronunciation it could be Pinna +aaN, ( a male named Pinna). The ‘Pinna’ or Peena could be a regional variant of the name of Puna(r) or Pnar tribes.

Punar, Pnar tribes

Punar tribes were widespread in southern India and their domain was known as Punnata in ancient Karnataka.

Equivalents of southern Punars known as Pnar tribes live in Khasia-Jaintia hills region Meghalaya in NE India. The Pnars are also known as Jaintia or Synteng tribes and are matrilineal. In Jaintia hill district Meghalaya, (NE region of India) they traditionally speak Pnar dialect and their religion is known as ‘Niamtre’. The Pnars are considered to be of Austro-Asiatic ( Munda)in origin.

Place names such as Peenya remind us about some of the forgotten pages in the history and the natural spread of ancient tribes in different parts of India in the antiquity.

Read: 289. In search of Punnata

292.Fishing Ritual at Kandevu

2011-12-30T13:37:00.000+05:30

Fishing, along with hunting, is considered to be one of the oldest employments practiced by early human civilizations, probably dating back to some 60,000 years before present. River Nile and the Mediterranean Sea were the earliest fishing domains for early tribes in their African homelands, and as the tribes set on paths of migration from in several episodes they carried their fishing skills to diverse shores where they eventually settled. Some of the fishing rituals adopted by Tulu and Malayalam people, since ages are also being celebrated in distant shores of Taiwan suggesting the common origin of some of the basic customs in diverse cultures. “Samudra-pooje” or ceremonial worshipping the Sea and praying for bountiful fish catches is a common ritual practiced since ages at the beginning of annual fishing season for the fishing communities living along the seashores. However, similar community fishing rituals in inland or estuarine rivers is not a common practice in Tulunadu. Thus, community fishing rituals at Kandevu and Payyanur may have special significance in terms of evolution of the coast such as the geo-morphological retreat of the Arabian Sea coast during the course of history, attributed imaginatively to ‘Parasuram Shristi’ in the legends.

In this post we shall describe the annual fishing ritual of Kandevu Temple on the bank of River Nandini, near Surathkal, Mangalore Taluk, Dakshina Kannada and followed up with parallel examples from Payyanur, Kerala (‘Meenaruthu’) and Orchid islands, Taiwan (Flying fish festival).We shall discuss some of the implications of marine retreat theory at the end of the post.

Kandevu

There are several places called Khandige in the Karavali sector, but our present discussion pertains to the one within Chelair Village, Mangalore Taluk. Kandevu or Khandevu also known as Khandige beedu. The Chelair village in Mangalore Taluk, also hosts a major rehabilitation colony of people displaced during the construction of ONGC-MRPL mega industry.

The word Kandevu appears related to ancient God Kandiya worshipped in various parts of Southern India in the antiquity (Post 274). The Kandevu tribes who believed in God Kandiya, spoke Kandevi language which was also known as Goakanadi. It is reported that the Kandevi language was being written in a script similar to Kadamba Kannada. The modern Konkani is said to have been derived from Kandevi.

A location map of Chellair area showing features of Pavanje River

Chelairu

Chelairu village is located about 3km east of the West Coast and the Pavanje - Nandini River flowing by the village is affected by salt water encroachment from the Arabian Sea. In Tulu parlance, the village is called Telar.The name 'Telar', connotes a sense of river migration that occurred in the past history. 'Telavuni' in Tulu language is to drift, migrate or change course.

It is reported that the Tamil Sangam literatures cite a coastal city called ‘Cellur’ in Tulu Nadu. . Possibly , it was referring to the ancient form of Chelairu. The place is also associated with the legends of Siri, who has been compared to Kannagi of Tamil Sangam literature ‘Silappadikaram’.(Post.97http://tulu-research.blogspot.com/2008/02/97-siri-paddana-tulu-sangham-epic.html)

Maritime Merchant Guilds

The place was definitely identified with maritime trade, with ‘Pandis’ (big sailing boats) owned by the King, or feudal lord of the area. Kandevu was inhabited by fishing and sea-faring Mogaveeras, who shifted to coastline Mukka in 1920 and this place, is named as ‘Mitrapatna’. As we know, there were many maritime merchant guilds around the ports of Tulunadu (Eg. Mangalore, Panambur, Udyavara, Basrur-Kundapura, Honnavara, etc). Such places are known by Nakhar or Nagar or Pattana (qv our Posts on Panambur). It is possible that the river basin and the estuary might have been larger and deeper in those olden days to allow ships to go interior.

Dharmarasu Ullaya

Dharamarasu Ullaya the principal spirit of Kandevu is considered a reincarnation (avatar) of Lord Shiva. According to legends, it is said that he appeared in the River Nandini in the form of a face. Thus place is now called as (Mukha>Mugaa=face) Mukka. The place where he ‘espied to stay’ is now called Kandya, Kandevu or Khandige.

Fishing Ritual at Kandevu

As a part of Kandevu Temple Festival, catching fish from Pavanje (aka Nandini) River in middle of May – just before the onset of summer monsoon – is a unique socio-religious custom in Tulu Nadu. It is a community fishing fair without distinction of caste and creed, connected to Khandige Beedu Temple at Chelairu or Chelar Village on the bank of Nandini. ‘Beedu’ is the historical manor house/palace of erstwhile ruler of the area. The event - ‘Kandevuda aayanodu meenu pattuni’ - is a part of Kandevu Aayana or Chelairu Jaatre, which falls on either 14^th or 15^th of May month [Besha or Vrishabha Sankramana, i.e. moving from Mesha (April-May) to Besha (May-June)]. (Aāyana or Jātre means ‘a recurring annual festival on falling on a specific day,’).

Fishing ritual at Kandevu (Photo: Deccan Herald on web)

An artificial bund is constructed across the tributary of the River Pavanje (Nandini) near the Kandevu Temple, a month before the event to conserve fish as well to restrict flow of saline water upstream. Fishing is banned during this period on the stretch of this river and any culprits caught will have to pay fine.

On the day of festival, an officiating priest known as ‘Mukkaldi’, opens the Fishing Fair by sprinkling ‘Prasadam’ at Nandini River in early morning. He comes to the river in a procession to the beating of traditional musical instruments. No sooner the priest signals the inauguration of fishing by bursting ‘Kadani/kadoni’ (a swivel-gun invariably used during traditional temple festivals in Tulu Nadu) than the devotees on both banks of the river rush into the river to catch fish. The din, hurry and fervor are to catch fish more than others. There are different kinds of fishing nets and crude devices: Beesu Bale (Cast-net), Gorubale/Gorale (Long net with two sticks to gather/scoop and lift up, handled by one or two persons, depending on size), Kanni-bale (Oblong open net driven by two or four persons), Kuttari (a cylindrical shaped open basket made of ratten used to trap fish and remove it by hand from the narrow opening at the top. Kuttari is also used to keep fowls covered). There is a brisk trade of these articles before fishing starts. Those enthusiastic and fun-loving persons without any means of catching use their legs and hands to trap and catch hapless fish, escaping the nets and legs of the multitude wading through water. View of onlookers and frenzied catchers is a picturesque one. Carrying a ‘totte’ (a bag made of coconut leaves), I had accompanied my father and brother twice during my school days in fifth decade of last century. The war-like expedition for the kill is a wonderful experience.

Some participating devotees sell the fish on the spot. Fish is tasty, thanks to the one month ban on fishing. It helps fish to conserve and grow. So it fetches high price. Partaking curry made out of this fish caught here is considered as ‘Prasadam (Blessing of the deity).

Yermal Aayana is the harbinger of festivals of Tulu Nadu and Kandyada Aayana is end of Festivals. It is described in Tulu as “Yermal jappu Kandevu aDepu” (Yermal beginning and Kandevu Stopping). (See Post: 110. Mukka).

The Annual celebration includes Nema of Ullaya Daiva, Nandigona, Siri Darshana, Kumara-Siri visitations (Kumara, the son of Siri, is considered to have been bestowed with divine powers), Tambila Seva to the Serpent God, Bakimaru Chendu Nema to Parivara Daivas, etc. Tambila and Siri Darshana (Dance of Spirit of Siri-possessed women) rituals are held at night before the fish catching ceremony in the following morning. Hoovina Puje (Flower offering) to Ullaya Daiva and attendant ritual are held in the day time.

Payyanur Meenamrutu Festival:

A fishing festival similar to Kandevu Aayana is conducted at Payyanur, Kerala. In the Ashtamachal Bhagavathi Temple, Payyanur, Kerala, Meenamruthu is the main attraction in the month of April, besides Theyyam (Malayalam equivalent of Tulu Nema or Kola), during the 8-day long annual festival of the Temple in April. By mid-day, old and young devotees, dive into River Kavvayi Puzha to catch fish, using nets and other accessories. Fish, gathered by community fishing, is grouped and the excess fish is distributed to people present. It is believed that fish, known locally as ‘nongal, maalan, and irumeen’ varieties, are liked by the Goddess. The chosen fish bunches are taken in procession, to be offered to the Goddess. The sacred room of the Goddess is opened once in a year for the annual festival and kept closed thereafter. As in Tulu Nadu, this festival marks the end of festival season of Payyanur.

The origin of this tradition is related to business community called ‘valnchiyarmar’, who owned and operated merchant vessels from Kavvayi Sea-port to various ports around the world, including China. Payyanur was an important business hub in olden days. Before embarking on the voyage, they used to perform ‘meenamruthu’, seeking blessings of the Sea God and Goddess Durga for safe voyage and successful business. Presently, the weaving community called as ‘Padmasaliya’ is conducting the festival.

Flying Fish catching in Taiwan:

Tao Tribe, living in Orchid Islands of Taiwan, conduct a fishing ceremony begins generally in second or third month of Lunar Calendar and runs for some four months. Flying fish come into Taiwan waters with ‘Kuroshia Currents’ from January to June. Tribals, whose activities are connected to coming and going of flying fish, believe that these fish are a bounty from the Gods. Different Stages of Festival are: (1) Blessing of the boats, (2) Praying (facing the sea) for a bountiful catch, (3) Summoning fish, (4) First catching night ceremony, (5) Fish storing ceremony, and (6) Fishing cessation ceremony. Participation is restricted to men, who wear loincloths, silver helmets and gold strips and pray for bountiful catch from the Sea.

Traditional conservation of fisheries
Our forefathers were thoughtful in practicing natural conservation methods in fisheries with the aim of balanced consumption of fishes as well as preserving various species of fishes. In Tulunadu coasts, the Fishing season stops with the phenomenon, which is known as 'Tuppe Kanti Malaka' in Tulu. 'Tuppe' means granary. It also means the constellation of stars in the shape of granary. Setting of the Constellation is the indication of blowing of pre-monsoon strong winds and resultant rough sea, normally around May-end. The tempest is known in Tulu parlance as 'Tuppe kanti Malaka' - Rough sea with tidal waves (Malaka) on setting of (Kanti) the Constellation ('Tuppe'). At that period the Tuluvas have free time with the harvesting of 'Kolake' crop and the stoppage of marine-related profession. The spawning time of fish is monsoon. Thus traditionally the marine Fishing activity is stopped by forefathers between May end to mid or end of July in the days of manual fishing.
The traditional conservation practices are meaningful in the light of modern unbridled mechanized fishing and its well known adverse effects.

Historicity of Chelairu

It appears that the village of Chellair, recorded as Cellar in the Sangam literature of Tamilnadu, was a flourishing coastal town during Sangam period. This would mean that the coastline was a few kilometers interior than at present. Or in other words the coast has receded in recent years after the Sangam period. Thus, it appears that the historical fact of recession of the Western Coastline due to geological factors has been converted into legends of Parasuram. Legends imaginatively describe that Parasuram (who is considered as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu) threw his axe into the Sea with the demand that the Sea be receded as far as the axe fell and that the Lord of Sea obliged by receding.

It follows that the community fishing ritual of Kandevu could have been a vestige of the age old custom of ‘Samudra Pooje’ carried out, when Chelair was a coastal town.
Chelairu guttu is also associated with the historically famous Tulunadu hero known as Agoli Manjanna.

-Hosabettu Vishwanath, Pune

+ Ravi

Suggested reading

Paltādi Ramakrishna Achar: ‘NAGABERMER’ (Kannada Book). Supriya Prakashana, Narimogaru, Puttur-574312 (Dakshina Kannada/Karnataka).

Narayana A. Bangera: “Kandevu Kshetra Mahātme” (Greatness of Holy Place Kandevu), in Kannada.

291. Garodi and Kalari

2011-12-18T14:22:00.002+05:30

Ancient Garodi and Kalari schools trained youths in physical development, body building and various combat techniques in the antiquity. Well known Tulu researcher and academician Dr. Vamana Nandavara in his blog ‘Nandavara’ has compiled an informative post on the contribution of Garodi ancient martial art training schools of Karavali Tulunadu on Kalaripayattu martial art system prevalent in Kerala-Tamilnadu.

The ancient school of martial arts and gymnasia, the ‘Garodi’ (pron: ‘garoDi’) or ‘Garudi’ (garuDi) is also known as ‘Garadi ‘(‘garaDi’) especially in Kannada regions including Karnataka. It seems the Garodi/Garudi/Garadi schools were popular since antiquity, not only in Karavali Karnataka but all over southern India. The Dravida Etymological Dictionary (DED) cites ‘Karati’ as Tamil equivalent of Garadi. In Telugu areas these were also known as Giridi. The Garadi and Karati are the same word considering that ‘ka’ and ‘Ti’ also represents ‘ga’ and ‘Di’ respectively, because of paucity of consonants in Tamil alphabet. It is believed that Buddhist missionary monks from southern India carried ancient techniques of self- defense to China and Japan that eventually developed into ‘Karate’. Thus it is possible that the word ‘Karate’ originated from the Dravidian word ‘Karati’.

Garodi

It appears that the word ‘GaroDi’ (garuDi or garaDi) originated from roots ‘garu’ and Di. The Pali (also Paisachi?) word ‘garu’ means guru or the teacher; (In Telugu suffix –gāru is appended to personal names to signify respect). Di (or Da) is a spatial attribute suffix found in ancient place names [like Kaladi, Shiridi, Niddodi, Posodi ; Baroda, Muruda etc.]. Overall, the word ‘Garodi’ means teaching area or school. In Gujarathi language Garodia means a teacher. Similarly in Tulu language, 'Garandal' (garand+aal) means a stalwart or an important person, suggesting that the word 'garand' [older variant of 'garad'] reflects a respectable [aal] person. [However, the teacher in TuLu Garodis is known as 'Nanaya".This could be a subsequent development in the course of evolution of Garodis].

To begin with, the spatial halls in the front of traditional houses (ChāvaDi) or open fields were used as Garodi training grounds. This is evident from the usages like garodi (for chāvadi) and Garodi kanda (see Tulu Nighantu, Vol.3, p. 1057-1058). Subsequently, these were shifted to dedicated schools dictated by specified Vāstu norms (blog post in Nandavara).

Kalari

The meaning of the term ‘Kalari’ is generally explained as battle-field: however, origin of the word seems similar to garodi. The ancient word ‘kaLa’ means a plot or field [For example neji da kaLa means the paddy field in Tulu language; the plot dedicated for spirit worship among early Tulu tribes is also referred to as kaLa]. Therefore, the word ‘kalari’ originally referred to the open field where the art or techniques of combat were taught and practiced. Subsequently, Kalari also meant the battle field, since battles were also held in open fields.[The word’ kalaha‘ for combat has similar origin].

Antiquity of Garodis and Kalaris

Thus ‘garodi’ and ‘kalari’ seems to have evolved as two parallel schools of martial arts with similar origins in the antiquity. And these schools evolved by borrowing technical know-how from their friendly neighbours wherever possible. The Kalari (or Kalaripayattu) also imbibed principles of graceful movements from the ambient dance styles originated in this land during the course of its evolution.

Fig 291.1.Idol of horse mounted Bermer flanked by idols of Koti and Chennaya in a Garadi [ photo source: Dr Vamana Nandavara (2001)]

Even though the garodi and kalari schools flourished well between the period 10 th 16^th Century CE, it appears their origin dates back to early years of the Common Era or before.

Bermer

One important clue for the antiquity of garodis comes from the nature of God traditionally worshipped in garodis. The master deity of Garodi is Bermer or the concept of Brahma in original form.

Fig 291.2.Idol of horse mounted Bermer God worshipped in a Garadi (above picture partly highlighted).

The cult of Bermer mounted on horse originated before the introduction of revised cult of four-headed Brahma in Indian Puranas.The introduction of the horse mounted Bermer cult in Tulunadu possibly dates back to the period ca.400 BC to ca.400 CE.

[If you have missed previous posts, check in for more on Bermer God.. and discussions ]

Read the Nandavara post on Contribution of Garadis to Kalaris at:

http://vamana-nandavara.blogspot.com/2011/12/contribution-of-tulunadu-garadis-to.html

Reference:
Vamana Nandavara, Dr.(2001) Kooti Cennaya: Folkloristic Study (Kannada).Hemanshu Prakashana, Mangalore,p.420.

290. Vaiyāli-kaval: Origin and significance

2011-11-27T10:11:00.001+05:30

Have you ever wondered about the origin or significance of some of the odd sounding place names in the burgeoning city of Bengaluru? Bengaluru (or Bangalore), originally built by Kempegowda in the year ca.1537 CE, is presently the capital of Karnataka, where Kannada is the official State language; however, you can find several local place names within Bangalore that cannot easily be explained by Kannada pundits or lexicons. Vyalikaval (Vaiyalikaval) is one such place name within Bengaluru. The significance of this place name is that the cosmopolitan nature of Bengaluru dates back to a period not less than two millennia.

Vyalikaval

Normally pronounced as Vaiyāli-kāval, this particular area is located between Malleshwaram (Originally Mallapura village) and Sadashivanagar (named after freedom fighter Karnad Sadashiva Rao) Extensions in the Northwest part of Bangalore. The suffix ‘kāval’ refers to areas reserved as sylvan zones or protected forests during the historical regime of kings and chieftains. However the word ‘vaiyali’ appears unintelligible in general. Some have tried to explain it as a Kannada version of Tamil word ‘yali’, a mythical animal figurine displayed in temple sculptures in the form of half-lion-half elephant. The mythical ’Yali‘ is generally known as ‘Shārdūla’ in Kannada-Tulu areas.

Google map of Vayalikaval, Bangalore.

However, the term ‘Vaiyali’ can be traced to an immigrant tribal community that settled in parts of ancient Bengaluru and spread in parts of Tamilnadu and Kerala during or before the early years of Common Era. The ancient tribe of Vayali was of Afghan origin and they used to speak a kind of Paisachi language now extinct in Southern India.

Waynad

Waynad is the name of a popular town and district in Kerala. Like the mysterious Vaiyali-kaval, the place name Waynad also begins with the unusual prefix ‘Wai’. The word Wai normally can be mistaken for ‘Vāyu’ the equivalent Sanskrit word for the air or the wind.

Vai or Vaiyal tribes

Vaiyalikaval or Waynad are not the only places that bear the signature of ancient Vai or Vaiyal tribes. There are numerous villages and settlements spread across the Southern India that bear the name of Vai or Vaiyal people. In Kerala, besides Wayanād, several villages and towns like Vaikom (Kottayam dt), Vaithiri (Wayanad dt), Vayalar and Vyttila (Ernakulam dt), Vailattur (Mallapuram dt), Vaipur (Pathanamthitta dt), and Vylathur (Thrissur dt) have preserved the prefix of the ancient Vai tribes. In Tamilnadu, numerous villages and towns such as: Vayalakkavoor (Uthiramerur dt), Vaipoor and Valayakkaranai (Kundrathur dt), Vayalur (Tirukkalukundram dt), Vayalur(Minjur dt), Voyalanallur (Poonamallee dt), Veialoor (Keerapalyam dt), Vayalamoor (Panagipettai dt), Vaiyangudi (Manglur dt),Vayalur (Kilpennattur dt), Vaividanthangal (Pudupalyam dt), Vayalathur (Vembakam dt), Vaikundam (Mac Choultry dt), Vayalappatti (Mohanur dt), Voipadi (Chennimalai dt), Vaithianathanpettai (Tiruvaiyaru dt), Vaimedu (Vedaranyam dt), Vaipur (Tiruvarur dt), Vayalore (Kodavasal dt), Vaiyampatti (Vaiyampatti dt), Vaiganallur (Kulithalai dt), Vayalaur (Krishna-rayapuram dt), Vayalur (Madurai west), Vaiyapuripatti (Singamapunari dt) still carry the tag of the extinct ancient Vai tribes. In Maharastra, Wai , Vaijapur etc places bear the signatures of these ancient Vai (or Wai) tribes.

Wai-Ala language

Vai or Vaiyala were an ancient tribe speaking a kind of Paisachi language. Waiyala or waiyali has been considered as a variant of Paisachi languages. Grierson (1906) has described Wai-Ala as one of the Dardic-Kafir languages belonging to class of modern Paisachi languages. Waigala is a town in Nuristan, Afghanistan. Hence ,it is also known as Waigali; and other alternate names for the language in Afghanistan are Wai, Waigala, Waigalii, Waygali, Waigeli, Kalasha-Ala, Chima-Nishei, Suki and Zhonjigali etc.

Vāyuvya: Northwest

The Vai tribes migrated to India from the northwest direction. The Northwest is known as Vāyuvya in Sanskrit. It seems the Sanskrit word for the Wind God ‘Vāyu’ and the Northwest direction, ‘Vāyuvya’ have been named after the Vai tribes that came from the NW direction.

Suffix -Ala

The suffix ‘-Ala’ in Paisachi languages of Northwestern Indian subcontinent such as Wai-Ala, Kalasa- Ala etc remind us of the Al suffix in Tulu-Kannada place names such as Kodiyala Kadiyali, Madivala, Ilawala, Horeyala, etc. These Tulu Kannada place names apparently have been coined while Paisachi- Prakrit was the common language in southern India during the early years of Common Era.

Immigration of Paisacha speakers

The Paisachi languages have been considered as extinct languages that originated in NW part of Indian subcontinent and spread to rest of India Before Christ and during early centuries of Common Era. Even though any disdained these as languages of devils (pisāchi= devil), it seems the term has been totally misrepresented as the word ‘pai-sa-chi’ essentially means languages of the Pai tribes. All over Southern India including parts of Tulunadu, have place names that suggest existence of Pai-sa-chi speakers, possibly before the advent of Common Era. The Paisachi languages in the NW Indian subcontinent had several variants like Vaiyala, Basgali, Pasai, Sina, Kalasa, Kashmiri, Garwi etc of which some of the variants also survived in the southern Indian villages in the antiquity, as a result of migration of relevant human tribes, before the dominance of Dravidian languages. This aspect is evident from the elaborate list of Paisacha- Vaiyala and other related place names in Southern India. Grierson (1906) proposed that with passage of time Paisachi language evolved into Sauraseni and Maharastri Prakrit language forms.

Grierson map(1906) showing distribution of of Paisacha languages of North-western Indian subcontinent.

Several Afghan place names like Kalasa, Hunza-nagar etc have apparently been replicated in parts of Karnataka like Kalasa (Chikmagalur dt), Huncha (Shimoga dt) suggesting that these were the ancient settlements of immigrant communities from Northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. Similarly, place names Sindhanur (Raichur dt), Sindhudurga (Maharastra), and surname Sindhya remind us signatures of Sindh and Sindhi culture. Maiya was one of the Paisachi- Prakrit tribes and their language; likewise, the surname ‘Maiya’ or ‘Mayya’ surviving in present Tulunadu could have been a vestige of immigrant ancient Maiya tribes from the Northwest. The suffix –gāli in many of the place names such as Parthagāli, Poorigāli, is a Paisachi word meaning valley.

We have described in Older Posts the significance of the Tulu word ‘pirāk’ (=ancient) that is derived from the ancient place name Pirak, now in Pakistan.

We can see that a number of ancient place names have survived vagaries of time and tides and still serve as marker clues to the ancient migrations that affected this land in the bygone pages of the forgotten history.

References:

George Abraham Grierson (1906). The Pisaca languages of the North-western India. Royal Asiatic Society, London. Online source: http://www.archive.org/stream/pisacalanguageso00grie/pisacalanguageso00grie_djvu.txt

Older links herein:
259.Bekanata and Paisachi;
262. Significance of Paisachi language.

289. In search of Punnata

2011-11-14T10:26:00.001+05:30

Many of us may not have heard about the existence of a Kingdom called Punnata in ancient Karnataka during the early part of Common Era. Punnata or Punanadu (pron: puNanāDu) was a minor kingdom in southern India dating back to 1^st Century CE (or earlier) and persisted until 14th Century CE. The existence of Punnata has been documented in some of the ancient Tamil Sangam texts like Periyapurana, wherein it is described as a land perennially washed by rivers.

Based on Mamballi inscription (ca 5-6 Century CE) scholars consider the area between Rivers Kaveri and Kabini was the ancient Punnata kingdom, with Kittur (formerly Kirthipura) in Heggadadevanakote Taluk (Mysore district) as its capital. It is said that the boundaries of Punnata in its heydays covered parts of Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu, Hassan, Mysore and Bangalore districts (in present Karnataka) parts of Kerala and Coimbatore (in present Tamilnadu). It is said that regal families of Punnata had matrimonial relations with members of Ganga dynasty. References in Sangam literature describe skirmishes between Nannan (Nanda King) and tribal kings of Punnata.

According to Chandravalli inscriptions Kadamba Mayura Sharma defeated king of Punnata during 4^th Century CE. Punnata is recorded in the Shivapura inscription (ca.1320) of Doddaballapura taluk, suggesting the time range of Punnata Kings in Karnataka.

Beryls of Punnata

Greek geographers Pliny (ca 23-78 CE) and Ptolemy (ca 127 CE) have described emerald gem stones that originated from the land of ‘Pounnata’. Egyptian accounts described ‘Punt’ which is supposed to be a corruption of the word Punnata.

Emerald is a green colored precious stone, known as beryl in mineralogy. Beryl is known to be occurring in small quantities in pegmatite rocks randomly distributed around Krishnaraja sagara, in Mysore district. This mineralized area was a part of Punnata kingdom in the past and the cut and polished green colored emerald gems derived from beryl crystals were apparently exported to Mediterranean markets in the past.

Emerald or beryl is known as ‘pachche’ in Tulu as well as in Old Kannada. The term ‘pachche’ means green. The ‘che’ or ‘cha’ at the end of this word ‘pachche’ is reminiscent of the ‘-cha’ suffix in some of the Paisachi words.

Punnata Sangha

Punnata region was also known as an ancient centre of Jainism in the southern India. It is said that during 4^th Century BC Jain monk Bhadrabahu accompanied Chandragupta Maurya and travelled to southern India. Chandragupta is said to have settled in Sravanabelagola at the end of his lifetime. A Jain religious association was established known as ‘Punnata Sangha’. Later these Jain monks migrated to northwestern India and branches of Punnata Sangha were subsequently found in Gujarat.

According to some authors the term ‘punnaTa’ derived its name from punal which means a stream or river. The word ‘punal’ became ‘honal’ (flow, flood or river) in modern Kannada. This interpretation is based on the fact that an ancient Tamil text Periyapurana described Punnata as a region located on the bank of a river.

However simpler analysis suggests that ‘punnaTa’ should be pun+nata wherein ‘PuNa’ represents the name of an ancient tribe and ‘nāTa’ represents a ‘nāDu, a cultivated region or a country. Therefore it can be described as a country built by PuNa or Punar tribes. Evolution of the term ‘nāDu’ from ‘naDu’ (=to plant) has been explained in earlier posts.

In other words ‘PunnaTa’ was also known as PunnāDu or PuNa-nāDu. Thus the term ‘Puna’ or ‘punar’ refers to the people or the tribes inhabited in Punnadu.

In fact, we find several strings of evidence for the existence of an ancient tribe called ‘Puna’ (singular) or ‘Punar’(plural) in names of sour fruits and in place names in various parts of Indian subcontinent. In this post let us explore traces of ‘Punnata’ and ‘Punar’ tribal people in southern India and especially in ancient Tulunadu.

Pune, punaka

Pune, one of the major cities of India is also referred to as ‘Purna nagari’ or ‘Punya nagari’ (Purna=complete; punya=divine blessing) in some medieval Sanskrit texts. Before that it was known as “Punaka Vishaya” (Vishaya=territory). Thus it is clear that refined form of nomenclature ‘Purna’ was derived from the older name of ‘Punaka’. The term ‘punaka’ can be analysed as puna+ka wherein suffix ‘ka’ represents a village or habitation.

Now the place name ‘Punaka’ is a not unique word restricted to southern India. There is a ‘Punakha’ town Bhutan.

Origin of names of some of our popular sour fruits can be traced to ancient Punar tribes.

Punarpuli

Punarpuli (pron: puNar-puLi) is the common name in Tulu for that well known maroon coloured ethnic, wild plum or berry fruit, also alternately known as baDupuli, birinda, binda, murla hannu, kokumm, etc. Botanically it is known as Garcinia indica and is similar and related to mangosteen Garcinia mangostana L. popular in other tropical countries. It commonly used as base for sherbats and juices in Karavali and Malnad regions and is considered to be of medicinal value especially in the treatment of bile disorders, especially in controlling excessive ‘pitta’.

Now what is the origin of the conventional Tulu word Punarpuli?

The term ‘puNar’ in puNar+puli does not have a well defined genetic meaning in Tulu or in Kannada since the word ‘punar’ is non-speciifc, even though ‘puli’ clearly means sour tasting berry or plum. It is suggested here that it was a sour berry named after or discovered by the ancient Punar tribes.

Punake da puli

The conventional and widely popular source of sour ingredient in Indian cooking, the tamarind (botanical name: Tamarindus indica) is called ‘Punake da puli’ in Tulu. The term ‘Punake’ refers to the tamarind tree in general. It was ‘punase’ in Old Kannada which became ‘Hunase’ in modern Kannada. Puna-se, apparently is an old Prakrit word that means the one brought from Puna!

Similarly,the phrase ‘Punake da puli’ in Tulu also means the sour berry from Punake, where the latter represents name of a place or region (Puna or Punak) in ancient Deccan. The English word Tamarind is derived from the Arabian word ‘Tamar Hind’ (or Indian date) that suggests that Arabs learnt about the usage of this sour berry from India. However, the Tamarind tree is said to be native of Sudan and other African countries originally where it grows wilderness. It is believed that the Tamarind was carried to India and other Asian countries along with human migrations before the Common Era.

The existing terms for some of the Indian sour berries -Punar, Punake or Punase- have analogous root affinities that may be attributed to the extinct (or assimilated) Punar tribes. One of the logical possibilities is that the ancient Punar tribes were pioneers in introducing sour berries in Indian cooking.

Location map of Punacha and Punachapadi villages, Dakshina Kannada District.

Punacha

There are several analogous place names in Tulunadu relevant to Puna tribes. One is Punacha, a large village in Bantwal Taluk, Dakshina Kannada district, near the Kerala border. This village could have been an older colony or domain of Punar tribes. Researchers may look for strings of historical data on Punar tribes in this village.

There is also one Punchame or ‘Punachame’ near Polali Kariangala, Bantwal Taluk and another Punchapādi or Punachapādi near Sarve village, Puttur Taluk.Besides, there is also a Punachatār near Kaniyur, Puttur Taluk.

Punimchattaya

In these place names the term ‘Punacha’ is generally being confused with similar sounding term ‘puncha’ (= anthill) the common residing place of snakes. There is another clue to conclude that the word is Punacha and not puncha. In Tulu Brahmins, there is a surname known as Punamchattaya or Punimchattaya. (This particular surname is popular since Dr Venkataraja Punimchattaya discovered several ancient texts written in Tulu script.) The surname ‘Punanachattaya’ can be analysed as Punancha+ttaya which means a person from Punancha, wherein ‘Punancha’ is an alternate old Tulu/Kannada word form of ‘Punacha’.

Poonacha

It is also pertinent here to note that proper name ‘PooNachcha’ is popular among the natives of Kodagu. It apparently is a remnant from the ancient tribe of Punars that pervaded Kodagu and surrounding regions in the past.

Punarur

There is also a Punarur (punar+ur) near Kinnigoli, Mangalore Taluk, which has been made popular by celebrity, Kannada activist, Harikrishna Punarur.

Similarly, Tulu paDdanas refer to a legendary place in Tulunadu known as ’PuNakedoTTu’.

Prakrit vs. Paisachi

Puna+cha and its analogous place names area related to Punaka places, wherein spatial suffix ‘cha’ replaces suffix ‘ka’ or ‘ga’. There is also a ‘Punekodi’ (kodi=corner) hamlet near Addur. The suffix –cha is widely used in ancient place names of Tulunadu such as Kodachadri (Koda+cha+adri), Paichar (Pai+cha+ar), Chara (Cha+ara), Konchadi (Kom+cha+adi), etc. The suffix -cha, now obsolete, apparently was part of Paisachi language that prevailed in these areas in the early centuries of Common Era, whereas the suffix –ka (or -‘ga’) as in Punaka, Madaka, Pun(a)ga(nur), Binaga, Gadaga etc can be traced to Prakrit language.

Punattur, Punalur, Punganur

There are more such places in several other parts of southern India. Ponnani. Punattur, Punalur, Punnala, Punnaveli, Punnamada etc in Kerala; Punganur in Andhra Pradesh; Punnakayal, Pungavrnattam, Punnamallee, Ponnai, Ponmeni, Ponnarkulam (Punnayurkulam) in Tamilnadu. In Indonesia there is a Punaga beach.

Punar tribes

Overall analysis of the available strings of data suggest that enterprising Punar tribes established their own territory in parts of southern India. However their signatures can be traced as far as Bhutan in Himalayan region. They were cultivators settled on river banks, had knowledge of edible wild sour berries like Punarpuli and Punake puli, possibly also discovered ‘Punangu’ (‘punagu’) or glandular excretion (musk) from civet cat. They had discovered green colored beryl mineral resources that could be fashioned into emerald gemstones.

It appears that Punar (Punnar) tribes used Paisachi and Prakrit languages before the early years of Common Era as indicated by the surviving words of that period, like the term ‘pachche’ which was then absorbed into Old Tulu and Old Kannada. It is documented in inscriptions that later the Punar tribes adopted Kannada as administrative language. Punnar tribes were also spread in parts of Gujarat and Rajastan. East Indian Gazetteer by Walter Hamilton mentions that Jahrejahs of Gujarat selected their brides from Rajaput families of Punnar, Surweyo, Goel, Walla etc tribes.

It appears that the Punar tribes migrated to southern India from the north from the Himalayan region as suggested by the existence of a Punakha town in Bhutan. It is possible that Pun(n)a(r) tribe was an older variant of the Central Asian Huna tribe that later invaded northern India. It would worthwhile to delve further into the mysteries of this lost or assimilated tribe that had cast distinct footprints in the early history of southern India.

References:

S Shettar (2007). “Shangam Tamilagam mattu Kannada naadu nudi,” (in Kannada) Abhinava, Bangalore. p.266. 6^th Edition,2010

The East Indian gazetteer: Volume 1. Walter Hamilton M. (also in Google Books).

288.Manja in Tulu

2011-11-11T08:46:00.001+05:30

Words, being vehicle of thoughts and actions, are born every now and then and are ever living – generation after generation – may be with varying meanings, which crystallize with the passage of time. Some words attain sublimity and some others notoriety. Some are having different shades of meaning and that too undergo changes in usage over the time.

What is striking about the word ‘Manja’? It means different things to different people, regions and culture. It needs no illustration for those who know about it. To give just an example, ‘manja’ in kite flying is known to everybody, particularly in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Here ‘manja’ is a special string, smeared with glass powder, to give it a cutting edge in kite fighting.

‘Manja’ in Tulu

‘Manja’ in Tulu language of coastal Karnataka and Kasaragod (Kerala) means generally an ‘elevated place’. There are many usages of Manja, as documented painstakingly in Tulu Lexicon by scholars.

1. Kayimanja: Kaimanja is a small shrine for departed souls, also known as ‘Kayimada’. On the burial place, a mound is made so as to place food, offered to manes. Well-to-do people make a shed-like structure for this purpose.

Kadri Kambla 2010, Mangalore

2. Manjotti: In Kambala (Buffalo race), it is a raised place at other end of buffalo race slushy field. It is a reaching point for buffalo as speedily as possible with adept handling by handler. Speed is measured by time. Pair of buffalos taking the least time is declared a winner. Winning buffalos are known as ‘Manjottigone’. There is a folk narration (PadDana) by name ‘Manjottigona’, which tells about exploits of a young he-buffalo and its tragic end. This song is sung in group by women in agriculture field while planting nursery plants of paddy. It is sung when buffalos are not around.

Coming to spirit worship, it means a purification ritual to ward off pollution of the shrine.

3. Ritualistic act: Tuluvas are animists. ‘Manja’ is an archaic use in worship of Divine Spirits in Tulunadu. Manja ritual is a vow fulfilled periodically or on special occasions for appeasement of Divine Spirits of household, village or group of villages (Maganes). There are several Bhutas (Divine Spirits), exploits of whose are described in respective PadDanas, a kind of Tulu literature orally preserved. It is a custom (which is in vogue in Tulunadu) of offering meat (chicken), fish, etc. (with toddy in certain cases). The ritual is known as ‘Manja Balasuni/Malpuni’.

In Siri Festival, a main and lengthy ritualistic celebration, ‘Manja Balasuni’ to Siri Kumara is a less known performance. RRC News Bulletin of Jan-March 2003 throws light on this performance (q.v. Prasanga – Udupipages.com).

4 Place & personal names: Manja is used in place names, such as Kalmanja, Ballamanja, etc., with specific meaning of ‘elevated place’. Probably, Kalmanja means a village, beset with rocky mounds and Ballamanja, a high place, full of creepers and bushes.

As for popular names, we can cite Manja and Manjanna as male proper names and Manjakka, a feminine name. Probably, giving these names has some bearing on physiques.

5 Times of a day: Manja is used either for evening, darkness or early morning. So it indicates different shades of light as day proceeds.

6 Raised Platform in market: Primarily, it means a ‘raised platform’ for a seller. So, ‘Manja’ literally means a market-place.

7 Engagement Feast: ‘Manja’ is used for a ceremonial feast in bride’s place on consummation of an engagement. In these days, we do not hear this word for the function. It is now just an engagement party in a hotel.

Manjarur

The term ‘Manja’ has been explicitly used in several Tulu place names. Mangalore was known as Manjarur especially during 10th and 11^th Century CE. Manjanadi is a village in Mangalore Taluk, bordering with Kerala. There are several Manjanakatte, Manjara pāde, Manjarapalke, etc hamlets across Tulunadu.

Similar analogous names exist in Uttara Kannada district also. For example Manjuguni near Ankola.

The Lord of Kadri Temple, Mangalore is well known as Manjunatha. The Lords name was later replicated in now renowned Dharmastala temple. Manjeshwara is a coastal town in Kasargod Taluk, south of Mangalore. There is a locality known as Vamanjur in Mangalore as well as in Manjeshwara. In earlier posts we interpreted that’ Vamanjur’ could have been originally Om-manjur, named after immigrant Om tribes of Africa.

Manjanna, Manjappa, Manjamma etc proper names were common in Tulunadu and adjoining Kannada areas. These may have an obscure tribal heritage that needs to be explored further. The proper name 'Manja' in these could possibly be traced to an ancient Paisachi-Prakrit word 'manja' that represented man (Post 261). The old word 'manja' evidently evolved into 'manuja' with passage of time.

Words are not dead objects, though they undergo changes with passage of time. They live with people of a region, state and country, perpetuating the extant beliefs, traditions and culture. This is manifest on exploration of ‘manja’, pertaining to Tulunadu.
Sometimes, in the antiquity the words have crossed borders to remote countries or words in usage in different continents may had similar roots to begin with.Note for example: An 'Igloo' means a hut/house made of ice blocks among the Eskimos. Another parallel word 'Illu' in Tulu and some of the other Dravidian languages means a dwelling place.

-Hosabettu Vishwanath, Pune

link: Omanjur, forgotten word

287. Balmata, Mangalore

2011-10-02T10:49:00.004+05:30

Origin of the name of a familiar and one of the oldest roads in the heart of Mangalore city- Balmata (pronounced as balmaTa) road is disputed. The local newspaper Udayavani dated 29 september 2011 in the commercial supplement carried an anonymous note on the origin of the name Balmata. Excerpts from the cited article inspired me to write this post.

Bell Mount

One of the possibility suggested is that a Bell shaped mount (hill) or Bell on the mount apparently was corrupted to Bal-mata.However, this explanation is not quite satisfactory as none of the hills in the area are in the shape of bell.

Bāl-mata

There is one more explanation for the origin of the word: Balmata. Close to the Balmata area there is one ‘Sanyasi gudde’ (hill of the ‘Sanyasi’; ‘sanyāsi’= a sage) that can be approached from Arya Samaj cross Road. Here we have an ancient Kālbairav temple and relicts of Natha monasteries that held held powerful influences on the history of Mangalore during the period 9^th to 14^th Centuries CE. The word ‘bāl’ refers to children in Indian languages. It is said that the term ‘Bāl maTa’ was applied to one of the Natha monasteries, even though it is not clear if any Natha monastery dedicated to young people existed in the antiquity in this area.

Bol -mata

A third possibility discussed was that in the Balmata area some two centuries ago there were a couple of deserted British Bungalows. It is said deserted Bungalows were called ‘Bol’ (barren,empty) in Tulu.

Boll -mata

However, the fourth and the best possible explanation would be that a group of German missionaries established Basel Mission Church and Monastery in this area. Tulu people used refer as ‘Boll ‘ or ‘Boller’ for the white people. The ancient places Bolur and Bolar in Mangalore also designate areas of ancient white immigrants as discussed in our older posts herein.

It seems apt that local Tulu people described religious centres ( designated as ‘maTa’ in Tulu and Kannada) established by white people (German Basel Missionaries) as ‘Boll maTa’. The ‘Boll-maTa’ with passage of time has been reduced to mere ‘Balmata’.

286. Bari system predates Castes

2011-09-03T08:18:00.002+05:30

The recognition and practice of human genetic lineages or the Lineage system (alternately known as Bari, Bali or Gotra system) among civilized ancient communities in India is distinctly older in origin and date than the caste system.

A reader has asked about the caste of Tulu people that migrated into southern Tamil country during early history corresponding with Sangam age.In my opinion, there were no modern castes (like Bunt, Billawa, Mogaveera) in Tulunadu at that time. In the early period the Tulu People were recognized by their bari lineages (matrilineal and patrilineal) and persons of the same bari could be seen practicing different professions like those of Bunt (warrior and defense assistant), Billawa (archer), Salian(weaver), Baidya (tribal doctor), Nadava (cultivator; one who plants crops), Okkeleme(farm worker; farm settler), Poojari(tribal preist), Maddela (washerman), Mogera (fish catcher), Kottari (Store-keeper), Kulala (potter) Sapalya(musician) etc without people being assigned to or divided into distinct caste/community groups as known now.And those who did not subscribed this bari system of genetic lineage recognition, especially older generation of tribals, were recognized by various tribal group names.

Alupas of four lineages

The aspect of antiquity of existence of Baris over castes shall be more evident when we study the lineages of Alupa Kings who ruled early Tulunadu. Data from early inscriptions reveal that Alupas belonged to four lineages which suggest that in the progress of time Alupas had offsprings from persons hailing from four different lineages; however the specific castes have not been attributed to Alupas in the inscriptions, because castes in Tulunadu did not exist at that point of time. Alupas also had matrimonial relationships with Kannada Kings like Kadamba, Chalukya and Rastrakutas.

Ancient Bari lineages in Tulunadu

In other words, to begin with there were no castes but only lineages in early India. And the distict division of people into dufferent castes developed later in the history.This is especially evident in Tulunadu which provides distinct evidences in favour of antiquity of the lineage system over the caste system.

The Gotra system prevailed among the Vedic sages-cowherds of ancient Indo-Aryan communities of Indian subcontinent appears to be as old as 1900 BC or older.It seems ‘bari’ or ‘bali’ linege types of genetic identification or recognition system similar to Gotra lineage system coupled with recognition of original place of domicile /settlement (‘Moolastana’) prevailed among Dravidian communities contemporaneous to early Vedic sages. Multan in Prakrit language means the Moolastana. Multan in present day Pakistan still carries the name of one of the earliest Dravidian settlements in Northwest Indian subcontinent and is useful in tracking the route of early Dravidian (including Tulu) immigrants into southern India.

Tulu Baris

Indira Hegde (2001) compiled a list of 61 Baris currently prevailing among Bunts and Nadavas. She has also enlisted some 55 Baris recorded in inscriptions and generally considered to extinct at present. Similarly there are some 20 known baris enlisted among Mogaveers. Mogaveeras have Amin, Bangera, Chandan, Gujaran, Kanchan, Karkera, Kotian, Kunder, Maindan, Mendon, Naika, Pangal, Puthran, Rao, Salian, Sapaliga, Shriyan, Suvarna, Thingalaya, and Tholar lineages. And Billawas and other Tulu communities also have numerous baris.Even Tulu Brahmins adopted a system of bari lineages.New Baris have evolved and were added throughout the history with passage of time.Similarly, many baris must have been lost during the long history of our communities due to various natural factors.

Baris before Caste system

However, on analysis we find that atleast five baris are common to most of the Tulu communities.This leads us to propose that such common baris have been in existence before the arrival of distict caste system in Tulunadu. We find that Bari lineages known as Banger (or Banga), Salia (or Salian), Putra (or Putran), Kundra (or Kundaran) and Gujar (or Gujaran) are common to many of the Tulu Castes at present. The presence of common bari lineages among diverse castes suggest prevalence of these baris before the consolidation of caste system in Tulunadu.It appears that there were more such baris common to different castes but became partially or fully extinct. Among the common bari examples that became partially extinct in some Tulu communities, we may include Suvarna and Tingalaya baris. The Suvarna bari has been preserved among Mogaveers and Billawas. Tingalaya bari/surname is found retained among Mogaveers and Brahmins.Similarly, Menda/Mendon and Tolar bari lineages are shared among the present day Bunts and Mogaveers.

We shall discuss the five bari lineages generally found distributed in most of the communities/castes of Tulunadu.

Banga, Banger.

In an early post in this blog we considered that Bangera were the settlers in Bengare (Sand Spits) areas in the coast.This earlier interpretation of Bengare settlers may not be appropriate as we find ‘Bangera’ or ‘Banger’ (Banga+yer) in Tulu language is a respectful version of the Banga lineage, who ruled parts of Tulunadu as Jain Kings.

Banga tribes: Banga or Bangera appears to be one of the oldest lineages in Tulunadu. Ancient tribes known as ‘Banga’ still survive in parts of Nigeria in Africa. In India, the delta region of River Ganga is traditionally known as Banga or Vanga desha. (It is alternately known as Gowda or Gaur desh also). The regional place names Bangal (or Bengal) [Banga+al] means river-side settlements of the Banga tribes. Banga dance form is still popular in Kalingga region of Phillipines.Banga means earthen pot in Phillipines. It is possible that early Banga tribes were potters by profession. The association of terms ‘Banga’ and ‘Kalingga’ in Phillipines is interesting to note. In India, Banga (Bangal) region exists by the side of Kalinga (Orissa)!

According to some the term Banga is derived from Bong which was Sun God (Sing Bonga) worshipped by Munda tribes of Austro-Asiatic origin. Thus, the Banga tribes relate to either early African immigrants or subsequent Austro Asiatic immigrants into Gangetic delta. The tribes from Gangetic delta migrated to West coast probably before the advent of Dravidians forming the Banga or Bangera lineage.

There is also a Banga town in Punjab. Surnames Bangar (Bangad/Bangur) exists among Marwari/Marathi communities and proper names such as Bangari among Telugu (Bangarusamy, Bangaramma) people.

Bangalore: The origin of the place name of capital of Karnataka, Bengaluru is generally attributed to the phrase ‘benda kalu ooru’ (Village of boiled pulses). However, it could have been originally Bang+al+oor also, where the term 'Bangal' originally referred to a settlement of ancient Banga tribes. (All the ancient Banga tribes need not necessarily be considered as Bengalis, as erroneously interpreted by certain historians.) In support of the Banga+al theory cited here ('al'= water source like river, or a settlement besides a water course), geological data suggests that a tributary of Kaveri flowed in the western side of Bangalore during early history that dried up later.

Salia, Salian

Salia or Talia represents spider in Tulu language.One of the oldest known bari lineage, apparently derived from the ancient weavers of cloths or tribes having a totem of Spider. The Sāl tree [the silk cotton tree] also represents weaving of cloths and it was a holy tree traditionally worshipped by several early Munda tribes.Some historians opine that the ‘Saluva’ dynasty that ruled Vijayanagar Empire is related to Salia or Salian lineage.

Putra, Putran

Exact origin of the surname Putra or Putran is not available at present.However two possibilities can be discussed.1. The word Puto or Putra in Prakrit generally represents a town For example the cpital of Magadha Empire was Pataliputra. Similarly King Ashoka mentioned ‘Satiaputo’ which is considered to represent (possibly a part of) Tulunadu. Therefore we can consider that Putran means a person from the ‘Putra’ possibly ancient city of Pataliputra.2. Putra in Sanskrit and many of the Indian languages mean son. Since relevance to this meaning of the word can only guessed we can wait for additional data on the origin of this surname.The lineage is also known as Putrannaya. There are Putra surnames in Indonesia and also in Saudi Arabia.

Kundra, Kundaran

Budhi Kundaran an Indian international cricketer of yester years hailing from Mogaveera community of Udupi, was one of the first among coastal Tuluvas in the recent years to popularize the surname of Kundars. Similarly, recent Hindi Film industry in Mumbai (Bollywood) has a celebrity known as Shirish Kundar. Shirish Kunder, who is an Electronic Engineer from SDM College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad, became a celebrity in Bollyhood as an Editor and Director of Hindi Films. He has married Farah Khan, a famous Choreographer and Director of Hindi Films. In the recent years popular Bollywood heroine Shilpa Shetty, originally from Mangalore has popularized the Kundar surname in Tulunadu after her marriage with Raj Kundra of north Indian origin.

While the exact origin of the name Kundar is not available at present, it can be traced to ancient Kunda tribes of African heritage. However we find that early Jains and Buddhist literatures carry the term Kunda. Originally the Kundars in ancient India could have been a tribe specialized in the skill of gold smelting since the term ‘kunda’ generally refers to (1) gold and (2) melt. A popular sweet dish in Belgaum produced from the desiccated milk and sugar is known as ‘kunda’. In common Tulu parlance ‘kunda’ means a pillar.

Kundar: A lineage (‘bari’) based surname among Bunts and Mogaveers, originally derived from an ancient immigrant Kundra or Kundar ancestor from northern India. Kundarannaya means a person born in the Kundaran lineage.

There are numerous place names having a prefix or suffix of Kunda all over India.For example, Kundapur, Kundagola, Navalgunda, Nargunda etc. It is possible that the kunda in such ancient place names refer to ancient victory pillars (totem poles) erected in those villages.

Gujar, Gujaran

Gujar or Gujaran is a surviving surname that provides solid support to the theory of amalgamation of immigrant tribes among Tulu and other communities in the antiquity. It is said that Gujars originated in Georgia, in southern Russia ( Georgia is also known as Gurjiya in Persian) and migrated to Afghanistan, Pakistan and India during the early centuries of Common Era.Descendants of ancient Gujar migrants are found in the States of Kashmir, Punjab, Rajastan and Gujarat. Incidentally, the State of ‘Gujarat’ derives its name from Gujar tribes.

A famous hero of Tulunadu, Agoli Manjanna was from the Gujaran lineage of Bunts.

Gujaran: A lineage (‘bari’) based surname among Bunts and Mogaveers, originally derived from an ancient immigrant Gujar ancestor. Gujarannaya means a person from the Gujaran lineage.

Gujje: A species of Jack fruit apparently introduced originally by Gujar tribes. Presently the term is applied to any variety of unripe or raw jack fruit.

Gujjadi: A place named after Gujj or Gujar tribes in Udupi district.

Gujjarabettu: An elevated dryland (plateau) named after Gujar tribes near Kemmannu village in coastal Udupi Taluk.

Gujjarkere: An ancient pond, presently dried up named after Gujar tribes in Jappina mogaru locality, southern part of Mangalore.

Suvarna

The Suvarna bari has been preserved among the present day Billawa and Mogaveer communities.The origin of Suvarna bari name can be interpreted based on data existing on the words like Suvarna and Suvarnbhumi. The term ‘Suvarna’ means (1) good colour and (2) gold. Sanskrit and Buddhist texts referred to Burma, Indonesia, Java, Sumatra countries as Suvarnabhumi. It appears that the term ‘Suvarna bhumi’ referred to people of golden (yellowish) skin colour rather than golden land. This leads us to infer that originally the ancient ‘Suvarna’ people of Austro-Asiatic heritage came to Tulunadu from Suvarnabhumi countries.It can also be recalled that a coastal river flowing in Udupi district is also called ‘Suvarna’ or ‘Swarna’ River.

***
End piece Trivia:

It is obvious that Words sounding similar can have divergent meanings. Bangar as well as Suvarna in Tulu and Kannada means gold.
Prajwal pointed out that 'Bangar' in Marathi/Mumbai Hindi as well as 'Gujari' in Tulu/Kannada refers to scraps!

-With inputs from H. Vishwanath.

285. Nagavanshi Kshatriyas

2011-08-13T09:34:00.002+05:30

In the recent years some of the communities, like some Rajaputs, Jats, Nairs and Bunts, are claiming that they are Nagavanshi Kshatriyas. Nagavanshi means one derived from the dynasty of the Naga or the serpent. And the term ‘kshatriya’ represents the warrior community.

Bari and Gotra

During the Vedic period the identication and recognition system among civilized people was based on gotras and there is no mention of Vamshas (dynasties). The Tulu people followed a similar system of genetic heritage recognition known as bari or bali system.Tulu people also followed a system of recognition of Mulastana (literally, the original place of domicile).The town of Multan (mool=origin + taan =place) in present Pakistan still carries the ancient name of one of the original place of domicile of Tulu and Dravidian tribes who migrated along this route during the early history.

Chaturvarna

The recognition of communities based on the division of labour or profession was said to have been initiated during the regime of Chandragupta Maurya. The broad brush communities (Chaturvarna, literally four colours) of Brahmana (preist), Kshatriya (warrior), Vaishya (merchant) and Shudra (menial servant) were recognised and uncivilized tribes were treated as Panchams (the fifth category).

Vansha

Later Kings considered themselves to be offsprings of great dynasties originating from major celestial bodies like Sun and Moon. Thus the imaginative attribution of dynasties of Sun (Surya Vamsha) and Moon (Chandra Vamsha) were popular among ancient rulers. It appears that ancient Kings adopted such fancy dynasty names to glorify themselves. Legends describe that during the Gupta regime, some of the pre-Aryan Nāga tribes were elevated into the status of ‘kshatriyas’. Thus it appears that fancy dynasties like Naga Vansha (Dynasty of Serpent) and AgniVamsha (Dynasty of Fire God) were added later as part of regal glorification processes.

Naga cult: Antiquity and spread

The fear and worship of Naga is one of the oldest cults in the world that dates back to early days of civilization. There are suggestion sthat Naga were a tribe from ancient Ethiopia. Ethiopia in Africa is the cradle of earliest human civilization. Some believe that ancient Naga tribes from Ethiopia, migrated and ruled parts of ancient India.There are persons in Ethiopia having the name of Naga. However, cities named Naga are found far and wide in Phillipines as well in Japan (Nagasaki), showing the spread of this ancient cult. There are Naga tribes of Austro-Asiatic origin in northeastern part of India and in parts of Kashmir. The spread of Naga cult can also be found in Srilanka where Kings with surnames of Naga ruled during the early centuries of the Comman Era.

It appears that during the compilation of Puranas in India, the Nāga tribes had become rare minorities.Because most of the Puranas imaginatively described Naga as mythical creatures with half-human, half-serpent bodies.

It appears that Old Indian words ‘nagna’, ‘nanga’ and old English word ‘naked’ are all genetically connected to the word Nāga.

Nāga worship

In Tulunadu, there are no distinct evidences to suggest that the ancient rulers considered themselves as kshatriyas distinctly or were derived exclusively from any specific Nāga dynasty. The cult of worshipping Nāgas, no doubt, was widespread all over India. However, it is difficult at present to pin point which Tulu community was derived exclusively from ancient Nāga tribes. The available evidences rather suggest that most of Tulu communities are admixtures of several ancient tribes through the dark lanes of prolonged history. The Alupa rulers were basically marine merchants and that may be one of the reason why they exclusively categorised themselves with four division Chaturvarna classification. Even the Bunt-Nadavas of Tulunadu were professional admixtures of warriors (Bunt), cultivators (Nadava) and merchants (Shetty< Shresti).

Vansha vs. Bari

Some of our Readers have enquired innocently whether Mogaveeras are also derived from Nagavanshi kshatriyas, since some of the Bunts claim that they were from such a Nagavanshi dynasty.

Our inference is that only warrior communities (kshatriyas) derived directly from the ancient Nāga tribes should claim such a descent. In Tulunadu, as well as in rest of Karavali and Karnataka, you will find many ancient place-names reminding of Naga tribes such as Nagur, Nagori, Nagarakatti, Nagarbavi, Nagasandra, Nagarahole,Nagapatna etc. However, the available data suggest that the ancient Nāga tribe was only one of the numerous ancient tribes that existed in ancient India. Basically, as discussed already, none of the communities and castes in Tulunadu described themselves exclusively as ‘Kshatriyas’ during the history, because they (especially, the part time warrior groups) adopted multiple professions n their lifetime.

Thus, it may not be appropriate to adopt some fancy titles preferred by bygone Kings unless you are convinced of your exclusive derivation from any specific Naga tribe. In case you are looking for your original roots, the Tulu ‘bari’ lineage genetic recognition system may be more meaningful and appropriate than the rather superflous Vansha system.

284. Vorkady : An Ethnonym

2011-07-22T17:13:00.002+05:30

“Eeru Enmura Deyyu? Moole balle Orkaaduda kurle jaitu paadla”

Translation from Tulu: “Are you Deyyu of Enmur? Come here, and listen: Go and defeat the piglets of Vorkady.”

(It is a string of a Tulu PaDdana, cited in Tulu Lexicon).

(Male pig is usually called as ‘vargale’ in Tulu language. Thus the term ‘kurle’(=piglet) might have been used in a contemptuous manner. This we can imagine scenes from the history of frequent fighting among feudal kings of yore in Tulu Nadu.)

On the trail of Vorkady

Vorkady is a village of Manjeshwara taluka, Kasaragod District, Kerala. Kasaragod was the southern tip of Tulu Nadu earlier, now merged with Kerala State.According to the 'Gramapaddhati', Tulunadu is divided into 32 Villages - 16 Western and 16 Eastern. Varkadi. or Vorkady is one of the sixteen Western Villages of Tulunadu wherein Brahmanas are settled originally.The rivulet is a tributary of Bangra Manjeshwar River. There is an ancient about 600year old Subrahmanya temple in this village.‘Vorku’ or ‘Orku’ in general means ‘increasing in volume’ (like liquids, etc.). We cannot say how it applies to Vorkady. An attempt is made to analyse this Place name.

1. Varaka+di: Varaka means jack fruit in Tamil and Sri Lanka. In Tulu, it is known as ‘Barake/Barike or Barke’ (Note: Transition of ‘va’ to ‘ba’ is common in Indian languages). ‘Barike’ is used tautologically in ‘Barike Pelakkāyi, meaning a variety of jack-fruit with hard supple edible pulp. Here ‘Barike’ has dual meaning as ‘hard or tough’, besides jack-fruit itself in repetition. So it could be a village where jack fruits are available in plenty.

2. Varike (Barike>Barke) + adi: If we quote from Census of India-1901, “Barika literally means a village watchman. In the Deccan Districts, they are usually ‘Balijas’ and entries of the name is clubbed with the caste.” In Tulu Nadu, Barike/Barke is a title of landed gentry, serving feudal Chieftain of the area (as is the case with Bhondaries of Ganjam, Orissa – q.v. Census-1901). These clans are known by their manor houses, like Barike, Guttu, Parari, etc. They are below the ‘Beeduda’ (‘Booduda’) Arasu (King). So Vorkady (Varike+ady) is a village having manor house of a Bunt with the status of Varike/Barike. When Hoysala Ballals ruled Tulu Nadu, their Chieftains were assisted by Barike Gaudas/Gouds, who migrated from Kodagu and Hasan on the eastern slope of Sahyadri (Western Ghats). Even when there is a change of overlordship, those Gaudas stayed back and served under local chieftains. Gaudas are tough people. It is possible that Barike/Barke gained the meaning of ‘hard’ (supple), as the pulp of a fruit (cf DED 5268). Jack-fruit with soft pulp is called ‘Tuluve (soft juicy pulpy) pelakkayi’ in Tulu.

The other possibilities are:

3. Vor+ka+adi : One portion of forest region. A dry region with forest cover.

4. Varak+adi: Varaku/Varak means ‘foil or leaf of gold’. Could it be a place named after goldsmiths (Merchant class of artisans), who possibly outnumbered other class of people?

5. Varaka +adi: Varaka (Oraka) has meaning of ‘a spring or fountain’ (q.v. TL-p.2782). The Village could have a watershed, providing perennial water supply. There is a small rivulet and an ancient and famous Subramanya Temple is located on one of its banks.’ Varu/Varaka’ has the meaning of canal for irrigation in Southern Dravidian languages. In Kui language, it means ‘water channel, stream, torrent or flood’ (q.v. DED-S/N-4342).

Conclusion

We could conclude, based on the expositions, that Vorkady is an ethnonym and eponym, possibly derived from the name of the ‘Barke’ families once upon a time. Or it could have been village famous for a class of jack fruits. The families must be the representatives of the Feudal Lord of the region for local administration.

-Hosabettu Vishwanath, Pune

283. Aggargona, Agumbe: Aga/Agher tribes

2011-07-16T09:07:00.006+05:30

A river flowing by Kumta town and to the South of piligrimage centre of Gokarna in Uttara Kannada District is known as Aghanäshini. Aghanäshini in Sanskrit means destroyer (näshini) of sins (agha).While you may be wondering why this particular river was named as destroyer of sins, you shall encounter a place called ‘Aggar-goNa’ in the surrounding region.

Aggargona is a village in Kumta Taluk named after ‘Agher’ (pronounced as Agyer or ‘Aaghers’). Aaghers are a backward tribe distributed in parts of Uttara Kannada district. Aagher is a collective noun wherein the plural suffix ‘–er’ refer to a group of Aga tribes.In Munda tribal belts of Northern India they are known as Agariya.

The place name Aggar-gona could have come from agar, the Marathi word for salt pan, or from the Agher (Agar or Agari) communities that involved themselves traditionally in the manufacture os common salt from the sea water.

Thus, it can be suggested that Agha in the River name Agha-nashini is derived from the Aagha tribes. And the suffix Näshini was attached to the Agha just to complete the Sanskrit nomenclature. Some of the random places named after Aga tribes in India have been recalled here below:

Agumbe, the hill station famous for a charming sunset on the Sahyadri range in Shimoga district is again named after the Agha tribes.
Agari is a hamlet near Bajpe, Mangalore Taluk.

Agadi: Aga+di village in Belgaum district is suggestive of an ancient habitation of Aga tribes.

Agartala: A place named after Aga(r) tribes.

Agastya: An ancient sage mentioned in Sanskrit as well as Tamil Sangam literature. In his name you can find the prefix ‘Ag(h)a’ suggesting his connection with Agha tribes.

Aga/ Agariya tribes: The Aga or Agariya are an Austro-Asiatic Munda group of tribes, possibly part of the pre-Dravidian settlers in India.

Similarly, 'Agri' appears to be an variant of the tribe 'Ag'. 'Agri' and 'Koli' are original ethnic (fisherman) tribes of Mumbai and other Konkan coastal belt. Agri (Ag+ri) is a village in Ghansoli of New Mumbai. There is one 'Agripada' in Central Mumbai and other at Danda-Agripada in Bandra-Khar belt. Similarly Agari hamlets exist in the Karavli also. Kolis speak Marathi and Agri-Kolis speaks a mixture of Marathi, Hindi, Sanskrit and Kannada .

Like Kols the Aga/Agar/Agariya tribes were involved with metal smelting. The tribal word ‘Ag’ probably supplied the root for the Prakrit /Hindi word ‘Aag’ for fire.
Salt makers

Agar in Marathi means salt pan or bounded farm. In Uttara Kannada district,Karnataka, near Aggargona and Gokarna, traditional salt making industries do exist. The saline water from the tidal stretches are spread on open agricultural fields and are allowed to dry up under the Sun. Desiccation of saline water forms crystals of common salt that are eventually gathered and marketed.Similar native salt making industries prevailed all along the coast since antiquity.
According to legends prevailing among Agari (also known as Agle) tribes in Maharastra, Agela and Mangela were two sons of the sage Agastya.On growing up Agela pursued the art of producing common salt from sea water, wheras Mangela became a fisherman.

Mangala Poojari

Mahakulastri Ammanavaru temple at Benne Kuduru near Barkur, Udupi district is the major centre of worship for Mogaveeras of Tulunadu. The mother Goddess temple is managed by preists designated as Mangala Pojaris. The origin of the word Mangala comes from the name of fisher tribe of Maharastra, the Mangelas. It term reveals that the temple was traditionally owned and maintained by fisher tribes of Mangela who have been known as Mangala Poojaris with passage of time.

-Ravi and Vishwanath.

282. On the quest of Kavrady

2011-06-29T14:07:00.000+05:30

How an object interests a person for its antiquity and/or customs! This is a matter for study. This statement is proved true when the name ‘Kavrady’ (pronounced Kaa-vra-_Di) captured my attention in a wrapper of ‘chakkuli’ (Chakkuli is an eatable made of rice flour with black gram, salt, etc., circular shaped and deep fried in oil). I purchased this packet at Kundapur State Transport Depot when Pune bound KSRTC luxury bus stopped there for tea break during my return journey (May 20^th). My curiosity grew owing to the peculiarity of the name, unheard by me.

Kavrady in Kundapur

Kavrady (Kavradi) is a village in Kundapur Taluk of Udupi District (carved out of erstwhile Dakshina Kannada District). Kundapur is Taluk Headquarters (36 km north of Udupi) and it takes the name from the Kundeshwara Temple around Panchagangavali River, built by Alupa King Kundavarma. Kundapur is also famous for Kunda (i.e. jasmine) flowers. Kunda also means a pillar. Kundapur is a peninsula, surrounded by Panchagangavali River on the North, Kalaghar River on the East and Kodi backwaters of Arabian Sea on the West. Basrur is a historical place and is a natural port. Traders from foreign countries used to bring their boats and ships in olden days, bartering their goods for pepper and fine quality rice. Trading Guilds were powerful here in those days.

Place names are culture-centric, emerging from a specific time. It is perspicuous from our Posts on some place names. Surviving trace or memorial of custom, period, people, etc. comes handy in discerning things existing in the past. Let me explore some odd corners of history around Kavrady.

Examining Kavrady

1.On dissection of the compound word ‘Ka_vra_di’, we get Kavu (garden/forest) + ur (place/village) + adi (place). ‘Adi’ is apparently is a needless addition. Kavu has traditional meaning of preserved and protected forest, holy or sacred grove or a forest area in simple sense. Firstly, Kavrady thus means a village area with protected and holy grove or forest.

2.Secondly, ‘Kāva ’ could be keeper of kavu. It is also a surname or clan name among Bunts (q.v. Tulu Lexicon). So ‘Kavradi’ could be bifurcated as ‘Kavara (Kava clan’s) + Adi (Dwelling place/Habitat).

3.Thirdly, in Malayalam, ‘Kāvara’ is a tribe trading with glass bracelets and bangles, baskets, etc. In Kannada, ‘gavariga’ means a man of the basket and mat-maker caste (Note the transformation of ‘ka’ to ‘ga’). In Tamil, it is a ‘Balija’ caste among the Telugas. (DED 1118).

4.Fourthly, it could be a junction of two roads, overseen by a ‘Kapari’ (keeper or watcher). In olden feudal society, traditional boundaries of feudal lords are demarcated and road tax (ಸುಂಕ) (a precursor of modern day octroi or commercial duty was collected.

5.Fifthly , it may mean topographically a forked shape area (Y) on analyzing Kavrady as Kavar (= kabar or kabe, i.e. cloved or forked) +adi (place). ‘Kavar’ or ‘Kabar’ could be a land split by a stream or river. (Note: No field study is done by me. Locals could give us a feedback).

6.‘Kāvara’ is a mint, furnace or smith’s work-place since ‘kavu’ or ‘kavara’ also means heat/heating (besides desire or thirst). [Example: Please note the word ‘honnagaavara, i.e. honna (gold’s) + Kaavara (Mint) = Mint of golden coins, used by M. Govinda Pai in one of his poems in ‘Gilivindu’). There might have been once a mint of Alupa Kings or some metal works in Kavrady. Alupa Kings ruled over Tulunadu for more than thousand years (CE 5^th to 15th).

A vestige of sacred grove?

There are similar village names with prefix or suffix ‘Kavu’ in Tulunadu and other southern States, namely Kavoor (a suburb of Mangalore), Kavugoli (in Kasargod District), Mujumgavu (Mujum+kavu), etc. This ‘Kavu’ (sacred grove) culture is an early tribal culture, probably pre-Dravidian in Tulunadu and in other parts of India. It is known later by other equivalent names in Tulunadu, such as Bana, Kapu, Kaana and ‘devara kadu’ (in Kannada). They are mostly found near mounds, hilly areas, riverine places and within family and community properties. ‘Kapiri Gudde’ (Kapiri Hill), which is explained as an Ethnonym in our Post-273: Kaprigudda, Mangalore, might have also been a sacred grove. [ ‘Kapiri’ also means a Negro in Malayalam.]

Sacred Groves

‘Sacred Grove’ is a cult, practiced all over the globe, and invariably followed throughout India right from prehistoric period. It is known as ‘Temenos’ in Greco-Roman, ‘hÕergr’(Note: ‘o’ is an umlaut and spelt ‘oe’) in Norse (Scandinavian), ‘Nemeton’ in Celtic (France), Baltic Russian ‘Romowe’ (Some are still surviving like ‘Sventybrasis’), in Lithuania ‘Alka(s)’, etc. In Nigeria, sacred groves are dedicated to Fertility God of Yoruba mythology. ‘Nemetons’ are fenced by means of ditch and wooden palisades in quadrangular shape. Particular type of trees or deities is worshipped with sacrificing of animals during annual rites in these groves.

In North-Eastern part of India (Orissa, Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, etc.),in Austro Asiatic Munda tribal communities, these sacred groves are called as ‘Sarana or Sarna’(1). In Kerala, these sacred groves are called ‘Kavus’. It is habitual among Kerala Hindus to set apart some land around the house for Goddess Durga and create a small sacred forest (Kavu) (2). In Tamil Nadu, Sacred groves are important traditional method of both in situ and ex situ conservation of economically and spiritually valuable tree species. An extensive survey of 266 sacred Groves of Tamil Nadu was conducted in order to conserve them (3). In village Minor, Kumaon Region of Uttarkhand, the Deity Golu Devata is venerated by restoration of Sacred Grove (4). Birhor Tribe clans think themselves to have been descended from a common ancestor, belonging to a particular hill or mountain and feel kinship relation among them all (5). Villagers in Kumaon, Himalayas, discovered that Gods were the best guards for their forests (6). Folklore plays an important role in the preservation of Sacred Groves. Not only tribal people but rural people also preserved the sacred groves by traditional customs, rituals, ceremonies and folk belief (7). In Maharashtra it is called ‘Devari’ and ‘Varana’ in Rajasthan.

Original tribes of Tulu Nadu are Naga (snake) worshipping people. Sacred groves are called as ‘Nagabanas’ here. These are natural or reserved forests for Naga (Snake) worship, along with other divine spirits. There are around 6000 Naga Banas in undivided Dakshina Kannada District (q.v. Dr.Paltadi Ramakrishna Achar’s book ‘Naga Berma’, p.27). In Kodagu too, there are many sacred groves.

Protection of sacred groves is one of the traditional conservation practices followed by Tribal as they are priceless treasure houses of some of the most rare and important flora and fauna. Tribal festivals, revolving around these groves, are linked to specific deities. Orissa tribal worship nature for keeping the Nature satisfied. Common objects of worship are the Sun, the Earth, hills, rivers, streams, rain, forests and trees. ‘Sarna dharma’ is followed by Pauri Bhuyan, Kandhs, Santhals, Oraons, and Munda. ‘Sarna’ is a Mundari word. A tree in a Sarna is not damaged or felled. Pantheon of Munda is composed of ‘Sing Bhong (The Sun God) at the apex and the Nature Gods, ancestral spirits, village deities. Tribals have imbibed instinctively strong and deep sense of love for the Nature from primeval days.

These days, ‘corridors of power-that would be’ are ignoring the utilitarian, ecological and environmental and socio-cultural importance of such protected groves. Rapid industrialization of rural areas is playing havoc on the lives of project-affected people. Vitiation of marine life, trees and water resources is detrimental to the economy of local people of such regions, as is evidenced in coastal belt of Mangalore and Udupi. Readers would do well if they read the Seminar Paper of Jayakara Bhandary to find out the reasons for degradation and destruction of sacred groves. Theme: ‘Tussle between Development and Displacement’ is rightly depicted in the Tulu Film ‘Oriyardori assal’ (ಒರಿಯರ್ದೋರಿ ಅಸ್ಸಲ್, i.e. One is smarter than the other), based on a Tulu Drama.

Mercantile, Cultivator & Warrior Class

Hunter-gatherer man is a classless entity in the pre-historical past. How elitism had a sway on masses on basis of customs, religion, ruler & ruled, and professions is subject-matter of history. Power-clash between Vedic and Non-Vedic societies/cults is etched in history. Fermenting and transition period culminated in fusion of all beliefs in Hinduism, showing the sagacity of our seers from time to time. This is visible from scriptures, inscriptions, legends, fossils, surrounding Vedic and Non-Vedic Society. Evolving Hinduism gave birth to Chaturvarna system that is four classes of Society (Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) with scriptural injunctions for righteous living in four stages of life. Cults of original inhabitants were accepted by Aryans (say Brahmans) and gradually assimilated. This can be seen in the addition of fourth Veda, say Atharva Veda. The first three Vedas are on cosmological knowledge and the fourth on mystic and magical knowledge of non-Aryans. Hierarchical order resulted in the Supreme class disliking the royal class (Kshatriyas) and vice versa. These are seen in curses by priests (in Puranas). This led to emergence of new merchant class, who were either supporters of Vedic class or adherents of non-Vedic Sects, such as Jainism and Buddhism. Migration, cross-fertilization and assimilation were seen as a continuing process. Being warrior class, merchants had their own security system in the guise of merchant or trade guilds, located near rivers and sea ports. Being landed gentry, they worked as cultivators and also warriors when a need arose. Some of the trader-cultivator-warrior group could build kingdoms, as we see in Alupa Dynasty of Alvakheda, i.e. Tulu Nadu.

Coming to ‘Kava(s)’, we can deduce that they were trader-agriculturists, shouldering the mantle of soldiers in times of war. Sea trade was an essential part of their mercantile profession, making them to settle down in different regions and countries. Kavara tribe is mostly spread in the South.

Among Balija of Andhra, who share history with Bunts, Kunubi of Maharashtra and Kapus of Telugu, has following sub-groups:

(1) Balija Chettis or Setti (aka Shetty Balija): In the Annals of Vijayanagara Empire, they were said to be wealthy merchants, who controlled powerful trading guilds. Vijayanagara Kings made them Desai’s or Superintendents of all castes in the country to secure their loyalty. There is another view (by David Rudner) that Balija Chettis branched off from Balija Nayakas, having close relationship to Nayakas. Veera Banajigas were mentioned in the inscriptions of the Chalukyas.

(2) Gajula (Gaju = Glass) Balija/Kavara Balija/Sugavansi (pure) Balija: Myth is that Parvati, Lord Shiva’s wife, did a penance for looking prettier to please Shiva. A man sprang from the sacrificial fire bringing forth cosmetics for her. Thus, this man became ancestor for Gajula Balija. The Gajula Balijas are known as ‘Kavarai’ in Tamil Nadu, having Titles of Naidu, Nayakan, Chetti, Sethi and Nayaka. They claim connection to Kurus of Mahabharata and that Kavarai is corrupt form of Kauravas.

(3) Kambalattars/Thottiyars: Refers to cultivators.

(4) Gopita (Gopa/Golla = Cattle-herder) Balijas. [Note: ‘Gopita’ may be ‘Gupta’, as I had a Telugu acquaintance from Andhra, having this surname when I was staying in a Lodge in Pimpri in initial years of my arrival (July 14^th, 1968) in Pune. I thought him to be a Marwari Maheshwari (Vaishya) as my boss was Jagan Nath Gupta ].

(5) Rajamahendravaram Balija or Musukkama Balija – They are traders in ear ornaments.

(6) Pusa/Poosala

(7) Kannadian / Ravuth

(8) Adi Balija. A sub-caste in Hyderabad Karnataka.

There are numerous branches of Balija. Some were named after Villages. Some are odd names, like Mulaka, a tribe, Meriyala (pepper traders), Vyas and Tota. Difference between sub-castes appears to have been wiped out in the sands of time. (Note: Mulaka may give us a lead to decipher the place name Mulki, which was earlier known as Mulaka.)

In divine spirit worship in Tulu Nadu, some spirit impersonators address local feudal chief as ‘Baler’. This ‘addressing’ is also available in Tulu PaDdanas. We can definitely draw a kinship between Balija and Baler (Child). This 'Bale' in Tulu or Bala (Child) has parallel in Maheshwari Vaish’s of Rajasthan. Maheshwari means ‘Children of Shiva’, as he is instrumental in bringing back the Kshatriya Prince of Khandela and his 72 trusted soldiers, who were turned into statues by the curse of seven Rishis, to life. In short, they are called as ‘Bala’. Legends about transition from Kshatriya to Vaishya are available in web-pages.

In Rajasthan, the mercantile community (Bania) is generally divided into two groups: (1) Shravaks (Jains) and (2) Meswari, i.e. Maheshwari (Hindu). Maheshwaris are predominantly found in Mewar of Rajasthan and in Gujarat. The nomenclature ‘Maheshwari’ is derived from Mahesh as they are followers of Shiva. They are originally Kshatriyas but later on converted to Vaishyas, a community of traders with 72 clan names in the beginning, such as Agarwal, Bidla (Birla), Bajaj, Gupta, Khandelwal, Kabra, etc. Birlas are the first Maheshwari community who started a jute mill in Bengal in 1918. Mark the similarity between ‘Kabra’ (one of the surnames of Maheshwari community) and ‘Kavara’.

How maritime trade was prospering during days gone by in Tulunadu is still found in the following expression, made when a man sits downcast. "Daane ancha kudondini? Ninna kappal murukuduna?" (Why you are sitting like this. Is your ship sunk?)

Kavaratti, a cognate

Mark the cognate of Kavradi: Kavaratti, a blue lagoon island and a favourite tourist destination. It is an island town/city and the smallest Capital of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep, an archipelago of 36 corals islands, off Kerala coast. It is famous for ornately carved pillars and roofs of 52 Mosques, lining the unspoiled beach. Last ruler was Cheraman Perumal of Cannanore in 8^th Century. Fishing, cultivating coconut trees and coir making are economic activities here. Until State re-organization in 1956, local administration was partly under erstwhile South Kanara (Dakshina Kannada) and partly under Malabar Districts.

Conclusion

Kavradi could have been an ethnonym referring to the habitat of Kavar(a) people. ‘Kavar’ could be (1)a keeper of ‘kavu’ groves or(2) a professional connected with smelting metals.

Political and socio-religious changes have a bearing on place names. This can be applied to ‘Kavrady’.

References

ENVIS Centre on Conservation of Ecological Heritage & Sacred Sites of India, quoted following sources:

1. Hindu Survey of the Environment, pp.120-130, 1998)

2. The Sacred Groves of Kerala/The WWF India Quarterly Vol.11, pp. 3-4, 15-16)

3. Sacred Groves in Tamil Nadu – Annual Report 1996-97 (p.28-35)

4. Adhikari S.S. & R.S. Adhikari – Journal of American Science Vol.3 (2), pp.45-49 (2007)

5. Adhikari A.K. – Society & World View of Birhor, Memoir No.60, Anthropological Survey of India, Calcutta (1984)

6. Agarwal R. – ‘Divine Protection’, Down to Earth, Vol.11(11), p.44(11.10.2002

7. Amrithalingam M. ‘Folklore of Sacred Groves’, Indian Folk Life, Vol.1(3), pp.8-9 (Oct. 2000)

Jayakara Bhandary, “God’s own pharmacies – The Sacred Groves of Udupi & Dakshina Kannada as the Treasure Houses of Medicinal Plants”, a Paper read on Oct. 4 & 5, 2008 at MM Science College Sirsi during National Seminar.

-Hosabettu Vishwanath, Pune

281. Koda tribes: Kodavur, Kodagu

2011-06-28T17:36:00.000+05:30

Our antique Place names have preserved invaluable vestiges of history that would have been mostly inscrutable otherwise in the absence of systematic documentation of our early ancient history.

Koda tribes

Koda tribes are a subgroup of Austro-Asiatic Munda tribes of India, presently their distribution being restricted to parts of Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Bengal and surrounding regions. However, our ancient place names suggest that once upon a time the Koda tribes were distributed in many parts of Tulunadu and southern India.

We have discussed about the origin and scope of the word Koda and Kodamanittaya in earlier post in connection with Kudupu and Kodavur. However, the identity of Koda tribes was not discussed.

Koda tribes are alternately known as Kora (Khaira, Khayara) tribes in northern India.In Bangladesh they are also known as Kuda tribes or Mirdha.In Kerala Koodan and Kootan tribes and Kota tribes of West Coast might be the other variants of Koda tribes.

We shall review some of the place names that bear the signatures of ancient Koda tribes in Tulunadu and surrounding regions:

Kodavur: (Near Malpe, Udupi Taluk). KoDa+Oor, A village of Koda tribes.

Kodapadavu: (Near Vitla, Bantval taluk). KoDa+padavu, A plateau inhabited by Koda tribes.

Kodakkal : (1.Near Padil, Mangalore; 2 .Near Mudipu, Bantval Taluk, etc.). KoDa+kal, A settlement of Koda tribes.The place names Kodakkal have another implication. Kodakkal also refers to umbrella (koDa,koDe) shaped Megalithic rocky burial structures occurring as relics in many parts of peninsular India.We shall carry a separate post on these ancient burial structures.

Kotakkal: (Kerala). A variant of the place name: Kodakkal. Kota tribes appear to be another variant of Koda people.

Kodgi: (Kundapur taluk). KoDa+gi, A village of Koda tribes.

Kodamogge : (A Village in Kundapur taluk).KoDa+mogge. , An area of Koda tribes.

Kodladi : (A Village in Kundapur taluk). KoDa+la+aDi, A tree covered hamlet of Koda tribes.

Koodige: (A Village near Kushalnagar,Kodagu). KoDa+i+ge, A village of Kuda/Koda tribes.

Kodagu: (A district largely consisting of Kodaga tribes). Kodaga appears to be an evolved version of Koda tribes. (= Koda+ga). An area of Koda/Kodaga tribes. (Compare with Koraga=Kora+ga).

Kodiyala or Kodial: (1. A part of Mangalore. 2. A village in Puttur Taluk). Kodiyala might have been originally Kodayala (Koda+ala). It appears to a riverside settlement (ala) of Koda tribes. Since, Koda and Kuda are the alternate names of the same tribe in Bangaldesh, similarly ‘Kudala’(=Kuda+ala) , the alternate ancient name of Mangalore, appears to be another variant of Kodayala. Compare with place name ‘Kudle’ beach near Gokarna, near Kumta, Uttar Kannda District.

KoDaikanal: A hillstation in Tamilandu. An arera of Koda tribes.

The words: Koda, Kodamani

Koda= ko+Da. Divine area or tribe (Ko= divine, God. Da= (1) settlement or (2) entity; as in Kovil= temple ; ko+yil=Gods house). Koda, the divine entity, possibly represented Naga, the snake God, considering that the word Kodamani as in Kodamanittaya possibly represents a Nagamani or the mythical gemstone on the hood of a cobra. The word 'koDe' means umbrella: alternately hood of a serpent shape also can be liked to an umbrella, as we find instances of mega-serpents described in Puranic lores like Adishesha forming umbrella to Lord Vishnu.

KőDaga, the monkey

The word KôDaga (long o as in port) in Kannada represents a monkey.The possible genetic connection between the words Koda and Kodaga may be explored further.

280. Last Rites : A book review.

2011-06-07T16:45:00.004+05:30

“Tuluvara Maranottara Kriye – Tulu Jānapada Samskāra”, (Kannada ). By Narayana A. Bangera, Mitrapatna. Dombivli Tulu Welfare Association, B/6, 1^st Floor, Mai Mauli C H Society Ltd., Opp. Gaodevi Mandir, Manpada Road, Dombivli (East), Mumbai- 421 201.

Price: Rs.50/-(postage not inclusive)

In a simple and straight-forward style, Narayana A. Bangera, presents in Kannada the Tulu psyche behind the customs of the last rites and rituals for the departed souls. For non-Kannada readers, the meaning of the Kannada Title of the book is “After-Death (or Last) Rites of Tuluvas – a Tulu Folk Cultural Tradition”. It is a welcome addition and we thank N.A. Bangera for rendering this unwritten law on purification process of body and soul of a departed person, percolating down the ages, to Tulu/Kannada speaking world. According to Hindu traditions, the Samskāra, (performance of purification rituals) is applicable only to a man and a Nāga (a serpent worshipped by Hindus). The book is an outcome of a symposium arranged by Dombivli Tulu Welfare Association.

Life and death are an eternal process – a cycle of birth and death of a body. Birth is a matter of rejoice whereas death is gloomy and sorrowful. One becomes nonplussed on the death of a beloved. Even a sympathizer is speechless but shows his sympathy being present at the funeral. How a man of different geographical region distinguished by customs (of caste and community), language, religion, environment, etc., behaves and deals with death is a subject of study by ethnologists and anthropologists.

It is a book on specific cultural group, i.e. Tulu speaking people of Tulu Nadu, variously described as ‘Pātala’ or ‘Nāga naDe’ (or Loka), ‘Satiyaputra/Satiyaputo’, ‘Alvakheda/ Alvakheta’, etc. during historical past, now covering essentially the districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada in coastal Karnataka.

Glossary of ritualistic acts

The book deals with the procedural social codes and customs, prevailing in Tulu Nadu. Step by step acts to be performed, right from a time when a man is in death-bed to post-funeral, are elucidated. A drift in trends is ridiculed or supported, as the case may be, by the writer. The book is a timely reminder to present generation to understand and uphold the systems (in spite of ineluctable changes taking place in physical and mental characteristics because of gradual and steady crossings among so called races, caste and tribes, communities, etc). Considering the fact that Tuluvas (Tulu speakers) are scattered in nook and corners of India and abroad, a Tuluva is prone to lose contact and forget the significance of these unwritten codes of conduct. He performs such acts perfunctorily and exigently.The book brings out essential facts, which are unwritten so far, in a fair measure of success. It is evident in the Q & A Session (Note: P. 51-66 are bound in reverse, i.e. descending order as 66-51). As Ashok Suvarna, Editor, Mogaveera (Mumbai) rightly says, the book is a helpful compendium for diaspora of Tuluvas.

Glossary of oral technical terminologies, used from time immemorial in Tulu Nadu, is mentioned consecutively with elucidation in Kannada by the author. In this Post, equivalent Tulu phrases are used with brief elaboration for the benefit of its readers owing to space constraints.

Marana – Bayigu Niru Korpini: When death is imminent to a person on death-bed or is dead, family members offer drops of water (equated to Ganga water) into his mouth with Tulasi (Basil) leaves or Durva (a type holy grass). Water is dropped in proxy for absent members, by uttering their names and God’s name as ‘Achuta-Ananta-Govinda’.

Mannigu Paadunu: To lay straightened dead body on the floor, without under garments, chest upward, head southward and drape a white cloth over the body leaving face portion open.

Marana saarunu (Beri barpini): This is an errand of informing village (specifically village heads), neighbours and dear and near ones.

Chatta Kattunu: To prepare a bier made of bamboo poles and splinters to carry corpse to cremation ground.

Puna Meepavunu:This is an act of washing dead body with specific injunctions by the ‘Gurikara’ (Village head/leader).

Punonu singara malpunu: On washing the corpse, Bhajane (devotional songs) starts. Washed body is either seated in a chair or laid down on floor (as said above) and draped with clean white cloth or attired with normal dress. If dead woman is not a widow, she is decorated with her bridal attire. Prominent person places a garland of Tulasi (basil) leaves.

Paada Tirtha: This is a sacred act of washing legs of the deceased and drinking washed out water.

Muttesana kalepini/deppunu: This is a pathetic scene of removing all things of married symbols of a woman. (Here the writer explains the auspicious ceremony of bestowing these symbols during a woman’s marriage).

Neeru Korpini:Assembled mourners pay homage to departed soul by offering new white cotton/silken cloths, laying wreathes and soaking mouth of corpse by means of basil leaves.

Puna derpunu: Lifting bier, following the tradition, and taking it to crematory.

Kata Ooruni: Preparation of pyre is done at designated places.

Punonu Katodu dippini: Laying corpse on pyre for burning following traditions in practice. Remaining mourners put water into corpse’s mouth at this stage, as said above.

Prarthane Malpunu:It is a prayer on behalf of the deceased, requesting the Almighty to forgive sins of the dead when alive and bestow him a position in the Heavens accordingly.

Punoku kolli deepuni: Putting fire to pyre following Tulu traditions.

Mannu korpuni: This is called as ‘Bali Mannu’, showing respect to Bali Chakravarti, ruler of Sapta Konkana in ancient period. This is an action of throwing fistful of earth (three times) at the pyre before leaving crematory.

Dooloppa: This is a conventional procedure on third or fifth day of cremation. This is heaping of ash and remnant bones and offering Bonda Neeru (Tender coconut water) and other favourite eatables of the deceased. This is normally done with help of traditional priest of Tuluvas, i.e. Madyala (washerman) and Village Head. Bones are collected procedurally for future rites on 13^th or 16^th day. This act is also called as ‘Bonda Kodatu dippini’ and ‘Kolli magapuni’.

Bojja: This is 13^th or 16^th day ceremony of ‘saying farewell unwillingly’. The Book explains significance of various aspects of this procedure, such as (1) Drum beating by ‘Koragas’ (original inhabitants of Tulu Nadu), (2)cutting unripe banana and ash coloured gourd, (3) eating ‘dukkada ganji’ (conji as a mark of mourning) in the morning after (4) ‘Tila Homa’ by Brahmin priest, (5)‘Neeru Neralu’ (Emotion-packed act of creating an hospitable place for departed soul at main hall of a house), (6) ‘Neeru Kuntu’ (Token Wet cloth being offered by departed soul through the priest as a mark of satisfaction), (7) cooking the feast, (8) ‘Doope’ (a structure in the form of a car erected outside or at the place of ‘Dooloppu’. This a procedure of calling the departed soul for ‘car festival’), (9) ‘Kaka Pinda’ (Offering cooked food to crows), (10) Prayer for ‘Pitru Dootas’, i.e. crows, representing Yama, the Lord of Death, to accept the offerings without minding the lapses in preparation by bereaved family, (11) ‘Tala Lappunu’ (This is a symbolic measuring of earth by Vamana in the Bhagavata story of Bali Chakravarti), (12) Tasting the sumptuous meal, considered as pure after eaten by crows, (13) ‘Kanistharpane’, i.e. offerings made to Koragas present, (14) ‘Made-pojja’ or ‘Ulayi Leppuni’, an evening ceremony of ‘agelu balasuni’, i.e. offering meals, new cloth and favourite things enjoyed by departed soul during his/her life time. (This invitation to the departed soul, along with manes of the family, is emotional and heart-rending. British Historian Dr. Buchanan had expressed his awe over the practice of remembering the dead by Tuluvas.

Highly Emotional

Some may be cynical about the practices faithfully followed by Tuluvas for ages as ‘avaidik’ ,not according to Vedic practices. Now-a-days, some of the rituals are performed through Brahmins. Irrespective of ‘Avaidik’ or ‘Vaidik’, it is matter of heart. The ritual of bidding farewell to the departed ritual is an ancient emotional expression from the heart of the heart. Chanting Sanskrit slokas (hymns) is another thing but ultimate purpose is served in the form of mental satisfaction to the performer (mourning family).
*

Copies can be had from the Publisher or the Author at following address:

Mr. Narayan A. Bangera

4, Rajaram CHS, Gaodevi, Ghanashyam Gupte Road

Dombivli (West)-421 202 (Dist. Thane/Maharashtra)

Contact: (R) 0251-2403151, Mobile: +919819778727

About the Author

Mr. Bangera is born on 10^th February, 1939 at Mitrapatna of Mukka-Suratkal, Karnataka. Studied at native place and Mumbai and is a Commerce Graduate. Became Kannada Pandit under guidance of Suratkal Subbarao and Ramachandra Uchil. Taught in Kannada Free Night High Schools (of Mogaveera & Kanara Vidyadayini) and also in M.L. Dahanukar College, Mumbai. Retired from Air India after a meritorious service of 40 years. Being good orator, he is an interpreter and narrator of holy epics (ಪ್ರವಚನಕಾರ)over 50 years at Shri Madbharata Mandali of 133-year standing. Regular contributor of articles in Mogaveera Kannada Monthly. Written Nelli Tirtha Kshetra Mahatme, Kandevu Kshetra Mahatme (Prose), Shri Satyanarayana Vrata Katha (in Kannada Vardhika Shatpadi). Exposition of “Kanakadasara Hari Bhakti Sara”is appearing serially in Mogaveera. ‘Naga Charitre’ is under print (earlier published in Mogaveera serially).

-Hosabettu Vishwanath.

279. Sorake, Sornadu, Swarga

2011-05-14T11:01:00.003+05:30

While travelling from Vitla to Punacha in Bantval Taluk, Dakshina Kannada, you may find an interesting place name usually written as ‘Swarga’ in the descriptive plate of most of the buses. Swarga means heaven, so a village with such an unusual name is bound to create certain amount of curiosity.

However, analysis of related place names like Sorake (Puttur Taluk), Sornadu (Bantval Taluk) is likely to solve this confusion.The village name Swarga apparently was Soraga to begin with, that was transformed in the due course to Swarga due to enthuasism of Sanskrit word lovers.

Sorake, Soraga

Infact both the place names ‘Sorake’ and ‘Soraga’ mean settlement of an ancient Austro-Asiatic tribe called ‘Sora’ people that inhabited parts of ancient Tulunadu. The suffix ke is suffix of Singapur origin and means a settlement in Austro-Asiatic languages. The suffix, ‘–ga’ common in south Indian place namesd, appears to be an evolved form of suffix ‘ke’.

Thus, Sorake means Sora+ke, the village or settlement (ke) of Sora tribes.

Soraga, the village (‘ga’ ) of Sora tribes.

Sornadu or Soranadu: the nāDu (area) of Sora tribes.

Sora, Sabara tribes

Sora tribe is a subgroup of Austro-Asiatic Munda tribes of India, now predominantly found in parts of Orissa,Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra and Chattisgarh. Sora tribes are also alternately known as Savara or Sabara tribes.In present day Orissa they usually converse in a dialect known as Kui.
There are also places in Tulunadu connected with Sabara tribes like Sabara-bail (Bantval taluk). The village Sarapadi in Bantval Taluk could have originally been Sorapadi.Similarly, in Shimoga district ‘Soraba’ is name of a Taluk place.,wherein suffix ‘–ba’ (as in place names Kadaba, Perabe,etc) is a spatial indicator. The Shoranur (or Soranur) town in Palakkad district of Kerala is another place bearing the signature of Sora tribes in Southern India.

The presence of ancient place names like Sorandu, Sorake, Soraga ( Swarga) and Sabara-bail in Tulunadu reveal that these tribes inhabited parts of Tulunadu in the antiquity.

278. ‘Pula’ and ‘Pola’ & their Derivatives

2011-05-06T10:02:00.001+05:30

Meanings of words evolve over a period of time from their initial usage to current usage. Original meanings may eventually become dim and hidden and hence, create confusion. This observation is applicable specifically to South Indian Dravidian words.

‘Pula’ and ‘ Pola’, proto- Dravidian words, used to mean pasturage to cultivation in Dravidian group of languages, bear testimony to development of newer shades of meanings, besides retaining their original meanings to some extent. In some cases, words are equated to people and their professions.

Comparative meanings are available in the works of linguists, such as Tulu Nighantu (Tulu Lexicon)-1997, Vol. 1 to 6, Rashtrakavi Govind Pai Sanshodhana Kendra, Udupi, Karnataka/India, Dravidian Etymological Dictionary by T. Burrow & M.B. Emeneau and other dictionaries in Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Kodagu, Toda, Badaga, Sri Lanka, etc. Let us study the meanings given by Tulu Lexicon (TL) and DED:

Pula (ಪುಲ) = 1.Field, pasturage, grazing, grazing land, suitable land. 2.Ground, place where child birth has taken place. Pulavadu (ಪುಲವಾಡ್) = Broad area or pasturage. (TL , p.2073, 2147-48). Pulam (=field, rice field), in Tamil and Malayalam. (Derivatives in Tamil: pulan, pullavu = arable land, pulampan = chief or lord of a maritime tract. Originally, pulampan was chief of a village in the maritime tract.) DED 4303.

Pullel (ಪುಲ್ಲೆಲ್) = Increase, abundance.

Poli (ಪೊಲಿ) = 1.Wealth in the form of crops, corn, etc., granary. 2. Interest given in the form of grains for grains borrowed.( An ancient practice of borrowing and returning food grains)

Polisappu (ಪೊಲಿಸಪ್ಪು) = The ancient custom of bringing home leaves [of Jack, mango, bamboo and tumbe ] ceremoniously along with the spike of corn annually on the first harvesting occasion.

(Tumbe is a kind of medicinal plant; white Dead Nettle – Phlomes indica, Linn. Labiatae – used as remedy for indigestion, rheumatism, sore, scabs, fainting, etc.).

Polsudi (ಪೊಲ್ಸುಡಿ) = A folk song sung during the time of bringing first harvested crop into a house ‘Poli, poli ‘ is chanted while bringing in new paddy. (cf: Post 206. Poli Poli. Aug 30, 2009).

Pullu (ಪುಲ್ಲು) = 1. Grass, rush . 2. Skin of a cock between feather & flesh. ‘Pul’ means grass in Tamil, Kannada, Tulu, Malayalam, Kota and Toda languages. In Tamil ‘pul’ also means plants of grass family like bamboo or palms (DED 4300). In Sinhalese, ‘pol’ means coconut palm. (cf: TamilNet).

Tolkapiam classifies plants into ‘pul’ and ‘maram’ : All those plants for which the exterior is harder than core are ‘pul’ and all those for which the core is harder than the exterior are ‘maram’ (Tholkaapiam 27: 86-87).

‘Pol’, meant ‘coconut’, in ancient Tulu also. Consider this word ‘Palembu’ (ಪಾಳೆಮ್ಬು). It means a spathe or pod of coconut flower.

( We would cut out the dried ‘palembu’ in the shape of a boat. With sails attached to it, we used play in shallow water of sea or else in ponds during our childhood days at native place.)

In Kannada, ‘pulle’ (>.hulle) represents a deer, an animal feeding on grass.

Pulle, pulya= dawn, early morning. Pulle, pullya, pullyakela, pullayakāla (Tulu). Equivalents: ‘pular’ (Tamil), ‘pularukka’ (Malayalam), ‘pola’ (Kodagu). DED 4305.

Pulli (ಪುಲ್ಲಿ) = 1.Outer leaf of a plant, filament of stamen (DED 256). 2. A grand-child.

Pille (Pulle): An offshoot from bulbous plants, like plantain; seedling of a paddy plant. (TL, P.2030-31). Phrase: ‘pulle puDavuni’ means sprouting of buds; in a paddy field, it is a picturesque and pleasing sight.

‘Pola’ (>.Hola)’ is a common Dravidian word in Tulu, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Kodagu, etc. ‘Poli’ is a derivative, connected to harvesting activities and it is extensively used in various Tulu phrases, such as :

‘Poli aapuni’ (ಪೊಲಿ ಆಪುನಿ; = attaining prosperity),

‘Poli echchi’ (ಪೊಲಿ ಎಚ್ಚಿ) = It is a style of measuring newly harvested paddy with the wish of one measure more, two measure more, etc. instead of straight counting one, two, three and so on),

‘Poli barpuni’ (ಪೊಲಿ ಬರ್ಪುಣಿ ) = Increasing agricultural wealth,

‘Poli pāDuni’ (ಪೊಲಿಪಾಡುಣಿ) = A magical cult of heaping and sprinkling ashes for safety from insects and thieves, et

In Tulu 'polampuni' meaning is 'to clean, wash, rinse. The term ‘poladavaru’ is applied to people of Gatti community.

‘Polanadu’ means a border or the ridges of rice fields in Malayalam. ‘Polanadu Kalian’ or ‘Mallan’ is a local deity there. (Gundert’s Malayalam Dictionary ,p.80 , quoted by Gustav Soloman Oppert in his book “On the Origin of Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa or India – The Dravidian”.)

Pola festival

‘Pola’ is an important festival of Maharashtra, related to starting of harvest operations. On this day cattle, especially bullocks, are worshipped. In Maharashtra and parts of southern India , bullocks are used for ploughing as against male water buffaloes in coastal tracts of India. They are bathed, colourfully decorated, and taken out in a procession with much fanfare to accompaniment of drum-beats and ‘lezhim’ (a jingling instrument made of wood, fitted iron chain full of metallic pieces). This produces a musical sound in the dance of rhythmic movements.

Naughty: procreation

In south Indian languages like Kannada ‘pőli’ means naughty or sexy. The word may have strange origin in the antiquity, as we find when comparing with European equivalent word!

In Romania ‘pola’ means procreative organs like ‘penis’ or ‘vagina’ and hence an offensive swear-word. The procreation leads to increase in population. Similarly the Dravidian word ‘poli’, means increment, multiplication, thereby auspiciousness and prosperity. Linguists are finding influence of Dravidian languages in Mediterranean and European countries. It is curious to see how the wide meaning of ‘pula’. Romanian word ‘pola’ somehow has been narrowed down only to mean subjugation and procreation. Incidentally, there was a comment on our ‘Post-206: Poli, Poli’ from a Romanian or Russian reader, touching upon the vulgar aspect of the word pola and poli.

‘Pola’ is a popular proper name in Western countries. Pula or Pola is a maritime city of Istria (Austria), a littoral region ruled by Roman and Austro-Hungarian monarch and later on Italy and Germany. It is located in Adriatic Sea. It will be interesting to note that ‘pula’ has the meaning of ‘raft’, ‘to float’ or ‘ship’ (DED-4321). In Tulu ‘pulavini’ means to float. Compare this to ‘plava’ of Sanskrit.

Evolution of words

Human migration for trade and communication and flair for travelling through regions and countries around the Globe have contributed towards migration and exchange of words enriching languages. A loaned and assimilated word from one language to another undergoes change over a long period of time. So attaching definite or relevant meaning defies all explanations. We wish that the nationalistic sentiments, or plain chauvinism, which probably were absent in remote past, now should not play a spoil sport.

-Hosabettu Vishwanath .

277. Pāvur, Pāvanje

2011-05-01T20:37:00.006+05:30

Location map of Pavur, Pavanje and Todar

In a multi-lingual society like ours, tracing origin and meaning of ancient place names can be a complex exercise, often misleading to erroneous conclusions. One has to consider historical perspectives that complement with the logical conclusions, in case the aim of the explorer is to genuinely unravel and understand the course of history.

Let us take the example of two Tulu place names: Pavur and Pavanje.

Pavur

Pavur is a village located on the southern bank of River Netravathi in Mangalore Taluk, Dakshina Kannada. Similarly there is also a village known as 'Pavur' in Kasargod district of Kerala

Most of us, with a general background knowledge of Kannada, would prefer to conclude that ‘Pavur’ (pāv+ur) is a village of snake, because ‘pāv’ in old Kannada represents a snake. The pāv of old Kannada has become ‘hāv’ or ‘hāvu’ (=snake) in modern Kannada as a consequence of p>h transition. One would normally believe in such an explanation since ancient cult of serpent worship (nāga aradhana) is explicit in Tulunadu.

However, this may not be the real or original meaning of the place designated and meant by our ancestors. First, the word pāv is not generally used in Tulu for snake.

Pāv, the river

The other possible source is the ancient Indiam word ‘pāv’ which means to flow or move.Thus pāv means river in Toda language. There are distinct signatures of existence of Toda tribes in Tulunadu in place names such as Todar.It has been suggested in older posts herein that the water buffaloes in Karvali that became the insignia of Kambala sport of Tulunadu were probably introduced by ancient Toda tribes.

Toda words

It can be inferred from the existence of Toda words that the Toda language was in use in parts of ancient Tulunadu during an unknown but specific time interval in the history of this land.

It can be seen that the root word pāv (=to flow, to move, to change position) has been adapted during the evolutionary history variously into different languages as seen from the following examples:

Pāv= to flow, to move, to creep.

Pāv=river, flowing water. (Toda language). Compare with pāvana (=to bathe in river; to cleanse, to purify) in Sanskrit. And also ‘pavitra’(Sanskrit) = cleaned.

Pāv= snake , creeping animal. (Kannada language).pāv> hāvu

Pāv=leg or feet, body part used for changing position (Prakrit, Hindi, Konkani languages). Compare with ‘pāda’ (=feet) in Sanskrit.

In present Tulu, the root word ‘pāv’ for river, has not been retained, except in these place names. The equivalent Tulu words, based on flow of water, appear to be ‘par’ (=to drink) and ‘parapu’ (= to flow).

This could serve as an example to show how words preferences and languages change in an area, with socio-cultural evolution and dominance of certain tribes at the expense of others.

Pāvanje & Pāvur

Both of these place names, Pavur and Pavanje are located on the banks of river, justifying the explanation that pāv in these names means river.Thus the logical analysis of these placenames would be:

Pavur= pav+ur: A village (‘oor’) by the side of river (‘pāv’).

Pavanje=pav+anje: A land area (‘anje’) beside a river (‘pāv’).

The minor river flowing beside the Pavanje village in northern Mangalore near Surathkal is also known as Pavanje River.

Pavagadh, Pavagad
There are other places in India that carry the fluvial prefix of 'pav', like Pavagadh in Gujarath and Pavagad in Tumkur district of Karnataka. Gadh, gad= fort. Pavagadh is located close to a river.Similarly Pavagad was on the bank of stream that has dried up in recent years.

276. Kambala: Kambula

2011-04-19T09:15:00.010+05:30

Kambala is a traditional ritualistic sport of Tulunadu, involving race of domesticated water buffaloes in specially prepared slushy fields. Nobody can surely say when this ritual sport was introduced in the history of this land.However the ritual and the sport has been designed to activate and invigorate the buffaloes that take important role in the agriculture as well to prepare the agricultural field for rich harvest, which was considered as wealth and prosperity (‘poli’) in the days of early civilization.

Preparations for buffaloe race in Kadri Kambala Mangalore, December 2010

It is said that there are more than 200 locations in Tulunadu known for staging buffaloe races in the Kambala fields.Many of these Kambala field areas have become defunct during the course of history but the name Kambala attached to them have survived as toponyms.

Shekar Ajekar has compiled available historical data and calendar of Tulunadu Kambala events in an internet edition (Kannada) in www.ajekar.co.cc.
Pookare
There is a specially decorated post (or pole) erected in the the Kambala fields and it is traditionally known as 'Pookare' kamba, attributed with special magical powers. The pole is decorated usually with flowers or other material such as leaves or coconut fronds. The post is erected to pray for the proper conduct and success of the Kambala race ceremony as well to ward off evil spirits in the process.In other words, 'pookare' represents a decorated victory pole. The Pookare post is considered to have special magical powers to ward off evil spirits as well as to increase prosperity of the persons conducting the ceremony.In the olden days, kings used send their servants stealthily to steal the famous 'Pookare ' posts belonging to their rivals in order to acquire the the prosperity amassed by the latter.
Kare: Kair , totem tree.
The importance attached to 'Pookare' post suggest that it is a vestige of ancient totemistic tree worship cult, which latter evolved into totem poles and later into 'pookare' poles. The memory of ancient totem tree cult is explicit in the word Poo+kare wherein 'poo' represents the decorated, flowery aspect and 'kare' is a modification of 'kair' the symbolic totem or victory tree of many of the ancient tribes. The word 'kair', of African origin, means victory.It can be noted that the identity of 'kair' tree represented different arboreal species in different tribal cultures: North Indian 'kair' tree was different from Tulunadu 'kayar'. And among the Munda(la) tribal people (and also Kadambas) 'Kaim' or 'Karm' ( also known as Kadamba.) has been the totem tree. In the last case, note the word analogy between Kair and Kaim/Karm.
Pookare victory poles have evolved along with the civilization and the modified 'pookare' poles in pairs, usually ornate with mango leaves, or with areca-nut fruits were being used at the entrances for auspicious ceremonies. Similarly, banana plant trunks are used as welcome poles at the entrance to the ceremonial halls.In modern days, multiple pookare poles decorated with colourful fabric designs coupled with electric lamps are used extensively in modern stage crafts by set designers like Dr Mohan Alva.

Emotion runs high during this event, as is in a 'korikattada kala' (cock fight battle field, a popular pastime in Tulunadu). It is a game of manliness and grit, besides show of pomp and pride. Procession of participating buffaloes with their owners is a sight to enjoy.To run in a slush is a tough job, that too managing buffaloes running in different angles or trying to skip the race.

Nowadays, in Kambala races the buffaloes are treated not very harshly, thanks to protests from animal lovers.However, in the olden days, the merciless beating of buffaloes by enraged driver , was a pitiable sight. Oozing of blood from the body of these animals was paining to see. There is a saying in Tulu: "ಒಂಜಿ ಕಂಬುಲ ತೂಯೀನಂಡ ಏಳು ದೀಪ ತೂವೋಡ್ಗೆ" (Onji kambula tuuyinanduda eelu deepa tuvodge! - meaning: If you see a 'Kambula' event, you have to see seven earthen lamps, obviously, lit before a God's temple and home temple. This wise saying might have originated from the belief that it is considered a sin to see the inhuman treatment meted out to these mute animals.

Origin of the word: Kambala

What does the word Kambala signifies? Does it refer to the sport, the agricultural field or the buffaloe race? Let us analyse the word Kambala.

Kambala (Kannada) is popularly known as ‘Kambula’ or ‘Kambola’ in Tulu.

Kambola= kan + pola. (p>b transition occurs while the two words fuse together).

Kan= soft, tender, good, appropriate etc.

Pola=agricultural field.

Thus, ‘Poli’= agricultural produce. Agricultural produce was equated with wealth and proseperity in those days.

Kan: The ancient word ‘kan’ may appear strange to some readers. The word ‘kan’ has survived in modern Tulu in words like ‘kanni’ which also means soft, tender, young or virgin. The Tulu word ‘kanda’ has been explained as soft or good and appropriate area (kan+Da) for agriculture. The word kanda adapted into Sanskrit aquirred meanings such as a piece or piece of land or an expanse of land (=continent) in due course.The word ‘kanni-ponnu’ refers to virgin girl. The word ‘kanni-panti’ means tender grass.
It can be seen that the word 'kanni' ( as in kanni-ponnu) has been adapted into Sanskrit as 'kanya', the virgin.

Similarly, kaNNu (=eye), kan+nu represents delicate organ in the body.

Kannada: Incidentally the word Kannada may be explained as kan+naDa or soft agricultural land, wherein the adjective soft alludes to the black soil that is found expansively in northern Karnataka where Kannada was groomed during the early history.

Therefore, the word Kambola or Kambula refers to soft slushy field prepared for the sport of buffaloe race. Further, the essential sequence of the evolution of this word might have been like this:

Kampola.>Kambola.> Kambula .> Kambala.>Kambla.

Kampa

Some people have tried to explain the origin of the word Kambala as derived from 'kampa-kala '. or kampa+ala. In fact, the word 'Kampa' is genetically related to 'Kambala'. 'Kampa' or 'gampa' also means slushy, muddy field. The origin of the word Kampa is kan+pa, wherein 'kan-' represents soft or slushy and the suffix '-pa' represents an areal attribute. (For examples of usage of '-pa' as spatial suffix, check place names like Bajape, Alape, Didupe, etc).

Kamba-ala
Vishwanath suggests that there is one more angle to look at the etymology of 'Kambla'. Consider: Kamba (a Post or Pole with 'Nishana' (Aiming Point by means of a banner or flag) for judging height )+ la (water, i.e. water spurt during race by different buffalo pairs).
Poles are planted somewhere in middle of the race track length. These poles on either sides are connected with a rope with buntings or flag. This 'nishana' is meant for pairs of buffaloes tied down with a 'palayi' (wooden pane) with holes. The driver of buffaloes thumps as hard as possible on this pane when he nears the 'nishana'. Water spurts so high but may not reach the mark. One who reaches the mark early is declared a winner. Race of buffaloes without the panes is judged by the speed.

-With Hosabettu Vishwanath.

275. Geography in Puranas : Concept of Continents

2011-04-17T18:42:00.001+05:30

Place names reflect to physical divisions of a land, mostly surrounded by a water-body. This is revealed in toponymic studies of any region. While delving into Tulu studies, one is confronted by place names, like Khandige, Kandevu, Kandy, Kanda, etc. Similar place names also exist all over India and elsewhere outside India. These names remind one to the basic truth of geographical division of land, meeting different factors, such as ethnography, topography, profession and polity. Readers may recall the legend of ‘Kandevu’ in Post- 110 (April 20, 2008) on Mukka.

Cosmogony

Indian theological concept of the Universe revolves around such divisions. These divisions are mostly seen as physical ones, i.e. geographical. In a mystic thinking, it is understood on spiritual planes as is conveyed by Indian Puranas (Historical Scriptures). So this division could be related to either terrestrial or astral matter.

When we talk about our Universe, i.e. a cluster of stars and planets in our Milky Way, we come across Earth Planet (Dharani Mandala), the Planet we live in. Earth Planet is divided into seven divisions, known as ‘Khandas’ (Continents). In Indian Scriptures, they are described as ‘Dwipas’ (Islands).

Sapta Dwipas (Seven Islands)

Vishnu Purana gives a vivid description of formation of Seven Islands of the Earth, ruled by Priyavrata, son of Swayambhuva Manu. According to the Puranas, dwipas also refer to the seven continents of the Universe.

Priyavrata had ten illustrious sons, besides daughters. Three sons, namely Medha, Agnivahu and Putra, fully devoted to religious life, gave up worldly pleasures. So kingship of these seven islands is distributed among his remaining seven sons. Their progenies ruled this Earth for 71 Cycles.

1. Jambu Dwipa (ruled by Agnidhara), so named as Jambu (Rose Apple) trees grow in plenty there. Area: Hundred thousand yojanas (1 Yojana = 15 Km approx. Earth occupies 50 Crore Yojanas).

- Surrounded by Lavana Samudra (Sea of Salt).

2. Plaksha Dwipa (ruled by Medhathiti), so called as fig trees grow on it. Area: Twice the size of Jambu. Worship the Moon. Inhabitants: Aryakas and other castes

- Surrounded by sea of Molasses (Ikshu Samudra). This is encircled by Shalmali Dwipa.

3. Shalmali Dwipa (ruled by Vapushmat) so called because Silk Cotton (Shalmali) trees grow there. There are seven divisions, taking names of 7 sons of Vapushmat (Sweta, Harita, Jimuta, Rohita, Vaidyuta, Manasa, and Suprabha). Seven mountain ranges, four castes, seven rivers, capable of removing of all sins of people.

- Surrounded by Suroda (Wine) Ocean

4. Kusha Dwipa (ruled by Jyotishmat) so called as Kush grass grows there. 4 Castes, 7 seas, 7 continents

- Surrounded by Ghrita Sea (Ocean of Clarified Butter), which is surrounded by Krauncha Dwipa.

5. Krauncha Dwipa (ruled by Dyutiman), twice the size of Kusha Dwipa, seven Varshas (Divisions), named after seven sons of Dyutiman, King of Krauncha. People are free from fear, live along with celestials. In this Continent, the Brahamanas, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Shudra are known as Pushkaras, Pushkalas, Dhanyas and Tishyas respectively. Along with the 7 important rivers, there are number of small rivers. Here Great Janardana is worshipped in the form of Rudra. (Krauncha means heron).

- Surrounded by the Sea of Curd. Sea of Curd is encircled by Shaka Dwipa.

6. Shaka Dwipa (ruled by Bhavya), so called as Shaka (Teak) trees grow there. There are 7 boundary mountains (Meru*, Malaya, Jaladhara, Raivata, Syama, Dugdasata and Kesara), which are excellent and charming. There is a large teak tree, which is frequented by Siddhas and Gandharvas. The four castes present there are Mriga (Brahamana), Magadha (Kshatriya), Manasa (Vaishya) and Mandaga (Shudra). Shaka Dwipi Brahamans are worshippers of the Sun. They migrated to Gujarat and Bihar (Magadha). They are also known as Maga Brahamanas.

- Shaka Dwipa is surrounded by the Sea of Milk (Kshiroda) on all sides, which is surrounded by Pushkara Dwipa on all sides.

- *Note: Meru is identified with ‘Meroe’ of Sudan, or a primeval Meroe that was lost (Refer web page ‘Shaka Dwipa in Matya Purana).

7. Pushkara Dwipa, ruled by Savala (Savana?), Twice the size of Shaka Dwipa. Nyagroda (Fiscus indica) tree grows here. Only one mighty range of Manasottara, which runs in a circular direction like an armlet. Mountain is 5000 Yojanas in height and the same in breadth – circular on all sides. People here live for 10,000 years free from disease, sorrow, anger, and jealousy. There is neither virtue nor vice, no jealousy, envy, fear, hatred, malice nor any moral delinquency. The Varsha on the outside of Manasottara is called Mahavira and the one inside is called Dhataka. They are frequented by the celestials and Danavas. In Pushkara Dwipa, there is no distinction of caste or order. The people lived here do not perform any rites and the three Vedas, the Puranas, Ethics, Polity and laws of services are completely unknown.

- This Dwipa is encircled by Syaduka Sea, i.e. Sea of Fresh Water.

In conclusion, we can say that the seven insular Continents are encircled by 7 seas and each ocean and island is twice the size of that which precedes it. The water in all these oceans remains the same at all seasons, excepting dilations due to heat. Food in Pushkara Dwipa is produced spontaneously and people there enjoy life.

Relevance of Pauranic (scriptural) Geographical System

Identification of these Sapta Dwipas (7 Continents) is conceivable but it is subjective and hence at variance. Col. Wilfred has supposed these Dwipas as: (1) Jambhu – India, (2) Kusha – Kush of the scriptures or the countries between Mesopotamia and India, (3) Plaksha – Asia Minor, (4) Shalmali – Eastern Europe, (5) Krauncha – Germany, (6) Shaka – the British Isles and (7) Pushkara – Iceland.

The learned Narayan A. Bangera identifies them (Ref: Mogaveera Monthly – August 2010 Issue in his Exposition of ‘Kanakadasara Hari Bhakti Sara) as under:

Plaksha - South America, Pushkara – North America, Krauncha – Africa, Jambu – Asia including Bharat Varsha, Shaka – Europe, Shalmali – Australia, Kusha – Oceanea (i.e. several Pacific Ocean Islands, New Zealand, Melanesia, etc.)

Patala Khand (Subterranean region)

Thus, Parashara Muni explained to Maitreya the extent of surface of the Earth. He further explained the depth below the surface, which is supposedly 70,000 Yojanas. Each of the seven regions of Patala (Nether region) is called Atala, Vitala, Nitala, Gabhasmat, Mahatala, Sutala and Patala. In the Bhagavat and Padma Purana, they are mentioned as Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala and Patala. These regions are inhabited by Danavas, Daityas, Yakshas and Great Snake Gods. They lived delightfully in stately palaces. The pomp and pleasure in Patala Lokas was more than that in the Heaven. Swayamprabha Lambaka section in Brihat Katha tells stories of adventures of mortal heroes with the Naga Kanyas (Snake Nymphs).

Primordial Truth

These data, collected by us, are from Indian religious scriptures. These religious writings of sages of par excellence are sacred truths, hidden in allegories. Enlightened souls of sages of yore could concentrate, contemplate and enjoy the unknown mysteries of the Universe. Theories of these sages at different ages may vary here and there but the fundamental truth remains the same. These truths dawn upon the receptive minds of modern scientists. This unfolding, more often than not, is a mere accident. This confirms the affinity of souls of mystics of the epic days to souls of all ages to come. Super natural truths transcend through ages, thus confirming universal brotherhood. Truth, trickled down orally and spread in various tongues, was encapsulated in Vedas and their branches from time to time. Migration and communication skills of those days were instrumental in spread of knowledge – both spiritual and worldly.

- Hosabettu Vishwanath, Pune.

274. Kata and Kandiya

2011-04-16T12:26:00.001+05:30

Apart from the ancient spirit Gods like Kapri and Kuti, we discussed in previous post, there were lesser known Spirit Gods in ancient Tulunadu like Kata and Kandiya.

Kata

Kata is a Spirit God worshipped since antiquity by Koraga tribes of Tulunadu. Like most of the primitive Spirit Gods of this land, Kata is represented by a simple piece of stone, placed usually on a pedestal, under a tree.

Very little is known at present about the origin or evolution of the cult of Spirit known as Kata. Places like Kata-pādi, spread in different parts of southern India (example, near Udupi and near Chennai) could have been places dedicated to the cult of ancient Spirit God known as Kata.

Kandiya

The Spirit God Kandiya apparently was worshipped by ancient agricultural communities since the word ‘kanDa’ represents an agricultural land in Tulu. Kandiya is said to have been the Spirit God worshipped by non-Koraga communities.

The origin of the word ‘kanDa’ is interesting. The Munda word ‘kan+Da’ means good land. (Kan=good, Da=land, area). The word ‘kanDa’ has been adopted in Sanskrit as (1) a piece (of land) or (2) a continent.

Kandiya or Khandiya has evolved into several forms like Kandevu and Khandoba. Places of Khandiya worship were known as Khandige. There are numerous places hamlets known as Kandige in different parts of Tulunadu.
In northern Karnataka, Khandoba is popular as a Spirit God depicted astride on a horse like the Bermer Spirit of Tulunadu.
Kandevu is the old name for places now usually referred to as Kandige or Khandige. Kandevu ancient spirit worship has apparently been replaced by subsequent and current forms of worship.
Kandevi was a form of tribal language akin to Paisachi-Prakrit and it gradually evolved into present form of Konkani.

Kandiya is also the old name for a Greek port known presently as Heraklion. It was founded in the 9th century and was the capital of Crete until 1841.

273. Kaprigudda, Mangalore

2011-04-10T10:43:00.005+05:30

With regard to ancient place names handed over to us by our forefathers, we normally accept them without questioning. We generally do not bother ourselves over their meaning, antiquity or origin. Or if we do not like just change them or replace them with some modern stylish sounding alternate place name. Infact, some of these place names are windows to the past and serve as fossil clues to a bygone dark era in the past history of this land.

One such strange placename in Mangalore city is Kaprigudda! It is another positive clue in understanding the migration of ancient tribes from Africa to India in the remote past and concomitant transfer of their cults and beliefs.

Kaprigudda

Kaprigudda is a residential area east of Attavar or south of Phalnir, more or less corresponding with western part of Highlands. It is usually pronounced as ‘Kyāpri-guDDa’ If you ask someone aound in the area, regarding the meaning or origin of the word ‘Kyāpri’ you may not possibly get any positive answers! Capri is a common surname among Western people, so one of the possibilities is that it was named after some special person called Capri. Capri is also an island near Naples, Italy.But there is another clue that leads us to ancient cult of Kepheri prevalent in Egypt and surrounding African countries.

Kapri God

One interesting data recently reported in Kannada TV channels was that fishermen of Karwar were offering seasonal prayers to one ‘Kyapri devaru’ or Kapri God!

Kapri is an ancient Spirit God among coastal tribes of Karavali. The cult is still prevalent in parts of Karawar and surrounding areas. Fishermen, especially from Gaabid sect, in these areas look for the blessings of Spirit God Kapri. Generally, they offer liquor in a coconut shell bowl and lighted aroma sticks (agrabathi) to appease the Spirit that is said to wander in their wards like an old man during night times.
Apart from Kapri some of these tribes also worship a Spirit God called Kuti.

Kapri surname

Kapri is also a surname among Gorkha tribes of Nepal. The ethnonym could have been acquired from ancient migrant tribes from Africa. Bishnu Kapri, a gorkha Nepali, settled in US hosts a ’ Kapri samaj’ page in facebok.
Kapra-Kampra
Kapra or Kaapira was also a common proper name among Tulu people. Another related proper name was Kampra or Kampara. There is a place known as Kapra-majalu near Vitla and a Kampra-bail in Bantval Taluk. Therefore the cult of Kapra or Kampara was not restricted to the Coastal track alone. Kampara is also a place in Uganda, Africa. These data suggest that Kapra and Kampra were ancient ethnonyms of African origin.

Khepri : An Egyptian God

Khepri is an ancient Egyptian God (the concept dating back to ca 2500 BC) , representing a giant Scarab beetle that can roll the Sun like a ball through the sky each morning so that it becomes morning and roll back into underworld in the evening so that the world embraces darkness! The God Khepri also known as Chepri, kheper, khepera or Kehperi etc was considered as a God of resurrection, overseeing the cycle of life and death. The emblem of Egyptian Khepri God, shows a winged Scarab beetle carrying red sun.

Migration

View of the foregoing discussion, one of the strong possibilities is that the Kapri-gudda near Attavar, Mangalore, might have been named after the Spirit God Kapri (Khepri) by some of the early African tribal settlers in this part of Mangalore. The existence of cults of Kapri Spirit God (though modified through centuries of influence of other cults of Hinduism) in Karawar area serves as a clue for further research in this dark pages of early history and civilization.

Acknowledgement: 1.Shri Vishnu Bovi for discussion on Kapri devaru of Karavar.
2.Shri Kawdoor Narayan Shetty.

-With H Vishwanath.

272. Kosar Warrior tribes

2011-04-04T13:44:00.005+05:30

Warrior tribe of Kosars have been cited in ancient Tamil Sangam literatures. Kosars are described as a honest warrior tribe who were known as ‘one word kosars’(“Onrumoli Kosar” in Tamil) because they always kept their words (promises).

Many of these refer to Kosar heroes of ancient Tulunadu, whereas others suggest that they were nomadic tribes that lived in different parts of south India, for example Nalkur Kosars who lived in four different villages or divergent places.
Wayfarer in his blog has made a decent documentation of distribution of known Khosa tribes. The ancient tribe were variously known as Khosa or Kosar, Kossar or Khasa.

Sangam literature

In Tamil literature, Kosars were mentioned as west Vadukas with their origin as Kolhapur near Goa. ‘Erattar’ were supposedly a branch of Kosars who became Maha Rattirar (Prakrit) or Maharashtras (Sanskrit).

Kongu army consisted of Kosars according to Silappadikkaram. The Akananooru (15, 2-7 )records: “Thokai Kavin Thulu nattu anna Varunkai Vampalaith Thankum panpin Cherintha Seri Chemmal Moothur”. Meaning, they then captured Kudaku Nadu and Erumai Nadu and settled in Tulu Nadu with Moothur as their capital. Krishnasami Aiyangar opines that the ‘Nalur Kosar ‘(meaning Kosars who settled in four places) as foreigners to the Tamil country.
In some Tamil accounts, Kosars belonged to the Tulu country and lived to the south of the Vindhya and near the shores of western Arabian Sea. They were also referred to as ‘Ariyar’ in Tamil literature.
Kosars have been recorded as tribal people who lived near the rivers Malprabha, Gatprabha and upper the border area between Kadamba and Mauryan empire. They attacked Paazhi and captured the whole of Kadamba and its many fort cities. Then the Mauryans and their Kosar affliates entered Tamil Nadu through the kaviri-kudhirai malai pass (the present anthiyur-nallur path).

The Boar (Varaha?) was the emblem of Kosar tribes and the later Chalukyas of the Pallava time. Varaha was also the logo of the Vijayanagar empire.

Kosars were called Nar kosar or Nanmozhi Kosar in the third Sangam literature. Nannul or Tholkappiam notes them as Kannadam, Vaduku (Tulu), Kalingam (Oriya) and Telugu people. Kambaramayanam Payiram says Kosars were Vadakalai (Prakrit), Thenkalai (Tamil), Vaduku and Kannada people. Kosars were truthful to their kings, either Tamil kings or Mauryan kings and were called ‘Vai-mozhi Kosar’ (truthful in keeping their words).

The Mathurai Kanchi 508-09 & 771-74 records them as “Poyya Nallisai Niruththa punaithar, Perum peyar Maaran Thalaivan Aka, Kadanthadu vai val Elampal Kosar, Eyaneri Marabin Vai mozhi ketpa” and “Pazhayan Mokoor Avayakam vilanka Nanmozhi Kosar Thontri yanna”. Meaning, Chera dynasty’s Nedunchezhian’s army head was ‘Mohoor Pazhayan Maaran’ and in his army, Kosars were present. They followed Maran’s words in battle and were honoured for their job in his court. ‘Elampal Kosar’ (young Kosars) were present in the armies of the Cheras.
The District Gazetteer of South Kanara (1973) enlists Koosa as a Scheduled Caste tribe. This Koosa tribe is being speculated by tulu-research.blogspot.com as the Kosar tribes of Karavali described in the Tamil Sangam literature.

Koosa, Kusha

The Twin sons of Rama (in Ramayan, composed by Valmiki ca 500 BC) were named Lava and ‘Kusha’.This shows the antiquity of the proper name Kusha in India. ‘Koosa’ tribes still exist in northern parts of Udupi districts. Kosanna, Koosakka etc are common names among Tulu people in the yester-years.

Kosala, Kushala

‘Kosala’ an ancient Kingdom of Ramayan fame has been suggested as land of Kosa by Joseph Thangarajah Xavier. Rama’s mother ‘Kausalya’ hailed from the kingdom of Kosala.

In the same way Kushalnagar (Kodagu) may be one of the ancient towns originally named after Kosa tribes. Kushalappa is a common proper name in Kodagu region. Kossar warrior tribes were reported from Nepal.

Kochars

Kochanna is common personal name among older generation of Tulu people, rather irrespective of castes. The name ‘Kocha’ or ‘Kochanna’ (‘anna’=brother) appears to be a derivative of Kosha or Koshar. There are faint evidences in Karavali place names to sugest that Koshars were known as Kochars in Tulunadu. For example a hamlet in Badaga Kajekar village, Belthangadi taluk is known as 'Kocharla-palke' which literally means the valley of Kochar tribes in Tulu language.

Kochati
The name 'Kochati' also appears to be related to the words 'Kocha'(singular) or 'Kochar'(plural). Incidentally, Kochati is a place name in Nicosia, Cyprus. Similarly, there is a Kochati (also known as Kochadai) in Madurai. These could be ancient ethnonyms.

Kochati is also an lineage (Bari/bali) among Bunts suggesting admixture a group of Kochar/Kochats with Bunts in the antiquity.
Similarly, Kochi is an important town in Kerala; this place name is possibly related to these tribes.

Migrant tribes

Kush tribes (or Kushites) were ancient tribes from Ethiopia.Khazars were Scythians from southern Russia. Khazars were a tribe of Scythian stock, who established a powerful kingdom in southern Russia. According to the legends they descended from Togarmah through his son Khozar.

Khazars and Gujars are related to Huns.There is an opinion that Kosars are related to Gujars. Kosars or Kozhars were also said to be known as Khujars. And Khujars were later known as Gujars.

There is a widespread view that Bunts were of Scythian origin. Kush tribes were Ethiopians, whereas, Khasa tribes were reported from Kazhakstan, a Central Asian Republic.

In “A History of Pakistan and its Origins” by Christophe Jaffrelot, Kosar is mentioned Kosars as a tribe in Afghanistan. Similarly, Khosa is also recorded as tribe in the Pashtun territory around Quetta.

271. Nanda Kings and Kongas in Sangam.

2011-03-13T11:08:00.003+05:30

We have discussed some rudimentary data on the Nanda Kings of ancient Tulunadu in Post.268. Tamil Sangam literatures allude to Nannan, Konga and Punnata Kings who were conspicuous by their presence during the Sangam period.

One interesting analytical work in Kannada on the status and features of Kannada Nādu during Tamil Sangam period based on the analysis of Tamil Sangam literature by Professor Sh. Shettar throws some light on these obscure ancient Kings of western Karnataka and Tulunadu.

Tamils of Sangam period referred to ‘neDumoLi’(=people with imperfect Tamil) and ‘tiruvmoLi’(= people with impure Tamil) etc in their works to designate neighbours with imperfect command in Tamil language.

Tolkappiyam

Tolkappiyam (ca. 1 century CE) has been considered as one of the earliest Tamil Sangam literature dealing essentially with aspects of Tamil grammar. The title of the work, Tolkappiyam has been explained as ancient composition, wherein, Tol=ancient; kāppiyam=composition. One of the possibility is that the word ‘kāppiyam’ is influenced from the Sanskrit word ‘kāvya’ for poetry or vice versa. Similarly, one wonders if the word ‘tol’ was Tamil analogous of the word ‘Tulu’.

During the Sangam period it is said that derivation of Tamil words from Sanskrit did take place. One example given is the transformation of the word ‘Rājan’ (=king, Sanksrit).

Rājan.(Sanskrit) >a+rajan.>arasan (Tamil).

According to Tolkappiyam the Tamil kingdoms of the Sangam period extended from ‘Kumari’ (Kanyakumari) in the south to ‘Vengadam’ (Venkatadri or Tirupati) in the north. The western or northwestern borders of the ancint Tamilgam have not been mentioned. However, Tolkappiyam mentions ‘Vadugar’(=northern people),’Vadamol’ or ‘Vadasol ‘ (=northern language; Sanskrit ? ) etc.

Erumai-nādu, Mysore.

These ‘Vadugar’ are distinguished from people of ‘Erumai-nādu’ (ancient Mysore area).The word ‘Erumai’ (=buffalo) is notable as it indicates that, like in Tulu and Tamil, the original word in old Kannada for buffalo was ‘erumai’ which transformed into ‘emme’ in later Kannada. In the later period, the ancient ‘Erumai-nadu’ or ‘Erumai-nalnadu’ under the influence of Sanskrit was renamed as ‘Mahisha-mandala’. Mahisha-mandala later became ‘Mahishur’ and ‘Mysore’ with passage of time.

Ashoka and Satiyaputo

It is opined that the Prakrit and Pali languages were apparently known in southern India because of spread of Buddhism and Jainism in the south, since ca. 3^rd century BC. Pali written in Brahmi script was prevalent in ancient Srilanka (Tāmraparni) also.

Ashoka in his rock edicts, written in Pali language with Brahmi script, cites the three kings (muvendra) of south namely (Chola, Chera and Pandya) besides ‘Satiyoputo’. He does not mention any of the Erumai, Punnata, Konga, Tulu, Katumba (Kadamba), Mohur and Kosar rulers of the south. Prof Shettar suggests that these rulers were left out in the edicts because they did not comply with Ashokas religious principles or political directives.

Nan(d)an

The King Nannan (Nandan?) cited by more than twenty Sangam poets including Mamulnar, appears to be one of the Nanda Kings of the southern Karavali and Kodagu. Nannan has been depicted as king of Konga tribes in Sangam literature. He has been described as king of Konkan hill area (Eliyal hill) in Purananur. There is also reference to an area reknown for gold deposits. It could be that one of the Nannan (Nanda) King extended his kigdom upto Kolar known for substantial gold deposits. Incidentally there is a place near Kolar is called Nandagudi.

When a Chola King confronted Nannan Udayan (Nandaraya Udaya) near Karur in a war ,the latter made combined alliance with Arai, Ganga (Kangan), Punnata Kings and beheaded the Chola Commander so that Chola King had to rush to the warfield personally to take guide the army.

Agananur cites that Nannan subjugated Pindan in the Eliyal hill and that he drove off Kosars from Tulunadu.It appears that Nannan was ruling over Tulu Konkan regions located to the northwest of Tamilgam.He was said to have had a five layered fortress in Eliyal hill. He had another fort with high walls separated by deep trenches in Agappa hill to the north of Umablkad (= forest of elephants).

There are references to ‘Eliyal hill’, the abode of Nanda Kings, in Sangam literature. There are several possible Eliyal hills in Tulunadu or in northern Kerala.The word Eli has created confusion as it also means a rat. Elu means number seven. Otherwise ‘Eliya’ were an ancient tribe that inhabited these coastal regions.In Kerala Elimalai or Ezhimalai is a coastal hill where at present a naval academy is being built. Keralites believe that Elimali is the Eliyal hill referred to in Sangam literature.

One Eliyar padavu is located south of Mangalore near Amblamogaru village.Sangam poets refer to ‘Umblakadu’. Was this a place close to Amblamogaru? Besides, there is an Elimale in Sullia taluk. There is also one Elinje near Kinnigoli. Anyway possibly there is an interesting link between the Nanda Kings and the abode of Eliyar tribes.

There were skirmishes between Nannan and Chera Kings. In one of the wars, Noormadi Cheral surrendered his crown and necklace to Nannan. In one of the wars, Chera and Pasum Pandya (along with his subordinate Neduman Anji)combined themselves and fought against the valiant Nannan; In that skirmish Atiyaras lost his head to the pleasure of jubilant Kongas carrying shining swords.

The King Nannan cited in Tamil Sangam ultimately died in the warfield near Wagai, Tamilanadu, when fighting against a Chera King.

Konga

Shilappadigaram has described Konga tribes hailing from Kodagu area. Accordging to Sangam ‘Paditrupattu’, at one period Kongas ruled Karur in Tamilnadu and Chola Kings struggled to defeat them. The word ‘Konga’ in Tamil means honey apart from the name of the tribe.Possibly Konga tribes could have been a honey collecting tribes in the beginning. Some believe that Konga were the rulers later known as ‘Ganga’ dynasty in Talakad, in Mysore region.

Where there Kongas in Tulunadu?

Yes, we have described in the older posts several signature villages of ancient Kom tribes in Tulunadu such as Kompadavu, Komdodi, Konchadi etc. It appears that the Kom were subsequently known as ‘Konga’. (Like Kor were subsequently known as Koraga.) The suffix –ga in these names indicates person or the group.

Kom+ga=Konga.

Kor+ga=Koraga.

At places ‘Kom’ were also known as ‘Komcha’ (as in place name ‘Konchadi’, northern Mangalore) wherein the suffix ‘–cha’ refers to tribes or people.

The word Konkan that refers to part of West Coast also might have had origin from Kong tribes. Such as Kong+an=Konkan.

It appears that subsequently the Kom or Kong tribes pervaded many areas of southern India. Kongas lived in areas endowed with ‘kadiru-mani’ (ruby corundum) according to Purananur. Regions to the east of Sullia, Subrahmanya, Kodagu ,Arakalagud in Hassan, Kabini and southern Mysore are the areas known to have good deposits of ruby corundum. Konga tribes were fond of decorating themselves with rubies and yellow flowers known as ‘Kongilavam’.

There is a Komara beedu in Mysore city. Kannada people of Mysore region usually use the word ‘Kongaru’ for the Tamil people.Parts of Coimbatore and Salem districts of Tamilnadu were known as Kongu-desha in history.

Kong tribes were valiant fighters. According to Paditrupattu they employed lever based machinery (probably wooden) to throw large stones at the opponents. There were also Konga rajas during the history in Kerala. Probably a group of Kongas were later known to have formed the Ganga dynasty.One of the founders of the Ganga dynasty was known as Konguni Varma.

Assimilation

The ancient Nanda (Nandara, Nandarannaya lineages), Kom (Kommatti lineage) and Konga (Kongaru or Kongarannaya lineages) tribes have at least partly been assimilated with the Bunt-Nadava diaspora community during the progress of the Tulu history. The corresponding lineage names have survived as genetic testimonies to this observation.

Older post Links: 268. Nanda Rulers of Tulunadu.

244 .Eliya tribe.

243.Kom tribes.