Turkey (Travel, history, archeology, art)

Topkapı Palace

2010-05-26T13:52:00.000-07:00

It is located on the promontory of the historical peninsula in İstanbul which overlooks both the Marmara Sea and the Bosphorus. The walls enclosing the palace grounds, the main gate on the land side and the first buildings were constructed during the time of Fatih Sultan Mehmet (the Conqueror) (1451 - 81). The palace has taken its present layout with the addition of new structures in the later centuries. Topkapı Palace was the official residence of the Ottoman Sultans, starting with Fatih Sultan Mehmet until 1856, when Abdülmecid moved to the Dolmabahçe palace, functioned as the administrative center of the state. The Enderun section also gained importance as a school.

The main exterior gate of the Topkapı Palace is the Imperial Gate (Bab-ı Hümayun) which opens up to the Ayasofya Square. This gate leads to a garden known as the First Court. This court has the Aya Irini Church which was once used as an ammunition depot and behind the Church there is the mint. In the past various pavillions allocated to different services of the palace were located in the First Court. In later years these have ben replaced with public buildings and schools. Some of these are still existing. At the end of the 19th century Archeology Museum and School of Fine Arts (now Oriental Works Museum) were built in the large garden which is to the northwest of the First Court. The oldest structure in this section is the Çinili Köşk built by Fatih, which is now used as the Museum of Turkish Tiles and Ceramics. On the walls of this outer garden facing Bab-ı ali (the Imperial Gate), there is Alay Köşkü (procession Pavillion) where the Sultans used to watch the marching ceremonies. A section of the outer garden was planned by the municipality at the beginning of the 20th century and opened to the public. Known today as the Gülhane Park, the entrance has one of the larger gates of the palace. After the First Court, there is the Second Court which contains the palace buildings. It is entered through a monumental gate called Bab'us-Selam or the Middle Gate. The buildings in this court form the outer section of the palace which is called Birun. On the right there are the instantly noticed palace kitchens with their domes and chimneys and the dormitories of those who worked there. The most important of the buildings on the left side of the court are the Kubbealtı and the Inner Treasury. Behind Kubbealtı rises the Justice Tower, which is one of the symbols of the Topkapı Palace. The Harem section, which comes all the way to the back of these buildings is entered from the Third Court. Third Court is entered through the gate called Bab'üs Sa'ade (Gate of the White Eunuiches). This section of the palace is called Enderun, and it is the section where the sultans live with their extended families. Hence it is specially protected. The barracks of the Akağalar, which guard Bab'üs Sa'ade are on both sides of the gate. There are two structures. The first which is immediately opposite the gate is the Throne Room or the Audience Hall. Here the sultans receive the ambassadors and high ranking state officials such as Grand Visier or the Visiers. Right behind the Throne Room there is the library built by Ahmet III (1703 - 30). On the right side of the Third Court, there is the barracks of the Enderun and the Privy Treasury which is also known as the Mehmet the Conqueror Pavilion. On the side facing the Fourth Court, there is the Larder Barracks of the Enderun, the Treasury Chamber and the Chamber of the Sacred Relics. The left side starts with the Harem. The harem which covers a large part of the Palace consists of about 60 spaces of varying sizes. The main structures which are located in front of the Harem, facing the Third Court are Akağalar Mosque, Sultan Ahmet Mosque, Barracks of the Sacred Relics Guards and Chambers of the Sacred Relics. Here, the sacred relics brought back by Sultan Yavuz Selim from Egypt in 1517 are kept. The Fourth Court is entered from a covered path going from both sides of the Treasury Room. Here the buildings are located in the first part of the court, which has two sections of different levels. On the left side of this section called Lala Garden or Lale Garden there is Mabeyn which is the beginning point of Harem's access to the garden, terrace for the ladies with removable glass enclosure, Circumcission Room, Sultan İbrahim Patio and another one of the symbols of Topkapı palace, the İftariye (or Kameriye) and Baghdat Pavilion. This pavillion was built by Murad IV in 1640 to commemorate the Baghdat Campaign. At the center of the first section of the Fourth Court, there is the Big Pool and Ravan Pavillion next to it. This pavillion was also built by Murad IV in 1629, to commemorate the Revan Campaign. The side facing the second section has Sofa Pavilion (Koca Mustafa Pasha Pavilion), Başbala Tower and Hekimbaşı (Chief Physician) Room. The Sofa Mosque and Esvap Chamber and the latest built Mecidye Pavilion are on the right hand side of the Fourth Court. Out of the pavillions built on the shore of the Marmara Sea, only Sepetciler Mansion has survived until the present.

During 18th. Century when the Topkapı palace took its final shape, it was sheltering a population of more than 10.000 in its outer (Birun) and inner (Enderun) and Harem sections. It shows no archirectural unity as new parts were added in every period according to the needs. However, this enables us to follow the stages Ottoman Architecture went through from the 15th to the middle of the 19th century at the Topkapı Palace. The buildings of the 15th - 17th centuries are simpler and those of the 18th - 19th centuries, particularly in terms of exterior and interior ornamentation are more complex.

Topkapı Palace was converted to a museum in 1924. Parts of the Palace such as the Harem, Baghdat Pavilion, Revan Pavilion, Sofa Pavilion, and the Audiance Chamber distinguish themselves with their architectural assets,while in other sections artifacts are displayed which reflect the palace life. The museum also has collections from various donations and a library.
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Dolmabahçe Palace

2010-05-26T13:46:00.000-07:00

Until the 17th century the area where Dolmabahçe Palace stands today was a small bay on the İstanbul Strait, claimed by some to be where the Argonauts anchored during their quest for the Golden Fleece, and where in 1453 Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror had his fleet hauled ashore and across the hills to be refloated in the Golden Horn.

This natural harbour provided anchorage for the Ottoman fleet and for traditional naval ceremonies. From the 17th century the bay was gradually filled in and became one of the imperial parks on the Bosphourus known as Dolmabahçe, literally meaning “filled garden”.

A series of imperial köşks (mansions) and kasırs (pavilions) were built here, eventually growing into a palace complex known as Beşiktaş Waterfront Palace.

Beşiktaş Waterfront Palace was demolished in 1843 by Sultan Abdülmecid (1839-1861) on the grounds that it was made of wood and inconvenient, and construction of Dolmabahçe Palace commenced in its place.

Construction of the new palace and its periphery walls was completed in 1856. Dolmabahçe Palace had a total area of over 110.000 square metres and consisted of sixteen separate sections apart from the palace proper. These included stables, a flour mill, pharmacy, kitchens, aviary, glass manufactory and foundry. Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) added a clock tower and the Veliahd Dairesi (apartments for the heir apparent), and the Hareket Köşks in the gardens behind.

The main palace was built by the leading Ottoman architects of the era, Karabet and Nikoğos Balyan, and consists of three parts: the Imperial Mabeyn (State Apartments), Muayede Salon (Ceremonial Hall) and the Imperial Harem, where the sultan and his family led their private lives. The Ceremonial Hall placed centrally between the other two sections is where the sultan received statesman and dignitaries on state occasions and religious festivals.

The palace consists of two main storeys and a basement. The conspicuous western style of decoration tends to overshadow the decidedly Ottoman interpretation evident most of all in the interpretation evident most of all in the interior plan. This follows the traditional layout and relations between private rooms and central galleries of the Turkish house, implemented here on a large scale. The outer walls are made of stone, the interior walls are made of stone, the interior walls of brick, and the floors of wood. Modern technology in the form of electricity and a central heating system was introduced in 1910-12. The palace has a total floor area of 45.000 square metres, with 285 small rooms, 46 reception rooms and galleries, 6 hamams (Turkish baths) and 68 lavatories. The finely made parquet floors are laid with 4454 square metres of carpets, the earliest made at the palace carpet weaving mill and those of later date at the mill in Hereke.

The Mabeyn where the sultan conducted affairs of state is the most important section in terms of function and splendour. The entrance hall known as the Medhal Salon, the Crystal Staircase, and the Süfera Salon where foreign ambassadors were entertained prior to audience with the sultan in the Red Room are all decorated and furnished in a style reflecting the historical magnificence of the empire. The Zülvecheyn Salon on the upper floor serves as an entrance hall leading to the apartments reserved for the sultan in the Mabeyn. These apartments include a magnificent hamam faced with Egyptian marble, a study and drawing rooms.

The Ceremonial Hall situated between the Harem and the Mabeyn is the highest and most imposing section of Dolmabahçe Palace. With an area of over 2000 square metres, 56 columns, a dome 36 metres high at the apex, and a 4.5 ton English chandelier, this room stands out as the focal point of the palace. In cold weather this vast room was heated by hot air blown out at the bases of the columns from a heating system in the basement. On ceremonial occasions the gold throne would be carried here from Topkapı Palace, and seated here the sultan would exchange congratulations on religious festivals with hundreds of statesmen and other official guests. On such traditional occasions foreign ambassadors and guests would sit in one of the upper galleries, another being reserved for the palace orchestra.

The self-contained Harem occupies two thirds of the palace, corridors linking it to the Mabeyn and the Ceremonial Hall. Access to the Harem was by iron and wooden doors, through which only the sultan could pass freely. Here are a series of salons and galleries whose windows look out onto the İstanbul Strait, and leading off them the suites of rooms belonging to the sultan's wives, the high ranking female officials of the Harem, and the sons, brothers, daughters and sisters of the sultan. Other principal sections are the suite of the Valide Sultan (sultan’s mother), the so-called Blue and Pink salons, the bedrooms of sultans Abdülmecid, Abdülaziz and Mehmed V. Reşad, the section housing the lower ranking palace women known as the Cariyeler Dairesi, the rooms of the sultan’s wives (kadınefendi), and the study and bedroom used by Atatürk. All the main rooms are furnished with valuable carpets, ornaments, paintings, chandeliers and calligraphic panels.

Restoration of Dolmabahçe Palace has now been completed and every section is open to the public. Two galleries are devoted to an exhibition of precious items of various kinds, and fine examples of Yıldız porcelain from the National Palaces collection are displayed at the İç Hazine (Privy Purse) building. Paintings from the National Palaces collection can be seen in the Art Gallery, where they are displayed in rotation in the form of long-term exhibitions. On the lower floor beneath this gallery is a corridor containing a permanent exhibition of photographs showing the bird designs which feature in the palace’s architecture and its furnishings and ornaments. Abdülmecid Efendi Library in the Mabeyn is the other principal exhibition area at Dolmabahçe.

The Mefruşat Dairesi at the palace entrance now houses the Cultural and Information Center, which is responsible for research projects and promotion activities carried out at all the historic buildings attached to the Department of National Palaces. The center contains a library, mainly relating to the 19th century, which is available for researchers.

There are cafes in the grounds near the Clock Tower, the courtyard of the Mefruşat Dairesi, the Aviary, and the Veliahd Dairesi. Items available in the souvenir shops here include books about the National Palaces, postcards, and reproductions of selected paintings from the art collection. The Ceremonial Hall and gardens are available for private receptions. Special exhibition areas have now been established, and numerous cultural and art events are held in the palace.
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ANCIENT GEMS AND FINGER RINGS FROM ASIA MINOR

2010-05-26T03:15:00.000-07:00

ANCIENT GEMS AND FINGER RINGS FROM ASIA MINOR

CLASSICAL ENGRAVED GEMS AND FINGER RINGS

A gem (gemma in Latin) can be defined as a small piece of precious or semi-precious stone (the ancients did not make the same distinction as we do) that has been carved and polished, and which is usually set as an ornament in a piece of jewellery or in a variety of other settings (e.g. cult statues, walls, musical instruments, furniture, or even shoes in the case of the emperors Caligula and Elagabalus). Many of these gems are engraved with a device that is either cut in negative (an intaglio), or in positive (a cameo). Intaglios, usually mounted in the bezels of finger rings, are much commoner than cameos, which tend to be larger and set as pendants, or are even, in a few cases, unset objects in their own right. Glass was also used in imitation of more expensive stones. Intaglios, which form the largest part of the present catalogue, had a practical purpose: they served as official or personel seals. Besides this function, intaglios were used as ornaments or as amulets, which were believed to have curative and protective power.

A number of ancient authors wrote about gems but their texts are fragmentary or have not survived. The best accounts are by the fourth century B.C. philosopher Theophrastos (On Stones) and Pliny the Elder (Natural History), who wrote in the first century A.D. What we know today, however, is mainly deduced from the gems themselves.

The Functions of Engraved Gems

Beyond their aesthetic appeal as beautiful objects and ornaments, the primary function of engraved gems was to serve as seals. They were widely used to mark one's property, to record authority, and secure the privacy of objects and documents. A piece of clay or wax received the impression of an engraved stone or metal ring to signify ownership or authority. Such sealings could easily be broken when they secured a letter or an object, but their violation could not pass unnoticed. Ancient authors refer to the use of signet rings as seals: in one of Aristophanes' comedies, the women complain that the stores of meal, oil, and wine are guarded too well by their husbands' sealings. Another important use of seals was to secure valuable packages in the course of trade. The younger Pliny, as Trajan's official representative in Bithynia, wrote in c. A.D. 112 from Nikomedia that he was sending a gold nugget 'sealed with my own ring, with the device of a quadriga'. In modern terms, a seal on a letter would be akin to a signature or a sealed envelope, and when impressed on an object or a door it was equivalent to a padlock. In the ancient world most people could not write and the use of a personal seal was very handy as an identification mark. Nowadays, when the use of seals is uncommon, when signets are rarely cut and even more rarely used, it is not easy to appreciate the importance attached to them in antiquity. Clay sealings impressed by engraved gems set in rings have survived in great numbers throughout the ancient world. The represent the only remains of Greek and Roman archives once containing rolled and sealed papyrus documents. They usually owe their survival to the burning down of these archives, during which clay would be baked and become more resistant to the passage of time. A number of these archives contained sealings that span several centuries, such as those found at Doliche, a city of Kommagene at Düllük Tepe, probably dating from the late second century B.C. to the early third century A.D. some of these archives have each yielded more than 20,000 sealings. Clay sealings offer a vivid illustration of gems used as seals on official or private documents. Gems were precious objects, and were sometimes valued at astronomical prices. Pliny gives a number of examples of gems being exchanged for large sums of money. The nature and quality of the stone determined its value, whereas craftsmanship, it seems, did not significantly modify it. A story recorded by Herodotos and repeated by many authors, among them Pliny, is a very early testimony to the high esteem in which an engraved gem could be held. Since it involves the island of Samos, a few miles from the shores of Ionia, it is worth repeating here. The inhabitants of the independent island of Samos were under threat from the expanding Persian Empire, which had recently engulfed the kingdom of Lydia. A wealthy citizen of the island, Polykrates, seized power and made himself tyrant. To check the Persian advance, he allied his maritime forces to those of Amasis, Pharaoh of Egypt, who had similar concerns about the conquering Persians. Polykrates proved to be a good ruler and his strategy was effective at stopping the Persians' westward expansion. On being informed of the success of his ally, the superstitious Pharaoh Amasis wrote to Polykrates saying that the gods might be jealous of his success and that he should propitiate them by choosing from his treasures whatever he held most valuable and then disposing of it so that it would never again be seen by men. Polykrates considered carefully which of the treasures that he had in store would grieve him most to lose. After much thought he decided that it was a gold ring with the signet engraved on a fine smaragdos (most probably an emerald, or perhaps a green variety of chalcedony) by Theodoros, a fellow Samian celebrated for his gem-cutting skills. So he decided that throwing his ring into the sea would ensure that it would never be retrieved. This done he returned home and gave vent to his sorrow. But a few days later a local fisherman caught a very large fish which he thought fit for a king. He presented it to Polykrates who was pleased to accept it and in return invited him to partake of the fish at dinner. The cook cut the fish open and found the signet of his master in its belly. The precious ring was restored to Polykrates, but the Pharaoh Amasis, on being informed of these events, felt his ally could not be protected from his own fate and broke off the alliance. The prophecy was in due course realised when Polykrates was murdered by a Persian. Of course not all gems were as valuable as Polykrates', and in later periods many were produced in quantity for a popular market. In the Roman period, gems became more and more affordable, but their quality was proportionate to their price. During the Republic a gem set in a ring was mainly used for sealing. The common material for rings was iron, and to wear a gold ring was a mark of distinction. In the Roman Empire, however, the privilege was extended to people of lower rank and the number of rings worn by an individual increased. In the course of the first and second centuries A.D., gems and jewellery in general became increasingly common and no longer the preserve of a wealthy élite. Finds made in legionary camps throughout the Roman Empire suggest that many soldiers owned finger rings set with gems. These precious objects are very often found in the drains of public bath installations, where they had been accidentally lost. Since some sort of natural adhesive, such as resin or bitumen, was used to secure Roman ring-gems, in the hot and damp atmosphere of the baths they simply came unstuck. Although Romans must have been aware of the danger of losing their ring-gems, they continued to wear them, probably because of the belief that they were more vulnerable to harmful supernatural influences when naked and that their gems would protect them. There is ample evidence that gems were also connected with superstitious uses. Some were believed to have curative and protective powers. Pliny gives a long account of the magical properties of stones. He is generally critical of the superstitious claims made by the Persian magicians, the magi. A certain kind of agate, for instance, was said to be beneficial against bites of spiders and scorpions. Haematite was said to be good for the eyes and liver, caused petitions addressed to kings to succeed, was useful in lawsuits, and mixed with juice of pomegranate would cure those who vomited blood. The healing properties of gems were indeed very much in demand. A haematite gem in St Petersburg has an inscription which makes its function clear: stomachou (of the stomach). In the Roman period we find a marked incraese in teh number of gems used as talismans. In Egypt a particular kind of gem was engraved with syncretistic deities and magical inscriptions. Since these were not to be used as seals, the cutting is mostly in positive on the gem. Love spells were also cast by means of engraved gems, either to attract the favours of a reluctant lover, or take revenge on a cheating partner.

Materials

Most gems of the Greco-Roman period were made of hard stones of which quartz (silicon dioxide, SiO2; hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale) is by far the commonest type. There exists a wide range of quartzes of varying colours and appearance to which different names are applied. Colour could be invested with a quasi-magical function: red was the colour of blood and flesh, and green that of vegetation; amthyst was the colour of wine and as its name implies was a prophylactic against drunkenness.

The list given below is not intended to be comprehensive and only includes the minerals most frequently found. The task of identifying these gems is not a difficult one, since only about a dozen minerals were in common use. The more exotic stones represent just a fraction of ancient engraved gems. However, it is not always possible to match the ancient Greek and Latin terminology with known gemstones. It is a remarkable fact that Pliny gives some three hundred names to describe stones known and used in his time.

Chalcedonies or microcrystalline quartzes

Cornelian is a translucent red form of chalcedony, shading from dark red to golden yellow. The name derives from the Latin cornum, the red berry of the cornel-tree. The alternative name carnelian is generally considered incorrect, but the false etymology from carnis, 'flesh', has popularised its spelling. The whitish appearance of some ancient specimens is due to exposure to great heat.

Sard is a translucent brown variety of chalcedony, shading from light yellowish brown to opaque dark brown. Dark inclusions can sometimes be observed. Sard is often difficult to distinguish from cornelian. The cornelian and sard are the most widely used stones in Greek and Roman glyptic art. The name is derived from Sardis in Lydia, the place where it was chiefly found.

Sardonyx is used to describe chalcedony with straight bands of alternating brown or blue bands. It was the preferred stone for engraving cameos. The carver would take advantage of the colours in the layers to show, for instance, cream-coloured figures on a dark background, or to depict details of a drapery or a wreath. The term nicolo is used to describe a Roman banded intaglio with a blue or brown top layer and a dark brown bottom layer. Onyx, which derives from the Greek word for fingernail, a reference to the colour of the pale bands, is the name usually given to a black and white two-layered banded chalcedony.

Jasper is an opaque form of chalcedony and the most popular colours were red, orange and yellow. There is a green variety sprinkled with red spots popularly called bloodstone or heliotrope. Yellow and especially red jaspers became very fashionable for Roman gems in the second and third centuries A.D. Mottled jasper with small patches of white, brown, yellow and black was also occasionally used in the same period.

Chalcedony is a microcrystalline form of quartz and its different colours are due to the impurities that it has absorbed. The name is also generic, but is convetionally applied to colourless, grey and blue varieties. It derives from the name of the city Chalcedon (modern Kadıköy in Turkey).

Plasma is a green variety of chalcedony and often contains dark inclusions. The green colour is generally due to the presence of chrome. It is not a very accurate term, as it is applied to several different green stones, including aventurine, prase and chrysoprase.

Macrocrystalline quartzes

Rock crystal is transparent and colourless. It was more popular in the Greek period than in the Roman, when it appears only in the first century B.C.. Ancients believed that rock crystal was a form of petrified ice, the result of water being frozen at a very low temperature, the word 'crystal' being derived from the Greek word for ice. In Asia Minor, Pliny mentions that a poor variety occurred around Alabanda and Orthosia in Caria.

Amethyst is transparent and ranges in hue from dark purple to pale mouve. The colour is usually not distributed evenly in the stone, some parts being lighter, others darker. The name derives from the Greek word meaning 'not drunken', which originated from the belief that the wearing of the stone gave immunity against the after-effects of indulgence.

Other minerals

Lapis lazuli is deep blue and sometimes contains brassy specks of pyrite. It was highly prized since its only quarries were in Afghanistan, although Persia was also a possible source. In Roman times lapis lazuli was seldom used as a gemstone and most examples date to the second and third centuries A.D.

Garnet is a crystallised silicate. It is transparent and ranges in colour from dark red to orange, and sometimes purple, variants to which different names were applied in antiquity. It was not used until the Hellenistic period, when it became particularly fashionable. Its hardness was superior to that of quartz and it was thus more difficult to carve. In Asia Minor, Pliny mentions that it was extracted around the cities of Alabanda and Orthosia in Caria; the modern name almandine is a corrupt form of alabandina. A fiery red variety called lychnis is said by Pliny to have been found around Orthosia and throughout Caria. Garnets were very often carved with a curved surface and, to lighten the colour, the underside was holowed out.

Haematite is an iron oxide of dark metallic grey appearance. According to Theophrastos it was given that name because it looked like congealed blood, the word 'haematite' being derived from the Greek word for blood. Another explanation for the name is the red colour that haematite takes when it is powdered. It was infrequently used in the Greek period and most examples date from the Roman imperial period, when it was often made into magical intaglios.

In addition, glass was used throughout antiquity as a substitute for expensive gemstones. Some glass gems were directly engraved as in the same way as stone gems, other were cast from terracotta moulds made from the actual engraved stone gems, both intaglios and cameos. When the result was not entirely satisfactory, the glass impression was retouched to give it a sharper edge. Glass gems could also consist of several layers of varying colours, to reproduce sardonyx, nicolo, or banded agate. The glass could be opaque or translucent, with air bubbles often being visible on the latter variety. According to Pliny and other ancient authors, glass gems were often sold as stones by fraudulent dealers. One story tells us that the wife of Gallus, in the mid-first century B.C., bought a necklace of expencive beads only to find out that they were cheap glass. The dishonest seller was caught and duly hauled off to the arena where after a fearful wait he was confronted by a capon, not a lion, to the amazement of spectators; this was said to be a punishment that fitted the crime. It is clear, however, that most glass gems were sold as such, being more affordable and available in a whole range of fancy colours. Demand for them increased sharply from the first century B.C. onwards.

Methods of Engraving

The choice of cutting tools and techniques was determined by the nature of the object to be engraved. Only soft stones and metals could be worked free-hand with cutting tools. In the Greco-Roman period hard stones were mostly used, which required the wheel technique. Pliny and Theophrastos give brief accounts of the methods used for producing intaglios and cameos. Our knowledge of the tecniques used can also be deduced from the stones themselves and from modern methods.

Manageable pieces had first to be chipped from a block of raw stone. These were then shaped into blanks by grinding them against a fine abrasive wheel which was worked with a treadle like a lathe. Once the gem had been ground to the desired shape, it was polished with emery dust and then, to give it a glossy lustre, with finely powdered haematite (iron oxide). The polished blank was then engraved with the aid of drills made of copper and dipped in a mixture of oil and an abrasive. These drills were mainly of the bow-drill type, either hand-held or fixed. A string was wound around the shaft of the drill and the rigid bow was drawn back and forth. A representation of such a bow-drill fixed on a horizontal lathe has survived on the gravestone of the eighteen-year-old daktulokoiloglyphos, 'the cutter of intaglios', Doros of Sardis, which dates from the second century A. D. and was found at Philadelphia in Lydia. No ancient drill has survived, but useful information can be gained from the study of traces left in the intaglios themselves.

These drills were made of iron or copper-alloy and their grinding power was greatly enhanced by the use of an abrasive such as emery (an impure form of corundum with a hardness of 9), sources of which existed in Naxos in the Cyclades, southwest Turkey, and India.

The gem engraver used a combination of drills of various sizes, the cutting edge of which was in the shape of either a tiny disk or a ball.

There appears to be no decisive evidence to prove that gem engravers used magnifying lenses in antiquity. But it has been suggested that the craft was handed down from father to son in families that suffered from myopia and therefore had no problem in focusing close-up. Gem-cutters, like other artisans in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, would belong to guilds and the profession was usually passed from one generation to the next. Regional schools and styles did exist, but they are imperfectly known for lack of enough provenanced material.

A document from Egypt, the so-called Stockholm papyrus, indicates that the colour of gems was artificially modified, either to enhance a tonality or to change it altogether. These manipulations were evidently aimed at increasing the value of an average gem and varied with the fashion of the moment. Pliny describes the use of honey to colour agates. This method is still used today: a dull and grey-looking onyx is placed in boiling honey or sugared water, so that the sugar penetrates the stone and when heated is carbonised rendering the stone black. Stones could even be created artificially; Pliny tells us that sardonyx could be manufactured so convincingly by sticking three gems together that the artifice could not be detected.

The Choice of Designs on Engraved Gems

The designs engraved on gems reflect the fashion of their day. The principal motifs were pictorial and in the Roman period included reproductions of statues of deities, heroes, portraits, animals, mythological scenes and creatures, objects, symbols, and scenes from daily life. Deities were by far the most common, those worshipped by soldiers and merchants (Athena, Nike, Ares, and Hermes) being particularly popular. Portraits were also popular, both official and private. Many such portrait-gems have survived of Hellenistic kings and Roman emperors. Some were distributed to favoured subjects and evidently had a propaganda value. In the Roman Republic, it was considered an honour to have a portrait of a distinguished ancestor on a seal. Family ancestry also played a role in the choice of the design of a signet-ring. This can be compared to our modern rings bearing family crests or coats of arms. Julius Caesar, for instance, had on his seal an armed Venus (Venus Victrix), since he claimed descent from that goddess through Aeneas. On a different note, we are told by Clement of Alexandria that some people even had figures of their naked mistresses on their seals.

Animals were also very popular and often had a symbolic meaning. The ram's head, for instance, was an emblem of good fortune. Eagles were particularly popular with legionary soldiers. Sometimes the design of a gem cannot be readily interpreted when it involves the combination of characters or objects that have lost their meaning. Combinations of several figures, masks, parts of animals, heads of satyrs, etc., usually known as grylloi (gryllos, a misnomer, means caricature), were in great favour from the first century B. C. onwards. These were not merely fanciful but had a recognised superstitious significance. They were worn as amulets to avert the evil eye or ensure fertility and prosperity for the owner. Early Christian and Byzantine gems emphasised religious motifs, and monograms of individual names are also common.

Some stones, on account of their colour and properties, were specifically used for certain motifs. From the second century A. D. onwards, lions were very often engraved on yellow jasper, presumably to render the natural colour of the lion's mane. Bloodstone and haematite were popular stones for magical gems in Egypt. Intaglios cut on bloodstone frequently portray the sun god Helios, which is partially explained by the Greek name of the gem, heliotrope. Many amethyst or mauve glass gems with a mask of Dionysos engraved on them have survived and provide an attractive combination of the prophylactic property of the stone (protection from drunkenness) with the image of the inebriating god of wine.

Dating Engraved Gems

Gems cannot be dated as accurately as other artefacts such as coins, ceramic shards or sculpture fragments. Style, technique and subject, as well as the variety and shape of gems, are useful dating criteria, but they remain relative indicators. There has been recently an increase in the number of studies focusing on the techniques of engraving, and chronological systems have been devised on the basis of these observations. Such efforts are constantly checked by finds of gems from dateable contexts. Recently, for instance, the dating of the 'Incoherent grooves style' has been down-dated in view of new finds. A good example of a securely dated context is the house of Pinarius Cerialis in Pompeii, in which a jewellery box containing a number of plain and engraved gems, among them 24 intaglios and six cameos, was found. This hoard is of value in providing an undisputed chronological pointer, for all must have been made before the destruction of the city in 79 A. D.Tomb finds are also very useful evidence for advancing our knowledge, as they are sometimes associated with other dateable objects such as coins. One difficulty, however, is the long survival rate of gems, which could be passed as heirlooms from one generation to another. Examples of old gems set in later rings are not uncommon.

Shapes and materials used for rings have also evolved with time, and these variations can also help in dating the gems set in them. When specialists date a gem, they usually do so within a century or two, and at best within half a century. Unless there is conclusive dating evidence, such as the portrait of an emperor whose regnal years are known, any attempt at greater accuracy would only be rash in the present circumstances. Future finds coupled with more thorough studies will no doubt refine what is today a choronological arrangement that is only partially satisfactory.

Paylaş

Historical Relief Maps

2010-05-26T02:53:00.000-07:00

Historical Relief Maps

One of the important characteristics of maps is the accurate and understandable reflection of a relief, which expresses the outlook of the terrestrial features on a vertical plane. With this purpose certain production and drawing techniques, such as contour lines, hachures, colour layers, shading and hatching are used separately or a few together. The relief maps are specially produced with various methods reflecting the structure of the terrain in three dimensions as it is in nature, using materials based on cardboard, wax, mixture of resin and wax, gypsum or plastic. In these maps the earth is seen in three dimensions as if looking down from a certain height.

The relief map production technique was initially used in the late nineteenth century. The relief maps previously produced manually with hand tools are now being mass produced with use of computers, generally using plastic materials.

Our historical relief maps explained in this research with samples among the first originals of their kind in the world as mentioned in the preface, each being as beautiful as a painting, with the writings, frames and the ornaments on the frames they represent charming samples of calligraphy and the art of decoration. Some of them include oil paintings of the important historical and religious places, plus expressive descriptions of historical events. These paintings and writings, reflecting also the excelling patriotism and emotion of their producers, are ornamented with the attention of a goldsmith.
From this standpoint, the Relief Map of Çanakkale (Gelipoli) Strait (Archive Nr. 6904) existing at the Military Museum and Culture Site (MMCS) in addition to its perfection and beauty as a map, the writing on it summarizes the epic battles of Çanakkale and has the characteristic of a very valuable historical document as it reflects the statistics of the casualties suffered by the allied naval force and indicates the battle lines of the allies and the enemy and includes paintings of the important fortifications and locations. (The work reflects also the vast cartographic knowledge and great skill of its producer, retired Brigadier General Halil İbrahim)

Other than the Relief Map of Çanakkale, the relief map of "Crete and Rhode Islands" at the General Command of Mapping (GCM), the relief map of “Anadolu” (Anatolia) at the Army War School is considered to be produced in memory of a visit paid to Palestine by the German Emperor Wilhelm II, and the relief map of Jerusalem and Palestine take place among the original relief map samples.

The research carried out has revealed that the relief maps produced with educational and tactical purposes are much more frequent than the ones mentioned in this research. Some of the products such as the relief maps of Çanakkale Strait, Caucasus, Edirne, Crete and Rhode Islands, are individual maps pertaining to a definite area. Others are in a group of same scale maps covering larger areas, in other words a group of sheets covering a certain area produced in a map series. These map series, consisting of 42 relief sheets, cover Rumeli, Greece, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and partly Austria. Unfortunately, out of the 42 sheets at present only 13 sheets are available.

Individually produced and now available, 23 relief sheets can easily be said to form one part of the produced relief maps. In summary, now, in total we hold 36 relief maps. Twenty three of these are individual and the remaining 93 are produced in series.
The available maps, excluding few, are in good condition. The products existing at the GCM were repaired with the great skill of the Army Captain Nusret Gülün (now retired colonel) in 1966, when brought to Ankara from the MMCS. As maintained later, they are all in good condition, except a sheet newly found this year. (Map of Edirne)

In my reviews I have noticed that the relief map production developed in the early 1880's, when they were greatly favoured at the beginning, but later on the importance attached to these products decreased over time. The reason for this can be explained as follows: considering the flow of relief map production within the historical development of Turkish modern mapping.

After the Ottoman - Russian Battle in 1877, the Chief of General Staff is reorganized in 1880 and the "Fifth Section" included in it is assigned with mapping and scientific activities. Together with this new importance attached to mapping the aim was to train technical personnel capable of new technology and provide new instruments and materials as well as increase the production level to meet the requirements of the country. Meanwhile, with the purpose of meeting the urgent requirement for education and tactical maps and mainly to be helpful for the mapping education at the Army War School, relief maps of certain important areas were started to be produced as educational or wall maps under the leadership of the young instructors of topography and surveying at this school. In the later days of 1884 the tactical requirement for this production was more important. At the beginning, First Lieutenant Hasan Rıza, First Lieutenant Ali Haydar (both are masters of calligraphy at the same time), First lieutenant Hasan Behçet and Army Captain Halil Ibrahim are names mentioned in almost every relief map produced until 1895's. In later products, some new names are seen, such as Dağıstanlı Zekeriya Hulki. It is certain that Dağıstanlı Hulki, who started producing relief maps during his cadet years at the Army War School and his comrades are students of the above mentioned leading officers in the relief map production.

The latest of our historical relief maps is the one produced again by Brigadier General Halil İbrahim in 1999 upon a private request in memory of The Battles of Çanakkale at the scale of 1/25.000 covering the Strait of Çanakkale and the Battles that took place there.

During the republican period, linear maps being considered as the base in the development and the defence of the country are produced at various scales and completed with priority. No relief maps of importance are produced, other than a few privately produced until the establishment of a relief map section at GCM in 1966. Today at this section, the required various scale relief maps are produced with utmost care and accuracy by very well trained military and civilian personnel using plastic material and sophisticated instruments and devices, most of which are equipped with computers.

RELIEF MAP OF THE STRAIT OF ÇANAKKALE AND ITS BATTLES

Information: This map covers the Strait of Çanakkale and mainly Gelibolu Peninsula. It is produced by retired Brigadier General Cerrahpaşalı Halil Bey (Halil İbrahim). On cloth coated wooden surface, seas and lakes are painted in blue colour. The terrain is indicated by means of cardboards cut in layers according to the contour lines and stuck one on top of the other and then it is retouched filling the formed layer gaps with a mixture of resin and wax. The top of the model is oil painted in the colours of the features indicated. The lettering by hand is made directly on the terrain and the seas. The additional information requiring explanation is written on separate pieces of paper and then stuck to the map where they belong. The map is in a plain wooden frame of 4.5 cm. wide.

The additional information and the illustrations existing on the map are:

1- The Sultan Mehmet Reşad's monogram and a poem written by him on the occasion of the heroic defence of Çanakkale.
2- Sufficient information relevant to the war ships of Britain and France lost during their attack on the Çanakkale Strait on 18 March 1995 and the subsequent days.
3- A small scale map of the Marmara Sea
4- The explanation note on the Çanakkale war victory of 18 March 1915.

THE RELIEF MAP OF THE STRAIT OF ISTANBUL

Information: This map covers the Strait Istanbul and both its sides.
The model is made of wax on a cardboard base and is oil painted. The Seas are indicated by means of painting in blue colour the cloth stuck on cardboard. All of the lettering (important, geographic specification and population) is in hand writing.
No information has been available concerning the producers and its date. The frame is not original and a simple one of 5.5 cm. width is thought to be made later on.

The General Command of Mapping Cartography Museum, Ankara. Scale 1/37.500, Dimentions: 74x106.5cm.

RELIEF MAP OF PLEVEN AND ITS FORTRESS

Information: This first produced map, which is plain and in size much smaller than the others, covers the city Pleven and the Ottoman fortification in the glorious defence of Pleven in 1877 and the Russian fortification opposite to it. It is reproduced from the same mould in gypsum.

As it is reproduced from the same model, possibly other copies of it may be found in future. As the writings on the map are depressed, it proves that a positive mould is skilfully produced. As the conventional signs indicating the fortification are on the other hand negatively prepared on the main positive mould, they are in relief. There are two same relief maps.

A part of 10 x 97 cm. of the first map in the north – west corner, is broken. This piece is missing and the map has no frame. Some parts of the second map, are also broken, but these pieces are available. This map has a thinly gypsum coated wooden 3cm wide frame.

At the intersection point of two lines drawn vertically 15.5 cm. from the north - west, corner of the map and the other 11.5 cm. horizontally south from the same corner, the Pleven City is located. The Ottoman units and fortification are around Pleven and they are encircled by the Russian ones. In some places below the Russian fortification, "Russian Army " appears in writing.

In the north - west corners of the maps, within a crescent, "Pleven and its fortification, 1294 (1878)" is written; as well as in the north- east corners.

Rhodes Island

Rhodes Island is on 36° north latitude and in between 6 -26° east longitudes and has a surface of 1100 km2. Its existing population is around 4000people, half of which is estimated to be muslim and the remaining from various nations. Its soil is fertile and productive. The centre of its administration is the Rhodes city.

In the south-west of the map there is a nice small relief model of the Hanya Castle and in the south- east the relief model of the Castle of Rhodes on this island. In the centre of the south edge of the map there is an Ottoman coat of arms, and the writing within it reads: "Printed at the Army War School and then converted to a relief map covering the famous Crete and Rhodes Islands, by Lieutenant Halil (Halil İbrahim Bey), Assistant instructor of the Restricted Terrain Gesson. In 1301 (1885)".Under this coat of arms the names of the important places in the map are listed according to the given numbers.
Its inner frame of 6 cm. width is ornamented and has an outer frame of 12 cm. width, of which the corners are carved in gypsum on wooden base in gold gilt and are the original ones. It has a glass protecting cover. In the four corners of the inner frame there are crescent shapes of carved wood. A frame with similar crescent shapes is used also for the map of the "Theselia Region " existing at the Army War School.

The General Command of Mapping Cartography Museum. Ankara Year 1883, Scale 1/250.000. Dimentions: 78.5x119.5cm.
Within a frame in the south-east corner of the map there is a linear scale ( 50 75 100 kilometre scale) and under it the writing the "Ottoman Europe ". At the bottom of this writing there are the names of its makers in the below arrangement:

Meliha Firdevs Student Mürşide Mihriban Naime Nuriye Culture Hatice Hüveyla Your Odalisque House 1399 Your Odalisque
(1903)

A needlework map is placed on silk velvet in brown colour overlaying 10 cm. at the upper and lower edges end 8 cm. at the right and left edges, appearing also as a frame. The size of the silk velvet is 85 x 121 centimetres. On the upper edge of the velvet a wooden piece gilded hanger is placed and there is also a cylindrical bass weight hanger at its lower edge. In the centre of the upper hanger there is a metal crescent shaped like oak branches in which an Ottoman coat of arms is placed with a monogram of the Sultan Abdul amid on top. Besides its beauty and originality it is also thought to be a historical document from which lessons must be taken, as it shows the territories lost in the twenty years between 1903 and 1923.
The Command of the Military Museum and Culture Site. İstanbul Archive Nr. 807, Year 1903, 65x104 Dimensions

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THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT GLASS

2010-05-26T02:27:00.000-07:00

The History of Ancient Glass

Ancient Glass of Asia Minor

THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT GLASS

The Bronze Age

The discovery of how to make glass was probably made in the Bronze Age towards the end of the third millennium B.C. Archaeological evidence suggests that the discovery took place in Mesopotamia and, in all probability, occurred as the result of the use there of vitreous glazes and faience-for beads, tiles, pottery and other articles. The earliest glass-makers produced substitutes for semi-precious and precious stones, hence almost all early glass is opaque and brightly coloured. Beads were the most common items produced, although cylinder seals, rods, inlays and other small objects were also made. All of this early glass-ware was worked when cold, using various cutting techniques adapted largely from those used by stone-cutters.

Glass vessels do not make their appearance until the late sixteenth century B.C. The distribution of finds indicates that the first examples of glass vessels were probably made in northern Mesopotamia in the Hurrian kingdom of the Mitanni, although the earliest datable example comes from the site of Atchana (ancient Alalakh) on the plain of Antioch near the modern Turkish border with Syria. The vessels were almost invariably made by using the core-forming technique and take the form of small bottles, beakers and goblets. The creation of vessels represented a major advance in glass technology, for it involved the manipulation of the glass while still hot. The homogeneity of the core-formed glasses indicates that they were probably made at a small number of centres that were in close contact with one another. Workshops were based at major cities or attached to religious centres where the glass-makers enjoyed royal or priestly patronage. Little change can be detected in the vessel shapes between the late sixteenth and fourteenth centuries B.C. This may also be taken to indicate the ritual and conventional role that glass played in Late Bronze Age society.

Not long after the first appearance of core-formed vessels, glass-workers developed techniques for casting mosaic glass to form goblets, bowls and plaques. As with core-forming, mosaic casting seems to have been associated with the Hurrian areas of northern Mesopotamia. In addition to vessels, a wide variety of glass objects were manufactured-beads, seals, pendants, jewellery and furniture inlays, and even small figurines.

Within a short time Mesopotamian glass products and the knowledge of how to make them were exported to other major centres of Late Bronze Age civilisation. Of these the most important was the kingdom of Egypt. Although the initial inspiration for the Egyptian industry came from abroad, native craftsmen soon developed their own types of glass-ware. This industry reached full maturity under the royal patronage of the pharaoh Amenhotep III in the first half of the fourteenth century B.C. Archaeological remains from that period attest to large- scale production, high technical competence and permanent factory installations. The Egyptians clearly recognised the inherent qualities of glass as an inert, odourless material. So, their glass vessels were mostly small closed containers- flasks, jugs, amphoriskoi, krateriskoi, jars and kohl tubes, all derived from the shapes of traditional Egyptian pottery, faience and stone-ware vessels. They were used for storing aromatic oils, scented unguents and costly incense, as well as more mundane articles such as cosmetics and medicines. In addition to vessels, the Egyptian industry engaged in the production of glass objects, principally inlays in opaque colours for furniture, funeral paraphernalia, shrines and large-scale architectural elements.

The evidence for the production of glass vessels elsewhere in the eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age is as yet inconclusive. Even if Syrians and Cypriots were not producing vessels of their own, closely related to Egyptian types, it is likely that they were taking an active part in the manufacture of raw glass and in the trade in both ingots and finished products. It is certain, however, that the Mycenaean Greeks developed a native glass industry, the main product of which was small cast appliqués.

The Iron Age

In the eleventh century BC a dark age spread across the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia, bringing a sharp decline in civilisation and prosperity. The disruption to trade that ensued severely affected the glass industry. After the collapse of the great empires of the Late Bronze Age, there was a lengthy gap in glass production in both Mesopotamia and Egypt. No firm evidence has yet been found to prove that glass was being produced during the Early Iron Age. Although it does not disappear completely from the archaeological record, glass is extremely rare in the period between the twelfth and eighth centuries B.C. But this is not to say that glass was completely unknown. Literary evidence for glass-making has been found both in Middle Babylonian cuneiform texts and in Neo-Assyrian tablets from Nineveh. It is assumed that these texts offer a thread of continuity stretching across the four-century gap in the archaeological record. Early glass objects, too, were kept as precious keepsakes and heirlooms during this period, as is shown by the finds of mosaic glass in the citadel at Hasanlu, which was destroyed in the late ninth century B.C.

When glass-making does re-emerge, the products appear in a variety of new forms and with different functions and techniques. Very little remains, however, to indicate the presence of early glass factories in Mesopotamia or elsewhere in western Asia. A fragment of an opaque turquoise blue 'segmental' glass ingot was found in the N.W. Palace at Nimrud and seems to date from the seventh century BC, but other ingots from Nimrud, in opaque red glass, are probably not earlier than the Achaemenid period.

The earliest use of glass on a large scale in the first millennium BC occurred on Phoenician ivories. The glass was used as an inlay for embellishing and accentuating details of figures and floral designs and gave the ivory a polychrome appearance. They include both monochrome and mosaic-glass inlays, and they date from the first half of the eighth century BC. It has been suggested that the monochrome inlay pieces were cast by the ivory carvers themselves, while the mosaic-glass inlays, since their preparation required considerable skill and training, were probably made by specialist glass-makers. It remains uncertain whether the two types of inlay were made by Phoenician craftsmen from local sources or, alternatively, were imported either in a raw or in a finished state from elsewhere.

Glass vessels make their reappearance soon after the initial production of the ivory inlays. In Mesopotamia this took the form of a revival of the core-formed industry of the Late Bronze Age. Its recommencement has been dated to the second half of the eighth century B.C. These core-formed vessels were apparently not as highly prized as the cast and cut vessels to be discussed below, since they occur more frequently in private graves than in association with the royal palaces. The vessels were, however, exported in the seventh century BC to Iran and numerous examples of a local Neo-Elamite industry at Susa are clear imitations of the Mesopotamian types. Other isolated core-formed vessels have been found at the Urartian site of Karmir Blur, as well as in Syria and Palestine.

A significant number of core-formed alabastra have been found on the island of Rhodes. This suggests that either they reached Rhodes from Mesopotamia or they were produced in Rhodes by migrant Mesopotamian craftsmen. Rhodes, indeed, became the main centre of production for core-formed vessels in the mid-sixth century BC, and it was probably from there that the craft spread through the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions.
By far the most interesting type of the Iron Age glass-ware, in terms of technique, decoration and intrinsic value, is the group of cast and cut vessels. They differ considerably from glass vessels of the Bronze Age in their appearance and method of manufacture. The vessels were cast in moulds, probably by the lost-wax technique and then finished by grinding, cutting, drilling and polishing-techniques borrowed from the makers of stone vessels. Luxury metal and stone vessels frequently served as prototypes not only for shape, but also for the horizontal grooves and ridges that characterize some of the vessels. In contrast to the majority of earlier glass, these were monochrome vessels, usually made in translucent, almost colourless or light greenish glass. The glass-makers were evidently imitating rock-crystal or transparent semi-precious stones and not the opaque lapis lazuli or turquoise that had attracted craftsmen in the second millennium BC. This preference for translucent glass shows, most importantly, a new awareness of the special qualities of the substance with which they worked.

The largest and most important group of cast vessels comes from the Assyrian palaces at Nimrud. The Sargon Vase provides a terminus ante quem of 705 BC for the beginning of these cast and cut luxury glass vessels, although most of the Nimrud fragments were found in the debris of the 612 BC destruction. In addition to the plain bowls, some pieces have superb wheel-cut decoration and two fragments of another bowl reveal inlaid and painted decoration. These stand as examples of the consummate skill of the glass-makers of the time, combining the use of lost-wax casting, cutting, painting and mosaic-glass inlaying. At a somewhat lower level of craftsmanship, there are a small number of glass cosmetic palettes from Palestine, notably from the site of Megiddo. They closely resemble the stone palettes that are relatively common in the same area; Megiddo itself has yielded thirty-five such examples. There is no evidence that glass was made in Palestine in the eighth to seventh centuries BC. The glass used for making the palettes is similar to that used for the cast and cut vessels described above. These, too, are believed to be the products of Phoenician craftsmen, as indeed the stone and occasional faience palettes are thought to be.

Although it has long been recognised that these vessels form a coherent group with a fairly well-defined chronology, the place of origin has been the subject of much controversy. The industry should be attributed to Phoenicia or, in the case of the Nimrud pieces, to Phoenician craftsmen working for the royal palaces in Assyria. So, it would appear that the Phoenicians played a major role in the production of glass in the Iron Age. The eclectic nature of Phoenician art is reflected in the ability of its glass-makers to supply a luxury product to a variety of different markets.

The Classical Period

Between the sixth and first centuries BC the largest share of glass production was devoted to the making of core-formed vessels. These were almost exclusively small bottles intended for holding scented oils, unguents, perfumes and cosmetics. The bottles and their contents became part of everyday life; they were used in the home, were offered as votives at sanctuaries to the gods and were used at funerals to anoint the dead. Their shapes consciously imitate those of Greek pottery but they stand out from them because of their brilliant colouring and vivid patterns.

Three successive periods of production have been identified, each delineated by a new repertory of forms, decorative motifs, handle forms and colour combinations. The bottles circulated widely in the lands bordering the Mediterranean, but no factory site has yet been discovered and thus it remains uncertain where precisely they were made. Various locations have been suggested-Rhodes, Cyprus, southern Italy and the coastal cities of Phoenicia. It is likely, in fact, that there were a number of different centres, each producing its own variants.

In the fifth century BC a new industry, using the lost-wax technique, started production under the auspices of the Achaemenid Persians. It specialised in finely made luxury tableware whose shapes and cut decoration were modelled on those of metal vessels. Most of this tableware was made from a colourless glass in direct imitation of rock crystal. The largest known assemblage of Persian glass-ware was recovered from the treasury at Persepolis, the royal palace destroyed in 331 BC during Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire. Other examples have been found in disparate and far-flung locations. It has, therefore, been difficult to determine whether the industry was based in the Persian heartland, or in one of the western satrapies, or even in a Greek city on the periphery of the Empire. However, the close correlation between the glass vessels and Persian silverware combined with the evidence from Persepolis, shows clearly that the industry, wherever it was located, depended heavily on the patronage of the Achaemenid court.

The Hellenistic Period

In the Hellenistic world there were two main centres of glass-making, the Syrian coast and Alexandria, the capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt. In Syria production of the traditional core-formed unguent bottles was sustained until the first century BC. In addition, a prolific series of cast bowls were produced. The vessels were often decorated with cut lines or grooves and, on later types, with a row of knobs or short ribs around the exterior of the body. At Alexandria, on the other hand, glasses of a more elaborate and technically sophisticated character were made. These cast and cut vessels come in a greater variety of shapes and display a highly individual, artistic quality. The glass-makers at Alexandria also developed the skill of making mosaic and sandwich gold-glass. All of these are represented in the so-called Canosa Group of glass table ware, which may be dated to the second half of the third century BC. They attest to the first concerted effort by ancient glass-makers to manufacture complete dinner services from glass. Like Achaemenid glass, this tableware was much influenced by the prevailing styles of pottery and metal vessels. It is clear, however, that glass was gaining greater recognition as an attractive and colourful alternative, especially to silver serving and drinking vessels.

Although glass vessels from both Syria and Alexandria were traded widely-examples reached Italy and South Russia, as well as Asia Minor-their manufacture was a laborious and costly process. Consequently, glass-ware remained a relatively scarce and expensive item, and the industry still depended heavily on the patronage of the wealthy, whether leading citizens of Greek cities or members of Hellenistic royal families.

The Roman Period

The Roman glass industry was founded on the inspiration and expertise provided by glass-makers from the Hellenistic world. It rapidly developed, however, into an independent and innovative enterprise that further spread the art of making glass vessels beyond the Mediterranean basin to western Europe and elsewhere. As it grew, it furnished the ancient consumer for the first time with inexpensive, mass-produced glass-ware. The principal impetus to this industry came from the timely and fortuitous invention of glass-blowing. However, this technological advance by itself was not sufficient reason for the sudden transformation of glass from a rare luxury to a commonplace article. Other factors played an important role. The first was the enormous expansion of trade that occurred in the early imperial period, coupled with the increase in prosperity heralded by the restoration of peace under Augustus. The second is to be connected with the Roman campaigns in the East in the first century BC. The annexation of Syria and increasing Roman involvement in the affairs of Palestine and Egypt brought the Romans into direct contact with those very regions where glass-making had long been established and was still very much active.

Just as the Romans developed under Augustus a taste for marble in civic architecture, it could be argued that at about the same time they acquired a passionate appetite for glass-ware. Their preference was not restricted only to vessels and receptacles but extended also to the use of glass for interior decoration in mosaics, panelling and revetments.

The Romans were the first people to appreciate fully the functional uses of glass as a covering for windows and, when backed with a metal (gold or silver) foil, as a reflective material. Glass windows and mirrors are so much a part of the modern world that, as a consequence, it is difficult to comprehend the magnitude of these innovations. They also tend to be overshadowed by the appearance of stunning new forms of tableware and utilitarian vessels in the early imperial period. Yet the glass mosaics, panelling and windows were probably as ubiquitous and indispensable in the Roman world as the glass bottle. In short, the Romans were capable of recognising all the qualities of glass that are today so much taken for granted. The Romans were, it seems, eager to try out all sorts of novelties and experiments. For the nascent Roman glass industry this inquisitiveness, coupled with their ability to indulge their acquisitive tastes, stimulated an unheralded flowering in the art of glass. New forms, techniques colours and applications were eagerly adopted. Their appreciation of the various properties of glass is echoed in the relatively scarce references to it in contemporary literature. Perhaps most revealing is the story told by Trimalchio of a craftsman who presented to the Emperor Tiberius a glass bowl that would not break and could be hammered back into shape if it got dented. The glass-maker expected to be rewarded for his 'invention'; instead, the emperor ordered him to be executed, fearing that if the secret became common knowledge gold would lose all its value. The story well illustrates the high prestige of glass in the early first century AD and the mood of innovation and experimentation that permeated Roman society at that time. Unfortunately, the story has been more frequently used by modern scholars to argue that the Roman world had no interest in technical progress, greater efficiency and increased productivity. The evidence of the Roman glass industry speaks strongly against such a view.

Because of its size and complexity, it is possible to identify certain salient aspects of the Roman glass industry. First, a clear distinction is to be drawn between types of glass, especially with regard to vessels. So, some were patently made as luxury items and were regarded in antiquity, just as today, as works of art. Cameo glass, for example, undoubtedly falls into this category. These highly prized objects may or may not have had a functional use. At a slightly lower level stands a second class of vessels, the finely made and often elaborately decorated tableware. Many of the signed mould-blown vessels can be assigned to this group. Below them come the more mundane but still attractive containers-the jugs, flasks and bottles that could be used for both serving and storage. Finally, one has the mass of utilitarian vessels, typified by the plain, cheaply produced perfume bottle.
This wide range of products reflects the various markets for which the glass industry catered. At one end of the scale one must envisage a clientele comprising the very highest strata of Roman society. Indeed, it has recently been argued that such exquisite pieces as the Portland Vase were made for the imperial family itself. Likewise, one example of the late Roman vasa diatreta, the (now destroyed) Strasbourg cage-cup, bore the name of the Emperor Maximian (AD 287-305). At the other end of the scale are the glasses that, in the words of the Augustan writer Strabo, "could be purchased for a copper coin". Some bottles, in fact, may be regarded as disposable containers, and it is certainly true that glass more or less supplanted various types of Roman commonware pottery.

A third aspect that may be considered is the distribution of the industry. It has commonly been supposed that there was a number of major production centres in Syria, Egypt, Italy and the Rhineland. On the other hand, a cursory acquaintance with the blown glass of the Roman world makes it quite clear that practically every region must have possessed its own glass-houses, at least from the end of the first century AD onwards. This apparent contradiction is resolved by distinguishing between the different categories of product, as described above. Thus most of the utilitarian glass vessels were undoubtedly made locally, possibly by itinerant craftsmen using temporary facilities. The ephemeral nature of their activities may help to explain why so few glass workshops have been identified at archaeological sites. Likewise, because of their limited distribution, the common domestic wares display a great variety of form. Despite their simple and often careless manufacture, they are extremely difficult to classify, both geographically and chronologically. So, at the lowest level the popularity of glass led to the fragmentation of the glass industry. Even in remote provinces such as Britain there was a minor glass industry by the third century AD.

The better quality wares, however, were produced at established factories, some of which were able to proclaim their existence by the use of stamped moulds. For these 'middle-of-the-range' products subtle differences between the common shapes and styles of decoration can be used as identifying characteristics of regional groupings. The vessels then circulated within a given area, and only in exceptional circumstances would one expect to find them elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is a general homogeneity to Roman glass that implies fairly constant contact between the various centres of production. It is likely that this interrelationship was fostered mainly by the migration of craftsmen from one part of the Empire to another. There is, for example, abundant epigraphic evidence to suggest that many Syrians and Egyptians moved to the West to carry on a number of different professions and trades, including glass-making.

Finally, it is apparent that luxury glass was made in a small number of highly specialised workshops. It has been suggested elsewhere that silver picture plates reflect the universality of interests and tastes among the elite of late antique society. As with silver, luxury glass-ware was owned by members of the Roman nobility, whose material surroundings mirrored their common social and cultural background.Indeed, it could be argued that the far- flung distribution of late Roman glass such as cameo vessels and cage-cups (diatreta), two very closely related types, replicates on another level the ability of this social class to travel freely from one end of the Empire to the other. Significantly, the evidence adduced by Harden for long-distance trade in glass vessels relates to another type of luxury product, the fine colourless glass bowls with facet-cut and wheel-engraved decoration.
Conclusion

A dominant theme running through this brief survey of the history of ancient glass has been the important role played by wealthy patrons. Glass was often produced in workshops under direct royal patronage or was designed to cater for the needs of rich private clients. Yet, from the earliest times, man has used glass as a cheaper alternative to precious stone and metal artefacts. Until the Roman period practically all glass manufacture was geared to producing imitations of stone, metalwork and pottery. The fascination of glass is, therefore, something of an enigma. Unlike natural semi-precious stones, it was not durable, although it had the same qualities of translucency, smoothness and cleanliness. Whereas silver plate could be converted into 'cash', glass was a material of transient value. Again, glass was unlike pottery in that, once broken, it could be collected and re-melted. Glass has other qualities, too. It is malleable when hot and can be carved when cold; so, it permits craftsmen to employ a range of skills and produce a wide variety of different shapes, colours and decorative features. It imparts no taste or smell; it is thus an ideal container and, when sealed, can preserve contents for a considerable time. It is relatively light in weight and can be transported in a number of different forms as raw glass, finished products or as scrap. Culled glass has little intrinsic value, for it relies on the skills of the glass-maker to turn the glass into a thing of commercial worth or use. Trade in glass was, therefore, directed to specific outlets in antiquity and was not subject to the same dangers as, for example, the movement of precious metals.

The discovery of glass-making enabled man to exploit a material that could be used for countless different purposes and in every imaginable form. The appeal of glass throughout antiquity was without doubt based on its practical virtues, but it may also be linked to the fact that it is an artificial, man-made substance. Its mystery lay in the specialised skills that were needed to produce the raw material and then to work it into attractive but highly serviceable objects. In the Roman period the invention of glass-blowing brought the products of this exclusive industry within the reach of 'the ordinary man in the street'. No longer was it a luxury item, although the wealthy undoubtedly retained a liking for high-quality pieces. So, it might be said that glass was a great leveller. The ubiquity of glass on the Roman archaeological sites is testimony to its ability to span the gap between the disparate geographical and social elements of the Roman Empire.

Paylaş

Head Jewellery Earrings

2010-05-26T01:36:00.000-07:00

ANCIENT JEWELLERY EXHIBITED IN ANATOLIAN CIVILIZATIONS MUSEUM
Head Jewellery
Earrings

Name: Earring
Type: Gold
Location where it came from: Not known
Way of Coming: Not known
Dimensions:: H: 2.1cm W:1.7cm
Period:The 4th century BC

Its hook is very high, bent downwards and has a sharp point. The hook is soldered to the back of a sphinx standing on a rectangulat base. The sphinx stands on its back feet the head is slightly up towards the back. His chest is puffed up and straight and two front legs are taut. The hair is separated in the middle and goes down to the chest on both sides. The wings rise backward and upward and then turn towards the head and end there. The wings are a bit highre than the head. The tail is adhered on the right rump. A slot in the form of almond is mounted on the head, between the ends of the wings and the stonefrom this slot has fallen. There is a slot of the same type between the front legs of the sphinx. A ring is added to the slot in the upper side. The parts: the tail, the hook, the head and the wings are separately made by hammering and mounted with solder. While the long, "S" shaped hook should be a ring and should be attached to the ring on the head of the sphinx in its original form, it is brought to "S" shape later and connected to the back of the sphinx with solder and its original form has been lost.

Name: Earring
Type: Gold
Location where it came from: Kütahya
Way of Coming: Purchase
Dimensions:: H: 2.8cm W:2.1cm
Weight: 2.6 gr
Period: The 3rd century BC

It is made by winding another golden wire on a thin golden wire. One end of the ring, which is broken, is sharp. The other end is tied to the neck of an animal similar to an antelope or a gazelle. The neck is made by rounding a flat golden sheet and is wound on an internal meld. The head is formed by soldering small parts to each other, which are made with a hammering technique. The ears are cut from a sheet and the horns are shown with grooved filigree. The internal side of the body is empty and it is made with a hammering technique.

Name: Earrings
Type:GOld
Location where it came from:Not known
Way of Coming:Confiscation
Dimensions:H: 3.6-3.4cm W.:2.7-2.9cm.
Weight: 3.8 gr.
Period:The 3rd century BC

Name: Earrings
Type: Gold
Location where it came from: not know
Way of Coming: Purchase
Dimensions: H: 2.3-2.7cm W:2.6-3.0cm
Weight: 9.05 gr.
Period:The 2nd century BC

It is a twisted ring, which becomes thin and flat towards the end, the orther ends finish with a woman head. The neck of the woman is placed on a base that is formed by profiled rings that become wider upwards. Her hair is in the form of small curls. The eyes are big and bulging, a nose is flat and squat and a mouth is significant. The inside of the head is empty; the earring is closed by inserting a hook in the handle at the rear side. The internal mould is discharged from the hole opened on the backside of the head that is made by using an internal mould.

Name: Earrings
Type:Gold
Location where it came from:Ordu, Ünye, Denizbükü
Way of Coming:Confiscation
Dimensions:D: 4.85 cm
Weight: 26 gr
Period: The 4th century BC

The ends of a simple, big ring are closed by going inside a ball ornamented with filigree and granule. The ball is divided in the middle with a thin, golden wire. A thin golden wire is wound at the place where the ball combines with the ring on one side.

Name: Earrings
Type:Gold
Location where it came from:Nizip, Gaziantep
Way of Coming: Purchase
Dimensions:D: 1.5cm
Weight:0.87 gr.
Period: The 2nd century AD

It is cut from a golden sheet in a form of a crescent thinning towards the ends. One end is made in a way that a ring is being bends around itself and the other end is passed through this ring and closed
Paylaş

ANCIENT JEWELLERY EXHIBITED IN ANATOLIAN CIVILIZATIONS MUSEUM

2010-05-26T01:21:00.000-07:00

ANCIENT JEWELLERY EXHIBITED IN ANATOLIAN CIVILIZATIONS MUSEUM

Head Jewellery
Hair Jewellery
Golden hair rings are seen in Anatolia since the Bronze Period. It is assumed that the rings found near the head of the skeleton in Alacahöyük graves were used for tying the hair or as ornaments for hair. We can say that the types made by coating a thin golden sheet over the internal model are put on hair by preparing before in bent position and the massive types took this shape while they were being wound around the hair.

Hair Jewellery

Name: Hair or cloth barrette and needle
Type: Gold
Location where it came from: Alacahöyük
Way of Coming: Exc. find
Dimensions:: H:8cm W:15.2cm
Weight: 50.63 gr
Period: The Ancient Bronze

There are point relief ornaments made with a repousse technique. A head of the golden needle of a barrette consists of one quartz crystal and one golden bead.

Name: Hair or cloth barrette and needle
Type: Gold
Location where it came from: Alacahöyük
Way of Coming: Exc. find
Dimensions:: L:7.7cm
W:12.9cm
Weight: 49 gr.
Period: The Ancient Bronze Age

It is made by cutting from a golden sheet. It is in the form of two circles placed aside. It is ornamented with a point and a circle relief made in a repousse technique. The six - part, knotted golden needle of the barrette is inserted into two holes opened across each other on the surface of a barrette.

Name: Hair barrette
Type: Altın
Location where it came from: Alacahöyük
Way of Coming: Exc. find
Dimensions:: H: 1.4 cm
Weight: 10.0gr.
Period: Ancient Bronze

It is the coating of a thin golden sheet on spiral shaped internal mould. The ends are bumped; there is a small hole on one end. Hair ornaments are made by winding the empty round golden pipe twisted in spiral shape around the hair.

Name: Hair barrette
Type: Gold
Location where it came from: Alacahöyük
Way of Coming: Exc. find
Dimensions:: H:1.cm W:1.4 cm
Weight: 4.6 gr.
Period: The Ancient Bronze Age

It is made by twisting a massive triangle profiled golden band in spiral shape

Name: Hair ornament
Type: Sİlver
Location where it came from: Göller region
Way of Coming: Purchase
Dimensions:: D: 1.8 cm
Thick:0.3cm
Weight: 2.3-2.4 gr
Period: The Ancient Bronze Age

A ring with open ends is made by rotating a solid silver wire twice in spiral form. This is a typical hair ornament of the period.

Name: Hair barrette
Type: Gold
Location where it came from: Karaoğlan
Way of Coming: Not known
Dimensions:: D:2.4-2.2 cm
Weight: 14.8 gr.
Period: The 1st millenium BC

The ends of t a massive ring overlap.
Paylaş

Les Boucles d'Oreilles

2010-05-25T14:13:00.000-07:00

Les Ornements Antiques Exposés au Musée Des Civilisations d’Anatolie

Les Ornements de Tête

Les Boucles d’Oreilles

Les premiers exemples de boucles d’oreilles, symboles universels du désir d‘orner les oreilles, étaient des ornements simples en forme d’anneaux, propres à la femme. Les découvertes de boucles d‘oreilles appartenant à Troie II, Alacahöyük et Eskiyapar, confirmaient en Anatolie, en 3000, la supériorité de la forme et de la technique de cette période. Dans les tombes appartenant aux périodes archaïque et classique, ont été retrouvées de très belles boucles d‘oreilles qui montraient une main-d’oeuvre minutieuse. Elles sont en général d‘aspect simple et de forme en spirale et en croissant. Pendant la période héllenistique de plus impressionnantes et frappantes qualités attirent l‘attention. C‘est à cette période que l‘on voit apparaître des représentations humaines et animales sur les boucles d‘oreilles. Plus tard, des boucles d‘oreilles, surtout en or, reflétant les particularités et les techniques d‘ornement et prouvant une main-d‘oeuvre minutieuse furent réalisées. Pendant la période romaine, les boucles d‘oreilles étaient de formes différentes. On y voit un pendule sphérique d‘aspect massif ou des sphères creuses, des boucles d‘oreilles en forme de disque ou des pendules de formes différentes, avec ou sans pierres précieuses. En ce qui concerne les boucles d‘oreilles de la période byzantine, on remarque que l‘on a utilisé des figures végétales et animales réalisées avec la technnique de l’ajour, où l‘on a utilisé du métal et différentes pierres.

1ère Partie

Les Ornements Antiques Exposés au Musée Des Civilisations d’Anatolie

Les Ornements de Tête

Les Boucles d’Oreilles

Cat. No.: 17
Nom: Boucles d‘oreilles (paire)
Matière : Or
Origine : Kiltepe, intérieur de la tombe faite dans une caisse en bois, ler étage de Karum
Provenance : Fouilles
Dimensions: Diam. : 1,5 – 1,8 cm
Période: Hittite antique

Coupées dans une fine feuille d’or tournée, creuses et de forme sphérique. Contrairement aux autres, les extrémités, qui sont plates, sont situées les unes devant les autres et à distance.

Cat. No.: 18
Nom: Boucles d‘oreilles (paire)
Matière : Or
Origine : Eskiyapar, enterrées au sous-sol de la 2ème fosse, au 2ème niveau
Provenance : Fouilles de 1968
Dimensions: Diam.: 2,1 cm
Poids: 13,24 gr
Période: 2200 – 2000 av. J.C.

Elles ont été trouvées en trois exemplaires lors des fouilles d‘Eskiyapar. Elles sont de type massif, de profil sphérique, avec six parallèles sur l’une et quatre sur l’autre, en forme de croissant/huître, formées en rassemblant les deux bouts du fil rond. Elles sont appelées ainsi en raison de la forme des fils qui fait penser à la lune ; les ourlets obtenus en les apposant font penser à une huître.

Cat. No.: 20
Nom: Boucles d‘oreilles (en forme de caïque)
Matière : Argent
Origine : Inconnue
Provenance : Achat
Dimensions: Haut.: 1,8 cm; larg.: 1,9 cm
Poids: 2,6 gr
Période: 7ème siècle av. J.C.

Ce sont des exemples de boucles d‘oreilles antiques en forme de caïque. Sur leur corps profond en forme de “U“ et sur les saillies latérales, on voit des ornements en „telkari“ (fil en argent très fin) et en petits granules. L‘intérieur est creux, elles sont en forme de deux couvercles bombés et sont reliées au point où elles se combinent par une fine bande. Le crochet est cassé. Les deux extrémités du crochet ont des ornements granulés en forme de rosettes.

Cat. No.: 23
Nom: Boucles d‘oreilles (paire) en forme de caïque
Matière : Or
Origine : Tumulus de Gordion A
Provenance : Fouilles
Dimensions: Haut. : 1,2 cm; (protégée)
Poids: 3,98 gr
Période: 6ème siècle av. J.C

Aux extrémités du corps massif bombé en forme de caïque, se trouvent des anneaux formés de granules. La partie de l‘anneau est cassée. La surface du corps est ornée de gros granules et de „telkari“( fil en argent très fin). Ces boucles d‘oreilles sont si petites qu’elles auraient pu appartenir à des enfants.

Cat. No.: 25
Nom: Boucles d‘oreilles (double ) en forme de caïque
Matière: En or
Origine: Inconnue
Provenance: Achat
Dimensions: Haut.: 3 cm.
Poids: 6,5 gr
Période: 5/4èmes siècles av. J.C.

Une plaquette plate en or est coupée en deux morceaux et après que la forme bombée lui soit appliquée, l‘intérieur est transformé en forme de caïque creux. Elles sont montées sur le bout de l‘anneau qui passe dans l‘oreille. Sur leur corps et dans la partie inferieure se trouvent des ornements en granules de différentes dimensions.

Cat. No.: 28
Nom: Boucles d‘oreilles (paire) en forme de caïque
Matière: Or
Origine: Inconnue
Provenance: Inconnue
Dimensions: Haut. : 4,4 cm; larg. : 3.8 cm
Poids: 13,5 gr
Période: Epoque Byzantine

Toutes les deux sont des boucles d‘oreilles destinées à l’oreille droite et sont inscrites sous le même numéro de registre. Elles comportent cinq boules, autour de chacune d’entre elles, mais sur l’une d’elles il manque deux boules. Au milieu, de chaque côté du motif végétal, se trouve, face à face, une figure de paon.

Les Diadèmes, les Couronnes

2010-05-25T13:48:00.000-07:00

Nom: Diadème
Matière: Or
Origine: Muğla
Provenance : Inconnue
Dimensions: Long.:33,1 cm; Larg.: 4,1 cm.
Poids : 8.63 gr.
Période: 4ème siècle av. J.C

Les Diadèmes, les Couronnes

Les Ornements Antiques Exposés au Musée Des Civilisations d’Anatolie

Les Ornements de Tête

Les Diadèmes, les Couronnes

On peut voir les premiers exemples, en plaquettes ovales, en or fin, en argent et rarement en bronze, les coins ronds, et le milieu avec des motifs à rosettes. Il en existe également certains avec des points repoussés ou qui sont ornés de zigzags. Ils furent trouvés en 3000 av. J.C. à Alacahöyük et à Troie. Vers le milieu de l’an 2000 av. J.C. ils étaient assez répandus à Chypre. (Les restes des tombes encomies). Ils étaient utilisés pour des offrandes, des donations ou comme signe d’authorité ou bien d’ornement. Ils étaient également utilisés dans la vie privée, comme un signe d’amour à l’accouchement, dans des cérémonies, pendant une maladie, à la mort et aux enterrements. Quant à la couronne, elle était utilisée en particulier dans des périodes avancées comme un grade et ornement. D’après Pline (16,9 ; 21,11) c’était, au début, le symbole de Dieu. Les statues des dieux, les temples, les emplacements sacrés, les animaux pour le sacrifice et même les maisons possédaient des couronnes. Les premiers exemples de couronnes furent réalisés à partir de feuilles et de branches d’oliviers, de chênes, de myrtes et ensuite en métal.

Nom: Couronne
Matière : Or
Origine : Cimetière H d‘ Alacahöyük
Provenance : Fouilles de 1937
Dimensions: Long. (ouverture).:53 cm; Larg.: 1,4 cm.; long. des saillies 21 cm
Poids : 40,82 gr
Période: Période antique de Bronze

Il fut taillé en forme de parure pour le front (diadème) en or. Tout autour se trouvent une série d’oeufs stylisés et, au-dessus, une série de perles obtenues grâce à des points en relief. La série d’œufs constitue la feuille intermédiaire ; la série de perles ne contient pas de paillettes. La surface du diadème est recouverte de fleurs de lotus et de palmier. La technique utilisée pour les diadèmes est la technique repoussée. A part cela, dans la partie centrale, se trouvent des ornements ressemblant aux feuilles de palmiers, obtenues par de petits points effectués en donnant des coups par le haut. Sur les deux extrémités se trouvent des trous destinés au passage du fil.

Cat. No.: 12
Nom: Couronne
Matière : Or
Origine : Cimetière H d‘ Alacahöyük
Provenance : Fouille de 1936
Dimensions: Diamètre: 17 cm, largeur : 2,2 cm
Poids : 40,82 gr
Période: Période antique de Bronze

En rassemblant les deux bouts de la bande coupée d‘une lame en or, sans largeur, elle a été obtenue en tordant ensemble les bouts de quatres bandes simples en or. Les bandes sont utilisées comme des saillies.

Cat. No.: 13
Nom: Couronne
Matière : Or
Origine : Cimetière H d‘ Alacahöyük
Provenance : Fouille de de 1936
Dimensions: Diamètre: 19,2 cm, largeur : 5,5 cm
Poids : 125,55 gr
Période: Période antique de Bronze

Les coins du haut et du bas des bandes coupées obtenues de plaques concassées sont ornés de points en relief, les bouts sont arrondis et comportent deux trous. Les grands trous sont ouverts de l‘intérieur vers l‘extérieur et les petits trous sont ouverts de l‘extérieur vers l‘intérieur. Les grands trous sont, soit rivés en mettant les trous les uns sur les autres, soit cousus dans du tissu.

Cat. No.: 14
Nom: Couronne
Matière : Or
Origine : Inconnue
Provenance : Inconnue
Dimensions: Long. : 30,3 cm
Période: 3ème siècle av. J.C

La pièce large, coupée de la plaquette en or, est rassemblée en la tournant en forme de cercle. En mettant côte à côte les rectangles ajourés dont l‘intérieur est partagé en transversales vers l‘intérieur, on a constitué quatre bandes posées les unes sur les autres. Les coins du diadème et les coins du haut ainsi que ceux du bas sont entièrement couverts de points en relief. La technique de concassage a été utilisée.

Cat. No .: 15
Inv. No. 13508
Nom : Couronne
Matière : Or
Origine : Inconnue
Provenance : Saisie
Dimensions : Long. 27 cm (ouverture)
Poids : 6,11 gr
Période : 1er siècle av. J.C.

Réalisée de façon à ce que la large bande en or soit posée en face des fines feuilles. Le noeud d’Hercule, au milieu, a été réalisé en relief. Les nervures des feuilles sont également en relief. La pièce en or lisse n°5 – 1-65 inv. a été ajoutée au dos de la couronne.

Cat. No.: 16
Nom: 8 pièces de couronne
Matière : Or
Origine : Milas
Provenance : Inconnue
Dimensions: Long. : 4,0-4,5 cm, larg. : 2 à 2,5 cm
Poids Total 3.31 gr
Période: 2ème siècle apr. J.C.

Les extrémités possèdent des anneaux et sont composées de feuilles à trois tranches accrochées à onze trous se trouvant sur la bande étroite. Elle devait être attachée à la tête par un fil en or accroché aux anneaux. Les fibres des feuilles sont visibles. Il manque une feuille. On remarque des écrasements et certaines parties cassées.Her yaprak şeklinde lotus çiçeği bir altın kesilir. Lotus çiçekleri üç parça ve fiber hattı görülür. Yaprak sapları ince ve içine halkalar çevrilmiş ve düz bir şerit üzerinde monte edin.

Anciennes civilisations, anciennes villes

2010-05-25T13:23:00.000-07:00

Afroidisias

C’est une ville antique, située près de la commune de Karacasu dans la préfecture d’Aydın. La ville est fondée au nom de la Déesse Aphrodite. Elle était un grand centre d’habitation à partir de l’âge du Bronze jusqu’à la période Byzantine (2800 avant J.C.-200 de notre ère). Les fouilles archéologiques ont permi de mettre à jour le Temple Aphrodite, Odeon, Stadium et son agora ainsi que les Bains. Afrodisias est réputé pour ses statues tout en étant un centre important de l’art sculptural dans l’antiquité. Le stadium d’Afrodisias figure parmis les stadiums bien conservés des villes antiques d’Anatolie.

Anciennes Civilisations de Kaymaklı

C’est à Kaymaklı, situé à 15 km. de Nevşehir. La ville est construite, par le biais d’installation dans les rochers creusés, en vue de la défense et de la protection contre les attaques pendant la période de l’expansion du Christianisme, allant du VIe siècle au Xe siècle. Dans La ville souterraine à 8 étages, les étages et les sections sont situés autour de la cheminée d’aération. La hauteur des chambres placées autour d’un hall est de 2 m. Les chapelles sont plus spacieuse, et plus hautes que les chambr

Aspendos (Belkıs)

C’est une ville antique fondée dans l’antiquité, à 48 km. d’Antalya dans la direction de l’est. La plus importante construction en est le theâtre. Ce théâtre est l’exemple le plus solide des théâtres Romains en Anatolie, qui a pu parvenir jusqu’à notre époque avec toute sa structure de scène. Il a une capacité de 15.000 spectateurs. Il a été construit par l’architecte Zenon, au temps de l’empereur Antonius Pieus (138-164

Bibliothèque de Celcius à Efes

Bibliotheque de Celcius a Efes C'est le vestige le plus important de la ville antique d'Efes se situant dans la localite de Selcuk pres d'Izmir. Il a ete edifie durant la periode Romaine en l'an 115-117. En l'an 260, il a subit un incendie. Sa facade d'une architecture tres decorative de deux niveaux lui value sa renommee. La bibliotheque est composee de trois niches superposees l'un sur l'autre dans les murs, et ou sont entreposees les rouleaux d'ecriture.

Buste d’Alexandre le Grand

Ce buste de marbre ayant une hauteur de 42 cm. a été trouvé lors des fouilles de Bergama. Il date du III ème siècle avant Jésus-Christ. Nous n’avons pas de nombreux bustes originaux qu’ Alexandre Le Grand a fait exécuter de son vivant aux sculpteurs célébres de son temps. Il n’y a que des copies. Le buste, trouvé à Bergama a connu une grande renomée au musée de Louvre à Paris. (Muséee d’Archéologie d’Istanbul)

Caverne de Karain

La caverne en question est située à 27 km. d’Antalya (au nord-ouest) sur les monts de Katran. C’est une caverne naturelle. Les fouilles archéologiques montrent que la caverne a servi de refuge et de lieu d’habitation à l’âge préhistorique (paléolithique, mésolithique, néolithique et calcolithique). Les squellettes, les outils de pierre polie et tailleé, les pierres de briquet et encore d’autres œuvres importantes ont été trouvés dans la caverne.

Grand Monument de la ville de Midas

La ville de Midas-Yazılıkaya, fondée au VII ème siècle avant Jésus-Christ, est située à 90 km. d’Eskişehir. Le Grand Monument appartenant à la période phyrigienne se trouve dans cette ville. Il y a de différents motifs géométriques et écritures sur le monument devant lequel les cérémonies religieuses se déroulaient à l’époque phyrigienne.

Mausoleum d’Halicarnasse-Bodrum

La tombe du gouverneur Perse Mausolos à Bodrum-Halicarnasse figure parmi les 7 merveilles du monde. La construction de ce mausoleé a commencé après la mort de Maussolos en 352 avant Jésus-Christ, sur la demande de sa femme Artemisia. Les architectes en sont Pytheos et Satyrus. Les sculptures célèbres comme Skopas, Timotheos, Bryaris et Leochares ont travaillés chacun, pour une face différente. Les dimensions sont 60x80 m, et la hauteur est de 46 m, avec l’utilisation des colonnes de 9 x 11. Certains pièces ont été utilisées dans la construction de la citadelle de Bodrum. Les parties du Mausoleum sont transportées au British Museum de Londres au mileu du XIX ème siècl

Reliefs rupestres d’Ivriz

il est à 12 km de la commune d’Ereğli, dépendant de la ville de Konya, près de la source du ruisseau d’Ivriz. C’est une œuvre de la période Hittite, qui date du VIII ème siècle avant Jesus-Christ. Le relief ayant une hauteur de 6.08 m., décrit la gratitude de Warpalavas devant Santaj, dieu de la prospérité.

Sart (Sardes)

Cette ville antique se trouve dans la Commune actuelle de Salihli, dépendant de la préfecture de Manisa. Il s’agit de la capitale de d’Etat Lydien. Les fouilles archéologiques menées depuis le XIX ème siècle, ont permis de mettre à jour les constructions telles que le Temple d’Artemis, le gymnasium et le stadion Romains et les Bains Byzantins. La photo ci-contre présente une partie du Gymnasion.

Temple d’Artemis à Efes

Il s’ait du Temple célèbre de la ville antique Efes (Ephesos), située à Selçuk-İzmir, considéré comme l’une des 7 merveilles du monde et il est connu sous le nom d’Astemision en même temps. Le Temple à été construit, par Kroisos, roi Lydien, tout d’abord entre les années 560-550 avant Jésus-Christ selon l’ordre lonien. Etant incendié par un fou en 356 avant Jésus-Christ, il a été reconstruit, de nouveau, dans les même dimensions, et avec une hauteur de 3 m. de plus. Le temple, connu pour ses statues en marbre et ayant les dimensions 55.10 x 115 m. était le plus grand de la période Hellénistique. Il n’a pas été réparé après les destructions des Goths. Les restes du Temple ront été transportés en Angleterre, à la suite des fouilles effectuées par J.T.Wood en 1869-1874, et par David G.Hogart en 1904-1905 au nom du British Museum.

Un exemple de reliefs sur un socle d’une colonne provenant des vestiges du Temple d’Artémis à Ephèse.

(Londres British Museum)

Temple de Zeus à Bergama

Il a été construit par Eumeneo II, roi de Bergama entre les années 197-159 avant Jésus-Christ... Il a été mis à jour lors des fouilles effectuées par les archéologues Allemands à partir de 1865 à Bergama. Et les restes ont été envoyés à Berlin. A la suite des restaurations au Musée d’Etat à Berlin, l’exposition s’est réalisée en 1871. Depuis cette date, le musée a pris le nom de “Musée de Pergamon”.

Ville souterraine de Derinkuyu

Elle est située dans la province de Nevşehir. Elle a été construite dans le but de défense et de cachette en creusant les cailloux doux, situés dans le souterrain, pendant la période d’expansion du Christianisme. On suppose qu’elle a été construite entre le VI ème et le X ème siècle. Elle est constitué de chambres creusées, à droite et à gauche dans les passages étroits, de cheminées d’aération, d’une chapelle et d’un puit.

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN-Sultan Murad IV Han

2010-05-25T13:14:00.000-07:00

Sultan Murad IV Han

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN

Sultan Murad IV Han

Père: Sultan Ahmed 1er

Mère: Kösem Sultan (Mahpeyker)

Date de naissance: le 27 juillet 1612

Date de son arrivée au pouvoir: Le 10 septembre 1623

Date de décès: la nuit du 19 février 1640

Sultan Murad IV régna en tant que 17ème sultan ottoman quand il était encore très jeune, en septembre 1623. Son règne se divise en deux périodes. La première partie, se situant entre 1623 et 1632, est la période de son enfance, où il grandit en apprenant les affaires d’état et la deuxième, de 1632 à 1640, jusqu’à sa mort, où il gouverna en luttant pour élargir les territoire de l’état.

Lorsqu’il monta sur le trône, l’état était en désordre; à l’intérieur, il y avait des corruptions, les privilèges et les pots-de-vin étaient très répandus et les affaires d’état étaient bloquées; quant à l’extérieur, l’état de guerre se poursuivait en Orient avec l’Iran et à l’ouest avec l’Australie. Sa première démarche fut de supprimer les corruptions et les privilèges au sein de l’état en prenant des mesures sévères, comme il le fallait. Il rétablit la sécurité à Istanbul et dans les provinces. Il assura l’ordre au sein de l’armée. Il fit respecter les réglements et les lois, il fit assurer la perception des impôts et il prit des mesures pour empêcher les dépenses qui n’étaient pas nécessaires et ce, afin d’augmenter les revenus de l’état. Il punissait parfois personnellement ceux qui avaient commis des erreurs et rétablissait l’ordre en se déguisant. Il ne supportait pas l’injustice et le désordre, parfois il se mêlait aux soldats pour augmenter le moral des commandants et des soldats en guerre. Il fut le premier sultan à exécuter un “seyhulislam” (interprétation la plus accréditée de la loi religieuse) pour la première fois dans notre histoire. L’interdiction du tabac et des boissons alcoolisées date de son époque.

Sultan Murad grandit en recevant une bonne formation de la part des enseignants de l’époque. C’était un bon poète et il écrivait ses poèmes en utilisant le surnom de “Muradi”. Il avait également appris la calligraphie, dont il était maître, il rédigeait lui-même des firmans. Il montait très bien à cheval, de plus il pouvait sauter d’un cheval à l’autre. Il maniait très bien l’épée et l’arc.

Il était de grande taille, il avait un visage rond, une peau claire, une barbe noire et touffue, des yeux de couleur azurée et ses soucils étaient séparés. Il avait de larges épaules et il était bien musclé.

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN-Sultan Murad III Han

2010-05-25T13:11:00.000-07:00

Sultan Murad III Han

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN

Sultan Murad III Han

Père: Sultan Selim 11

Mère: Nur Banu Sultane

Date de naissance: 1546

Date de son arrivée au pouvoir: le 22 décembre 1574

Date de décès: le 16 janvier 1595

Il gouverna entre 1574 et 1595. Lorsque son père décéda, il se trouvait à Manisa en tant que gouverneur. Il vint à Istanbul après avoir reçu la nouvelle qui lui fut transmise par Sokullu Mehmed Pasha et monta sur le trône en tant que 12ème sultan ottoman. Il fut très bien formé et s’occupa de près des questions mondiales. Il était particulièrement curieux des réalisations des dirigeants qui avaient une influence sur le sort du monde entier. Il aimait lire des recueils d’histoire.

Il était modeste et juste, mais il aimait la somptuosité. Il donnait de l’argent du trésor aux pauvres. Il avait établi des liens amicaux avec le monde des scientifiques avec lesquels il aimait bavarder. Il était pieux, il avait la foi. Il respectait les sectes. Il accorda une grande importance à la construction du pays et à la restauration des monuments construits par ses ancêtres.

Bien qu’il y eût de grands évenements à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur du pays durant son règne, il travailla à l’intégrité de son pays et à l’élargissement des territoires. Il procéda à la conquête de l’Afrique du Nord d’une part et de l’une autre il conserva sa flotte sur l’Océan Indien. Il était dans la mesure du possible en faveur des solutions pacifiques pour régler les problèmes au lieu de les règler en faisant la guerre. C’était un grand commandant, un guerrier averti qui se servait parfaitement de son épée. Il aimait monter à cheval.

Il était mince et grand. Sa peau était rosâtre et blanchâtre. Son corps était harmonieux. Il avait un large front, il était musclé. Il aimait s’habiller et il choissisait des vêtements somptueux. Il portait des turbans sur lesquels il y avait des pierres précieuses, ce qui lui était propre

Kanuni Sultan Süleyman - Soliman le Magnifique

2010-05-25T13:08:00.000-07:00

Kanuni Sultan Süleyman - Soliman le Magnifique

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN

Kanuni Sultan Süleyman - Soliman le Magnifique

Père: Yavuz Sultan Selim

Mère: La Sultane Hafize

Date de naissance: 1495

Date de son intronisation : le 30 septembre 1520

Date de décès: 6 ou 7 septembre 1566

Il monta sur le trône en 1529 à l’âge de 26 ans et devint le seul souverain d’un empire mondial.

En commençant par le Trésor, il réorganisa l'armée et l'administration et promulgua des lois. C'est la raison pour laquelle on l'a surnommé "Soliman le Législateur" ou "Soliman le Magnifique". Belgrade fut la première ville qu'il conquit. Cette conquête se poursuivit par celles de Rhodes et de Boudin.

Il organisa des expéditions de reconnaissance militaire en Allemagne et rentra à Istanbul après avoir gagné le respect de tous ses ennemis. L’année suivante, on lui a remit la clé de l’Algérie et Bagdad fut conquit. Il organisa deux autres expéditions de reconnaissance en Azerbaïdjan. Plus tard, il progressa vers la Perse et ajouta les villes de Nakhitchevan, Erivan, Van et Sehrizor aux territoires ottomans. Il alla aussi en expédition à Roumelie, et à Temesvar, situé à l'est du Yemen et de l’Ethiopie. Soliman fit sa dernière expédition importante à la forteresse de Zigetvar, prise par ses forces.

Il n'y avait ni de tête qui ne s'incline devant lui ni de cœur qui ne tremble de peur derrière lui. Il fonda des oeuvres de charité non seulement à Istanbul mais aussi à la Mecque, à Médine et à Damas.

Parmi ces oeuvres, la Mosquée Suleymaniye attire tout particulièrement l'attention.

Soliman le Magnifique avait un beau visage avec des yeux brun foncé, un nez épais et une longue moustache. Son allure imposante faisait penser à un lion et le timbre de sa voix était agréable à l'oreille.

C’était un personnage héroïque, résolu et puissant qui portait bonheur à tout son entourage.

Il s'habillait bien et était coiffé avec son turban enroulé autour d'un bijou.

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN-Yavuz Sultan Selim Han

2010-05-25T13:04:00.000-07:00

Yavuz Sultan Selim Han

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN

Yavuz Sultan Selim Han

Père: Sultan Bayezid 11

Mère: Ayşe Hatun

Date de naissance: 1470

Date de son arrivée au pouvoir: Le 25 avril 1512

Date de décès: le 21 septembre 1520

Sultan Selim régna en tant que 9ème sultan ottoman. Il gouverna entre 1512 et 1520. Il fut le sultan qui resta le moins au pouvoir que les autres. Il prit le pouvoir à son père par la force. Il avait un caractère ambitieux, audacieux et entreprenant par rapport à celui de son père. Il passa les premières années de son règne à lutter contre ses frères et gagna ensuite plusieurs guerres grâce auxquelles ses territoires s’élargirent vers le sud-est.

Il vainquit Sah Ismail à Çaldıran et éparpilla les forces d’Alauddevle. Il revint à Istanbul pour se reposer. Il organisa une expédition contre le sultan égyptien Kansu Gavri et le vainquit à Mercidabik. Par la suite, il avança sur Damas et passa l’hiver,pour se rendre ensuite en Egypte, qu’il conquit. Après toutes ces guerres, il put apporter avec lui à Istanbul le trésor sacré et transforma Istanbul en centre du califat en se déclarant le calife. Il était juste à l’égard de ses sujets, protégeait les pauvres et se promenait en civil dans les rues. Il écoutait son peuple et trouvait des solutions rapidement. Il était connu pour sa générosité.

Il accorda une importance à la construction du pays et contribua au développement de la science en ordonnant la construction de mosquées, de complexes et d’écoles religieuses.

Il était mince mais fort. Il aimait bavarder, il avait un visage clair et lumineux, des yeux bridés, de longs cils, un regard semblable à celui d’un lion, des sourcils froncés, un nez camus, un long cou, une moustache vaillante et une barbe reflétant le calme. Il possédait un style propre pour le port du turban, il mettait également des bonnets coniques en feutre.

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN

2010-05-25T13:01:00.000-07:00

Fatih Sultan Mehmet Han

L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN

Fatih Sultan Mehmet Han

Sultan Ottoman. En s’emparant d’Istanbul, il mit fin à l’Empire Byzantin et fit de l’Etat Ottoman un empire puissant.

Il naquit le 1er avril 1430 à Edirne et décéda le 3 mai 1481 à Gebze. Son père était Murad II et sa mère était Hatice Alime (ou Halime) Sultane, fille d’Isfendiyar Bey. Dans la plupart des sources occidentales, il est indiqué que sa mère était Milizza, fille du despote Serbe Vaccovichio et qu’il naquit en 1429. Il y a d’autres sources indiquant que sa mère était Huma Hatun et que sa date de naissance était 1432.

Sur l’ordre de son père, passionné de science, sa formation commença à partir de son enfance. Malgré son génie, il fut obligé de travailler avec Molla Gurani, connu pour son caractère dur, à cause de sa paresse et de sa désobéissance. Par la suite, les célèbres sages de l’époque comme Aksemseddin, Molla Yegan, Molla Ayas, Celebizade et Temcidoglu s’occupèrent de près de sa formation. Lorsqu’il eut 6 ans, il fut décidé de l’envoyer avec ses enseignants à Manisa pour qu’il s’éloigne de l’atmosphère impériale de la capitale Edirne lors de sa formation. A Manisa, il passa par une formation disciplinée et ce, parfois sous l’ombre du bâton de Molla Gurani. Il apprit le grec et le latin en plus des sciences traditionnelles, islamique et orientale.

Il resta à Manisa jusqu’en 1444. Face à la conquête de Sofia par les Hongrois, à la retraite de l’armée ottomane à Izladi Derneti, à la révolte des Albanais et à la marche vers Ankara des Karamanogullari et à la mort de son fils aîné Alaeddin en dernier lieu, Murad II prit une décision inattendue et set retira en 1444 à Manisa laissant son trône et la résolution de tous ces problèmes à son fils Mehmed.

Ce changement fut annoncé officiellement par l’envoi de lettres aux pays orientaux et occidentaux avec lesquels l’Etat Ottoman était en relation. Le fait qu’un enfant de 14 ans sans expérience montât sur le trône constituait une occasion en or pour les Hongrois, les Serbes et Byzance. Bien que l’accord d’Edirne Segedin, signé le 12 juin 1444 pour une durée de 10 ans fut en vigueur, les Hongrois et les Serbes optèrent pour faire vite. Face à ce danger, Murad II revint à Edirne en tant que commandant provisoire et à condition que son fils Mehmed restât sur le trône. Au mois de décembre de l’année courante, il se retira encore une fois à Manisa après avoir gagné la guerre de Varna. Il fut envoyé des fetihname (lettre anonçant la prise d’une ville) aux pays musulmans au nom de Mehmed II, qui ne participa pas à la guerre de Varna et qui resta à Edirne. Mais après cette victoire, la question du pouvoir resta un problème épineux entre le père et le fils, Murad II et Mehmet II.(Par exemple il existe différents documents montrant Murad II et Mehmet II comme étant empereurs en même temps). L’été de l’année 1446, Murad II, venu du côté de Rumali avec son armée privée, monta pour la deuxième fois sur le trône avec le soutien de Candarli Halil Pasha. Dans cette affaire, le rôle joué par les janissaires lors de leur révolte (affaire de Buçuktepe) ne fut pas négligeable. Quant à Mehmet II, il fut obligé de quitter Edirne sous la protestation des soldats, pour regagner Manisa avec ses conseillers et ses enseignants.

Lors de la deuxième période de son règne qui dura 5 ans, il décida d’apprendre quelque chose, cette fois-ci de sa propre volonté et non par la pression. Il s’occupa de métaphysique et de sciences positives et ce, afin de pouvoir résoudre le mystère de l’existence. En 1448 et en 1459, il participa aux expéditions vers l’Albanie à la demande de son père. Quinze jours après la mort de son père, le 18 février 1451, il vint à Edirne pour monter sur le trône.

Les Hongrois et les Serbes croyant que Mehmet II était maladroit, étant donné les événements de la première période de son règne, eurent un nouvel espoir. En Occident, lors qu’on discuta le dernier coup aux Ottomans, les commandants byzantins procédèrent à l’occupation jusqu’à Çorlu. Orhan, qui vivait à Istanbul en tant que prince impérial et réfugié politique, fut presenté au bon moment comme le vrai héritier du trône. Mais Byzance était loin de se mesurer aux Ottomans. Les bouleversements politiques et religieux menaçaient Byzance, qui était bloquée à Istanbul. La proposition d’alliance ne fut pas prise en considération en Europe, mais un cardinal fut envoyé à Istanbul pour trouver une solution au différend existant entre les églises de l’est et de l’ouest. Les Karamanoğulları, qui ne perdaient pas espoir sur l’Anatolie, occupèrent les région de Seydisehir et d’Aksehir. Quant à l’ouest, les Serbes prirent par la force certaines forteresses sous prétexte de couvrir les dépenses de la jeune femme de Murad II, Mara Sultane qui était revenue dans sa partie. Mehmet II observa tous ces développement en gardant son sang-froid. Dans le courant de 1451, des accords à court terme furent signés avec les Hongrois et les Vénitiens. Cette attitude donna courage aux pays souverains en Méditerranée. Une flotte jointe catholique assiégea le détroit de Çanakkale. En ce temps-là, Mehmed II était en train de se préparer pour une éxpédition vers l’Anatolie. Par la suite, il élargit ses cadres parmi les recrutés chrétiens pour briser la force des janissaires qu’il n’appréciait pas à cause de l’affaire de Buçuktepe. Il se rendit en Anatolie en 1452, après avoir ordonné à Candarlı Halil Pasha la construction de la forteresse de Rumeli, du côté occidental du Bosphore.

Memhed II vainquit Karamanoğlu Ibrahim Bey à un moment inattendu, rentra à Edirne, se rendit par la suite à l’endroit où il y avait des travaux de construction et en ordonna la fin de la construction le plus tôt possible, ce qui fut jugé incroyable par Byzance. Au même moment, il révéla son intention de conquérir Istanbul en même temps qu’il ordonna l’organisation d’incursions aux despotes byzantins dans la péninsule de Péloponèse (Mora) à Turhan Bey. Il suggéra ne pas vouloir être célèbre mais vouloir tout simplement unir son pays qui semblait être divisé en deux. En conquérant Istanbul, il voulait assurer l’intégration entre Rumeli, où il y avait des incurseurs et des derviches, et l’Anatolie où étaient souverains les savants et les sages, dont le centre se trouvait à Bursa.

Mehmed II montra sa détermination à agir sans perdre de temps face à Byzance, en détruisant les champs situés en dehors des remparts d’Istanbul. Par contre Byzance, optant pour garder le silence, maçonna toutes les portes s’ouvrant en direction d’Edirne. Mehmet II, s’approchant des remparts en aôut 1452, manifesta sa puissance. A son retour à Edirne, il convoqua le conseil de guerre et prit la décision de conquérir Istanbul le plus tôt possible malgé l’opposition de Halil Pasha et de son entourrage. Chargeant ses petites unités de prendre les petites fortification byzantines, peu importantes, les responsables envoyés par Mehmed II en Anatolie, en expliquant et interprétant les exhortations du Prophète louant le commandant qui allait conquérir Istanbul, s’assurèrent la participation de volontaires. La flotte qui appareilla de Gallipoli procéda à des manoeuvres en mer de Marmara. Mehmet II passé l’hiver de 1452/1453 en faisant des plans et des travaux techniques. Il prépara des projets de canon sans précédent avec les maîtres Muslihiddin et Urban. Il les envoya, au moment où, à Byzance, des personnes nobles et compétentes comme le premier ministre Notares optaient pour “voir les turbans ottomans à la place des chapeaux latins”. Aux efforts déployés par l’empereur Konstantinos Dragases XI, participèrent symboliquement les Génois, les Vénitiens, les Catalans, les Provençaux, en envoyant quelques navires et unités. Les latins d’origine, qui s’étaient installés à Istanbul et qui y faisaient du commerce, étaient obligés de défendre la ville.

Mehmed II, après avoir achevé ses plans préparés minutieusement, quitta Edirne le 23 mars 1453. L’armée ottomane, dont l’expérience guerrière était vieille de 150 ans, était, pour la première fois de l’histoire, sur le point de faire une expédition planifiée à l’avance avec une cible déterminée aussi à l’avance. Mehmed II, qui avait établi son camp le 5 mai en face de remparts du côté de Topkapi, commença le siège le lendemain en ordonnant le premier tir. Les résultats du siège de 53 jours, dont les échos dans l’histoire occupent une place importante, ne changèrent rien, malgré la défense de

30 000 soldats et des équipement ont été utilisés de façon impressionnante. Vers la fin du siège, Konstantinos XI, qui avait fait pénétrer toutes ses réserves sur les petits champs de bataille par les brèches ouvertes dans les remparts, opta pour la mort en combattant aux côtés de ses soldats, après avoir participé à la messe organisée dans la nuit du 28 mai à Sainte-Sophie. Le mardi 29 mai, les soldats turcs, entrant par les brèches ouvertes dans les remparts, rejoignirent les autres forces venant du côté de la mer à Aksaray et la capitale de Byzance fut soumise à Mehmed II.

Mehmed II, auquel on donna le titre de “conquérant”, entra dans la ville accompagné d’un grand régiment. Dans le premier firman qu’il publia, il grâcia tous les survivants et leur rendit la liberté de foi et de commerce. Il prit des mesures sévères pour la protection des patrimoines culturels de la ville. Il voulut créer une atmosphère de confiance d’une métropole dans la ville, et pour y parvenir, il établit de bonnes relations amicales avec les leaders spirituels des Chrétiens et des Juifs. Il ordonna à Zaganos Pasha de s’emparer de Galata qui était une colonie génoise. Ce faisant, il mit fin à la division, qui avait duré des siècles, des deux côtés de la Corne d’Or et demanda l’établissement d’un nouveau quartier de commerce.

Avec la conquête d’Istanbul, Mehmed II assimila ceux qui n’avaient pas confiance en lui. En Occident, il n’existait ni force ni alliance pouvant constituer une menace. En prenant ceci en compte, il signa des accords commerciaux avec les Génois et les Vénitiens en 1454. Son objectif était de garantir ses plans pour la conquête des rives du Danube, et de mettre définitivement fin au différend avec la Serbie qui durait depuis un siècle. En 1454 et 1455, il organisa deux différentes expéditions et prit le sud de la Serbie. Le despote serbe se soumit aux Ottomans à condition de payer des impôts et d’annuler sa dépendance aux Hongrois. En 1456, il prit des îles importantes en mer égéenne comme Tasoz, Imroz, Semendre et Limni arguant la sécurité des rives. Il participa lui-même à l’expédition vers Belgrade. Mais le fait que la flotte envoyée à Danube ne s’était pas conclu par un succès et la défaite des unités forcèrent Mehmed II à se retirer.

En 1457, il s’occupa des despotes byzantins. Dénonçant l’accord qu’il avait signé avec les Vénitiens, il organisa une expédition vers la péninsule de Péloponèse et prit Patras et Korintose et les annexant à Teselya, il donna la région à Akıncı Turhan Bey. L’expédition de Péloponèse dura jusqu’à la fin de 1458. Au même moment le pape Callistus III avait eu l’objectif de provoquer certains beys musulmans et Akkoyunlu Uzun Hasan Bey contre les Ottomans et lorsqu’il décéda, son remplaçant Pius II commença à regrouper les pays chrétiens autour d’un nouvel objectif. Mehmed II, qui ne prit pas en considération ses développements, envoya son vizir d’origine serbe Mahmut Pasha en 1458 en Serbie. Lorsqu’il apprit que Resava, Kuruca et Osirovis avaient été conquis, il se rendit dans la région pour mettre fin au royaume serbe en 1459.

En 1460, il organisa une deuxième expédition vers la péninsule de Péloponèse. Le despote Demetrios se livra. Quant à son frère Thomas, il vendit le symbole de l’Empire Byzantin au prince russe Ivan III et s’enfuit vers l’Italie. Mehmed II, qui nomma Zaganos Pasha gouverneur du Péloponèse, se rendit à Edirne et par la suite à Bursa et ordonna au Bey de Crimée de s’emparer de Kefe pour contrôler la Mer Noire ainsi que le Bosphore et pour enfin mettre fin au commerce des esclaves par les Génois. Il jugea insuffisant le fait que les Génois et l’Etat de Pontos à Trabzon payaient uniquement des impôts et il organisa une expédition inattendue en 1460 et prit Amasra qui était une importante base génoise sur la Mer Noire. Par la suite il prit Sinop en 1461 des Isfendiyaroğulları et de Trabzon qui était aux mains de Pontos. Grâce à la prise de ces villes, les rives anatoliennes de la Mer Noire furent annexées à l’Empire Ottoman. Les autochtones furent forcés d’immigrer vers Istanbul et la ville, vidée, fut repeuplée par les paysans turcs.
En 1462, Mehmed II organisa une expédition vers la Valachie. Vlad III, voïvode de Valachie, connu par le fait qu’il s’était emparé des Turcs qu’il avait capturés, voulu tuer Mehmed II un soir en organisant un assaut mais n’ayant pas pu parvenir à ses fins, il dut se retirer à Erdel. Radul promit d’être fidèle à l’Empire Ottoman, après avoir été nommé gouverneur de Valachie. Mehmet le Conquérant avança sur la Bosnie. Il passa l’hiver dans cette région et acheva la conquête de Bosnie au printemps de l’année 1463, par la suite il exécuta le roi Stefan. Il put étouffer provisoirement la révolte qui continuait depuis des années en Albanie et soumit Iskender Bey.

La prise de Lesbos (Midilli) la même année provoqua une guerre avec les Vénitiens, qui allait durer des années. La même année, en 1463, Mahmud Pasha put réprimer la révolte à Péloponèse. Il renvoya la plupart des Grecs à Istanbul. Quant à Mehmed II, il reprit la plupart des terres perdues le long de la frontière hongroise. Il acheva son expédition vers la Hérzegovine en 1465 et annexa cette région à ses territoires. Il organisa sa deuxième expédition vers l’Albanie en 1466, et retourna à Edirne après avoir pris les villes importantes.

Les Génois, qui avaient perdu leur colonie dans la Mer Noire, se mirent accord avec Haci Giray, en prétextant que les Ottomans pourraient attaquer la Crimée, la Lituanie et la Pologne et prirent part à cette alliance. Mais Mengli Giray 1er , qui était le Han de Crimée en 1466, opta pour se rapprocher des Ottomans. Un autre front fut formé par les tentatives entreprises par Karamanoglu Ibrahim Bey, qui accusa Mehmed II de protéger les Chrétiens. Il essaya d’obtenir le soutien du sultan des Mamelouks et celui du calife des Abbassides en Egypte, mais il mourut sans parvenir à ses fins. Dans la lutte entre ses fils Ishak et Pir Ahmed pour le pouvoir, Mehmed II prit partie pour Pir Ahmed et Ishak dut se rapprocher d’Uzun Hasan, souverain des Akkoyunlu, ce qui provoqua une lutte entre les deux souverains turcs. Mehmed II, après avoir terminé sa troisième expéditon contre l’Albanie, partit en Anatolie contre le front établi par Les Karamanogullari, les Akkoyunlu et les Mamelouk et prit Konya. Par la suite il aida les Dulkadiroğulları qui étaient en guerre contre les Mamelouk.

Par ailleurs, en 1461, le fait qu’Uzun Hasan Bey, ayant envoyé des soldats dans l’état de Pontos lorsqu’il se rendit à Trabzon et mis ses forces face à celles des Ottomans à Yassi Cimen, ait dissous l’Etat Karakoyunlu et établi des relations étroites avec les Mamelouk, nécessitait indispensablement le réglement de comptes à son égard. Les efforts diplomatiques entre les palais ottoman, Akkoyunlu et Mamelouk ne portèrent pas leurs fruits, et, au contraire, rendirent les relations plus tendues. Mehmed II, qui ne jugea pas convenable de descendre vers le sud, rentra à Istanbul, en laissant le commandement et l’administration de la province de Karaman, dont le centre était Konya, à son fils Mustafa, en 1468. Pir Ahmed Bey, profitant de cette occasion assiégea Konya en 1469 et élargit son occupation en direction d’Eregli et d’Aksaray. Quant à Karamanoglu, Kasim Bey força les portes d’Ankara avec ses unités en 1470. Une unité ottomane fut vaincue par les volontaires de Karaman aux environs de Silifke. Gedik Pasha, s’étant rendu sur le champ de bataille, asséna le dernier et coup le plus lourd aux Karamanogullari en 1471. Uzun Hasan Bey, qui tenta de sauver cet ancien beylicat anatolien, fit piller Tokat et les régiments qu’il envoya dans les environs de Konya, infligèrent une défaite aux forces du prince impérial Mustafa.

Les guerres navales et terrestres avec les Vénitiens, qui duraient depuis un certain temps, donnèrent certains résultats positifs en faveur des Ottomans en 1470. La même année, l’île d’Egribos fut prise, mais, par contre, les flottes Vénitiennes assiégèrent Antalya et Izmir et pillèrent les villes riveraines. Ils menacèrent même Istanbul et les détroits. En cette période difficile, Uzun Hasan menait une politique d’élargissement. Mehmed II, qui avait constaté qu’il était impossible de reporter la guerre avec les Akkoyunlular, essaya d’empêcher les relations entre les Akkoyunlu et les Vénitiens en envoyant ses unités à Sivas; au printemps de l’année 1473, il organisa une grande expédition. Uzun Hazan, qui avait préparé des pièges sur les passages d’accès difficile, infligea de lourdes pertes aux unités ottomanes et fit circuler la rumeur comme quoi Mehmed II était mort vaincu. Mais la guerre de Otlukbeli, faite le 11 aôut 1473, fut une nouvelle victoire pour Mehmed II, qui avança et prit Sebinkarahisar. Acceptant la proposition de paix d’Uzun Hasan, il repartit pour Istanbul.
Avec l’apaisement de la tension en Orient, il s’occupa des problèmes de Karamanogullari, de Crimée et de la Mer Noire et des guerres avec les Vénitiens. Il chargea pour la deuxième fois Gedik Ahmet Pasha de résoudre le problème avec Karaman. Les forces navales et terrestres ottomanes, envoyées sur les rives méditerranéennes, réussirent à éloigner les Vénitiens des rives. Gedik Ahmet Pasha

s’empara des forteresses d’Ermenak, de Mennan et de Silifkez. Pir Ahmed Bey, qui s’était enfui, mourut dans les montagnes. Gedik Ahmet Pasha, devenu célèbre grâce à ses victoires, partit en 1475 sur la Crimée. Il prit Kefe, les forteresses d’Azak et de Menkup et les rives de Crimée. Il sauva Mengli Giray 1er, qui était prisonnier des Génois. Après un certain temps, il attaqua la Russie sans avoir eu l’autorisation des Ottomans, et il fut rappelé et emprisonné à Istanbul. En 1477, la Crimée fut annexée, quant à l’expédition de Sogdak, elle dura jusqu’en 1479. Les rives circasiennes et de Taman furent envahies. Mehmed II, qui avait pu trouver l’occasion de s’occuper de près des problèmes occidentaux, avança encore une fois en 1474 sur les Génois qui contrôlaient certaines villes albanaises importantes. Les forces ottomanes attaquèrent du côté nord de l’Albanie et du côté de la péninsule de Péloponèse en même temps et elles se rapprochèrent des Vénitiens. Mehmed II, qui avait organisé une expédition en 1478,

s’empara des forteresses d’Iskodra et de Kruya (Akhisar) et les Vénitiens, convaincus de ne pas pouvoir tirer profit de cette guerre qui dura 16 ans, demandèrent la paix. L’accord entre les Ottomans et les Vénitiens fut signé le 25 janvier 1479. Les Vénitiens se retirèrent des endroits qu’ils contrôlaient, plus particulièrement d’Iskodra et les Ottomans laissèrent les ports qu’ils avaient pris au Péloponèse. Cet accord permettait aux navires vénitiens de faire du commerce sur les eaux territoriales de l’Empire Ottoman comme dans les ports appartenant aux ottomans contre un tribut de l’ordre de 10000 ors par an. Le fait de rendre les Vénitiens hors danger considérés comme étant les principaux rivaux en Méditerranée offrit une autre et nouvelle occasion à Mehmed II pour la réalisation de ses projets. En 1479, il déclara la guerre à Milan et à Naples et envoya Gedik Ahmed Pasha avec une grande flotte en Méditerranée. Il prit facilement les îles d’Aya Mavra, de Kefalonya et de Zanta. En 1480, Nesih Pasha, qui avait assiégé l’île de Rhodes avec une importante flotte, dut se retirer avec une lourde perte, mais en à ce moment-là, Gedik Ahmed Pasha débarqua dans le port de Puglia (Pulya) et il prit Otronto, situé au sud de l’Italie, le 11 aôut 1480. Cet évenement eut un grand écho en Europe. Lorsqu’on parlait de la chute de Rome, les dirigeants religieux du Vatican se mettaient à préparer les prétextes d’une grande croisade. Mais Gedik Ahmed Pasha, qui ne choisit pas d’avancer, attendit les forces supplémentaires envoyées de Rumeli.

Mehmed II, qui avait terminé les préparations pour sa deuxième expédition vers l’Orient au printemps de l’année 1481, se rendit à Gebze en passant par Istanbul et s’occupa de la préparation de l’armée. Avant de pouvoir entamer cette expédition, qui semblait être organisée vers l’Egypte, il tomba malade dans son camp établi à Hünkar (Sultan) Cayiri à Gebze. Il mourut, soit des suites de la maladie de la goutte dont il souffrait depuis longtemps, soit d’avoir été empoisonné. Il existe différentes hypothèses sur sa mort, selon lesquelles il aurait été tué par les hommes de son fils aîné, Bayezid, parce qu’il voulait laisser son trône à son fils cadet Cem, ou par les agents des Etats Catholiques qui voulaient interrompre son expédition vers l’Italie.

Son cadavre, après avoir été embaumé, fut transporté à Istanbul par Karamani Mehmed Pasha et fut protégé dans le palais de Topkapı durant 20 jours. Il fut mis le 21 mai 1481 dans le tombeau se trouvant dans le complexe de Fatih, le lendemain de l’arrivée au pouvoir de Bayezid II.

Mehmed II, connu sous le nom de “conquérant”, demanda la critique des oeuvres de Gazzali et de Ibn Rusd et la préparation de recueils originaux y afférent. La littérature ottomane, qui ne put pas donner de fruits considérables jusqu’à son époque, connut une période brillante grâce à son encouragement et à sa contribution au 15ème siècle. Le fait qu’il ait nommé vizirs Sinan Pasha, qui était un maître de la prose et Ahmed Pasha qui était un poète, ainsi que ses relations personnelles amicales avec eux, montrent l’importance qu’il accorda aux artistes. Mehmed II écrivit des poèmes utilisant le surnom d’ “Avni” et devint le premier sultan qui organisait des divans. Il invita Bellini, peintre italien, à Istanbul en 1479 et décora son palais de ses portraits et d’autres tableaux. Il établit également des relations avec les artistes orientaux, il correspondit avec Ali Sir Nevai et invita le mathématicien Ali Kusçi à Istanbul. S’occupant de la technologie de guerre, il réalisa des travaux dans les domaines de dessins de projets architecturaux ou de canons cannelés. Il consulta plusieurs oeuvres en arabe, en latin ou en grec se trouvant dans sa bibliothèque personnelle à Istanbul. Le partiarche orthodoxe Gennadios écrivit un recueil sur le christianisme pour lui offrir.

Il demanda à son dernier vizir, Karamani Mehmed Pasha, de préparer les “codes”, lui donnant des instructions sur l’administration et le jugement. Il accorda une importance à l’intégrité et à la balance démographique de son pays et essaya de faire des Turcs les éléments souverains dans tous les domains. Par contre, il prévoya l’installation, sur les territoires en dehors des remparts d’Istanbul, de peuplades venant de toutes les nations et de toutes religions, il travailla également à la restauration de la ville d’Istanbul détruite, en lui donnant un nouvel aspect. Le nombre des monuments construits pendant son époque et figurant parmi les plus grandes oeuvres de l’art architectural ottoman s’élève à 750. Il fit construire, en 1470, le complexe de Fatih en son nom. Dans les institutions consacrées à la formation, il accorda une importance aux sciences classiques islamiques et aux sciences positives. Les riches fondations pour les écoles religieuses, les asiles, les maisons de santé et les bibliothèques ne furent pas négligées.

Il transforma la Mer Noire en mer intérieure, il annexa la Crimée, il brisa la force de l’Etat Akkoyunlu, il prépara la conquête de la Hongrie en organisant des expédition sans cesse, il s’empara de toutes les îles dans la Mer Egée à l’exception de Rhodes, il détruisit les principautés de Valachie et de Bogdan, les royaumes serbe et bosniaque, les despotes du Péloponèse, l’Etat de Pontos à Trabzon, les bases génoise et vénitienne, les beylicats de Karaman et d’Isfendiyar et transforma l’Etat Ottoman en un empire puissant pesant dans la politique mondiale.

Turquie sur la liste du Patrimoine Mondial

2010-05-25T12:55:00.000-07:00

Turquie sur la liste du Patrimoine Mondial

Notre pays a fait enregistrer neuf places sur la liste du Patrimoine mondial au terme des travaux menés sous la responsabilité de la Direction Générale des Biens Naturels et Culturels, après avoir signé le traité du Patrimoine mondial d’UNESCO en 1983. Les places en question sont İstanbul, Safranbolu, Boğazköy, Le Mont Nemrut, Xanthos-Letoon, La Mosquée “Ulu Cami” de Divriği et son hôpital, Troie, Pamukkale et Göreme-Cappadoce.

Les richesses de notre pays possédant un riche patrimoine culturel et historique en tant que berceau de nombreuses civilisations, sont soutenues par une beauté d’ordre naturel.

L’existence de 9 unités culturelles sur la liste du Patrimoine Mondiale, pourrait paraître suffisante pour un grand nombre de pays dans le monde, mais ce chiffe est bin en-dssous du niveau mérité, si l’on prend en considération les richesses possédées par la Turquie. Il s’agit, d’une insuffisance sûre et certaine, du point de vue de la diversité régionale et architecturale ainsi que pour le reflet des cultures locales et différentes.

Il faudrait ajouter que les ruines d’Efes et de Karain se trouvent actuellement sur la liste indicative (provisoire) du Patrimoine Mondial de l’UNESCO.

Les deux dossiers sont en préparation pour être envoyés au Centre de Patrimoine Mondial de l’UNESCO.

D’autre parts de nouveaux dossiers sont remis à M.Koichiro Matsuura, directeur Général de l’UNESCO, pour figurer sur la liste indicative.

Ces dossiers seront soumis à l’approbation du Comité du Patrimoine Culturel Mondial après être examinés par les bureaux concernés du Centre du Patrimaine Mondial de l’UNESCO. C’est un processus relativement compliqué. L’approbation du Comité suit l’examen effectué sur place par les experts désignés par le Centre du Patrimoine Mondial. Notre Ministère est en train d’accélérer ses travaux afin de raccourcir ce processus.

Les caractéristiques sociales, économiques, symboliques et philosophiques des Unités proposées, sont prises en considération en même temps que leur valeur architecturale, historique, esthétique, et culturelle, lors de la préparation de la liste.

A ce stade, seulement certains biens culturels figurent sur la liste provisoire en raison du fait que les pays-membres de l’UNESCO accordent une importance à une représentation équilibrée au niveau de la liste indicative.

Les biens culturels suivants sont proposés pour la liste indicative du Patrimoine Naturel et Culturel du Monde, préparée dans ce sens.

1. La demande est faite afin d’enregistrer la Mosquée de Süleymaniye et son ensemble, construit par Mimar Sinan, la Mosquée d’Ayasofya et le Sérail de Topkapı d’une manière séparée et sous leurs propres noms, bien qu’ïls figurent sur la liste annexée au dossier des “Zones Historiques d’Istanbul”

La proposition est faites sous forme de dossiers différents.

2. La Mosquée de Selimiye d’Edirne (Adrinople) qui est un des exemples magnifiques de l’art architectural de Mimar Sinan, est aussi proposée.

3. Le Centre-Ville de Bursa où se trouvent les Œuvres Monumentales représentant l’urbanisation du patrimoine culturel Turco-Ottoman et le village de Cumalıkız-conservant le style de l’habitation traditionnelle -Ottomane en campagne sont également proposés.

Bursa, ancienne Capitale des Ottomans qui était un centre important au niveau des activités administratives, culturelles, artistiques et commerciales pendant toute l’histoire, est actuellement, une ville importante d’habitation sur le plan mondial. Cette ville devrait figurer, prioritairement, sur la liste du Patrimoine Mondial pour la protection des biens Culturels de la ville devant les conditions de vie en changement rapide et le mouvement de l’urbanisation. L’inclusion de ces œuvres dans la liste en question sera utile pour faire connaître l’architecture turco-islamique dans le monde entier.

4. Konya et Alanya sont proposés en raison du fait que ces 2 villes reflètent, d’une manière parfaite, les caractéristiques de l’architecture Seldjoukiide ainsi que celles de la religion et de la culture. L’accent est mis, particulièrement sur l’importance des œuvres-monumentals de Konya, de la Citadelle d’Alanya et de l’unique dock militaire des Seldjoukides qui reste jusqu’à nos jours.

5. Les auberges et Caravansérails occupant une place importante dans la culture et l’architecture d’Anatolie au temps des Seldjoukides, inspirés du mode de vie traditionel des tribus turcs de l’Asie Centrale, placés sur le trajet de caraun Denizli-Doğu Beyazıt est inclus dans la liste, à titre de reflet du “Paysage Culturel”. Les auberges et caravansérails placés le long de ce trajet seront considéré dans ce cadre.

6. Le Sérail d’Ishak Pacha-Ağrı, datant du 18 ème siècle et situé au terminus du trajet évoqué ci-dessus, est une construction importante dans l’Est d’Anatolie, en tant qu’exemple du Sérail de Topkapı en dimensions réduites. Cette construction portant les traces des différentes cultures allant de l’Iran à l’Etat Seldjoukide d’Anatolie, et de la Géorgie au Caucase en matière de gravure de pierre et d’ornement, est importante pour le patrimoine mondial.

7. Le climat et le matériel naturel de la construction a exercé un rôle réel dans l’établissement des villes dans le sud-est d’Anatolie. Şanlıurfa, connu comme ville des prophètes est ornée de plusieurs bâtiments d’ordre historique, religieux et administratif.

Harran, situé au sud de la ville, a des murailles historiques, des maisons en pisé à toiture cônique de type traditionnel et les restes de l’Université d’Harran où plusieurs savants islamiques se sont formés.

8. Mardin devrait prendre sa place méritée dans la liste du Patrimoine Mondial en tant que Zone de paysage culturel ayant une vue médiévale avec son tissu urbain formé à la suite de l’échange avec l’environnement naturel, et son architecture traditionnelle.

9. La Citadelle de Diyarbakır est sur la liste de candidature en ayant les murailles les plus longues (5.500 mètres) du monde après la Muraille de Chine.

10. Ahlat, une ancienne Ville Seldjoukide située au bord du Lac de Van dans la région-est d’Anatolie, est inclue dans la liste en sa qualité de représentant de la culture, du mode de vie et des travaux de pierre concrétisés dans les constructions tombales.

11. La Turquie est un pays où de différentes religions et croyance sont nées et se sont développées. Les monastères de Sumela (Trabzon), et d’Alahan (Mut), Les Eglisès St.Nicolas (Demre) et St. Paul (Tarsus) ainsi que les alentours du citerne St.Paul sont sur la liste des propositions, en tant que centres importants de ces croyances.

St. Nicolas est un candidat important, non seulement comme Eglise Byzantine, mais aussi en tant que centre d’habitation de Lykia datant du 5 ème siècle avant Jésus-Christ.

12- Kekova et Termeses possèdent des beautés naturelles extraordinaires et des valeurs d’ordre historique et culturels. Ces deux villes placées sur la liste de la candidature ont joué des rõles importants dans l’histoire Méditerranéenne.

En bref, La liste provisoire du Patrimoine Mondial présentée par notre Ministére, à l’UNESCO, contient 2 Zones naturelles-culturelles, 2 Zones de paysage culturel, 15 biens d’ordre culturel, soit 19 au total.

Notre but est de faire connaitre nos valeurs culturelles au monde entier et d’assurer leur protection avec la contribution de la communauté internationale.

LISTE INDICATIVE - 2000

1. Mosquée de Süleymaniye et son ensemble (16 ème siècle)
2. Ayasofya (Ste.Sophie) (6 ème siècle)
3. Sérail de Topkapı (16 ème siècle – 17 ème siècle)
4. Mosquée de Selimiye à Edirne (16 ème siècle)
5. Bursa et Cumalıkızık comme centres d’habitation urbain et rural de l’époque Ottomane (13 ème siècle – 15 ème siècle)
6. Konya, capitale des Seldjoukides.
7. Citadelle et dock d’Alanya
8. Caravansérails Seldjoukides sur l’itinéraire de Denizli-Doğubeyazıt (13 ème siècle)
9. Sérail d’Ishak Paşa (17 ème siècle)
10. Lieux d’habitation de Harran et de Şanlıurfa (7 ème siècle – 19 ème siècle)
11. Citadelle et Muraille de Diyarbakır (12 ème siècle)
12. Zone de paysage culturel de Mardin.
13. Ahlat et Pierres tombales (12 ème siècle – 13 ème siècle)
14. Monastère de Sumela (5 ème siècle – 19 ème siècle)
15. Monastére d’Alahan (7 ème siècle)
16. Eglise St. Nicolas (7 ème siècle – 8 ème siècle)
17. Eglise St.Paul, Citerne St.Paul et son environnement.
18. Kekova
19. Mont “Güllük” - Parc National de Termessos.

AUBERGES ET CARAVANSÉRAILS PLACES LE LONG DE TRAJET FAISANT OBJET DE LA PROPOSITION

Akhan
Katrancı Han (Auberge)
Akhan
Pınarbaşı
Ağzı karahan
Eğridir han
Sünnetli Han
Auberge de Pınarpazarı
Sultan Han (2)
Sikre Han
Ertoluş Han
Öresin Han
Mosquée de l’auberge
Kargı Han
Eliselik Han
Sultan Han
Auberge de Köprüköyü
Kavak Han
Auberge de Şahruk-Pont
Kuruçeşme Han
Caravansérail de Lala
Altınapa Han
Gedik Han
Saadettin Han
Latif Han
Zincirli Han
Mugar Han
Akbaş Han
Cibici Han
Caravansérail Mamahatun
Hacı Bekir Han

Mosquée de Süleymaniye

Il s’agit de l’œuvre le plus magnifique de Mimar Sinan et de l’architecture Ottomane d’ordre religieux.

Elle est proposée pour la liste indicative de l’UNESCO pour figurer toute seule malgré le fait qu’elle fait partie des Zones historiques d’Istanbul.

Ayasofya (Sainte-Sophie)

C’est l’église-mosquée la plus célèbre, construite à Istanbul à l’époque Byzantine. Cette construction date de l’époque de Justinianus malgré le fait qu’elle porte les traces de la première église construite au 4 ème siècle.

Les Ottomans l’ont orné avec des œuvres d’art islamique en l’utilisant comme mosquée. Cette œuvre devrait figurer dans la liste du Patrimoine Mondial sous son propre nom en raison de son importance artistique, architecturale et religieuse pour les deux religions.

Sérail de Topkapı

Le sérail dont la construction a commencé sous le règné de Fatih Sultan Mehmet n’a pas cessé de s’élargir par le biais des annexes jusqu’au 19 ème siècle.

Il parait nécessaire de l’inclure dans la liste du Patrimoine Mondial, parmi les œuvres de cette époque, en raison du fait qu’il reflète le mieux, le mode de vie Ottoman dans le sérail.

Mosquée de Selimiye et son ensemble à Edirne

La Mosquée de Selimiye est construite par Mimar Sinan, au nom du Sultan Selim II. au 16 ème siècle, ainsi que son ensemble. Il s’agit d’une œuvre représentative des baux-arts de marbre sur le plan de la maitrise, du travail et du matériel

Bursa et Cumalıkızık

Etat lieu d’habitation depuis 200 avant Jésus-Christ, Bursa a vécu son âge d’or en tant que première capitale Ottomane après les périodes Romaine et Byzantine. 127 mosquées, 45 mausolées, 34 medrese (école supérieure et lieu de séminaire) 25 auberges, 37 hammams et 14 hospices sont construits sous le règne de 6 premiers padichahs Ottomans. Cumalıkız servant de soutien logistique los de la prise de Bursa par les Ottomans deimeure “village Ottoman” avec ses traditions, son architecture traditionnelle et son mode de vie.

Alanya

La citadelle d’Alanya dont la construction remonte à l’époque Hellénistique a connu la présence des Romains, des Byzantins et des Seldjoukides. Le Citerne Seldjoukide, l’église Byzantine, le Sérail du Sultan et le hamam Seldjoukide qui se trouvent dans la citadelle sont intégrés dans la tissu traditionnel de la ville.

Le dock historique d’Alanya a la particularité d’être le premier dock militaire construit par les Seldjoukides.

Konya

Konya qui était la capiale des Seldjoukides au 12 ème et au 13 ème siècles, possède les œuvres magnifiques et le travail de pierre ammenés par les seldjoukide de l’Asie Centrale.

La citadelle de Konya, La Mosquée “Alaaddin”, le medrese à verre, plusieurs mosquées de diverses tailles et les tombes sont les exemples principaux des monuments Seldjoukides à Konya.

Auberges et Caravansérails

Les auberges et caravansérails, occupant une place importante dans l’architecture et la culture d’Anatolie, inspirés du mode de vie traditionnel des tribus nomades de l’Asie Centrale, trouvent leur meilleure expression dans la partie Seldjoukide d’Anatolie en se diversifiant. Les auberges et caravansérails qui se trouvent sur le trajet asiatique en dehors de nos frontières n’ont pas la splendeur des auberges et des caravansérails situés le long du trajet de Denizli-Doğu Beyazıt; et ils ne sont pas aussi bien conservés que ces derniers.

Ces constructions reflètent le mieux, la culture, la tradition et le mode de vie appartenant à l’époque où elles sont bâties.

Sérail d’Ishak Pacha

Le Sérail d’Ishak Pacha est situé à 84 km de la commune de Doğu Beyazıt de la Préfecture d’Ağrı, sur une pente dominante de la plaine. Construit en 1784-1785, le sérail est considéré comme un exemple second du Sérail de Topkapı au niveau du plan. Une de ses particularites importantes cocncerne le fait que le sérail est équipé d’une sorte de chauffage central, pour l’ensemble de la construction.

Il est possible de voir les traces des cultures différentes telles que Perse, Seldjoukide, Géorgienne et Caucasienne dans les gravures de pierre et les ornements.

Şanlıurfa et Harran

Connue comme ville des prophètes, La ville de Şanlıurfa est située dans les plaines fertile de la Haute Mésopotamie. La ville sainte possède de nombreux bâiments d’ordre historique, religieux, administratif et résidentiel. Ces œuvres reflètent l’architecture locale, et l’artisanat traditionnel en matière de travaux de pierre.

Harran, situé à 48 km, au sud de Şanlıurfa, est unique avec ses maisons en pisé à toiture cônique et l’Université Islamique de Harran ayant formé un grand nombre de savants Islamiques.

Mardin

Mardin qui possède les plus belles constructions traditionnels et religieuses d’Anatolie et de l’architecture de pierre existant dans la région sud-est d’Anatolie, a une apparence médievale. La citadelle est située sur une colline rocheuse et les terasses sur la pente de la colline servent de lieu d’habitation.

Citadelle et Muraille de Diyarbakır

La ville de Diyarbakır, située sur les bords du fleuve de Tigre traversant la Mésopotamie, possède toujours un air Médieval avec les murailles qui entourent la ville.

Ces murailles sont les meilleurs exemples en ce qui concerne l’architecture militaire cette muraille est la deuxième muraille après la Muraille de chine, avec une longueur de 5.5. km.

Ahlat

Ahlat, situé au bord du Lac de Van mérite d’être placé avec priorité, sur la liste du Patrimoine Mondial grâce à ses œuvres remontant à l’époque des Urartu et à la conservation de son mode de vie, de ses croyances et de ses ouvrage de pierre appartenant à l’époque Seldjoukide.

Monastère d’Alahan

Le monastère d’Alahan, construit au début du 5 ème siècle avant Jésus-Christ, est un desexemples rares, susceptibles d’éclairer l’architecture Byzantine d’ordre religieux avec son matériel, conception et ses ornements. Il s’agit d’un ensemble comportant un monastère, une église et des bâtiments connectifs.

Monastère de Sümela

L’ensemble du Monastère, situé sur les pentes verticales de la vallée d’Altındere, est parvenu jusqu’à nos jours avec des annexes réalisées entre le 4 ème siècle et le 19 ème siècle.

La construction possède les caractéristiques authentiques sur le plan de la conception, du matériel, et de l’architecture.

Eglise, Citerne St.Paul et ses alentours à Tarsur

Tarsus, connu comme étant lieu de naissance de St.Paul est proposé pour la liste indicative du Patrimoine Mondial, avec l’église St.Paul et son citerne intégrés dans le tissu urbain traditionnel.

Demre-Myra : St.Nicolas

La ville antique de Myra qui est un lieu d’habitation lycien appartenant au 5 ème siècle, possède l’ensemble de l’Eglise St.Nicolas en même temps que d’autres constructions appartenant aux diverses périodes. L’église en question date de la période allant du 6 ème siècle au 8 ème siècle.

Kekova et Termessos

Kekova et Termessos sont proposés pour la liste indicative du Patrimoine Mondial en raison de l’harmonie entre les valeurs archéologiques et la bauté naturelle.

L’île de Kekova qui figure parmi les points les plus attractifs dans la Région Méditerranéenne en Turquie, devrait prendre sa place sur la liste du Patrimaine Mondial, si l’on prend en considération les lieux archéologiques comme Üçağız et Kaleköy, ainsi que la ville submergée, entourant l’île.

La ville antique de Termessos (Le Parc National du Mont “Güllük”) située à une altitude de 1050 m., au nord d’Antalya, est une des villes utilisant, au mieux, les possiblités offertes par sa situation géorgraphique au niveau de l’habitation et des systèmes de protection.

Les pentes verticales du Mont “Güllük” est une zone particulière avec ses plantes propres à la Région Méditerranéenne et ses animaux en voie d’extinction.

Efes Museum

2010-05-24T22:32:00.000-07:00

Sumela Monastery

2010-05-24T22:25:00.000-07:00

Ayasofya Museum

2010-05-24T22:16:00.000-07:00

Museo de Mevlana el la Ciudad de Konya

2010-05-24T22:01:00.000-07:00

Historia

2010-05-24T21:42:00.000-07:00

Los comienzos de la humanidad La Caverna de Karain guarda las primeras huellas de la humanidad en tierras anatolias. Pertenecen al periodo paleolítico pues se remontan a hace unos 100.000 años a.C. aunque el número de asentamientos aumentó considerablemente alrededor del año 8.000 a.C. De esta época se han encontrado asentamientos en Çayönü y Hacılar. En Çatalhöyük hay hasta doce yacimientos que oscilan entre los 6.500 y el 5.650 a.C. nos han revelado la primera urbanización organizada en la historia de la Humanidad, con una población de unos cinco a diez mil habitantes.

Entre los siglos V a.C. y III a.C. se desarrolla la cultura asiria, sobre la zona de Kultepe. Por aquel entonces ya tenían desarrollado una importantísima red comercial, donde se importaban y exportaban todo tipo de productos.

La cultura hitita

Los hititas fueron los primeros en fundar un estado indoeuropeo en el año 1.800 a.C. Este pueblo llegó a dominar Babilonia. Los hititas cobraban impuestos y concedían autonomía a los pueblos siempre que no opusieran resistencia. Su máximo esplendor duró entre el 1.450 a. C. hasta el año 1.200 a.C. Fue entonces cuando los tracios y otros pueblos comenzaron a invadir el Imperio Asirio, dejando solo pequeños asentamientos. A su época se la conoce como el Imperio Nuevo, con capital en Hattuşaş (la actual Boðazköy).

Entre los siglos XV y XIV a.C. los hititas se enfrentaron a los hurritas, pueblo que se localizaba en la región del Alto Eúfrates, con el Imperio de Mitanni y con os bárbaros de la región del Ponto. Así, los hititas ensanchaban su imperio desde la Región del Mármara hasta los países a lo largo del Río Eúfrates.

Con el siglo XIII llegaron los primeros enfrentamientos con los egipcios. Durante el reinado de Ramsés II los enfrentamientos por la repartición de Siria llevaron a la rubrica del primer tratado de paz de la historia, firmado en Kadesh en el año 1285 a.C.

Pero en los últimos siglos del Imperio, la organización se fue debilitando hasta que en el siglo VII se formaron las ciudades soberanas. Los hititas dejaron para la posteridad un importantísimo legado artístico que demuestra el desarrollo de esta gran cultura. Los principales yacimientos arqueológicos se encuentran en Hattuşaş, Yazılıkaya, Alacahöyük, Malatya, Karkamiş, Sakçegözü, Zincirli y Karatepe.

Las civilizaciones de Urartu y Frigia

Junto al Lago Van, hacia el año 1.000 a.C., mientras que el Imperio Hitita se está deshaciendo, comienza a desarrollarse una cultura que alcanzaría un desarrollo increíble, la Urartu, probablemente descendientes de los hurritas. Su mayor logro fue el desarrollo de la metalurgia y el bronce hasta el siglo VI a.C. Los asentamientos más importantes de esta cultura se encuentran en Altintepe, Toprakkale y Çavuştepe aunque hay más repartidos por toda Antolia Oriental.

En el siglo XIII a.C., los frigios cruzaron el estrecho de Dardanelos y el estrecho del Bósforo. Se asentaron sobre la región septentrional de la Anatolia Central, donde crearon una poderosa civilización muy avanzada.

Las primeras fuentes escritas que mencionan a los frigios (La Iliada) dicen que fueron los aliados de los troyanos en la Guerra de Troya. Esta civilización ha dejado muestras artísticas repartidas por asentamientos en Gordion, Aslankaya, Aliðar, Alaca y Pazarlı, antes de borrarse del escenario de la historia durante el periodo de la gran invasión persa del siglo VI a.C.

Lidios, licios y carios

Los carios eran descendientes de los lelegianos inmigrados a Anatolia durante la época de la civilización micénica del rey Minos. Los lidios y los licios, según se cree, eran los pueblos autóctonos de Anatolia, Zante, la Capital de Licia, nos da las obras de arte más bellas de esta cultura original (600 200 a.C.).

Sardes fue la capital de Lidia. Se desarrolló entre el 600 y el 200 a.C. y fue la mayor fuente de inspiración de arte helénico de Anatolia. Se cree que probablemente fueron los primeros en acuñar moneda. El más famoso de sus reyes fue el rey Creso, cuya capital se asentaba cerca de la zona del actual río Gediz.

En cuanto a la civilización caria, se desarrolló en ciudades como Halicarnaso (la actual Bodrum), Afrodisias, Miletos y Esmirna (la actual İzmir). En Halicarnaso está una de las siete maravillas del mundo, el monumento funeral del sátrapa persa Mausolo. En cuanto a Afrodisias, probablemente sea una de las ciudades más bellas de la antigüedad.

Los pueblos marineros

A partir del siglo XII a.C. los pueblos marineros que los antiguos egipcios llamaron `pueblos del mar´, invadieron no solamente las tierras de Anatolia, sino también todo el Oriente Medio. Los acadios, los lelegianos, los jonios, los dorios, los griegos, los micénicos, llegaron unos tras otros... Tuvieron que atravesar el estrecho de los Dardanelos para poder establecerse en las costas del Mar Negro, para lo cual tenían que pagar peaje a los troyanos. En La Iliada se cuenta como vencieron a los troyanos y consiguieron cruzar el estrecho sin pagar.

Los pueblos del mar se asimilaron con los pueblos autóctonos de Anatolia, cuyas culturas se mezclaron y se enriquecieron. El culto a la diosa madre Cibeles, que existía en Anatolia desde tiempos inmemoriales, fue adoptado por los Pueblos del Mar mientras que el poderoso Zeus se debilitaba frente a Artemisa en Jonia y Afrodita en Caria.

De esta forma, la cultura de los recién llegados se asimiló a la de los pueblos autóctonos de Anatolia, dando lugar a la civilización helenística, que dejó los legados de personajes de la talla de Tales, Diógenes o Estrabón. Las civilizaciones de Anatolia alcanzaron los niveles más altos en la filosofía, las matemáticas, la geometría, la astronomía, la astrología, la pintura, la escultura, el mosaico, la cerámica y muchas otras ciencias y artes.

La invasión persa

Los persas empezaron a invadir Anatolia a partir del siglo V a.C. llegando a Grecia durante los reinados de los emperadores de Ciro, Dario y Jerges. No todo fueron victorias, los persas perdieron batallas vitales como las de Maratón, Salamina y Platea aunque la dominación continuó hasta el siglo IV a.C.

La Época Helenística

Uno de los momentos de oro de la cultura europea y asiática comienza con la llegada de Alejandro Magno a las tierras de Anatolia, en el año 334 a.C., es la época helenística.

El emperador consiguió minar al Imperio Persa venciendo varias veces a Dario, extendió su dominación hasta la India; mientras tenía un pie en las civilizaciones orientales, era venerado en Egipto como el hijo del dios Amon y adorado en todo el país persa. Sin duda, Alejandro Magno impulsó la síntesis entre las civilizaciones occidental y oriental.

El reino de Pérgamo, que se fundó después de su muerte y dominó en Eolia y Jonia (283 133 a.C.) alcanzó un nivel de civilización sin igual, creando las ciudades más bellas y prestigiosas de Anatolia, como Hierápolis o Antalya. Mientras, en Bitinia, se desarrolló un arte con un alto nivel artístico pero con un carácter más oriental.

La época helenística constituye el mayor desarrollo en ciencias como la arquitectura y la urbanística. Es la época de la fundación de la Escuela de Arquitectura Jónica. Gracias a ella se construyeron templos tan bellos como Artemisia, Dídimo o Euromos ciudades tan bien planeadas como Priene, Mileto, Teos o Magnesia. Pero no era esta la única cultura que estaba alcanzando su mayor esplendor cultural. En Pérgamo existía una biblioteca con más de 200.000 pergaminos, era, sin duda, el mayor centro científico de la época.

Época romana

A la muerte del último rey de Pérgamo, Atalo III (133 a.C.), Pérgamo pasó a formar parte del Imperio Romano. Los romanos vencieron al rey Mitrídates del Ponto y llegaron a extender su territorio por toda Anatolia. Los recién llegados también aportaron su granito de arena al desarrollo cultural, con grandes construcciones en ciudades como Éfeso, Mileto, Foçea, Tarsus, Filadelfia, Tralles (Aydın) y Assos. También fundaron nuevas ciudades como Iconio (Konya), Cesarea (Kayseri) y Sebsteia (Sivas).

Zonas como Pamfilia, donde estaban Perge, Side, Aspendos, Jaunos, Antifelos, Mira y Termessos, alcanzaron su máximo apogeo. El reino de Comagene se desarrolló en un breve periodo (69 34 a.C.) en la zona de la Anatolia oriental. Esto no impidió que consiguiera construir uno de los santuarios más hermosos de Turquía en el Monte Nemrut.

El Cristianismo y Bizancio

Muchos de los episodios del Antiguo Testamento se desarrollaban en Anatolia, de ahí que de siempre se considera a esta zona tierra sagrada. El arca de Noé se había quedado atrapada en el monte Ararat, Abraham había vivido en Urfa y Harran. Tras la fundación del cristianismo, San Pablo nació en Tarso y recorrió Anatolia, los apóstoles adoptaron por primera vez el nombre de `cristiano´ en la caverna de San Pedro de Antioquia (la actual Antakya), San Juan Evangelista escribió su evangelio en Éfeso y la Virgen María pasó sus últimos años de visa y murió en la misma ciudad. Las siete iglesias del Apocalipsis fueron fundadas en estas tierras y los primeros concilios ecuménicos fueron organizados en Nicea (İznik), Éfeso y Calcedonia (Bitinia).

Una de las fechas claves para la historia de Turquía es el año 330 cuando Constantino el Grande trasladó su capital a Constantinopla, la `ciudad de Constantino´ (İstanbul). Poco después, se adopta el cristianismo como religión oficial del estado bizantino convirtiendo la ciudad en el centro de una gran civilización.

El Imperio Bizantino no solo desarrolló obras artísticas de gran calidad, sino que consiguió resistir a los ataques árabes (siglo VII) y de los primeros pueblos bárbaros (XI). Las tierras de Anatolia fueron el escenario de once cruzadas. En 1071 el emperador romano Diógenis fue vencido por los turcos selyuquíes, en la batalla de Mantzikert (Malazgirt). Es el comienzo de la decadencia del Imperio Bizantino. Constantinopla sería conquistada en 1453.

Los Selyuquíes, los Otomanos y la República de Turquía

Los clanes y tribus nómadas turcos habían desarrollado su civilización en Asia Central durante más de mil años, huyeron hacia Anatolia debido a la sequía y la hambruna que asolaba sus tierras. A su llegada a la península de Anatolia ocuparon vastas tierras fértiles inhabitadas y se asimilaron con los pueblos autóctonos. Es el comienzo de una nueva época. Nacieron así dos de los más poderosos reinos de la península: los selyuquíes de Anatolia que reinaron desde mediados del siglo XI hasta mediados del siglo XIII cuando la gran invasión mongólica devastó Anatolia y los turcos otomanos que fundaron uno de los imperios más grandes del mundo entre los siglos XIVXX durante los cuales adornaron este país con numerosas obras de arte crearon nuevas riquezas y bellezas.

Los selyuquíes fueron los que fundaron el primer estado turco en Anatolia, no intervinieron de ninguna manera ni en las creencias, ni en las formas de vivir de los distintos pueblos que habían inmigrado a estas tierras antes de ellos y habían adoptado la fe cristiana durante la época bizantina; al contrario, acabaron con las opresiones feudales existentes sobre estos pueblos y lograron establecer un orden público.

Los turcos otomanos buscaron y consiguieron una paz interna lo que ha posibilitado la convivencia pacífica de un amplio mosaico de pueblos en Anatolia durante un periodo de más de mil años.

Antes de la llegada de los turcos, las rutas comerciales más importantes (la ruta de la seda, la ruta de las especias, la ruta de Marco Polo...) pasaban por Anatolia. Buscando mejorar y aumentar ese comercio, los selyuquíes construyeron centenares de caravasares sobre estas mismas rutas para resucitar el comercio entre Europa y el Lejano Oriente, interrumpido durante la decadencia del Imperio Bizantino.

Los otomanos fueron los que impulsaron el avance en la arquitectura, con un estilo propio, una vez que dejaron la vida nómada para asentarse. El máximo desarrollo se dio en İstanbul con mezquitas, baños, albergues de caridad, escuelas, fomentando el arte en todas sus formas.

El viejo Imperio Otomano se mantuvo hasta el fin de la Primera Guerra Mundial cuando nació la República de Turquía en 1923 después de una penosa Guerra de Independencia. El fundador de la nueva república fue Atatürk.

Turquía es un estado laico y democrático. Un país en vías de desarrollo gracias a una política económica, adoptada desde 1923, formando una parte vital del mundo occidental. Es una República basada en un sistema parlamentario democrático. La Asamblea Nacional es elegida por el pueblo y el poder ejecutivo recae en el Consejo de Ministros presidido por el Primer Ministro. Turquía es miembro de la OCDE (Organización de Cooperación y Desarrollo Económico), de la Organización de Cooperación Económica del Mar Negro, de la OTAN, del Consejo de Europea, del Parlamento Europeo, de la Asociación de la Conferencia Islámica, así como miembro asociado de la Unión Europea.

La economía turca se basa principalmente en el turismo pues disfruta de uno de los legados de la historia más importantes del mundo así como la naturaleza que se desarrolla en todo su esplendor. El cultivo de trigo, arroz, algodón, té, tabaco, avellanas y frutas es otro de los puntos fuertes de la agricultura. A través del Plan de Desarrollo del Sureste (GAP) se ha desarrollado enormemente este sector, a través de canales, centrales hidroeléctricas y canales de regadío. Este plan incluye la Presa de Atatürk que está dentro de las diez presas más grandes del mundo. Además, parte de la población trabaja en las minas de carbón, cromo, hierro, cobre, bauxita y azufre.

Lycia

2010-05-24T20:02:00.000-07:00

Lycia can be roughly defined as the country lying across the Teke Peninsula (draw a straight line from Köyceğiz to Antalya, the area to the south of this line is Lycia). The first settlements in the region can be dated back to 2000 B.C.

Who are the Lycians?
Herodotus indicates that the origins of the Lycians are rooted in Crete. The struggle between two brothers Minos and Sarpedon for taking over control of Crete resulted with Sarpedon’s defeat. After losing the struggle for power, Sarpedon fleeted to Anatolia. He took control of the Lycia region and became the first Lycian King.
Recent excavations and research illustrate the possibility that Lycians were one of the oldest tribes of Anatolia. Thus, Lycian origins are in debate whereas Herodotus’’ claim is still widely accepted throughout the western world.

The Lycian language was different than Greek. Lycians called themselves “Trimilae”. Most possibly, “Lycia” was a Helen conversion of the Hittite word “Lukka”, which means “Land of Light”.

A Brief History of Lycia
Lycians made it as far as Egypt between 1200 -1300 B.C., they even allied with Hittites against Egypt during the Kadesh War (1295 B.C.). The Hittites were destroyed in 12th century B.C., followed by the rule of the Phrygian State which spread as far as Lycia region. The annihilation of the Phrygians led to the formation of Lydian State in the Western Anatolia. Lydians never succeeded to rule the Lycians. After the Persians defeated the Lydians, Lycians tried to put up resistance against the Persians which ended with the mass suicide of the Xanthians. Lycians tried to rebel against Persians but was suppressed by the Carian dynast of Persia, Mausolus. But the Lycians rebelled against Mausolus, leaded by Pericles, ruler of Limyra.

The Persians were never totally dominant over Lycia. After they were defeated by Alexander the Great, the Persian rule over Anatolia ended. After the death of Alexander, in 324 BC, Lycia passed under the rule of Antigonos, one of Alexander’s generals. Shortly after, in 310 B.C., Lycian land was under the rule of Ptolemy, King of Egypt. During this period the Lycian language was replaced by Greek and the rule of Pericles and Lycian Dynasties came to an end. In 197 B.C. King Antiochus III of Syria took control over the country and ruled Lycia until he was defeated by the Romans in Magnesia, in 190 B.C.

Under the Roman rule Lycia was subjected to Rhodians’ control. The Lycians were reluctant to accept the Rhodian control, so they rebelled for 3 times until 167 B.C. When relations between Roma and Rhodes weakened, Lycia was freed from any other control but the Romans

This extended state of liberty led to the formation of the “Lycian League”. This league has a senate to take care of all matters of the Lycian League member cities. Each city had a designated number of votes, changing between 3 and 1, depending on its importance. This league is considered to be history’s earliest example of the republican form of government.
In 88 B.C. the Pontus King, Mithridates attacked Southern Asia. The Romans received major support from the Lycians during the war against Pontus, which ended with the death of Mithridates. The loyalty of the Lycians caused the Romans to extend the Lycia country northwards.

During the Roman civil war Lycians sided with Caesar. Following Caesar’s assassination, Brutus and Cassius wanted to collect soldiers and money from the Lycia cities. But the Lycians were unwilling to supply such support, which resulted with a Roman attack on Xanthos in 42 B.C. and the second mass suicide of the Xanthians in the Lycian history.
When Antoninius defeated Brutus, he gave the Lycians their freedom, which meant that Lycian land was the only region in Asia Minor not to be under direct Roman rule. The Empire period of Romans witnessed the recovery and the expansion of Lycia by every means.

Lycia was destroyed by two earthquakes first in 141 A.D. and later in 240 A.D. By the time of the second temblor the boundary of Lycia was extended to northwest, including Caunos. During the struggle between Christianity and Paganism, Myra became the region’s metropolis. The existence of the Lycian cities continued during the Byzantine period until the Arab raids that started in 8th century A.D. After this point cities were to disappear one after another.

Tombs and Monuments in Lycia
The Lycian region is a marvelous open air museum with all various types of tombs. The country is mainly famous of very well preserved “Lycian Tombs”.
The custom of burying the dead in a tomb resembling a house can be dated back to as early as the second half of the 3rd millennium B.C. Many of the tombs in Lycia were built before the time of Alexander and have sculpture works on them as adornments. This indicates that the tombs are the oldest remains in Lycian archeological sites.
Paylaş

Çatalhöyük

2010-05-24T19:38:00.000-07:00

ANCIENT CITIES

Çatalhöyük

Çatalhöyük is 10 kilometres east of Konya’s Çumra Township. The tumulus is a hill with two flat areas with different altitudes. Because of these two elevations, it is called “çatal,” meaning fork. Çatalhöyük was first discovered by J. Mellaart in 1958. There were a number of excavations here in 1961-1963 and 1965. The studies made on the western slope of the hill revealed 13 layers. The earliest settlement in the first layer dates back to 5500 B.C. This dating done by examination of style was also proved using the Carbon 14 dating method. The first settlement was a centre that sheds light on the history of humanity with the first house architecture and remains of the first sacred structures.

The best known period of urbanization in Çatalhöyük lie between layers 7 and 11. Houses with square walls were adjacent but the houses didn’t share common walls. Every house had its own wall. Houses were planned separately and one house was built next to another whenever there was a need to do so. Because of the adjacent walls of the houses, there were no streets in the city. Walking on the flat roofs was the only means of getting around. No remains of a fortress or city walls protecting the city have been found. Sun-baked bricks, trees and reeds were used in the making of the houses. The foundations were not deep. There were wooden sticks between the walls, and the joists on these sticks supported the flat roofs. The ceilings were covered with compressed clay earth put on reeds. The houses were one story and the entrance was from a hole opening in the roof. There was a ladder going down from this opening. Every house had a room and storage. Inside the rooms, there were square stoves, stone benches which were 10-30 cm high and square niches inside the walls. The walls were plastered. After the plaster was painted white, pictures were painted on the walls using red and black dyes. Sacred rooms were relatively larger than others. Besides the pictures painted on these walls, there are also heads of bulls, rams, and deer made with compressed clay and applied to the walls. There are also reliefs of people and animals. The wall pictures in Çatalhöyük were found in layers 10 and 11. The most beautiful and sophisticated ones belong to the seventh and fifth layers. These pictures are the continuation of the tradition started by Palaeolithic man, who made pictures on cave walls. They might have also believed that these pictures would bring them luck in hunting. In later ages, we see that home decorations confined themselves to bird patterns and geometrical designs.

The pictures also show headless people being eaten by vultures, a representation which might be related to the residents’ burial traditions. After vultures ate the flesh, the bones were collected and wrapped inside a straw cloth and buried in the house. Excavations in such places have unearthed many skeletons. Archaeologists also found gifts left for dead people such as tools made out of bones, collared stones, sharp tools, stone axes, and beads made out of seashells.

The little figurines found during the Çatalhöyük excavations provide us with new insights about the beginning of the Mother Goddess cult and the religious beliefs of the time. These small sculptures made out of cooked clay and stone measured 5-15 cm high. The female figures are fat and buxom, with large hips. They are sometimes depicted as giving birth. These figurines represent abundance and plenitude. Stone or clay axes, plates, figurines of the goddess of fertility, bracelets and necklaces were the only tools found in Çatalhöyük. There are also black- or brick-collared cups made out of cooked clay. The figurines of the Mother Goddess and sacred animals were also made out of cooked clay. Sharp tools were made out of bones and tips of arrows and spears were made out of obsidian. These were the most important tools used in Çatalhöyük.

No excavation was done in Çatalhöyük prior to 1996. That year, the British Archaeology Institute started excavations under the leadership of Ian Hodder. The remains found are kept at the Konya Archaeology Museum. Some of these remains are being exhibited, while others are preserved in storage.

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Alacahöyük -Hittite

2010-05-24T19:33:00.000-07:00

ANCIENT CITIES

Alacahöyük

Alacahöyük is located 45 kilometres south of Çorum and 17 kilometres northwest of the Alaca township. The Alacahöyük village is 34 kilometres away from Boğazköy and 210 kilometres away from Ankara.

This tumulus, or mound, was first introduced to the world of science by W.C. Hamilton in 1835 and after that time, it became a place frequented by scientists who visited Central Anatolia. In 1861, G. Perrot stopped by this tumulus and discovered the plan of the square tower on the left and right of the door and one of the orthostats. After this study, Perrot became the first to argue that these reliefs belonged to the Hittite period.

The ritual symbol

W. Ramsey, who made great contributions to Anatolia’s historical geography, studied the tumulus together with Wilson in 1881 and found a few other reliefs. In 1893, E. Chantre came to the tumulus and found the square corridors among the sphinx, the second door at the end and the door frames. Chantre took the plaster casts of these reliefs and by judging from their themes, Chantre claimed that this could be the door of a temple rather than a palace. Chantre studied the lions on the south of the door with the sphinx and believed that the inscription found on one of these doors was Phrygian writing. Later H. Winckler, who had been working in Boğazköy since 1906, decided to start a search in the tumulus at the invitation of Makridi Bey and İstanbul Archaeology Museum Director Halil Ethem Bey. In 1907, Makridi Bey worked for 15 days at the door with the sphinx and discovered a few new orthostats in front of the door. After drilling a few places in the tumulus, he saw the poterni (entrance) on the northern edge of the tumulus and he compared this to the potern in Boğazköy. The first systematic excavations of the tumulus were started by Atatürk in the Republican era. Hamit Zübeyr Koşay, Remzi Oğuz Arik and Mahmut Akok from the Turkish History Institution began excavations in 1935 which lasted until 1983. The excavations were interrupted this year and in 1997, they were started again by Professor Aykut Çınaroğlu.

Studies and excavations tell us that there were four layers of cultures that existed in Alacahöyük, which was inhabited continuously since the Chalcolithic (copper) Age. These four layers are the Chalcolithic, Old Bronze, Hittite and Phrygian ages, and each of them has 15 different architectural layers.
The Chalcolithic Age: 4000-3000 B.C., layers 15-9
Old Bronze Age: 3000-2000, layers 8-5
Hittite Age: 1800-1200, layers 4-2
Phrygian Age: Since 750 B.C. in the first layer
The first settlement in the tumulus set up in the Chalcolithic Age was established on an area looking to the south, above sea level, and its northern parts were protected with small hills. In this age, architecture only meant stone foundations and sun-dried bricks. The roofs were covered with reeds and compressed soil.

There were 13 important kings’ tombs in Alacahöyük in the Old Bronze Age, which was followed by the Chalcolithic Age and which was represented by four layers. The tombs which are believed to belong to layers five and seven are located in a special area of the city. Because of their forms, these are considered to be unique tombs of Anatolia and even the Asian frontier. These tombs belong to adult men and women. No children or babies were buried here. In contrast to the tomb types in Central Anatolia, in Alacahöyük there is uniformity in the direction of the tombs and the buried people. The gifts buried along with the dead are the richest and most varied that are found in the Aegean and the Asia frontier in the Old Bronze Age. Among these gifts are sun disks, deer and bull sculptures, decorative pieces, fighting tools such as daggers, swords and axes, and other pieces made out of cooked clay, stones, gold, silver, bronze, and copper. The architectural system of Alacahöyük in the Old Bronze Age depended on the authentic building technique of Anatolia. Buildings constructed using this technique has stone foundations, sun-dried bricks, flat ceilings, plastered floor and earth roofs. The Hittite layers that form the visible part of Alacahöyük are formed by three layers. In this age, a defence system was formed in the form of a circle with a diametre of 250 metres, and on this circle two main gates that were the entrances to the city are found. One of these entrances was the eastern door with a sphinx and the door on the western side of the tumulus.

There are two sphinxes on the south-eastern door, which was the religious door of the tumulus. The heads are remarkable on the sphinx protoms that are carved on monolithic stone lentos. Sphinxes with inflated bodies stay on top of separated short legs. There is also a double-headed eagle carrying a rabbit in his claws in the interior side of the sphinx on the east.

The reliefs under the towers on east and western side of the door with sphinxes are done using low relief technique and the details were given using plastic techniques. Almost all of the orthostats in the western tower are seen as a single frieze. On the lower part, there are pictures on the theme of cult-libation and on the upper part; there are depictions of hunt scenes. The head priest, the king and the queen were depicted as praying in front of a bull during a holiday ceremony which was celebrated to honour the storm god and which was mentioned in Hittite religious texts. Other reliefs depicted other phases of the ceremony. There are pictures of people praying in front of a goddess in the reliefs in the eastern tower, and these show that cult ceremonies were continuing in this age.

After entering from the door with the sphinx and passing the entrance complex, on the right you can see the foundation of a large Hittite building which was called Mabet-Saray (Temple-Palace). This building is formed by various storage rooms and other complexes.
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Claros

2010-05-24T19:30:00.000-07:00

ANCIENT CITIES
Claros

Claros is a prophecy center of Colophon, one of the twelve Ionic cities. Claros is built between two cities; it is 13 kilometers south of Colophon and two kilometers north of Notion. The Temple of Apollo here was a very important center of prophecy as in Delphi and Didim. The oldest information about this sacred site goes back to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. through the Homeric Hymns. A sacred cave near the Claros Temple of Apollo, which was an important place both in the Hellenistic and Roman eras, points to the existence of a Cybele cult in earlier periods here.

Claros’ Apollo sacred side was first discovered by S. Schuchardt. Later, in 1907, Theodore Macridy found a column of a propylon, a monumental entrance building. In 1913, Macridy worked with Charles Picard and together they found the propulon in 1913. At the same time, they found a large exedra.

The excavations were suspended during World War I and were restarted by Louis Robert in 1950 and lasted until 1961. After 27 years, in 1988, Professor Juliette de La Geniere started a series of supervising excavations. In 1988-1989, during systematic cleaning work, archaeologists found structures that had remained under the alluvium.

The propylon located at the beginning of this sacred site, which acted as an entrance to passengers who came by sea, was built in the second half of the second century B.C. The building was built in Doric style and has a square plan and it rises on three crepises (krepis). There are two columns on its northern side. Orthostats, walls, antes and columns bear the names of children who sang hymns to Apollo and the names of delegates who came to ask for advise from the oracle of Apollo.

There are honor monuments related to the ancient cities, governors of Asian states, and leading personalities of the Roman era on the two sides of the sacred road that passes between the propylon and the temple and ends on the eastern side of the temple. On them, there are marks of bronze sculptures of people who owned these monuments.

The Temple of Apollo measuring 26 meters by 46 meters was built in Doric style. The temple in the peripteros plan (6 by 11 meter columns) rises on a fifth crepis. In the cella of the temple (the room of the cult sculpture), there are also sculptures of Apollo, Artemis and Leto. This shows that here, there was also a cult of Apollo’s sister Artemis and their mother Leto. From the fragments that have been found, it seems clear that the 7-8 meter high Apollo sculpture was standing while Artemis and Leto were also standing. The moulages of these monumental sculptures were reorganized on the western side of the temple. The Emperor Hadrian (second century A.D.) completed the peristyle of the temple whose constructed started in the third century B.C.

There is a small temple that belonged to Apollo under this temple that was built in the Archaic period along with an altar. Under the cella part of the temple there was a sacred place whose stone arcs are seen today and in this place, prophecy was not done by a woman named Pythia as at Delphi, but rather by a male oracle. The inscriptions found in Claros provide no information about prophecies, but a number of inscriptions have been found in Bergama, Sivas, Amasya, Kayseri and Konya that record the counsel of Claros’ Apollo. It is also known that a temple was made for Claros Apollo in Sagalassos, one of the cities of Psidia.

The oldest piece of information about the function of the Temple of Apollo in Claros dates back to the time of Alexander the Great. According to the Greek historian Pausanias, in his dream Alexander was told that he would set up a large new city at the base of Mt. Pagos (Kadifekale). After this dream the, king consulted the Apollo oracle at Claros and asked him to interpret the dream for him. He set up the new Smyrna after the oracle gave him the go-ahead to proceed.

In the prona (entrance part) of the temple, there are two stairs on the north and south, and they unite in a corridor made out of blue marble. This corridor stretching along the east-west line is 0.70 meters wide and 2.10 meters high. The wall altar separates into two and leads to underground halls. The adyton (sacred room) where the prophesising was done is formed by two underground halls with arches. It is under the cella which has the cult sculpture. In the eastern hall with arches, there are bands of stone seats. There is also an omphalos made out of blue marble, which was the sacred stone of Apollo. A similar omphalos was found in Delphi.

The oracle and the secretary were sitting in this hall which was like a waiting room. The hall in the west had no other entrance than the door opening to the hall in the east. The oracle could enter here only in dark and in it there was a rectangular well which kept the holy water. After drinking from this water, the oracle would issue his prophecies by singing in the form of a song. Some 27 meters east of the Temple of Apollo, there is an altar measuring nine by 18.45 meters. Between the temple and the altar, there are four rows of blocks that were used to tie about 100 animals. The stone blocks in rectangular shape with an iron ring on top are unique and they provide valuable information about the procedure of sacrificial ceremonies. There is a stelle on the north side of this place where the ceremonies were conducted. The decretum that was found in Claros tells us that these holidays dedicated to Apollo were held every five years. On the north of the Temple of Apollo, there was another smaller temple in Ionic style along with an altar built parallel to the temple of Apollo. At this altar, archaeologists found a sculpture of Artemis that belonged to archaic period, which shows that this smaller temple was built for Artemis.
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