Talmud and Chaos - תלמוד וכאוס

My Great Grandfather was Harris Epstein the Great Inventor of a Patented Folding Umbrella, Extension Ladder and more

2026-01-24T10:10:00.007-05:00

I am named after my great-grandfather, Harris (Tzvee) Epstein, aka, Epstein the Inventor, who lived in New York City and Spring Valley. I probably inherited my technical curiosity from him.

He was the inventor and patent holder of many practical items, a folding umbrella, an extension ladder, a double sided toothbrush, a vegetable grater and more.

Here are of his patents with their links from Google Patent search:

FOLDING UMBRELLA Patent number: 1666692 Filing date: Jan 29, 1927 Issue date: Apr 17, 1928

SIGNALING APPARATUS US Pat. 1060898 - H. EPSTEIN. SIGNALING APPARATUS, APPLICATION PILED JAN. 26, 19.11. Patented May 6,1913.

EXTENSION LADDER US Pat. 949529 - Filed Feb 10, 1909

VEGETABLE GRATER US Pat. 1799963 - Filed Apr 4, 1930... UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE HARRIS EPSTEIN, OF ROCKAWAY BEACH, NEW YORK VEGETABLE GRATER

GAS-CONTROLLING DEVICE US Pat. 968457 - Filed Jan 11, 1910

TOOTH BRUSH Patent number: 1111144 Filing date: Oct 4, 1913 Issue date: Sep 22, 1914

Papa Epstein, as he was called by his grandchildren, sure would have liked the age of the personal computer and the Internet, especially the iPad and smart phone.

2026 New Card Deck about Epstein

. [Augmented repost from 12/17/06]

Reports

Meet Harris "Papa" Epstein: The Man Behind the Patents

Harris (Tzvee) Epstein, known to history and his family as "Epstein the Inventor," was a prolific mechanical disrupter of everyday inconveniences. Based in New York City and Spring Valley during the height of America’s industrial urbanization, Epstein possessed a rare "technical curiosity"—a trait his descendant, Tzvee Zahavy, notes he inherited. To be an inventor in the early 20th century was to be a keen observer of the shifting world; it required identifying a friction point in a person's day and engineering a patented, mechanical solution. Epstein looked at the bustling, crowded streets of the 1900s and saw not just people, but a series of systems that could be made more efficient through clever design.

Papa Epstein sure would have liked the age of the personal computer and the Internet, especially the iPad and smart phone.

This sentiment from his family captures the essence of a man who was always looking toward the next horizon of efficiency. Epstein’s work was never about abstract theory; it was a deeply practical response to the era of subways, tenements, and the rapid transition from manual labor to mechanical assistance. His personal curiosity was the engine that drove him to solve the very real, tangible problems of his neighbors and contemporaries.

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Solving Everyday Problems: The "Big Three" Inventions

During the early 20th century, the rapid growth of cities meant that space and time were becoming the most valuable commodities. Epstein focused on making objects more portable, efficient, and adaptable to this new, fast-paced lifestyle.

Invention	The Everyday Problem	The Epstein Innovation
Folding Umbrella	In the crowded streetcars and commuter hubs of 1920s New York, a full-length, rigid umbrella was a cumbersome social and physical nuisance.	Portability: Epstein engineered a collapsing telescopic frame that allowed the device to be tucked away when not in use, prioritizing urban mobility.
TOOTH BRUSH	In the pre-modern era of dental hygiene, standard brushes were inefficient, requiring repetitive motions to clean different surfaces of the teeth.	Efficiency: By utilizing a double-sided head, Epstein’s design allowed for the simultaneous cleaning of multiple tooth surfaces, halving the time required for oral care.
Extension Ladder	As the "rise of the skyscraper" and vertical tenements transformed the skyline, fixed-length ladders were either too short for the task or too large to transport through narrow city alleys.	Adjustability: This modular design used a sliding mechanism to allow a single tool to reach varied heights, providing a versatile solution for industrial and domestic maintenance.

His ingenuity extended beyond these portable tools and into the very heart of the early 20th-century home: the kitchen and the internal safety systems of the house.

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Efficiency in the Home and Safety

As a historian of innovation, one must look at the "pre-electric" or early-electric home to understand Epstein’s impact. His domestic inventions weren't just gadgets; they were mechanical interventions into the safety and labor of the household.

Vegetable Grater (Rockaway Beach, NY)
- Insight: According to the patent filed from Rockaway Beach, this device utilized a curved, rotating drum system to transform the laborious task of hand-grating into a smooth, mechanical motion. For the 1930s home cook, this meant far greater uniformity in food preparation and a significant reduction in the physical effort required for meal prep.
Gas-Controlling Device
- Insight: In an era when homes were transitioning toward gas for lighting and cooking, the threat of unmonitored leaks was a terrifyingly common household danger. Epstein’s invention acted as a mechanical safety valve, providing a reliable way to regulate flow and prevent the accidental accumulation of hazardous gas.
Signaling Apparatus
- Insight: Looking at the technical drawings, this device functioned as a robust communication link, likely used to bridge the gap between different floors of a building or within an industrial facility. It offered a mechanical alternative to shouting or manual messengers, bringing a new level of operational awareness to complex early 20th-century environments.

From the mechanical function of these objects, we can look at the formal timeline of his technical achievements to see how his career as an inventor progressed over several decades.

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The Inventor's Toolkit: A Timeline of Patents

This reference list tracks the professional output of Harris Epstein, illustrating a career dedicated to the constant refinement of the objects that define our daily lives.

Patent Name	Patent Number	Key Dates (Filing/Issue)
Extension Ladder	949529	Filed: Feb 10, 1909
Gas-Controlling Device	968457	Filed: Jan 11, 1910
Signaling Apparatus	1060898	Filed: Jan 26, 1911; Issued: May 6, 1913
TOOTH BRUSH	1111144	Filed: Oct 4, 1913; Issued: Sep 22, 1914
Folding Umbrella	1666692	Filed: Jan 29, 1927; Issued: Apr 17, 1928
Vegetable Grater	1799963	Filed: Apr 4, 1930

This timeline encourages us to look at the objects we use today—from our toothbrushes to our umbrellas—and wonder how their current designs might be improved by the next generation of thinkers.

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Reflecting on Innovation

The legacy left by Harris Epstein is a "Legacy of Practicality." He did not invent for the sake of complexity; he invented to make the world work better for the average person. For the modern student, his life offers three critical takeaways:

Observation: Successful inventors like Epstein look at the world’s limitations, not just its functions. He saw a crowded streetcar and realized the umbrella, not the car, needed to change.
Persistence: With a patent history spanning over twenty years, Epstein proves that innovation is not a lightning bolt of luck, but a lifelong pursuit of refinement.
Practical Application: Epstein’s focus was on the "practical item." The most enduring inventions are often those that solve the simplest, most universal problems in our daily lives.

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Intellectual Property Portfolio Review: The Mechanical Innovations of Harris Epstein (1909–1930)

1. Portfolio Scope and Historical Context

The patent portfolio of Harris Epstein represents a strategically significant cross-section of American industrial innovation during the early 20th century. This body of work, comprising utility improvements filed over a twenty-year period, provides a window into the professionalization of mechanical engineering during a period of rapid technological transition. Epstein’s work is not merely a collection of disparate inventions but a disciplined multi-disciplinary portfolio that provided mechanical solutions for both high-stakes industrial safety and the burgeoning domestic consumer market.

The geographic context of Epstein’s career—spanning the high-density urban environment of New York City and Rockaway Beach to the residential setting of Spring Valley—directly informed the specification and claims of his patents. The logistical constraints of New York City apartment living likely catalyzed his focus on domestic efficiency and space-saving mechanisms. Conversely, the industrial backdrop of the era necessitated his early focus on structural safety and gas regulation. By tracking the chronological progression of his patent prosecution, we can observe the maturation of a "technically curious" inventor as he navigated the shifting demands of the American economic landscape.

2. Chronological Innovation Roadmap (1909–1930)

In IP strategy, tracking the chronological filing to issue lag is essential for identifying periods of peak productivity and shifts in technical focus. This roadmap illustrates Epstein’s transition from complex industrial systems to refined personal utility products, reflecting a broader economic shift toward the consumer middle class.

Harris Epstein: Chronological Patent Registry

Filing/Issue Date	Patent Number	Title of the Invention	Primary Technical Domain
Feb 10, 1909 (Filed)	US 949529	Extension Ladder	Industrial/Utility
Jan 11, 1910 (Filed) / Aug 23, 1910 (Issued)	US 968457	Gas-Controlling Device	Industrial/Safety
Jan 26, 1911 (Filed) / May 6, 1913 (Issued)	US 1060898	Signaling Apparatus	Industrial/Communications
Oct 4, 1913 (Filed) / Sep 22, 1914 (Issued)	US 1111144	Tooth Brush	Personal Care
Jan 29, 1927 (Filed) / Apr 17, 1928 (Issued)	US 1666692	Folding Umbrella	Personal Utility
Apr 4, 1930 (Filed) / Apr 7, 1931 (Issued)	US 1799963	Vegetable Grater	Household Utility

Analysis of Filing Trends and the "Prosecution Gap"

A critical observation in this portfolio is the thirteen-year hiatus between the issuance of the Tooth Brush patent (1914) and the filing for the Folding Umbrella (1927). As a technical historian, one must view this gap through the lens of global upheaval; the advent of World War I and the subsequent post-war economic restructuring likely redirected engineering talent toward immediate wartime needs or halted speculative domestic patenting. When Epstein resumed his filings in 1927, the portfolio shifted markedly. Moving away from heavy industrial signaling, Epstein pivoted toward the consumer goods market, applying rigorous industrial logic to enhance the convenience of the American household.

3. Domain Analysis: Household and Personal Utility

Epstein’s entry into the consumer sector was marked by a strategic focus on utility improvements that addressed the logistical challenges of modern life. These patents successfully translated complex mechanical movements into durable, user-friendly products for the domestic sphere.

Folding Umbrella (US 1666692): This patent addresses the mechanical challenge of portability through a collapsible rib and shaft system. The mechanical advantage is found in the folding joints that maintain structural tension when deployed while allowing for a significantly reduced footprint when retracted.
Vegetable Grater (US 1799963): Filed while Epstein was residing in Rockaway Beach, this invention features a distinct "V-shaped" hopper (visible in Figure 4 of the drawings) that feeds material into a rotary drum. Unlike simpler graters of the era, Epstein’s design utilizes a rotary drive or crank handle to increase output efficiency while isolating the user's hands from the grating surface.
Double-Sided Tooth Brush (US 1111144): This utility patent moves beyond aesthetic design to provide a functional ergonomic improvement. The specification describes an angled, multi-surface head with bristles on both sides, enabling simultaneous cleaning of the inner and outer dental surfaces—optimizing the motion of the user.

Strategic Impact: Compactness for the Urban Dweller

These patents represent a calculated pivot toward compactness and multi-functionality. For the New York City apartment dweller of the 1920s, space was at a premium. Epstein’s focus on the "collapsible" (umbrella) and the "high-efficiency" (toothbrush and grater) mirrored the urbanization of the American lifestyle, proving that industrial-grade mechanical principles could be miniaturized for daily utility.

4. Domain Analysis: Industrial Signaling and Mechanical Safety

The early "Industrial Phase" of Epstein’s career reflects the high-stakes engineering requirements of the early 20th century, where innovations in gas regulation and structural height were matters of public safety.

Extension Ladder (US 949529): The drawings for this invention reveal a sophisticated mechanical assembly. Rather than relying on simple friction or ropes, the design employs a gear-based mechanism featuring "sector gears" and a dedicated operating handle at the base to control the elevation and locking of the telescoping sections.
Gas-Controlling Device (US 968457): A high-complexity safety innovation, this device utilizes a valve plug and a tapered passage (as seen in the cross-sections of page 2) to regulate flow. The precision of the internal lever system highlights a focus on fail-safe operation in volatile environments.
Signaling Apparatus (US 1060898): This tool was designed for professional communication, likely in industrial or maritime environments, using mechanical movements to convey vital information across distances.

Technical Sophistication and Versatility

The industrial portion of the portfolio demonstrates a level of mechanical sophistication—particularly in fluid dynamics (gas valve) and load-bearing mechanics (ladder)—that far exceeds common domestic tools. Epstein’s ability to navigate these high-liability engineering challenges, and subsequently apply that same rigor to consumer items, identifies him as a versatile strategist capable of bridging the gap between heavy industry and the kitchen counter.

5. Technical Synthesis: The "Epstein Design Language"

A detailed review of the Epstein portfolio reveals a singular engineering DNA that transcends the specific application of the invention. Whether regulating gas or grating vegetables, Epstein’s work is characterized by the optimization of mechanical movement and the efficient use of surface area.

Core Mechanical Pillars

Folding and Collapsibility: Seen in the extension ladder and the umbrella, this pillar focuses on the transition between high-utility deployment and a compact, storable state.
Flow Regulation: Present in both the gas-controlling device and the V-shaped grater hopper, where the inventor manages the movement of materials through a controlled mechanical interface.
Multi-Surface Utility: Demonstrated by the double-sided toothbrush, seeking to maximize the output of a single mechanical action.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The long-term relevance of Epstein's work lies in its foreshadowing of modern design priorities. His emphasis on compactness, collapsibility, and intuitive "user-interface" prefigured the core tenets of modern consumer electronics and specialized industrial tools. Harris Epstein stands as a quintessential "technical curious" inventor—a strategist who successfully navigated the transition from the industrial age to the era of consumer utility, leaving a legacy of patents that balanced high-level engineering with the practical needs of human experience.

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Decoding the Mechanical Genius: A Beginner’s Guide to Harris Epstein’s Patents

1. Introduction: The Legacy of Harris Epstein

Harris Epstein, known to history as "Epstein the Inventor," was a prolific 20th-century creator whose work serves as a masterclass in the "technical curiosity" of the era. Operating primarily out of New York, Epstein did not deal in abstract theories; he specialized in "practical items"—physical solutions for the everyday challenges of a growing industrial society. To the modern observer, his patent drawings are more than just legal documents; they are primary historical artifacts that capture the transition from manual craftsmanship to complex mechanical design. This guide is intended to help the aspiring investigator interpret these diagrams, bridging the gap between historical record and functional understanding.

Quick Profile: Harris Epstein

Legal Name: Harris (Tzvee) Epstein.
Family Moniker: "Papa Epstein" (as he was affectionately called by his grandchildren).
Primary Locations: New York City; Spring Valley, NY; and Rockaway Beach, NY.
Professional Identity: Prolific patent holder and great-grandfather to author Tzvee Zahavy, who notes that Epstein's drive for exploration is a defining family legacy.

To truly appreciate Epstein’s mechanical contributions, one must first learn to navigate the specific visual language used to archive his genius.

2. The Anatomy of a 20th-Century Patent Drawing

Every archival patent document contains standardized "metadata" located in the header. When examining Epstein’s records, you should first identify the Patent Number (the unique filing ID), the Filing Date (marking the inception of the legal claim), and the Issue/Patented Date. Crucially for historians and genealogists, these headers also include the Inventor’s Residence (e.g., "Rockaway Beach, New York"), which anchors the invention to a specific time and place.

To decode the illustrations themselves, use the following framework:

Technical Element	Purpose for the Learner
"Fig." Labels	These indicate different perspective views. For example, a "Plan View" looks down from above, while an "Elevation" looks from the side.
Reference Numbers/Letters	These digits (e.g., 5, 10, 12) act as a map, linking specific physical components to their functional descriptions in the patent text.
Cross-hatching	These series of parallel diagonal lines signify a "sectional" view, illustrating the internal composition of a part as if it were sliced open.
Dotted/Hidden Lines	These represent structural elements or mechanisms located behind the visible surface, providing a "transparent" look at the machine.

We shall now apply these archival tools to specific examples from the Epstein portfolio.

3. Case Study 1: The Extension Ladder (US Pat. 949529)

Filed on February 10, 1909, this three-page patent demonstrates Epstein’s early focus on structural utility. It addresses the fundamental problem of creating a device that provides significant vertical reach while remaining compact for transport.

The "So What?": 3 Key Mechanical Insights

Locking Braces and Pins: By following the reference numbers in Fig. 1, the learner can identify the specific locking pins and braces that secure the ladder sections. These prevent the telescopic members from collapsing under the weight of a user.
Triangular Base Stability: Fig. 1 clearly illustrates a widened, triangular support base. This design choice ensures that as the ladder extends and the center of gravity rises, the footprint remains broad enough to prevent tipping.
Interlocking Rung Alignment: The diagrams reveal how the rungs of the sliding sections are designed to nest against one another, ensuring that the transition between sections is seamless and structurally sound.

The visual complexity of the first page of drawings is a testament to Epstein's precision. It is important to note that Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 do not show the ladder in different states of extension; rather, Fig. 1 provides a Side Elevation View of the compact unit, while Fig. 2 provides a Plan (Top-Down) View. Together, they allow the investigator to understand the ladder's three-dimensional volume before it ever begins to move.

While the ladder focuses on structural height, Epstein’s later work demonstrates an equally keen interest in the precision control of flow.

4. Case Study 2: The Gas-Controlling Device (US Pat. 968457)

This device, filed on January 11, 1910, showcases Epstein’s ability to manage hazardous industrial fluids through a manual interface. The primary mechanical interest here is the interaction between the user and the internal valve. In Fig. 1, we can see how the external handle 10 is manipulated to rotate the internal stem 6, which in turn adjusts the flow.

Visual Checklist: What to Look For

[ ] Directional Flow Alignment: Rather than using modern arrows, look at Fig. 8 and Fig. 10. The "flow" is determined by the alignment of the internal valve opening with the intake and outtake pipe apertures.
[ ] Pivot Points: Identify the specific pins where the handle connects to the valve body; these are the points where mechanical leverage is applied.
[ ] Internal Valve (Sectional View): In Fig. 4 and the detailed cross-sections on Page 2, find the cross-hatched areas. These show the "plug" or ball mechanism that physically blocks the gas passage.
[ ] Threaded Connections: Observe the fine, parallel lines at the intake and outtake points (labeled in Fig. 1). These indicate standardized threading for integration into larger plumbing systems.

These industrial solutions eventually gave way to a broader "Catalog of Innovation" that touched nearly every aspect of daily life.

5. A Catalog of Innovation: The Epstein Portfolio

The diversity of Harris Epstein’s patents is a reflection of a mind that saw every household object as a candidate for mechanical improvement.

Invention Name	Patent Number	Key Drawing Feature	Primary Benefit
Folding Umbrella	1666692	Hinged ribs and collapsible central shaft	Portability and ease of storage in urban environments.
Extension Ladder	949529	Multi-part telescopic sliding rail system	Adjustable height combined with a stable, compact footprint.
Tooth Brush	1111144	Curved handle with dual, opposing bristle heads	Enhanced reach and hygiene by cleaning two surfaces at once.
Vegetable Grater	1799963	Arch-shaped (arcuate) hopper with hinged members	Increased safety and efficiency in food preparation.
Gas-Controlling Device	968457	Lever-activated internal plug valve (Handle 10/Stem 6)	Precise, manual regulation of hazardous gas flow.
Signaling Apparatus	1060898	Mechanical linkages and visual indicators	Clearer safety communication through mechanical signaling.

This portfolio represents the lifecycle of a "technical curiosity" that refused to be limited to a single industry.

6. Summary: Tools for the Aspiring Patent Investigator

For those beginning their journey into the archives, remember these three critical takeaways for unlocking the meaning of any historical technical drawing:

Follow the Numbers: Treat the reference digits as a map. Trace the connection between a handle (e.g., "10") and the part it moves (e.g., "6") to understand the mechanical logic.
Distinguish the Angles: Always identify the view. A "Side Elevation" (like the Ladder's Fig. 1) shows height and profile, while a "Plan View" (the Ladder's Fig. 2) reveals how much space the object occupies on the ground.
Search for the Section: Look for cross-hatching to find the "internal magic." These views are the only way to understand how valves, gears, and hidden springs actually function.

Historical patent records like those of Harris Epstein serve as a vital bridge between the mechanical ingenuity of the early 1900s and our current "age of the personal computer." By learning to read these diagrams, we do more than study history—we connect with the inventive spirit that laid the groundwork for the technology we use today.

Was Benoît Mandelbrot Jewish?

2026-01-24T09:30:00.000-05:00

Yes, Benoît Mandelbrot was a Jew. The Times obituary says he, "was born on Nov. 20, 1924, to a Lithuanian Jewish family in Warsaw. In 1936 his family fled the Nazis, first to Paris and then to the south of France..." Wikipedia says that in France, "He was helped by Rabbi David Feuerwerker, the Rabbi of Brive-la-Gaillarde, to continue his studies." Mandelbrot is the Yiddish word for almond bread, the Jewish biscotti.

The Times says, "Dr. Mandelbrot coined the term 'fractal' to refer to a new class of mathematical shapes whose uneven contours could mimic the irregularities found in nature." Mandelbrot's discoveries profoundly influenced mathematics and the sciences and numerous disciplines beyond.

In my recently published paper ("In Search Of The Logic Of Judaism: From Talmudic Chaos To Halakhic Linearity") I end with a section called, "Fractal conclusions." That brief discussion leverages Mandelbrot's concepts to illuminate a discipline far afield from anything he worked on:

We have examined above first some common views of scholars concerning the idea of the halakhah in Judaism. We then explained why their methods failed to account for the main philological and historical evidence regarding the term from the Talmudic texts. Then we suggested a heuristic explanation that the logic of the Talmud defies linearity can be productively discussed using chaos theory. Perhaps even more intuitively, we shall conclude that the Talmud may be compared metaphorically to fractals. A fractal image emerges when a single equation is applied to some initial condition and the outcome is a colored point of complex patterns. We have the basic components for making an imaginary fractal out of the texts of rabbinic Judaism: miẓwot, middot, truths, and values, applied in different contexts by various authorities leading to differing colored and complex results (see note below).

We close with some certainty that the chaotic Talmud needs to be better imagined before one can understand the details of the logic of its more linear offshoots, the tomes of halakhic reasoning. Last, we believe that this more rigorous theoretical exploration and more detailed philological textual analysis of our cultural constructs of both Talmudic thought and halakhic reasoning advances our admiration for the great contributions of the past and helps us find the greatest ultimate theoretical meaning of all – to know more intimately the intentions of the one who first brought order out of primeval chaos and utter void.

In a note I explain that my colleague, technology Professor Kevin Dooley endorses an expanded metaphor:

If you look at one of the fractal images, the way it emerges is that a single ‘equation’ is applied to some ‘initial condition,’ and the outcome is recorded as some colored dot. Metaphorically, we have some simple set of rules, truths, commandments, values, being applied in different contexts, leading to different results. So yes, there are some small set of ‘rules’ which hold throughout, which from your discussion appears to be what the ‘LAWS’ were trying to capture. But as these laws are applied in different contexts, different interpretations emerge which are context dependent, which appears to be what the Talmud is about. So it would seem that in a strong metaphorical sense, the Talmud is fractal. (Systems which self-organize often have these fractal characteristics).

/repost from 2010

Talmudic Chaos v. Halakhic Linearity in the Logic of Judaism

2026-01-24T09:29:00.000-05:00

In 2011 I published an article, "In Search Of The Logic Of Judaism: From Talmudic Chaos To Halakhic Linearity," which you can download and read from the link here.

In 2026 I augmented this paper with AI enhancements.

I used mathematical ideas to differentiate the linear organization of the halakhah from non-linear thinking of the Talmud. Our abstract says:

In this paper I examine some common views of scholars concerning the idea of the halakhah in Judaism. I then explain why their methods failed to account for the main philological and historical evidence regarding the term from the Talmudic texts. Then I suggest as a heuristic explanation that the logic of the Talmud defies linearity and can be discussed productively using chaos theory.

The authors in this volume cover varied topics with sophistication and erudition. The publisher's page provides details about the book, as copied below.

Schumann, Andrew, Tzvee Zahavy, Avi Sion, Aviram Ravitsky, Stefan Goltzberg, Judaic Logic

Title:	Judaic Logic
Series:	Judaism in Context 8
Publisher:	Gorgias Press

ISBN:	978-1-61719-194-7
Language:	English
Format:	Hardback, Black, 6 x 9 in

Introduction, Andrew Schumann
In Search of The Logic of Judaism: From Talmudic Chaos To Halakhic Linearity, Tzvee Zahavy
Maimonides’ Use of Logic In The Guide of The Perplexed, Joseph A. Buijs
Structure And Sources of The Hebrew Commentary on Petrus Hispanus's Summulae Logicales By Hezekiah Bar Halafta, Alias Bonenfant De Millau, Mauro Zonta
Aristotelian Logic and Talmudic Methodology: The Commentaries on the 13 Hermeneutic Principles and Their Application of Logic, Aviram Ravitsky
A Fortiori Reasoning In Judaic Logic, Avi Sion
The A Fortiori Argument In The Talmud, Stefan Goltzberg
Sense In Making: Hermeneutical Practices of The Babylonian Talmud Against The Background of Medieval And Contemporary Views, Sergey Dolgopolski
Judaic Syllogistics: The Baba Qama From The Logical Point Of View, Andrew Schumann
Symbolic Computation And Digital Philosophy In Early Ashkenazic Kabbalah, Yoel Matveyev

The Publisher's Description of the book tells us:

Judaism differs considerably from other theistic religions. One of the main features is that Jewish religious laws are not dogmatic but based on specific legal reasoning. This reasoning was developed by the first Judaic commentators of the Bible for inferring Judaic laws from the Pentateuch. The book is about Judaic reasoning from the standpoint of modern logic. Its first goal is to define Judaic logic. This logic was aimed to be a methodology for deducing religious laws. The idea that this methodology can be viewed as original logic that is not less deductive than Aristotle’s logic did not emerge until the Late Middle Ages. At that time Medieval Hebrew works about Judaic reasoning were influenced by Arabo-Islamic philosophy as well as by Latin Scholastic logic. In this volume we discuss different forms of influence of the Aristotelian logic on developing the Talmudic methodology. Then we aim to sketch semantics for the Judaic reasoning, explicating Talmudic case study and Rabbinic situation analysis to develop general approaches to formalizing Judaic logic. This consideration of Judaic logic has relevance for modern logic and analytic philosophy and may be compared with the contribution made by the formalization of Ancient Greek logical systems to 20th-century logic and language philosophy.

Thanksgiving Sermon of Rabbi Zev Zahavy from 1943

2025-11-14T12:20:00.001-05:00

Here is my dad's incredible inspiring and uplifting sermon from 1943 for the holiday of Thanksgiving. It was a dark year in the history of humankind. Yet Rabbi Zahavy found ways to weave together precepts from our classical Jewish tradition to give hope and optimism to those who faced the bewildering frightening world of 1943.

I read this sermon every year and it inspires me more each time. My father was an impresario of the rabbinic pulpit.

Click here for the original text of Rabbi Zev Zahavy's 1943 Thanksgiving Sermon, published by the RCA, Rabbinical Council of America.

From the Manual of Holiday and Occasional Sermons, published in 1943 by the Rabbinical Council of America. This publication contains various sermons for Jewish holidays like Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, and Succoth, as well as other occasions. Specifically, the excerpts detail the full text of a sermon titled “Reasons for Thanksgiving Today” by Rabbi Zev Goldstein, which discusses why American Jews should observe the Thanksgiving holiday, even amid the second World War. The sermon explores themes of gratitude, faith, and hope during a period of global crisis, referencing the importance of thanking G-d for safety, recovery from illness, and freedom from servitude.

Here is a link to the video overview from NotebookLM (2025 - my dad would've liked this).

And here is the link to the notebook itself. Or click below and watch. Expand it to full screen for greatest enjoyment!

A big hat tip to Zechariah for finding this and sending it to us.

This sermon for Thanksgiving Day discusses the following main points:
* **The Importance of Thanksgiving:** The sermon emphasizes the significance of Thanksgiving as a time for reflection and gratitude, especially during challenging times.
* **Reasons for Thanksgiving:** It explores the four reasons for giving thanks mentioned in the Talmud: safe passage across the ocean, completing a journey through the wilderness, recovery from illness, and release from servitude.
* **Challenges to Gratitude:** The sermon acknowledges the difficulties in finding reasons for gratitude in the face of war, suffering, and injustice.
* **The Jewish Perspective on Suffering:** It highlights the Jewish tradition of finding meaning and expressing gratitude even in difficult circumstances, drawing on the example of Rabbi Akiva.
* **Hope and Faith in the Future:** The sermon emphasizes the importance of maintaining hope and faith in the future, even during times of crisis.
* **A Prayer for a Better Future:** It concludes with a prayer for a future characterized by peace, justice, and freedom.
Overall, the sermon encourages listeners to find reasons for gratitude and to maintain hope for a better future, even in the face of adversity.

Deep Dives Podcasts into Jewish Scholarship

2025-11-14T10:28:00.000-05:00

All new - a lively discussion of the book "God's Favorite Prayers" and the research of Tzvee Zahavy and samples of the professor's research. Deep Dives into the distinguished scholarship of Tzvee's esteemed teachers, Rabbi J. B. Soloveitchik, Professor Haym Soloveitchik, Rav Aharon Lichtenstein and Professor Jacob Neusner. With appreciation to the incredible NotebookLM.

Popular Podcast: Rabbi Joseph Baer Soloveitchik's 1932 doctoral dissertation, "Pure Thinking and the Constitution of Being in Hermann Cohen’s Work," critically analyzes the epistemology and metaphysics of the prominent neo-Kantian philosopher Hermann Cohen. The unpublished English translation text includes a foreword by the translator, Tzvee Zahavy, providing biographical context for Soloveitchik's time in Berlin and Cohen's intellectual significance. The dissertation itself, as suggested by Mark Smilowitz's overview, examines Cohen's "scientific idealism," which posits that objects are constituted by thought, particularly mathematical thought. Soloveitchik's work identifies limitations in Cohen's system, particularly in accounting for individual experience, sensation, and consciousness, hinting at Soloveitchik's own developing philosophical positions like epistemological pluralism. The text also features excerpts from Soloveitchik's dissertation chapters, such as those discussing the law-scientific character of thinking, consciousness, and the concept of being and reality within Cohen's framework. Ultimately, the sources offer insight into a significant engagement with neo-Kantian philosophy and the early intellectual development of a major 20th-century Jewish thinker.

Is Caroline Kennedy's Husband Edwin Schlossberg Jewish?

2025-11-14T10:26:00.000-05:00

Yes, Edwin Arthur Schlossberg is a Jew.

All four of Schlossberg's grandparents were Russian (Ukrainian) Jews born near Poltava and arrived in the United States at Ellis Island.

In 1986 Schlossberg married Caroline Kennedy, the daughter of President John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis at Hyannis Port when Caroline was 28 and Ed was 41.

Their afternoon wedding ceremony was held at the Church of Our Lady of Victory in Centerville, Massachusetts and did not include a mass.

How Jewish is Schlossberg? Nate Bloom refers to "American Legacy: The Story of John and Caroline Kennedy" by C. David Heymann as follows:

Heymann writes that Schlossberg was raised in a "devout Orthodox Jewish family" that belonged to a modern Orthodox synagogue in Manhattan. He attended Hebrew School and had a bar mitzvah ceremony.

Bloom adds some of the speculation regarding Schlossberg's current religious practice:

The harshest comment about Edwin Schlossberg and religion came from film producer Susan Pollock. She is a relative of Edwin's and has dined now and again with Edwin and Caroline. Pollack told Heymann that she believed Ed actually converted to Catholicism to marry Caroline and "I know he [Ed] takes Holy Communion which means he would have to convert?..."

UPDATE: See the comment below signed by "Edwin Schlossberg" denying the Bloom account. ["I have never had a conversation with Susan Pollack. I have not converted to Catholicism and have not taken Holy Communion.I am proud to be Jewish and am disappointed that this misinformation has been presented on this site and hope that you will remove it immediately." Edwin Schlossberg -- Posted to The Talmudic Blog at 3/10/2009 1:59 PM].

/classic blog post from 2009 - reposted/

Thanksgiving Turkey Drumstick Jack-O-Lantern Pumpkin Pie Table Song - A Lone Pumpkin Grew

2025-11-13T16:54:00.000-05:00

Thanksgiving is upon us soon and we sing traditional holiday songs at our Thanksgiving dinner.

Here are the words to one of our classic favorites...

Oh a lone pumpkin grew on a green pumpkin vine.

He was round

he was fat

he was yellow.

"No silly jack-o-lantern shall I make," he said.

"I'm determined to become a useful fellow."

So he raised up his head

when the cook came around

and at once he was chosen the winner.

His fondest wish came true

he was proud pumpkin pie

and the glory of the great thanksgiving dinner...

For the glory of the jack is in the lantern

as he sits up on the gatepost oh so high;

and the glory of the turkey is the drumstick

but the glory of the pumpkin is the pie.

Here we are singing the song in 2006:

Here's a YouTube 2009 home video of the song -- we don't know the folks -- it sounds like our familiar melody and we endorse it.

A Happy St. Patrick's Day Recollection: When a Little Boy Met the Jewish Lord Mayor of Dublin Ireland

2025-09-26T15:30:00.003-04:00

One St. Patrick's day, when I was a little boy, I met Bobby Briscoe, the Jewish Lord Mayor of Dublin Ireland, at my father's synagogue in New York City on East 67th Street.

I vividly remember his top hat and the big medal around his neck which swung out at me when he bent down to shake my hand.

It was a grand day for the Jewish and the Irish!

The New York Times wrote up the visit. A wonderful New York story of a previous innocent age.

New York Times. Published: March 17, 1957

BRISCOE ATTENDS PRE-PURIM RITES
Lord Mayor Prays at Altar in Traditional Shawl - Pays Visit to Cardinal
By IRVING SPIEGEL ·

The Lord Mayor of Dublin devoted forty minutes yesterday morning to being plain Robert Briscoe and worshiping in the Orthodox Jewish faith of his ancestors.

He prayed at a Sabbath of Remembrance and pre-Purim service at Congregation Zichron Ephraim, 163 East Sixty-seventh Street. With the prayer shawl he brought with him for the service around his shoulders, he received the Orthodox honor, aliyah - an invitation to the altar.

Then he recited the traditional prayers in Hebrew before and after readings from the Torah. The aliyah was also extended to City Council President Abe Stark and Kings County District Attorney Edward S. Silver, who had of accompanied Mr. Briscoe to the synagogue.

Because of a heavy schedule, Mr. Briscoe and his group did not stay for the entire service. Rabbi Zev Zahavy, spiritual leader of the congregation said that the Lord Mayor's presence at the services was "an inspiration to all Jews in America and throughout the world."

In keeping with the Orthodox custom of not riding on Saturday, the Lord Mayor and his group walked from the Pierre Hotel, where he is staying, to the synagogue. In addition to Mr. Silver and Mr. Stark, Mr. Briscoe was escorted by two detectives of Jewish and Irish extraction, Ely Kerner and John O'Hagan.

Wears Kelly Green Tie

The Lord Mayor wore a cut-away coat, a black topper, a Kelly green tie with a golden harp embroidered in it.

As he strode up Fifth Avenue to attend synagogue services. he passed a group of policemen awaiting their parade assignments and remarked: "Top o' the morning. It's a fine day."

He paused to talk to a group of policewomen. Holding his prayer shawl, he told one young policewoman that, if she saw her commanding officer, "tell him I'm on my way to say my prayers."

Leaving the synagogue, he stopped at Engine Company 39, at 157 East Sixty-seventh Street, and told Lieut Joseph Kennedy, the commander: "No fires today, it's St. Patrick's Day."

Earlier in the morning, he had visited Cardinal Spellman at the Roman Catholic prelate's reidence at 452 Madison Avenue. Mr. Briscoe delivered a personal greeting in behalf of Archbishop John Charles McQuade of Dublin, and gave the Cardinal forty-five sets of Rosary beads, three boxes of chocolates and a glass bowl - all products of Ireland.

Cardinal Spellman told his guest: "There has not been as much excitement here since the Dionne quintuplets." Mr. Briscoe remarked that he was going to attend synagogue services.

"Be sure to leave all those Rosary beads here," the Cardinal replied with a laugh.

Mr. Briscoe laughed. "That's very good, very good," he said.

He returned to the Pierre, but not before being hailed by storekeepers, taxicab drivers and pedestrians. There was a brief rest and then he set out for the synagogue. Mr. Briscoe had originally intended to attend services at Congregation Rodeph Sholom on West Eighty-third Street but decided against it because of the long walk.

He returned to the hotel at noon for a brief visit with James A. Farley, chairman of the parade, and out again - this time for the St. Patrick's Day Parade with a ringing declaration of: "What a beautiful day!"

And fast forward to 2025 - my son and two grandsons are lifting a pint to celebrate the family ties in Dublin - visiting to cheer on the Minnesota Vikings football team!

[Repost]

Is Jimmy Kimmel Jewish?

2025-09-21T14:34:00.001-04:00

No, comedian Jimmy Kimmel is not a Jew. He is a Catholic. Wikipedia explains, "He is Roman Catholic and, as a child, served as an altar boy. Kimmel is of German and Irish descent on his father’s side and Italian descent on his mother’s side."

Kimmel was a smash hit host of the 2017 Oscars show.

Kimmel performed 4-28-2012 at the White House Correspondents' dinner where he poked fun at Washington politicians.

Kimmel had a relationship with the Jewish comedian Sarah Silverman that started in 2002. Wikipedia reports:

She referred to the relationship in some of her comedy, "I'm Jewish, but I wear this Saint Christopher medal sometimes; my boyfriend is Catholic — but you know... it was cute the way he gave it to me. He said if it doesn't burn a hole through my skin, it will protect me." In July 2008, Vanity Fair reported that the couple had split, ending their relationship of five years. However, in October 2008 it was revealed by Fox News and People magazine that they were on "the road back to being together." The couple attended the wedding of Howard Stern and Beth Ostrosky together, but split again in March 2009.

Talmudic Books for Kindle on the Talmud, Bible, Kabbalah and Prayer
The Kindle Edition of the Classic Soncino Talmud in English

Tzvee.com

[Repost from 2017]

Transgender Kids, Covert Convert Bat Mitzvah and Vintage Necktie Aliyah Quandary - Dear Rabbi Zahavy - Your Jewish Standard Talmudic Advice for July 2017 (A classic oldie but goodie column!)

2025-04-27T14:53:00.000-04:00

Dear Rabbi Zahavy Your Jewish Standard Talmudic Advice Column

Dear Rabbi Zahavy,

I recently asked my friend how her young grade-school kids — a boy and girl — were doing. She replied that they are fine, and they have new names. The boy now has a girl’s name and the girl has a boy’s name. I asked why? She matter-of-factly replied that they both are transgender.

I was dumbfounded to hear this. I said nothing to her. Should I ask her more about this? Should I discuss this with a responsible authority?

Worried About Trans Kids

Dear Worried,

Yes, you have every right to ask the parent for more details, and to seek out, with sensitivity, more information on this topic from friends or experts or from your own counselors. The mother makes no secret of the facts. She is open and proud of her children and their gender identities.

Gender dysphoria is a seriously hot topic this year in social and political discussions, and in the media (2017). You will find many experts and pundits out there willing to share advice and counsel on the subject.

Complex gender anomalies are as old as human culture. The Torah sets forth strict lines of demarcation in this area, banning what it considers to be divergent behavior such as cross-dressing and homosexuality. The Talmud dealt with gender ambiguities when it addressed the status of the Tumtum, whose physical genitalia were indistinct, and the Androgyne, who possessed genital traits of both male and female. Today’s discussions of gender identity delve more into the inner states and statuses of someone’s personality.

We all do understand that sexual preferences and gender identity are personal to each one of us, across a rainbow spectrum of options. And to many of us, the motives and drives in our own gender preferences and sexual appetites are mysteries when we are young and first discovering them, and for some of us they can remain confusing and evolve throughout life.

Gender proclivities may be evident in young children. We conventionally presume that sexuality and sexual preferences emerge later, during puberty. The revolutions in psychology in the twentieth century helped remove our inhibitions about the public discussion of sexuality and more lately of gender identification.

Yet, even in our frank and open age it’s odd to us to hear that a parent publicly announces that her younger children are transgender.

Since 2014, Amazon has broadcast the Emmy award-winning series “Transparent,” about a parent who comes out to his family as transgender. Because it had so much Jewish content, I’ve watched a bunch of episodes. For sure, though, that does not make me any kind of expert in the area.

Yes, to put your own mind at ease, you ought to discuss this situation with people who have greater expertise in this area, so you can better understand your friend’s choices as she navigates through the biological and societal challenges posed by her children’s transitions.

People on the whole spectrum of gender identity existed throughout history, but lived often in the shadows, in denial and in emotional stress. We should be happy to live in an era where this no longer has to be the case.

Dear Rabbi Zahavy,

My neighbor’s daughter is having a bat mitzvah soon. I heard from her friends that she is going to have an added enhancement for the occasion. She will go to the mikvah and accept the commandments. That seemed odd to me. When I asked her mother, she told me confidentially that her daughter was adopted as an infant from a non-Jewish family. As is the practice, a beit din court accepted Judaism on her behalf at the time. Her parents never have told her that she was adopted. And now the family’s rabbi asked about the circumstances of the child’s conversion. When told that the court had a woman rabbi as a judge, he ruled that she must be reconverted in the mikvah with a new court of three men present.

First, I am startled that the parents have not told the child that she is adopted. And second, I am upset to hear that a rabbi demands a redo of the conversion.

Should I express my concerns to the parents or to the rabbi?

Concerned About a Covert Child Conversion in Closter

Dear Concerned,

I am still shaking my head in disbelief. First, I cannot approve of, or even imagine, not telling your child that she is adopted at an appropriate early age.

And beyond that I cannot sanction or envision a rabbinic charade that supports requiring a new conversion and promotes keeping the child in the dark on this significant personal fact of life.

Why would parents hide this information? Are they fearful that an adopted and converted child will be treated differently in our community? Are they worried that a child who knows she is adopted will not love her parents?

No matter what the motives, I cannot condone this parent–rabbi conspiracy to hide these realities. Moreover, it’s customary to have a child who was converted as an infant reaffirm her Jewishness when she reaches adulthood. If she does not know the facts, how can that confirmation take effect?

Yes. The critical particulars will come out in public at some point in this family’s future.

No. It’s not your job to be the catalyst for that to happen. However, you certainly should feel free to express your reservations and opinions discreetly to the parents or to the rabbi.

Dear Rabbi Zahavy,

I read in the Jewish Standard two weeks back that you published your fiftieth Talmudic advice column. I am a huge fan. I wonder if you have one column that you consider your favorite?

Talmudic Admirer in Tenafly

Dear Admirer,

Thanks for asking and for your kind words. I choose as the favorite my column about neckties in shul, published in June 2013, because it was so down-to-earth in looking at an issue that displayed a friction between an individual and an institution, and it generated a good deal of discussion and controversy in our town. I’m reproducing it below.

Dear Rabbi Zahavy,

I am sad for my good friend, a respected community leader and a member of a local Orthodox synagogue for many years, who does not like to wear a tie. His synagogue follows an idiosyncratic rule that no matter how nicely dressed he may be, a man who does not wear a tie cannot receive an aliyah to the Torah on a Shabbat or a holiday. So my friend has not received an aliyah to the Torah on any of those days for many years, even on the special occasions of his parents’ yahrzeits. It hurts me to see him suffer this arbitrary form of petty ostracism and humiliation. What should I do?

Fit To Be Tied in Teaneck (June 2013)

Dear Fit,

Common sense would dictate that you and your friend not go to places where you feel uncomfortable, even if it is a mere trifling practice that creates a sense of annoyance and intimidation for you. You know that an Orthodox synagogue must follow the many laws and customs that govern who should receive an aliyah. For example, a kohein receives the first aliyah, and a Levite gets the second. A man who has a yahrzeit often gets precedence, and so does the father of a newborn child and a groom before his wedding. Major donors to a synagogue get some preferential treatment, as do important rabbis. I’ve noticed also that the gabbai who allocates aliyot gets his fair share of them too. And a woman is not called to the Torah at all.

You may know that some non-Orthodox Jews find the exclusion of women from this process of public honors to be troubling or even offensive. Orthodox spokesmen point out that women receive due respect and honor in their community, just not by receiving aliyot.

Forty years ago, when I asked Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik about the possibility of women receiving aliyot in an Orthodox minyan, he quipped to me, “When women write the checks, then they will receive the aliyahs.” The Rav dodged my inquiry. I understood his reply to be a clever observation or a social comment, but not any halachic guidance.

Now, the synagogue that you describe in your question definitely created for itself a heightened odd character when it adopted an additional “tie rule” to further govern its members’ roles and aliyah rights. Even if its eccentric practice is an approved requirement of synagogue committees, officers, and boards, it still fits the category of a socially undesirable “because-we-say-so” intimidation.

That said, you and your friend may be able to ignore and rise above this nonsense if you keep in mind that Moses, King Solomon, Jeremiah, Rabbi Akiva, Maimonides, the Vilna Gaon, and many other great non-tie-wearing-Jews would not be offered a Torah honor if they somehow, via time and space travel, showed up in your suburban shul.

The Dear Rabbi Zahavy column offers mindful advice based on Talmudic wisdom. It aspires to be equally open and meaningful to all the varieties and denominations of Judaism. You can find it here on the first Friday of the month. Please mail your questions to the Jewish Standard or email them to zahavy@gmail.com.

Life Advice from a Long-time Swimmer: Swim 100 laps every day

2024-07-18T19:03:00.000-04:00

The Tosefta quotes Rabbi Meir (2nd century CE Talmudic scholar) saying that everyone should strive to recite 100 blessings each day. It then goes on to enumerate them - mostly in daily prayers.

Let's play with the word for blessings. They are berakhot ברכות in ancient Hebrew. Okay then. In modern Hebrew the laps that one swims in a pool are called berechot בריכות. A blessing is a berachah and a pool - and a lap in a pool - is a berechah.

I playfully read the ancient Talmud this way: Don't say 100 berakhot (blessings), say 100 berechot (laps).

Footnote about Meir from Wikipedia: Meir was buried in a standing position near the Kinneret. It is said that he asked to be buried this way so when the Final Redemption occurs, Rabbi Meir would be spared the trouble of arising from his grave and could just walk out to greet the Jewish Messiah. He requested that he be buried in Israel by the seashore so that the water that washes the shores should also lap his grave (Jerusalem Talmud, Kelaim 9:4).

And so I have crafted some Talmudic encouragement for myself to swim 100 laps a day. On many days each year, I do get to that goal.

Here are a few of my past reflections on swimming...

Some time ago, JTA reported that "Liberal men take the plunge into ritual immersion, slowly" -- Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist Jewish men were going to mikvah pools and finding it meaningful. Sue Fishkoff wondered why and so did I.

She ended her article with a quote from mikvah user and attorney Merrill Hassenfeld, “We’re always doing things for others, why don’t we set aside time to go to the mikvah?” he asked. “It prepares us to go out into the world and start yelling and screaming again.” (Has a greater non-sequiteur ever been uttered?)

Now, my confession. I am a pool addict. I am a lap swimmer.

Starting in 1982 my aim was to try to swim a mile - 64 laps every day. Finding the time. Finding a pool. Finding the energy. Not easy. Since 2013 I raised the lap level to 100 a day - a mile and a half. About 400 miles a year.

When I come out of my pool, I find that I feel healthier, more centered and completely relaxed. Swimming a mile in around 30 minutes is hard, aerobic work. That is what I have to invest to get results from my "mikvah" experience. I'm happy to observe that others can achieve their own "incredible" positive benefits from splashing around in a state of heightened imagination.

I have sought out pools to swim my laps all over the world. My most favorite pool was the old Gordon Pool on Tel Aviv beach near the Sheraton, pictured below from a few years ago (c. 2007).

It was one of the wonders of the world. Each night they emptied the entire 50 meter pool, cleaned it and refilled it from underground saltwater wells 120 meters below. The pool opened at 5 AM at 24 degrees, which was just fine for us lap swimmers.

Suddenly, the Gordon pool was leveled in 2008 without warning by the city of Tel Aviv. Happily, they rebuilt and reopened it as a more modern facility. I swam there in 2011. It's wonderful.

I admit that 100 laps is an arbitrary goal. But for me, most days, it's exhilarating!

2023 update: Sorry Rabbi Meir - most days I now swim 80 laps - 2000 yards. My aim now is for a good pace and an efficient stroke. I try to keep my workout to under 1000 strokes and under 40 minutes.

Is it a blessing to continue swimming daily? Yes, it is like 100 blessings!

[reposted with enhancements each year from 5/20/09]

Yahrzeit of my mother Edith Zahavy

2024-07-10T10:28:00.001-04:00

We are observing today the 24th Yahrzeit of my mother Edith Zahavy (aleha hashalom).

We miss her so very much. She would have loved to see the progress of her children and grandchildren and great-grandchildren, and take pride in all of their accomplishments. She would have loved to read books to her great-grandchildren and to watch them play and grow.

She was born in NYC and attended the public schools in Washington Heights. She watched from her classroom window as they built the George Washington Bridge.

She graduated from Hunter High School, Hunter College and went on to a career in public service at the OPA and then into the field education.

Together with my dad, she founded the Park East Day School when my father was rabbi at the Park East Synagogue, then called Congregation Zichron Ephraim. She subsequently taught in NYC public schools for many years.

She is interred on Har Hamenuchot in Jerusalem. Her beautiful memorial photo site is here.

Understanding the Extensive Connections Between Religions and Terrorism?

2024-04-14T10:18:00.000-04:00

In light of the awful terrorist attacks that have been launched once again in Israel I thought it urgent to repost this item.

What are the connections between religions and terrorism?

That's a big question. I tried to answer, explain and understand it in the past through my extensive scholarly research and my academic teaching.

Here is a selected list of my blog posts of study resources in the analysis of the connections between terrorism and religion (compiled when I taught a course on religion and terrorism at FDU a few years ago). Click on each one to read it.

I have studied this subject at great length and taught courses in the area because I believe that understanding can help us resolve tragic conflicts.

I also believe in the power of prayer to help us bring peace to the world.

I recommend to you all of my books: My Home Page

Best Seller: Elegant new 750 page edition of "The Zohar in English"

2024-03-02T12:47:00.000-05:00

Often the Best Seller #1 in Zohar

The Zohar in English Paperback!

by Tzvee Zahavy (Author), Maurice Simon (Translator), Harry Sperling (Translator), Paul P. Levertoff (Translator), & 1 more

The Zohar is called the greatest work of Jewish Mysticism. From the Middle Ages to today people of all faiths have studied and pored over the Zohar to explore the mysteries of God and the universe and to seek knowledge of when the redemption of the world will arrive.

The Zohar is a mystical novel whose hero is Rabbi Simeon son of Yohai, a rabbi and disciple of Rabbi Akiva from second century Israel. The original Aramaic work describes how Rabbi Simeon and his companions wander through the hills of Galilee, discovering and sharing mystical secrets of the Torah.

This large format 750 page edition presents the entire work in one volume in eloquent English as translated by several great scholars of the 20th century.

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Amazon Best Seller

The United Nations Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine on 29 November 1947. Created a Palestinian State. Arabs rejected it.

2023-11-28T18:32:00.003-05:00

UNITED
NATIONS

	General Assembly
		A/RES/181(II) 29 November 1947

Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine

A

The General Assembly,

Having met in special session at the request of the mandatory Power to constitute and instruct a special committee to prepare for the consideration of the question of the future government of Palestine at the second regular session;

Having constituted a Special Committee and instructed it to investigate all questions and issues relevant to the problem of Palestine, and to prepare proposals for the solution of the problem, and

Having received and examined the report of the Special Committee (document A/364) ¹^/ including a number of unanimous recommendations and a plan of partition with economic union approved by the majority of the Special Committee,

Considers that the present situation in Palestine is one which is likely to impair the general welfare and friendly relations among nations;

Takes note of the declaration by the mandatory Power that it plans to complete its evacuation of Palestine by 1 August 1948;

Recommends to the United Kingdom, as the mandatory Power for Palestine, and to all other Members of the United Nations the adoption and implementation, with regard to the future government of Palestine, of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union set out below;

Requests that

(a) The Security Council take the necessary measures as provided for in the plan for its implementation;

(b) The Security Council consider, if circumstances during the transitional period require such consideration, whether the situation in Palestine constitutes a threat to the peace. If it decides that such a threat exists, and in order to maintain international peace and security, the Security Council should supplement the authorization of the General Assembly by taking measures, under Articles 39 and 41 of the Charter, to empower the United Nations Commission, as provided in this resolution, to exercise in Palestine the functions which are assigned to it by this resolution;

(c) The Security Council determine as a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression, in accordance with Article 39 of the Charter, any attempt to alter by force the settlement envisaged by this resolution;

(d) The Trusteeship Council be informed of the responsibilities envisaged for it in this plan;

Calls upon the inhabitants of Palestine to take such steps as may be necessary on their part to put this plan into effect;

Appeals to all Governments and all peoples to refrain from taking action which might hamper or delay the carrying out of these recommendations, and

Authorizes the Secretary-General to reimburse travel and subsistence expenses of the members of the Commission referred to in Part I, Section B, paragraph 1 below, on such basis and in such form as he may determine most appropriate in the circumstances, and to provide the Commission with the necessary staff to assist in carrying out the functions assigned to the Commission by the General Assembly.

B ²^/

The General Assembly

Authorizes the Secretary-General to draw from the Working Capital Fund a sum not to exceed $2,000,000 for the purposes set forth in the last paragraph of the resolution on the future government of Palestine.

Hundred and twenty-eighth plenary meeting
29 November 1947

[At its hundred and twenty-eighth plenary meeting on 29 November 1947 the General Assembly, in accordance with the terms of the above resolution [181 A], elected the following members of the United Nations Commission on Palestine: Bolivia, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Panama and Philippines.]

PLAN OF PARTITION WITH ECONOMIC UNION

PART I

Future constitution and government of Palestine

A. TERMINATION OF MANDATE, PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE

1. The Mandate for Palestine shall terminate as soon as possible but in any case not later than 1 August 1948.

2. The armed forces of the mandatory Power shall be progressively withdrawn from Palestine, the withdrawal to be completed as soon as possible but in any case not later than 1 August 1948.

The mandatory Power shall advise the Commission, as far in advance as possible, of its intention to terminate the Mandate and to evacuate each area.

The mandatory Power shall use its best endeavours to ensure than an area situated in the territory of the Jewish State, including a seaport and hinterland adequate to provide facilities for a substantial immigration, shall be evacuated at the earliest possible date and in any event not later than 1 February 1948.

3. Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem, set forth in part III of this plan, shall come into existence in Palestine two months after the evacuation of the armed forces of the mandatory Power has been completed but in any case not later than 1 October 1948. The boundaries of the Arab State, the Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem shall be as described in parts II and III below.

4. The period between the adoption by the General Assembly of its recommendation on the question of Palestine and the establishment of the independence of the Arab and Jewish States shall be a transitional period.

B. STEPS PREPARATORY TO INDEPENDENCE

1. A Commission shall be set up consisting of one representative of each of five Member States. The Members represented on the Commission shall be elected by the General Assembly on as broad a basis, geographically and otherwise, as possible.

2. The administration of Palestine shall, as the mandatory Power withdraws its armed forces, be progressively turned over to the Commission; which shall act in conformity with the recommendations of the General Assembly, under the guidance of the Security Council. The mandatory Power shall to the fullest possible extent co-ordinate its plans for withdrawal with the plans of the Commission to take over and administer areas which have been evacuated.

In the discharge of this administrative responsibility the Commission shall have authority to issue necessary regulations and take other measures as required.

The mandatory Power shall not take any action to prevent, obstruct or delay the implementation by the Commission of the measures recommended by the General Assembly.

3. On its arrival in Palestine the Commission shall proceed to carry out measures for the establishment of the frontiers of the Arab and Jewish States and the City of Jerusalem in accordance with the general lines of the recommendations of the General Assembly on the partition of Palestine. Nevertheless, the boundaries as described in part II of this plan are to be modified in such a way that village areas as a rule will not be divided by state boundaries unless pressing reasons make that necessary.

4. The Commission, after consultation with the democratic parties and other public organizations of The Arab and Jewish States, shall select and establish in each State as rapidly as possible a Provisional Council of Government. The activities of both the Arab and Jewish Provisional Councils of Government shall be carried out under the general direction of the Commission.

If by 1 April 1948 a Provisional Council of Government cannot be selected for either of the States, or, if selected, cannot carry out its functions, the Commission shall communicate that fact to the Security Council for such action with respect to that State as the Security Council may deem proper, and to the Secretary-General for communication to the Members of the United Nations.

5. Subject to the provisions of these recommendations, during the transitional period the Provisional Councils of Government, acting under the Commission, shall have full authority in the areas under their control, including authority over matters of immigration and land regulation.

6. The Provisional Council of Government of each State acting under the Commission, shall progressively receive from the Commission full responsibility for the administration of that State in the period between the termination of the Mandate and the establishment of the State's independence.

7. The Commission shall instruct the Provisional Councils of Government of both the Arab and Jewish States, after their formation, to proceed to the establishment of administrative organs of government, central and local.

8. The Provisional Council of Government of each State shall, within the shortest time possible, recruit an armed militia from the residents of that State, sufficient in number to maintain internal order and to prevent frontier clashes.

This armed militia in each State shall, for operational purposes, be under the command of Jewish or Arab officers resident in that State, but general political and military control, including the choice of the militia's High Command, shall be exercised by the Commission.

9. The Provisional Council of Government of each State shall, not later than two months after the withdrawal of the armed forces of the mandatory Power, hold elections to the Constituent Assembly which shall be conducted on democratic lines.

The election regulations in each State shall be drawn up by the Provisional Council of Government and approved by the Commission. Qualified voters for each State for this election shall be persons over eighteen years of age who are: (a) Palestinian citizens residing in that State and (b) Arabs and Jews residing in the State, although not Palestinian citizens, who, before voting, have signed a notice of intention to become citizens of such State.

Arabs and Jews residing in the City of Jerusalem who have signed a notice of intention to become citizens, the Arabs of the Arab State and the Jews of the Jewish State, shall be entitled to vote in the Arab and Jewish States respectively.

Women may vote and be elected to the Constituent Assemblies.

During the transitional period no Jew shall be permitted to establish residence in the area of the proposed Arab State, and no Arab shall be permitted to establish residence in the area of the proposed Jewish State, except by special leave of the Commission.

10. The Constituent Assembly of each State shall draft a democratic constitution for its State and choose a provisional government to succeed the Provisional Council of Government appointed by the Commission. The constitutions of the States shall embody chapters 1 and 2 of the Declaration provided for in section C below and include inter alia provisions for:

(a) Establishing in each State a legislative body elected by universal suffrage and by secret ballot on the basis of proportional representation, and an executive body responsible to the legislature;

(b) Settling all international disputes in which the State may be involved by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered;

(c) Accepting the obligation of the State to refrain in its international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity of political independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations;

(d) Guaranteeing to all persons equal and non-discriminatory rights in civil, political, economic and religious matters and the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of religion, language, speech and publication, education, assembly and association;

(e) Preserving freedom of transit and visit for all residents and citizens of the other State in Palestine and the City of Jerusalem, subject to considerations of national security, provided that each State shall control residence within its borders.

11. The Commission shall appoint a preparatory economic commission of three members to make whatever arrangements are possible for economic co-operation, with a view to establishing, as soon as practicable, the Economic Union and the Joint Economic Board, as provided in section D below.

12. During the period between the adoption of the recommendations on the question of Palestine by the General Assembly and the termination of the Mandate, the mandatory Power in Palestine shall maintain full responsibility for administration in areas from which it has not withdrawn its armed forces. The Commission shall assist the mandatory Power in the carrying out of these functions. Similarly the mandatory Power shall co-operate with the Commission in the execution of its functions.

13. With a view to ensuring that there shall be continuity in the functioning of administrative services and that, on the withdrawal of the armed forces of the mandatory Power, the whole administration shall be in the charge of the Provisional Councils and the Joint Economic Board, respectively, acting under the Commission, there shall be a progressive transfer, from the mandatory Power to the Commission, of responsibility for all the functions of government, including that of maintaining law and order in the areas from which the forces of the mandatory Power have been withdrawn.

14. The Commission shall be guided in its activities by the recommendations of the General Assembly and by such instructions as the Security Council may consider necessary to issue.

The measures taken by the Commission, within the recommendations of the General Assembly, shall become immediately effective unless the Commission has previously received contrary instructions from the Security Council.

The Commission shall render periodic monthly progress reports, or more frequently if desirable, to the Security Council.

15. The Commission shall make its final report to the next regular session of the General Assembly and to the Security Council simultaneously.

C. DECLARATION

A declaration shall be made to the United Nations by the provisional government of each proposed State before independence. It shall contain inter alia the following clauses:

General Provision

The stipulations contained in the declaration are recognized as fundamental laws of the State and no law, regulation or official action shall conflict or interfere with these stipulations, nor shall any law, regulation or official action prevail over them.

Chapter 1
Holy Places, religious buildings and sites

1. Existing rights in respect of Holy Places and religious buildings or sites shall not be denied or impaired.

2. In so far as Holy Places are concerned, the liberty of access, visit and transit shall be guaranteed, in conformity with existing rights, to all residents and citizens of the other State and of the City of Jerusalem, as well as to aliens, without distinction as to nationality, subject to requirements of national security, public order and decorum.

Similarly, freedom of worship shall be guaranteed in conformity with existing rights, subject to the maintenance of public order and decorum.

3. Holy Places and religious buildings or sites shall be preserved. No act shall be permitted which may in any way impair their sacred character. If at any time it appears to the Government that any particular Holy Place, religious building or site is in need of urgent repair, the Government may call upon the community or communities concerned to carry out such repair. The Government may carry it out itself at the expense of the community or communities concerned if no action is taken within a reasonable time.

4. No taxation shall be levied in respect of any Holy Place, religious building or site which was exempt from taxation on the date of the creation of the State.

No change in the incidence of such taxation shall be made which would either discriminate between the owners or occupiers of Holy Places, religious buildings or sites, or would place such owners or occupiers in a position less favourable in relation to the general incidence of taxation than existed at the time of the adoption of the Assembly's recommendations.

5. The Governor of the City of Jerusalem shall have the right to determine whether the provisions of the Constitution of the State in relation to Holy Places, religious buildings and sites within the borders of the State and the religious rights appertaining thereto, are being properly applied and respected, and to make decisions on the basis of existing rights in cases of disputes which may arise between the different religious communities or the rites of a religious community with respect to such places, buildings and sites. He shall receive full co-operation and such privileges and immunities as are necessary for the exercise of his functions in the State.

Chapter 2
Religious and Minority Rights

1. Freedom of conscience and the free exercise of all forms of worship, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, shall be ensured to all.

2. No discrimination of any kind shall be made between the inhabitants on the ground of race, religion, language or sex.

3. All persons within the jurisdiction of the State shall be entitled to equal protection of the laws.

4. The family law and personal status of the various minorities and their religious interests, including endowments, shall be respected.

5. Except as may be required for the maintenance of public order and good government, no measure shall be taken to obstruct or interfere with the enterprise of religious or charitable bodies of all faiths or to discriminate against any representative or member of these bodies on the ground of his religion or nationality.

6. The State shall ensure adequate primary and secondary education for the Arab and Jewish minority, respectively, in its own language and its cultural traditions.

The right of each community to maintain its own schools for the education of its own members in its own language, while conforming to such educational requirements of a general nature as the State may impose, shall not be denied or impaired. Foreign educational establishments shall continue their activity on the basis of their existing rights.

7. No restriction shall be imposed on the free use by any citizen of the State of any language in private intercourse, in commerce, in religion, in the Press or in publications of any kind, or at public meetings.³^/

8. No expropriation of land owned by an Arab in the Jewish State (by a Jew in the Arab State)⁴^/ shall be allowed except for public purposes. In all cases of expropriation full compensation as fixed by the Supreme Court shall be paid previous to dispossession.

Chapter 3
Citizenship, international conventions and financial obligations

1. Citizenship. Palestinian citizens residing in Palestine outside the City of Jerusalem, as well as Arabs and Jews who, not holding Palestinian citizenship, reside in Palestine outside the City of Jerusalem shall, upon the recognition of independence, become citizens of the State in which they are resident and enjoy full civil and political rights. Persons over the age of eighteen years may opt, within one year from the date of recognition of independence of the State in which they reside, for citizenship of the other State, providing that no Arab residing in the area of the proposed Arab State shall have the right to opt for citizenship in the proposed Jewish State and no Jew residing in the proposed Jewish State shall have the right to opt for citizenship in the proposed Arab State. The exercise of this right of option will be taken to include the wives and children under eighteen years of age of persons so opting.

Arabs residing in the area of the proposed Jewish State and Jews residing in the area of the proposed Arab State who have signed a notice of intention to opt for citizenship of the other State shall be eligible to vote in the elections to the Constituent Assembly of that State, but not in the elections to the Constituent Assembly of the State in which they reside.

2. International conventions. (a) The State shall be bound by all the international agreements and conventions, both general and special, to which Palestine has become a party. Subject to any right of denunciation provided for therein, such agreements and conventions shall be respected by the State throughout the period for which they were concluded.

(b) Any dispute about the applicability and continued validity of international conventions or treaties signed or adhered to by the mandatory Power on behalf of Palestine shall be referred to the International Court of Justice in accordance with the provisions of the Statute of the Court.

3. Financial obligations. (a) The State shall respect and fulfil all financial obligations of whatever nature assumed on behalf of Palestine by the mandatory Power during the exercise of the Mandate and recognized by the State. This provision includes the right of public servants to pensions, compensation or gratuities.

(b) These obligations shall be fulfilled through participation in the Joint economic Board in respect of those obligations applicable to Palestine as a whole, and individually in respect of those applicable to, and fairly apportionable between, the States.

(c) A Court of Claims, affiliated with the Joint Economic Board, and composed of one member appointed by the United Nations, one representative of the United Kingdom and one representative of the State concerned, should be established. Any dispute between the United Kingdom and the State respecting claims not recognized by the latter should be referred to that Court.

(d) Commercial concessions granted in respect of any part of Palestine prior to the adoption of the resolution by the General Assembly shall continue to be valid according to their terms, unless modified by agreement between the concession-holder and the State.

Chapter 4
Miscellaneous provisions

1. The provisions of chapters 1 and 2 of the declaration shall be under the guarantee of the United Nations, and no modifications shall be made in them without the assent of the General Assembly of the United nations. Any Member of the United Nations shall have the right to bring to the attention of the General Assembly any infraction or danger of infraction of any of these stipulations, and the General Assembly may thereupon make such recommendations as it may deem proper in the circumstances.

2. Any dispute relating to the application or the interpretation of this declaration shall be referred, at the request of either party, to the International Court of Justice, unless the parties agree to another mode of settlement.

D. ECONOMIC UNION AND TRANSIT

1. The Provisional Council of Government of each State shall enter into an undertaking with respect to economic union and transit. This undertaking shall be drafted by the commission provided for in section B, paragraph 1, utilizing to the greatest possible extent the advice and co-operation of representative organizations and bodies from each of the proposed States. It shall contain provisions to establish the Economic Union of Palestine and provide for other matters of common interest. If by 1 April 1948 the Provisional Councils of Government have not entered into the undertaking, the undertaking shall be put into force by the Commission.

The Economic Union of Palestine

2. The objectives of the Economic Union of Palestine shall be:

(a) A customs union;

(b) A joint currency system providing for a single foreign exchange rate;

(c) Operation in the common interest on a non-discriminatory basis of railways; inter-State highways; postal, telephone and telegraphic services, and port and airports involved in international trade and commerce;

(d) Joint economic development, especially in respect of irrigation, land reclamation and soil conservation;

(e) Access for both States and for the City of Jerusalem on a non-discriminatory basis to water and power facilities.

3. There shall be established a Joint Economic Board, which shall consist of three representatives of each of the two States and three foreign members appointed by the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations. The foreign members shall be appointed in the first instance for a term of three years; they shall serve as individuals and not as representatives of States.

4. The functions of the Joint Economic Board shall be to implement either directly or by delegation the measures necessary to realize the objectives of the Economic Union. It shall have all powers of organization and administration necessary to fulfil its functions.

5. The States shall bind themselves to put into effect the decisions of the Joint Economic Board. The Board's decisions shall be taken by a majority vote.

6. In the event of failure of a State to take the necessary action the Board may, by a vote of six members, decide to withhold an appropriate portion of that part of the customs revenue to which the State in question is entitled under the Economic Union. Should the State persist in its failure to co-operate, the Board may decide by a simple majority vote upon such further sanctions, including disposition of funds which it has withheld, as it may deem appropriate.

7. In relation to economic development, the functions of the Board shall be the planning, investigation and encouragement of joint development projects, but it shall not undertake such projects except with the assent of both States and the City of Jerusalem, in the event that Jerusalem is directly involved in the development project.

8. In regard to the joint currency system the currencies circulating in the two States and the City of Jerusalem shall be issued under the authority of the Joint Economic Board, which shall be the sole issuing authority and which shall determine the reserves to be held against such currencies.

9. So far as is consistent with paragraph 2 (b) above, each State may operate its own central bank, control its own fiscal and credit policy, its foreign exchange receipts and expenditures, the grant of import licenses, and may conduct international financial operations on its own faith and credit. During the first two years after the termination of the Mandate, the Joint Economic Board shall have the authority to take such measures as may be necessary to ensure that--to the extent that the total foreign exchange revenues of the two States from the export of goods and services permit, and provided that each State takes appropriate measures to conserve its own foreign exchange resources--each State shall have available, in any twelve months' period, foreign exchange sufficient to assure the supply of quantities of imported goods and services for consumption in its territory equivalent to the quantities of such goods and services consumed in that territory in the twelve months' period ending 31 December 1947.

10. All economic authority not specifically vested in the Joint Economic Board is reserved to each State.

11. There shall be a common customs tariff with complete freedom of trade between the States, and between the States and the City of Jerusalem.

12. The tariff schedules shall be drawn up by a Tariff Commission, consisting of representatives of each of the States in equal numbers, and shall be submitted to the Joint Economic Board for approval by a majority vote. In case of disagreement in the Tariff Commission, the Joint Economic Board shall arbitrate the points of difference. In the event that the Tariff Commission fails to draw up any schedule by a date to be fixed, the Joint Economic Board shall determine the tariff schedule.

13. The following items shall be a first charge on the customs and other common revenue of the Joint Economic Board:

(a) The expenses of the customs service and of the operation of the joint services;

(b) The administrative expenses of the Joint Economic Board;

(c) The financial obligations of the Administration of Palestine consisting of:

(i) The service of the outstanding public debt;

(ii) The cost of superannuation benefits, now being paid or falling due in the future, in accordance with the rules and to the extent established by paragraph 3 of chapter 3 above.

14. After these obligations have been met in full, the surplus revenue from the customs and other common services shall be divided in the following manner: not less than 5 per cent and not more than 10 per cent to the City of Jerusalem; the residue shall be allocated to each State by the Joint Economic Board equitably, with the objective of maintaining a sufficient and suitable level of government and social services in each State, except that the share of either State shall not exceed the amount of that State's contribution to the revenues of the Economic Union by more than approximately four million pounds in any year. The amount granted may be adjusted by the Board according to the price level in relation to the prices prevailing at the time of the establishment of the Union. After five years, the principles of the distribution of the joint revenues may be revised by the Joint Economic Board on a basis of equity.

15. All international conventions and treaties affecting customs tariff rates, and those communications services under the jurisdiction of the Joint Economic Board, shall be entered into by both States. In these matters, the two States shall be bound to act in accordance with the majority vote of the Joint Economic Board.

16. The Joint Economic Board shall endeavour to secure for Palestine's export fair and equal access to world markets.

17. All enterprises operated by the Joint Economic Board shall pay fair wages on a uniform basis.

Freedom of transit and visit

18. The undertaking shall contain provisions preserving freedom of transit and visit for all residents or citizens of both States and of the City of Jerusalem, subject to security considerations; provided that each state and the City shall control residence within its borders.

Termination, modification and interpretation of the undertaking

19. The undertaking and any treaty issuing therefrom shall remain in force for a period of ten years. It shall continue in force until notice of termination, to take effect two years thereafter, is given by either of the parties.

20. During the initial ten-year period, the undertaking and any treaty issuing therefrom may not be modified except by consent of both parties and with the approval of the General Assembly.

21. Any dispute relating to the application or the interpretation of the undertaking and any treaty issuing therefrom shall be referred, at the request of either party, to the international Court of Justice, unless the parties agree to another mode of settlement.

E. ASSETS

1. The movable assets of the Administration of Palestine shall be allocated to the Arab and Jewish States and the City of Jerusalem on an equitable basis. Allocations should be made by the United Nations Commission referred to in section B, paragraph 1, above. Immovable assets shall become the property of the government of the territory in which they are situated.

2. During the period between the appointment of the United Nations Commission and the termination of the Mandate, the mandatory Power shall, except in respect of ordinary operations, consult with the Commission on any measure which it may contemplate involving the liquidation, disposal or encumbering of the assets of the Palestine Government, such as the accumulated treasury surplus, the proceeds of Government bond issues, State lands or any other asset.

F. ADMISSION TO MEMBERSHIP IN THE UNITED NATIONS

When the independence of either the Arab or the Jewish State as envisaged in this plan has become effective and the declaration and undertaking, as envisaged in this plan, have been signed by either of them, sympathetic consideration should be given to its application for admission to membership in the United Nations in accordance with Article 4 of the Charter of the United Nations.

PART II

Boundaries ⁵^/
A. THE ARAB STATE

The area of the Arab State in Western Galilee is bounded on the west by the Mediterranean and on the north by the frontier of the Lebanon from Ras en Naqura to a point north of Saliha. From there the boundary proceeds southwards, leaving the built-up area of Saliha in the Arab State, to join the southernmost point of this village. Thence it follows the western boundary line of the villages of `Alma, Rihaniya and Teitaba, thence following the northern boundary line of Meirun village to join the Acre-Safad sub-district boundary line. It follows this line to a point west of Es Sammu'i village and joins it again at the northernmost point of Farradiya. Thence it follows the sub-district boundary line to the Acre-Safad main road. From here it follows the western boundary of Kafr I'nan village until it reaches the Tiberias-Acre sub-district boundary line, passing to the west of the junction of the Acre-Safad and Lubiya-Kafr I'nan roads. From south-west corner of Kafr I'nan village the boundary line follows the western boundary of the Tiberias sub-district to a point close to the boundary line between the villages of Maghar and Eilabun, thence bulging out to the west to include as much of the eastern part of the plain of Battuf as is necessary for the reservoir proposed by the Jewish Agency for the irrigation of lands to the south and east.

The boundary rejoins the Tiberias sub-district boundary at a point on the Nazareth-Tiberias road south-east of the built-up area of Tur'an; thence it runs southwards, at first following the sub-district boundary and then passing between the Kadoorie Agricultural School and Mount Tabor, to a point due south at the base of Mount Tabor. From here it runs due west, parallel to the horizontal grid line 230, to the north-east corner of the village lands of Tel Adashim. It then runs to the north-west corner of these lands, whence it turns south and west so as to include in the Arab State the sources of the Nazareth water supply in Yafa village. On reaching Ginneiger it follows the eastern, northern and western boundaries of the lands of this village to their south-west corner, whence it proceeds in a straight line to a point on the Haifa-Afula railway on the boundary between the villages of Sarid and El Mujeidil. This is the point of intersection.

The south-western boundary of the area of the Arab State in Galilee takes a line from this point, passing northwards along the eastern boundaries of Sarid and Gevat to the north-eastern corner of Nahalal, proceeding thence across the land of Kefar ha Horesh to a central point on the southern boundary of the village of `Ilut, thence westwards along that village boundary to the eastern boundary of Beit Lahm, thence northwards and north-eastwards along its western boundary to the north-eastern corner of Waldheim and thence north-westwards across the village lands of Shafa 'Amr to the south-eastern corner of Ramat Yohanan'. From here it runs due north-north-east to a point on the Shafa 'Amr-Haifa road, west of its junction with the road to I'Billin. From there it proceeds north-east to a point on the southern boundary of I'Billin situated to the west of the I'Billin-Birwa road. Thence along that boundary to its westernmost point, whence it turns to the north, follows across the village land of Tamra to the north-westernmost corner and along the western boundary of Julis until it reaches the Acre-Safad road. It then runs westwards along the southern side of the Safad-Acre road to the Galilee-Haifa District boundary, from which point it follows that boundary to the sea.

The boundary of the hill country of Samaria and Judea starts on the Jordan River at the Wadi Malih south-east of Beisan and runs due west to meet the Beisan-Jericho road and then follows the western side of that road in a north-westerly direction to the junction of the boundaries of the sub-districts of Beisan, Nablus, and Jenin. From that point it follows the Nablus-Jenin sub-district boundary westwards for a distance of about three kilometres and then turns north-westwards, passing to the east of the built-up areas of the villages of Jalbun and Faqqu'a, to the boundary of the sub-districts of Jenin and Beisan at a point north-east of Nuris. Thence it proceeds first north-westwards to a point due north of the built-up area of Zir'in and then westwards to the Afula-Jenin railway, thence north-westwards along the district boundary line to the point of intersection on the Hejaz railway. From here the boundary runs south-westwards, including the built-up area and some of the land of the village of Kh.Lid in the Arab State to cross the Haifa-Jenin road at a point on the district boundary between Haifa and Samaria west of El Mansi. It follows this boundary to the southernmost point of the village of El Buteimat. From here it follows the northern and eastern boundaries of the village of Ar'ara, rejoining the Haifa-Samaria district boundary at Wadi'Ara, and thence proceeding south-south-westwards in an approximately straight line joining up with the western boundary of Qaqun to a point east of the railway line on the eastern boundary of Qaqun village. From here it runs along the railway line some distance to the east of it to a point just east of the Tulkarm railway station. Thence the boundary follows a line half-way between the railway and the Tulkarm-Qalqiliya-Jaljuliya and Ras el Ein road to a point just east of Ras el Ein station, whence it proceeds along the railway some distance to the east of it to the point on the railway line south of the junction of the Haifa-Lydda and Beit Nabala lines, whence it proceeds along the southern border of Lydda airport to its south-west corner, thence in a south-westerly direction to a point just west of the built-up area of Sarafand el'Amar, whence it turns south, passing just to the west of the built-up area of Abu el Fadil to the north-east corner of the lands of Beer Ya'Aqov. (The boundary line should be so demarcated as to allow direct access from the Arab State to the airport.) Thence the boundary line follows the western and southern boundaries of Ramle village, to the north-east corner of El Na'ana village, thence in a straight line to the southernmost point of El Barriya, along the eastern boundary of that village and the southern boundary of 'Innaba village. Thence it turns north to follow the southern side of the Jaffa-Jerusalem road until El Qubab, whence it follows the road to the boundary of Abu Shusha. It runs along the eastern boundaries of Abu Shusha, Seidun, Hulda to the southernmost point of Hulda, thence westwards in a straight line to the north-eastern corner of Umm Kalkha, thence following the northern boundaries of Umm Kalkha, Qazaza and the northern and western boundaries of Mukhezin to the Gaza District boundary and thence runs across the village lands of El Mismiya, El Kabira, and Yasur to the southern point of intersection, which is midway between the built-up areas of Yasur and Batani Sharqi.

From the southern point of intersection the boundary lines run north-westwards between the villages of Gan Yavne and Barqa to the sea at a point half way between Nabi Yunis and Minat el Qila, and south-eastwards to a point west of Qastina, whence it turns in a south-westerly direction, passing to the east of the built-up areas of Es Sawafir, Es Sharqiya and Ibdis. From the south-east corner of Ibdis village it runs to a point south-west of the built-up area of Beit 'Affa, crossing the Hebron-El Majdal road just to the west of the built-up area of Iraq Suweidan. Thence it proceeds southwards along the western village boundary of El Faluja to the Beersheba sub-district boundary. It then runs across the tribal lands of 'Arab el Jubarat to a point on the boundary between the sub-districts of Beersheba and Hebron north of Kh. Khuweilifa, whence it proceeds in a south-westerly direction to a point on the Beersheba-Gaza main road two kilometres to the north-west of the town. It then turns south-eastwards to reach Wadi Sab' at a point situated one kilometre to the west of it. From here it turns north-eastwards and proceeds along Wadi Sab' and along the Beersheba-Hebron road for a distance of one kilometre, whence it turns eastwards and runs in a straight line to Kh. Kuseifa to join the Beersheba-Hebron sub-district boundary. It then follows the Beersheba-Hebron boundary eastwards to a point north of Ras Ez Zuweira, only departing from it so as to cut across the base of the indentation between vertical grid lines 150 and 160.

About five kilometres north-east of Ras ez Zuweira it turns north, excluding from the Arab State a strip along the coast of the Dead Sea not more than seven kilometres in depth, as far as Ein Geddi, whence it turns due east to join the Transjordan frontier in the Dead Sea.

The northern boundary of the Arab section of the coastal plain runs from a point between Minat el Qila and Nabi Yunis, passing between the built-up areas of Gan Yavne and Barqa to the point of intersection. From here it turns south-westwards, running across the lands of Batani Sharqi, along the eastern boundary of the lands of Beit Daras and across the lands of Julis, leaving the built-up areas of Batani Sharqi and Julis to the westwards, as far as the north-west corner of the lands of Beit Tima. Thence it runs east of El Jiya across the village lands of El Barbara along the eastern boundaries of the villages of Beit Jirja, Deir Suneid and Dimra. From the south-east corner of Dimra the boundary passes across the lands of Beit Hanun, leaving the Jewish lands of Nir-Am to the eastwards. From the south-east corner of Dimra the boundary passes across the lands of Beit Hanun, leaving the Jewish lands of Nir-Am to the eastwards. From the south-east corner of Beit Hanun the line runs south-west to a point south of the parallel grid line 100, then turns north-west for two kilometres, turning again in a south-westerly direction and continuing in an almost straight line to the north-west corner of the village lands of Kirbet Ikhza'a. From there it follows the boundary line of this village to its southernmost point. It then runs in a southernly direction along the vertical grid line 90 to its junction with the horizontal grid line 70. It then turns south-eastwards to Kh. el Ruheiba and then proceeds in a southerly direction to a point known as El Baha, beyond which it crosses the Beersheba-El 'Auja main road to the west of Kh. el Mushrifa. From there it joins Wadi El Zaiyatin just to the west of El Subeita. From there it turns to the north-east and then to the south-east following this Wadi and passes to the east of 'Abda to join Wadi Nafkh. It then bulges to the south-west along Wadi Nafkh. It then bulges to the south-west along Wadi Nafkh, Wadi Ajrim and Wadi Lassan to the point where Wadi Lassan crosses the Egyptian frontier.

The area of the Arab enclave of Jaffa consists of that part of the town-planning area of Jaffa which lies to the west of the Jewish quarters lying south of Tel-Aviv, to the west of the continuation of Herzl street up to its junction with the Jaffa-Jerusalem road, to the south-west of the section of the Jaffa-Jerusalem road lying south-east of that junction, to the west of Miqve Israel lands, to the north-west of Holon local council area, to the north of the line linking up the north-west corner of Holon with the north-east corner of Bat Yam local council area and to the north of Bat Yam local council area. The question of Karton quarter will be decided by the Boundary Commission, bearing in mind among other considerations the desirability of including the smallest possible number of its Arab inhabitants and the largest possible number of its Jewish inhabitants in the Jewish State.

B. THE JEWISH STATE

The north-eastern sector of the Jewish State (Eastern) Galilee) is bounded on the north and west by the Lebanese frontier and on the east by the frontiers of Syria and Transjordan. It includes the whole of the Hula Basin, Lake Tiberias, the whole of the Beisan sub-district, the boundary line being extended to the crest of the Gilboa mountains and the Wadi Malih. From there the Jewish State extends north-west, following the boundary described in respect of the Arab State.

The Jewish Section of the coastal plain extends from a point between Minat et Qila and Nabi Yunis in the Gaza sub-district and includes the towns of Haifa and Tel-Aviv, leaving Jaffa as an enclave of the Arab State. The eastern frontier of the Jewish State follows the boundary described in respect of the Arab State.

The Beersheba area comprises the whole of the Beersheba sub-district, including the Negeb and the eastern part of the Gaza sub-district, but excluding the town of Beersheba and those areas described in respect of the Arab State. It includes also a strip of land along the Dead Sea stretching from the Beersheba-Hebron sub-district boundary line to Ein Geddi, as described in respect of the Arab State.

C. THE CITY OF JERUSALEM

The boundaries of the City of Jerusalem are as defined in the recommendations on the City of Jerusalem. (See Part III, Section B, below).

PART III

City of Jerusalem
A. SPECIAL REGIME

The City of Jerusalem shall be established as a corpus separatum under a special international regime and shall be administered by the United Nations. The Trusteeship Council shall be designated to discharge the responsibilities of the Administering Authority on behalf of the United Nations.

B. BOUNDARIES OF THE CITY

The City of Jerusalem shall include the present municipality of Jerusalem plus the surrounding villages and towns, the most eastern of which shall be Abu Dis; the most southern, Bethlehem; the most western, Ein Karim (including also the built-up area of Motsa); and the most northern Shu'fat, as indicated on the attached sketch-map (annex B).

C. STATUTE OF THE CITY

The Trusteeship Council shall, within five months of the approval of the present plan, elaborate and approve a detailed Statute of the City which shall contain inter alia the substance of the following provisions:

1. Government machinery; special objectives. The Administering Authority in discharging its administrative obligations shall pursue the following special objectives:

(a) To protect and to preserve the unique spiritual and religious interests located in the city of the three great monotheistic faiths throughout the world, Christian, Jewish and Moslem; to this end to ensure that order and peace, and especially religious peace, reign in Jerusalem;

(b) To foster co-operation among all the inhabitants of the city in their own interests as well as in order to encourage and support the peaceful development of the mutual relations between the two Palestinian peoples throughout the Holy Land; to promote the security, well-being and any constructive measures of development of the residents, having regard to the special circumstances and customs of the various peoples and communities.

2. Governor and administrative staff. A Governor of the City of Jerusalem shall be appointed by the Trusteeship Council and shall be responsible to it. He shall be selected on the basis of special qualifications and without regard to nationality. He shall not, however, be a citizen of either State in Palestine.

The Governor shall represent the United Nations in the City and shall exercise on their behalf all powers of administration, including the conduct of external affairs. He shall be assisted by an administrative staff classed as international officers in the meaning of Article 100 of the Charter and chosen whenever practicable from the residents of the city and of the rest of Palestine on a non-discriminatory basis. A detailed plan for the organization of the administration of the city shall be submitted by the Governor to the Trusteeship Council and duly approved by it.

3. Local autonomy. (a) The existing local autonomous units in the territory of the city (villages, townships and municipalities) shall enjoy wide powers of local government and administration.

(b) The Governor shall study and submit for the consideration and decision of the Trusteeship Council a plan for the establishment of a special town units consisting respectively, of the Jewish and Arab sections of new Jerusalem. The new town units shall continue to form part of the present municipality of Jerusalem.

4. Security measures. (a) The City of Jerusalem shall be demilitarized; its neutrality shall be declared and preserved, and no para-military formations, exercises or activities shall be permitted within its borders.

(b) Should the administration of the City of Jerusalem be seriously obstructed or prevented by the non-co-operation or interference of one or more sections of the population, the Governor shall have authority to take such measures as may be necessary to restore the effective functioning of the administration.

(c) To assist in the maintenance of internal law and order and especially for the protection of the Holy Places and religious buildings and sites in the city, the Governor shall organize a special police force of adequate strength, the members of which shall be recruited outside of Palestine. The Governor shall be empowered to direct such budgetary provision as may be necessary for the maintenance of this force.

5. Legislative organization. A Legislative Council, elected by adult residents of the city irrespective of nationality on the basis of universal and secret suffrage and proportional representation, shall have powers of legislation and taxation. No legislative measures shall, however, conflict or interfere with the provisions which will be set forth in the Statute of the City, nor shall any law, regulation, or official action prevail over them. The Statute shall grant to the Governor a right of vetoing bills inconsistent with the provisions referred to in the preceding sentence. It shall also empower him to promulgate temporary ordinances in case the council fails to adopt in time a bill deemed essential to the normal functioning of the administration.

6. Administration of justice. The Statute shall provide for the establishment of an independent judiciary system, including a court of appeal. All the inhabitants of the City shall be subject to it.

7. Economic union and economic regime. The City of Jerusalem shall be included in the Economic Union of Palestine and be bound by all stipulations of the undertaking and of any treaties issued therefrom, as well as by the decision of the Joint Economic Board. The headquarters of the Economic Board shall be established in the territory of the City.

The Statute shall provide for the regulation of economic matters not falling within the regime of the Economic Union, on the basis of equal treatment and non-discrimination for all members of the United Nations and their nationals.

8. Freedom of transit and visit; control of residents. Subject to considerations of security, and of economic welfare as determined by the Governor under the directions of the Trusteeship Council, freedom of entry into, and residence within, the borders of the City shall be guaranteed for the residents or citizens of the Arab and Jewish States. Immigration into, and residence within, the borders of the city for nationals of other States shall be controlled by the Governor under the directions of the Trusteeship Council.

9. Relations with the Arab and Jewish States. Representatives of the Arab and Jewish States shall be accredited to the Governor of the City and charged with the protection of the interests of their States and nationals in connexion with the international administration of the City.

10. Official languages. Arabic and Hebrew shall be the official languages of the city. This will not preclude the adoption of one or more additional working languages, as may be required.

11. Citizenship. All the residents shall become ipso facto citizens of the City of Jerusalem unless they opt for citizenship of the State of which they have been citizens or, if Arabs or Jews, have filed notice of intention to become citizens of the Arab or Jewish State respectively, according to part I, section B, paragraph 9, of this plan.

The Trusteeship Council shall make arrangements for consular protection of the citizens of the City outside its territory.

12. Freedoms of Citizens. (a) Subject only to the requirements of public order and morals, the inhabitants of the City shall be ensured the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of conscience, religion and worship, language, education, speech and press, assembly and association, and petition.

(b) No discrimination of any kind shall be made between the inhabitants on the grounds of race, religion, language or sex.

(c) All persons within the City shall be entitled to equal protection of the laws.

(d) The family law and personal status of the various persons and communities and their religious interests, including endowments, shall be respected.

(e) Except as may be required for the maintenance of public order and good government, no measure shall be taken to obstruct or interfere with the enterprise of religious or charitable bodies of all faiths or to discriminate against any representative or member of these bodies on the ground of his religion or nationality.

(f) The City shall ensure adequate primary and secondary education for the Arab and Jewish communities respectively, in their own languages and in accordance with their cultural traditions.

The right of each community to maintain its own schools for the education of its own members in its own language, while conforming to such educational requirements of a general nature as the City may impose, shall not be denied or impaired. Foreign educational establishments shall continue their activity on the basis of their existing rights.

(g) No restriction shall be imposed on the free use by any inhabitant of the City of any language in private intercourse, in commerce, in religion, in the Press or in publications of any kind, or at public meetings.

13. Holy Places. (a) Existing rights in respect of Holy Places and religious buildings or sites shall not be denied or impaired.

(b) Free access to the Holy Places and religious buildings or sites and the free exercise of worship shall be secured in conformity with existing rights and subject to the requirements of public order and decorum.

(c) Holy Places and religious buildings or sites shall be preserved. No act shall be permitted which may in any way impair their sacred character. If at any time it appears to the Governor that any particular Holy Place, religious building or site is in need of urgent repair, the Governor may call upon the community or communities concerned to carry out such repair. The Governor may carry it out himself at the expense of the community or communities concerned if no action is taken within a reasonable time.

(d) No taxation shall be levied in respect of any Holy Place, religious building or site which was exempt from taxation on the date of the creation of the City. No change in the incidence of such taxation shall be made which would either discriminate between the owners or occupiers of Holy Places, religious buildings or sites, or would place such owners or occupiers in a position less favourable in relation to the general incidence of taxation than existed at the time of the adoption of the Assembly's recommendations.

14. Special powers of the Governor in respect of the Holy Places, religious buildings and sites in the City and in any part of Palestine. (a) The protection of the Holy Places, religious buildings and sites located in the City of Jerusalem shall be a special concern of the Governor.

(b) With relation to such places, buildings and sites in Palestine outside the city, the Governor shall determine, on the ground of powers granted to him by the Constitutions of both States, whether the provisions of the Constitutions of the Arab and Jewish States in Palestine dealing therewith and the religious rights appertaining thereto are being properly applied and respected.

(c) The Governor shall also be empowered to make decisions on the basis of existing rights in cases of disputes which may arise between the different religious communities or the rites of a religious community in respect of the Holy Places, religious buildings and sites in any part of Palestine.

In this task he may be assisted by a consultative council of representatives of different denominations acting in an advisory capacity.

D. DURATION OF THE SPECIAL REGIME

The Statute elaborated by the Trusteeship Council on the aforementioned principles shall come into force not later than 1 October 1948. It shall remain in force in the first instance for a period of ten years, unless the Trusteeship Council finds it necessary to undertake a re-examination of these provisions at an earlier date. After the expiration of this period the whole scheme shall be subject to re-examination by the Trusteeship Council in the light of the experience acquired with its functioning. The residents of the City shall be then free to express by means of a referendum their wishes as to possible modifications of the regime of the City.

PART IV
CAPITULATIONS

States whose nationals have in the past enjoyed in Palestine the privileges and immunities of foreigners, including the benefits of consular jurisdiction and protection, as formerly enjoyed by capitulation or usage in the Ottoman Empire, are invited to renounce any right pertaining to them to the re-establishment of such privileges and immunities in the proposed Arab and Jewish States and the City of Jerusalem.

* * *
Notes

1/ See Official Records of the second session of the General Assembly, Supplement No. 11, Volumes I-IV.

2/ This resolution was adopted without reference to a Committee.

3/ The following stipulation shall be added to the declaration concerning the Jewish State: "In the Jewish State adequate facilities shall be given to Arab-speaking citizens for the use of their language, either orally or in writing, in the legislature, before the Courts and in the administration."

4/ In the declaration concerning the Arab State, the words "by an Arab in the Jewish State" should be replaced by the words "by a Jew in the Arab State".

5/ The boundary lines described in part II are indicated in Annex A. The base map used in marking and describing this boundary is "Palestine 1:250000" published by the Survey of Palestine, 1946.

Annex A

Plan of Partition with Economic Union

Annex B

City of Jerusalem
Boundaries Proposed By The Ad Hoc Committee On The Palestinian Question

My Jewish Standard Dear Rabbi Zahavy Column for October 2016: Binging at Weddings and Not Believing in Sin

2023-09-15T13:46:00.000-04:00

My Jewish Standard Dear Rabbi Zahavy Column for October 2016:
Binging at Weddings and Not Believing in Sin

Dear Rabbi Zahavy,

I went to a big Orthodox Jewish family wedding recently in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. The music was so loud that some of my relatives, who had expected it, brought along earplugs. There was so much food at the smorgasbord and the main meal that the next day I weighed myself and saw I had gained more than three pounds in one night.

I’m tempted to turn down invitations to future frum family simchas just to keep my hearing intact and my waistline under control. Is that a reasonable course of action?

Binging in Bergenfield

Dear Binging,

Sure you can skip family weddings to preserve your health and well-being, and you should do that if you have no other solution. But some of your kin seem to have found modalities that allow them to participate and preserve their hearing. Surely ear plugs are an option for you too. Why not avail yourself of them?

And regarding the food, you know that you do not have to eat all of it! One possible alternative is to attend the smorg and the chuppah and gracefully decline the elaborate dinner that follows. Who needs to drive home at midnight from Brooklyn anyway? Of course, doing that you will miss the chance to bond and share at greater length with your family. But with such loud bands, how much schmoozing could you do with the relatives anyway?

You are challenged with the fact that some Jewish weddings are overly loud and can be exercises in excess eating. If you do go to one, use as much self-restraint and wisdom as you can.

Dear Rabbi Zahavy,

This time of year, around the High Holidays, I have some troubling religion questions. First one, I don’t believe in the religious idea of sin. I guess that makes me a heretic. And I saw that recently that a theologian gave a seminar at a local synagogue on the topic of whether a heretic is eligible at all to repent.

Second, I ask myself at this time of year, Why do we so overemphasize these 10 days between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur? Why do we not continually work on repenting all year long?

Sinful in Secaucus

Dear Sinful,

Sin exists, of that I am sure. The Hebrew word for sin is chet, which implies missing the target. Actions are sins if they are not hitting the norm, not adhering to the highest level of behavior, as judged by one’s peers, community, society or religion.

When you say, you don’t believe in religious sin, I surmise that means you do not accept the narrative that there is a God, the heavenly accountant, who keeps records in a big book (or perhaps if it were written today, the narrative would refer to a giant data storehouse in the cloud), the all-in-one policeman, judge, and jury, who tracks each person’s actions and metes out rewards and punishments accordingly.

The moving High Holiday Unetaneh Tokef prayer assures us that such accounting is the case. That liturgy assures us that fasting, repentance, prayer, and charity all facilitate the mitigation of the punishment for the sins that are tracked.

But you don’t believe that story and you think that makes you an apikores, a heretic who denies the reality of sin. And therefore, you cannot repent.

And indeed, the medieval philosopher Maimonides makes clear his view that we cannot ever accept the repentance of a heretic (Mishneh Torah, Laws of Idolatry 2:5).

Surely you could argue against that standpoint. Who better would we want to return to the fold than the outright rejecter? But it seems that the tough line prevailed in the medieval view. Like a spurned lover, the rabbi says to the heretic, once you walk out that door, you are not welcome ever to come back in!

Now I expect that you are a serious and thoughtful person who wishes to return to a better circumstance, to improve yourself morally and ethically. And as such, you can and should “repent of sin” in the conceptual framework that makes sense to you.

Let me give you an alternative repentance narrative that may fit your personality and beliefs better than the classical one that we sing and chant in the synagogue.

In the 10 days from the New Year to Yom Kippur you could take some extra time to consider how to get your life on a better track. Over the course of the year, everyone gets diverted or even derailed in one way or another from the direction that they set as optimal for themselves.

We fall short of personal goals. We mess up our interpersonal relationships. We may violate societal expectations. We may break laws. We may do terrible rotten things that we regret in retrospect and wonder what in the world motivated our missing the mark?

We often end up beating ourselves up for being bad, or lazy, or mean or thoughtless. And then there we are. In a place we don’t want to be, feeling lousy about our lives.

What to do? How to go forward? In the secular scenario, the path is not so mysterious. You need to have compassion for yourself. You need to forgive yourself of your shortcomings — to free yourself from all your bad vows of the past. And you need to chart a course going forward to get back to a better, safer, calmer place.

And let me tell you, all that is easy to say, and yet it is utterly hard to do. To accomplish that you likely will need help. Perhaps talking with good friends, family members, or a professional; a talented therapist can assist you along this road.

But many of us do turn to religion to seek support in this process. The whole dramatic arc of repentance in the Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur liturgy unfolds in two acts. In act one we meet the Lord, King of the Universe, the creator of heavens and Earth. He is no stranger to us having forged a relationship with us through several covenants. And we have proven our faithfulness, passing many tests along the way from the testing of Abraham and onward.

The Lord revealed to us his Torah, the template for a proper life. And here we are, unable to rise to the requirements of the revealed law, falling short of our assigned tasks and goals. Curtain falls — end of Act One.

Act Two opens at Kol Nidre with us, the subjects, standing in dejection and sin, wanting a way out of our sad situation. Before we address the Lord, we seek legal redress, we ask that our vows be released, that our bad habits be nullified. And throughout the Day of Atonement we ask repeatedly for our Lord’s compassion, mercy, forgiveness and pardon.

And at the end of a long day, and a lengthy 10-day period of seeking God’s compassion, we blow the shofar and we are sure that our sins are forgiven.

In the classical liturgical telling we rely on our belief that our great Lord will grant us forgiveness, release us from our past mistakes, and clean our slates to start over.

I hope you can value how the religious modality affords a strong means of assisting a way out of “sin” by calling on a higher power to help us, to forgive us.

The secular story arc puts the burden more on you to find the way forward to absolve yourself of bad actions. It seems simpler at first, but may end up being more complex to achieve.

And finally yes, I agree that self-betterment not be confined to one annual intensive 10-day period. Constant activity over the year to forgive yourself and fix what is broken in your life makes perfect sense to me. Go for it.

Tzvee Zahavy of Teaneck received his Ph.D. from Brown University and his rabbinic ordination from Yeshiva University. He is the author of many books about Judaism, including “Jewish Magic,” a new Kindle eBook on Amazon, and he also has published “The Book of Jewish Prayers in English,” “God’s Favorite Prayers,” and “Talmudic Advice from Dear Rabbi,” which includes his past columns from the Jewish Standard and other essays.

The Dear Rabbi Zahavy column offers mindful advice based on Talmudic wisdom. It aspires to be equally open and meaningful to all of the varieties and denominations of Judaism. You can find it here on the first Friday of the month. Please mail your questions to the Jewish Standard or email them to zahavy@gmail.com

My Puffin Foundation Lecture on Religion and Terrorism

2023-09-10T22:04:00.001-04:00

2023 update: I will never forget it. It changed our world. 9/11 is a terrible day for us all. Every year. I saw the second plane hit while I was driving in to work from the hill across the river. I saw the towers fall a short time later from my office window in Jersey City. Just know well that the terrorists acted in the name of Islam. Do not ever minimize or forget this. See the last five pages of my PPT for salient details: MAKING AN ACT OF TERROR INTO A SACRED COSMIC RITUAL. Awful horrible unforgivable.

My lecture presentation link is here:

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1KrlfOTUK4hLW21pwiMcBdAOxG_8SDEuW

My numerous blog posts about terrorism and religion are linked here.

Rabbi Dr. Zev Zahavy - Yahrzeit Number 11

2023-05-01T11:00:00.002-04:00

Photos

Rabbi Dr. Zev Zahavy

New York City

September 8, 1918 - May 1, 2012

Nine Minute ZZ Slideshow
edited by Barak Zahavy
200+ ZZ Sermons cited in the New York Times - Download PDF

edited by Tzvee Zahavy

The Mishnah in a new and affordable English Edition

2023-01-07T22:22:00.001-05:00

A new English translation of Mishnah edited by Robert Goldenberg (OBM), Shaye Cohen, and Hayim Lapin has been published for a hard to justify or afford price of $645. 

In the Introduction two of the editors heap high praise on Rev. Herbert Danby's classic translation, which I edited and released and is now available in a beautiful new edition for $29. Here is what the other editors say about Danby.
--------------------------
The Rev. Herbert Danby 
================
[From page 8] "In 1933, the Clarendon Press of Oxford University published The Mishnah Translated from the Hebrew with Introduction and Brief Explanatory Notes, by Herbert Danby, a volume of some 900 pages. It is a mark of the quality of Danby's work that it remains in print almost ninety years later. Our translation is completely independent of his, but we are aware that we are walking in his footsteps. For the Hebrew-less reader, unaccustomed to Mishnaic rhetoric and technical terminology, Danby's translation, [is] excellent in itself...

"Danby was a master translator, but the modern reader demands more from a translation than Danby provides. The goal of our Mishnah translation is to equal Danby's in quality and to surpass it in utility. In tribute to Herbert Danby, a philo-Semitic Christian Hebraist, we have retained almost unchanged his index of biblical passages and his table of weights, measures, and currency. We would have liked to retain his subject index, but we reluctantly came to the conclusion that it is too closely keyed to Danby's own translation and notes for it to be usable in a new setting. 

"For biographical information about the Rev. Danby and an appreciation of his work, see the excellent article by Shalom Goldman in the journal Modern Judaism ("The Rev. Herbert Danby (1889-1953): Hebrew Scholar, Zionist, Christian Missionary," Modern Judaism-A Journal of Jewish Ideas and Experience, 27:2 (May 2007), pp. 219-245)."

From Goldman's article - we garner these insights:

"Danby’s most useful and widely-used contribution to the study of Jewish texts was his Mishnah translation. This translation quickly became a standard text in the English-speaking world and it remains in print seventy years after its publication. When, in 1988, Yale University Press published a new translation of the Mishnah, its editor, Jacob Neusner, made it clear that ‘‘publishing this fresh translation of the Mishnah constitutes no criticism of the great and pioneering translation by Herbert Danby. His translation has one fundamental flaw . . .He does not make the effort to translate the Hebrew into English words following the syntax of Mishnaic Hebrew . . . that is what the present translation, into American English, provides.’’ While Neusner’s translation takes us closer to the syntactical structure of the Hebrew of the Mishnah, Danby’s translation renders that text more immediately accessible and for that reason it remains the translation of record."

-------------------------
My reaction is that it's good to see nice words about a classic Mishnah English Translation by Danby. But mystifying and a bit disappointing that the editors of the $645 edition have nothing to say in their introduction about numerous other recent and brilliant translations of Mishnah into English by for instance - Rabbi Steinsalz, or the edition by Artscroll (Schottenstein Edition of the Mishnah Elucidated - Complete 23 Volume Set), or the academic work edited by Jacob Neusner (which I contributed to), or the set by Pinhas Kehati, or editions rendering Mishnah into English by dozens of other scholars and rabbis.
--------------------------
I recommend you go immediately and get the new edition from Amazon for $36. It is a gorgeous book.

Post-Pandemic Kohelet: An Israelite Form of Meditation: Ecclesiastes is a cynical reflection on life’s futility that we can resonate to now more than ever.

2022-10-14T10:54:00.000-04:00

I think you will like this article published on TheTorah.com! Kohelet: An Israelite Form of Meditation. Ecclesiastes is a cynical reflection on life’s futility. The constant sonorous repetition, visualizations, and references to breath serve as a sustained meditation to help free the reader’s soul from the agonizing struggle of life.

Electricity on Shabbat? My Dear Rabbi Zahavy Jewish Standard Column for March 2020

2022-10-09T09:34:00.000-04:00

Electricity on Shabbat? My Dear Rabbi Zahavy Jewish Standard Column for March 2020

Dear Rabbi Zahavy,

Members of my community of Orthodox Jews who are shomer Shabbos refrain from turning on and off all electrical devices to observe their Shabbat rest. So, on Friday nights and Saturdays our practice is not to use, for instance, our phones or TVs or computers. And we don’t turn on or off lights or fans or heaters.

Lately, I’ve become lax in keeping these rules, especially regarding my use of my smart phone, my computer and my Alexa Amazon Echo devices. I feel that using these devices enhances my rest and my leisure. And I have found that avoiding them makes me uneasy, not relaxed or restful.

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I don’t publicly advertise my actions. But it’s increasingly evident to me that my family knows what I am doing and that they quietly disapprove.

I am worried and need your advice. Am I sinning by my behavior? I feel strongly that what I am doing is not a violation of any rules and likely will continue my uses. But what can I do regarding my actions if this all blows up and causes social friction in my family and community?

Electrified in Englewood

Dear Electrified,

Establishing sacred time is a powerful part of all religions. The notion that we Jews spend one day a week in a special world of restful restrictions starting on sundown on Friday is an amazing claim to make. And at the same time, it is hard for the community to enforce the Sabbath taboos.

On the one hand you should recall that to keep people aware of the seriousness of the Sabbath, the biblical punishment for violating the Sabbath was announced as stoning to death. That gives you an idea of how earnestly keeping the Sabbath was treated within traditional Judaism. For Orthodox Jews, being shomer Shabbos is at the essential core of being a good Jew.

But on the other hand, you should not agonize overly much about this. You are not going to get stoned or electrocuted for your behavior by anyone these days. Should you become known as a lax observer, at most you may find yourself subject to quiet disapproval and perhaps some social ostracism from the tribe by those who are adamant that what you are doing is forbidden.

And you should know that these Shabbat electricity taboos are complex and subject to numerous debates and disagreements. Sabbath regulations are one of the most intricate areas of Jewish law. And thus, some great rabbis have ruled at times that some actions that people refrain from in our commonplace communal life are not technically prohibited by Torah law.

To be sure, throughout the ages there have been disputes over what is permitted and what is forbidden within the tradition about many behaviors. The ancient Talmud is built on the analysis of disputes between rabbis and their followers over the thousands of details of Jewish life.

In the first century for example, the Houses of Hillel and Shammai went on record, as we find in the Mishnah, clashing about more than 300 issues of Jewish law. Yet we are told clearly that this did not create a schism in the society of the time. And we know that they did not stone anyone for engaging in disputes.

The children of one school still married the children of the other. They knew back then how to argue legitimately over interpretations of what the Torah mandated for a proper life.

More recently though, the Talmudic attitude abiding a pluralistic Judaism has given way over the years, the centuries, to a much more rigorous form of social expectation. The rigorous halachic world of contemporary Orthodox society does not tolerate much diversity of opinion or action. The ancient sages of the Talmud likely would be uncomfortable with the expectations of rigid conformity now implicitly expected in our Orthodox synagogues, neighborhoods, and towns.

But plural behavior is going to be part of any healthy society, no matter how much it values inflexible traditionalism. And as you vividly bring up, today, we know there is a growing of concern and discussion in the Orthodox community over this type of issue regarding the Sabbath use of electronic devices.

Mostly the discussion takes the form of technical analyses of how and why using various electrical devices violates the Shabbos regulations. These deliberations often are lengthy and complex, involving the opinions and alleged precedents of rabbis going back through the Middle Ages to the age of the Talmud in Late Antiquity.

But hold on. We know that before 100 years ago there were no electronic devices to discuss or debate. There was no electricity in ancient times. Plainly, the Torah could not know of it. So, it cannot be a direct Torah prohibition to refrain from using the devices in question on Shabbos.

Obviously, the Talmud could not conceive of electricity. Likewise, the medieval rabbis could not have imagined electronic devices. So how, you may ask, could anyone forbid actively using electronics on Shabbos, even as a rabbinic taboo?

Add to this the obvious fact that electricity itself is not a visible entity in any of its forms. You cannot see the electricity in our wires or in our over-the-air transmissions of TV, through mobile networks (2G, 3G, 4G or 5G) or in our Wi-Fi waves. It’s valid to ask, then, how can you forbid the invisible?

The answer is that through clever analogies and metaphoric techniques, the contemporary rabbis say that pressing a button or flicking a switch to activate invisible electrical actions is analogous to building a visible structure or at least to hammering a physical nail — and both of those are labors that are forbidden by the Torah on Shabbos.

But as you may already have been told, the most prevalent justification for the electricity taboo is that activating or de-activating the devices that run on electricity violates “the spirit of the Shabbos.” And it is said to be “not Shabbosdik.”

This “no” to telephones and TVs and cell phones — all powered by invisible electrons — is because these devices negate the “sanctity of the Sabbath day.” That holiness of the day also is powered by invisible spirits — such is the mystical nature of religious belief.

You find yourself in the middle of the clash of these imperceptible and unseen powers, and in a quandary, and you are asking for advice.

Well, my apologies to you. All of this is an area of authority that is way above this humble rabbi’s pay grade. I cannot tell you in this instance how to rectify your actions to conform to the unseen powers of the universe, whether electrical or metaphysical.

Hence, I cannot tell you if you are sinning on the Sabbath by eagerly texting to your friends on your iPhone, or by enjoying a Bill Maher comedy show on HBO, or by quietly reading a book on your Kindle tablet.

Maybe you are sinning — violating critical norms of sanctity and spirit — or maybe you are engaging in those perfect and valid forms of rest and leisure that are proper and appropriate fulfillments to your Shabbos and to your being.

However, I can tell you that this divide in your life is emblematic of larger social divides in our Jewish communities. And that is a problem that urgently and constantly needs the attention of prudent religious leaders.

It really comes down to continually and sensitively clarifying the question of who is a good Jew. Who is validly observing our core lifestyles and religious values?

Right now, Orthodox Jews, by consensus, publicly and universally accept the Shabbos electricity prohibition. So yes, you do put yourself outside that community if you choose to flout that taboo.

If you come out in the open on this matter, Orthodox people will say that “Electrified” is not a good Jew because he/she uses a phone and TV on Shabbos.

Do you want to be subject to that criticism? The good news may be that you can be discreet and hide your actions and use your electrical devices in private and still maintain your good standing.

But I will ask on your behalf, to follow up on your inquiry, wouldn’t that bifurcate your existence and cause you to act hypocritically? You will need to decide how to live comfortably within your own religious skin.

Whatever you do about these electrical devices, the overwhelming result of keeping the Sabbath for any Jew is to gain a sharper focus on your state of mindful actions. Sabbath becomes a day of mindfully considering every action that we take and asking whether it is permitted or forbidden for us.

And the Sabbath teaches us that we ought to consider as well whether our every activity is good or bad for the world.

This is not a new insight. Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel said in 1951, in his classic book “The Sabbath,” “To set apart one day a week for freedom, a day on which we would not use the instruments which have been so easily turned into weapons of destruction, a day for being with ourselves, a day of detachment from the vulgar, of independence of external obligations, a day on which we stop worshipping the idols of technical civilization, a day on which we use no money … is there any institution that holds out a greater hope for man’s progress than the Sabbath?”

That’s some profound food for thought for you, Electrified, as you ponder this Friday night or Saturday morning whether or not to ask your Amazon Alexa Echo device for the weather report as you dress to prepare to attend your synagogue services.

Tzvee Zahavy of Teaneck has been a distinguished professor of Jewish studies, religious studies, Talmud, halacha, Jewish law codes, and Jewish liturgy at major U.S. research universities and seminaries. He has published many scholarly and popular articles and books about Judaism and Jewish life. He received his Ph.D. from Brown University and his rabbinic ordination from Yeshiva University. Go to www.tzvee.com for details.

The Dear Rabbi Zahavy column offers mindful advice based on talmudic analysis and wisdom. It aspires to be open and meaningful to the adherents of all the varieties and denominations of Judaism. You can find this column in the Jewish Standard, usually on the first Friday of the month. Please email your questions to zahavy@gmail.com

[First published March, 2020]

Atlantic: Can You Read on an Amazon Kindle on Shabbat?

2022-10-08T20:44:00.002-04:00

I originally posted this 12/23/2010.

The questions keep recurring so we are bringing this post back. And by the way, I published a lot of books on Kindle since then,

Now back to the 2010 blog post...

Our Jewish calendars have always told us what time to Kindle for the Sabbath, when to "Kindle the Shabbat Candles."

Nowadays we have another kind of Kindle to know about, the Amazon book reader. And the question arises, can you Kindle on the Sabbath?

We think yes, without any qualifications, that you can Kindle on the Sabbath. The e-ink device does not create actual light. You cannot read it in the dark. And it obviously does not create any durable writing. When you turn it off it goes blank.

In halakhic terms we find no transgression, no prohibition to using the reader. In fact it's a feat of great imagination to extend Sabbath prohibitions to that invention. It involves believing there is a set of electrical apparatus that is prohibited, or defining a broad category of technology-things that all are outside the spirit of Sabbath rest.

That's quite a lazy and unsophisticated approach to Jewish life and law. And broad strokes like that, blanket decisions that have no nuance, leave average Jews wondering what rabbis actually do to earn those big salaries.

So we read with some dismay the account in the Atlantic magazine, "People of the E-Book? Observant Jews Struggle With Sabbath in a Digital Age" by Uri Friedman. It's not Uri's fault that most "observant" Jews assume that all devices are forbidden. He reports something we did not know,

E-readers are problematic not only because they are electronic but also because some rabbis consider turning pages on the device - which causes words to dissolve and then resurface - an act of writing, also forbidden on the Sabbath.

No, as we said, there is no physical act, no actual ink or paper, nothing of duration. So by simple definitions, there is not writing going on in the digital world of Kindle.

Then Uri tells us something more Talmudic, "The blogger Morris Rosenthal, for example, imagines a special Kindle that can bypass Sabbath prohibitions by disabling its buttons, turning itself on at a preset time, and flipping through a book at a predetermined clip." No again, that's a needless work-around to avoid a non-prohibited action.

Citing Orthodox Rabbi Jeffrey Fox in support of our assessment of the "technical" permissibility of Kindle, Friedman writes,

Fox believes that e-readers - like other electrical appliances that don't generate light and heat - are technically permissible on the Sabbath but should not be used because they are a step away from forbidden activity and because, in epitomizing our weekday existence, aren't appropriate for the Sabbath.

Yes, but the rejoinder to the reluctance is that these devices also are a "step away" from desirable and permissible reading, the very epitome of what so many observers claim is the essence of appropriate Sabbath activity.

Conservative Rabbi Daniel Nevins makes a more far-fetched attempt to put the Kindle out of bounds, "The problem with virtual experiences is they distract our attention from our local environment and break all boundaries of space and time. Shabbat is about reinforcing boundaries of space and time so we can have a specific experience." The rabbi is not a fan of the Kindle because, "devices like e-readers ...could disturb the Sabbath's tranquility." Or, we say, they could contribute to the Sabbath's tranquility.

All in all, the case against the Sabbath use of Kindle is a weak one that can be pushed aside by a reed.

The truly amazing part of this discussion is that it is being aired in such venues as the Atlantic magazine. We think this is an instance of Jewish practice as social metaphor. Many people have trouble keeping up with the fast changes of the world of technology. They ask about its value to them. They query whether perhaps it is best to shut it out of their pat and comfortable lives and keep change from happening.

That is a big reason for the durability of religion, to afford a static comfort zone for people who do not welcome rapid change, who choose to, "Avoid Technology".

We respect that attitude, that need. Just please don't tell us that it is the divine law from Mt. Sinai that we must welcome the absolute absence of change on our Sabbath. We are not comfortable with that.

Purchase "The Book of Jewish Festival Prayers in English" for your Sukkot celebration

2022-10-07T08:32:00.002-04:00

Purchase "The Book of Jewish Festival Prayers in English" for your Sukkot enjoyment.

Can a Jew Pray Directly to the Divine Attribute of Compassion?

2022-09-28T18:23:00.001-04:00

Can a Jew pray directly to the Divine Attribute of Compassion? Yes, in just one prayer each year.

Yom Kippur Machzor - the book of Jewish Prayer for the Day of Atonement

On Yom Kippur in Neilah, in the final series of the prayers of compassion that we call the selihot, we utter the catalogue of God’s thirteen mainly emotional attributes over and over again, the familiar:

“Lord, Lord, God, Compassionate, with loving kindness, patient, with kindness and truth; keeper of mercy for thousands, forgiver of iniquity, transgression and sin; clearing us. Forgive our iniquity and sin and accept us.” (cf. Exodus 34:6-7)

Within this sequence of repeated meditations, the tenth century Italian payetan Rabbi Amitai ben Shepatiah presents in his prayer a direct appeal to the divine attribute of compassion to intercede for us:

Attribute of compassion, pour upon us
In the presence of your creator, cast our supplications
For the sake of your people, request compassion
For every heart has pain and every mind is ill
(Goldschmidt, YK, p. 778)

Our teacher, Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik, the noted Orthodox theologian, went out of his way in his monograph, Halakhic Man, to comment upon this line: “The Halakhah views this prayer and other similar prayers as a deviation from legitimate Halakhic prayer, which is fundamentally exoteric in nature (p. 44).”

The Rav says further, “Man needs no outside help or special agents to approach God…A person needs no advocates when he knocks at the gates of heaven (Yom Kippur Machzor, p. 818).”

We disagree with the Rav and would formulate matters differently. Ordinarily, it is true that we do not find an instance in the authorized rabbinic prayers in which we direct a prayer to a divine attribute as if it were an exoteric intercessor.

There is one exception to this pattern in the present piyyut, Ezkerah Elohim, which we recite at the very end of the Neilah, at the conclusion of Yom Kippur. By this time we have spent so much effort to find God’s compassion, our compassion, and to embrace it within us.

Rabbi Amitai knew that nowhere else do we deem it prudent to turn to the attribute of compassion and project it as if it were an intercessor before God. But here at the close of Yom Kippur, we do, and we should, his piyyut prayer tells us. We have earned the right and the duty to address the compassion that through our strenuous efforts of twenty five hours we have brought into being.

And we may turn that compassion into our intercessor to God – just this one time. Theological principles must step aside, for in our actual synagogue, that is how the Halakhic prayer operates. Accordingly, we deem it preferable to ask those critics of the liturgy who are concerned here that you slightly modify your Halakhic principle if you must, but always to respect the integrity and insight of your liturgy.

So can a Jew pray directly to the Divine Attribute of Compassion? Yes, in this one prayer.

Liturgy and theology are two distinct and highly complementary domains of Judaic expression. In the rare instance when they do conflict, we opt to favor the great expression of Judaic emotion and drama, the liturgy. [re-published from 9/18/11]

Does the Talmud say that Gay Sex Causes Earthquakes?

2022-09-17T11:32:00.001-04:00

I'm quoted in the Pacific Standard as an authority on the cause of earthquakes, "Gay Sex Caused the Earthquakes in Nepal."

On 8/23/2011 I wrote this post:

Does the Talmud say that Gay Sex Causes Earthquakes? In 2010 I covered this nonsensical topic after the Haiti earthquakes. (At that time Jeffrey Goldberg of the Atlantic cited me on this subject.)

Here it is again.

Yes, the Talmud does say that gay sex causes earthquakes.

I mused, That must be some awesome gay sex.

But seriously, if one can get serious over this bizarre idea, some cockamamie rabbis were going around preaching that gay sex caused Haiti's earthquakes.

See here and here for the reports about Rabbi Yehuda Levin and the Rabbinical Alliance of America. (These materials are gone now.)

Now not only is this a strange teaching. I must chastise these rabbis for not doing their Talmud homework and for not paying closer attention to the text in Yerushalmi Berakhot (9:2), which several years back I translated and published through the University of Chicago Press.

According to the Talmud text, earthquakes are caused by any one of a number of acts: yes one of them is gay sex, but others are by disputes, and also by not taking heave offering and tithes from your produce, and also because God is just upset that the Temple is in ruins and there are theaters and circuses in Israel.

Rabbis ought to know better than to cherry pick among the Talmudic reasons for earthquakes.

So rabbis, stop all of those disputes that you keep stirring up, get busy separating your heave offerings and tithes, and go rebuild the Temple, and maybe the earthquakes will stop.

And be sure to review the Talmud more carefully next time.

Here is my translation of the pertinent Talmud text:

[III.A] Elijah [the prophet] of blessed memory asked R. Nehorai, “Why do earthquakes occur?” He said to him, “On account of the sins of [those who do not separate] heave offerings and tithes [from their produce].”

[B] One verse says, “[God protects the Land of Israel], the eyes of the Lord your God are always upon it” [Deut. 11:12]. And a second verse says, “[God] who looks upon the earth and it trembles, who touches the mountains and they smoke” [Ps. 104:32].

[C] How can one reconcile these two verses? When Israel obeys God’s will and properly separates tithes then, “The eyes of the Lord your God are always upon it, from the beginning of the year to the end of the year” [Deut. 11:12], and the Land cannot be damaged. But when Israel does not obey God’s will, and does not properly separate tithes [from the produce of the earth], then he, “Looks upon the earth and it trembles” [Ps. 104:32].”

[D] [Elijah] said to him [Nehorai], “My son, on your life, what you say [about earthquakes] does make sense. But this is the main [reason that there are earthquakes]. When the Holy One, blessed be He, looks down on the theaters and circuses that sit secure, serene and peaceful [in Israel], and [he looks down] on the ruins of the Temple, he shakes the world to destroy it [and the earth trembles]. In this regard [the verse says], ‘The Lord will roar from on high, and from his holy habitation utter his voice’ [Jer. 25:30]. [It means he will roar] on account of [the destruction of] his Temple.”

[E] Said R. Aha, “[The earth quakes] on account of the sin of homosexual acts. God said, ‘You made your genitals throb in an unnatural act. By your life, I shall shake the earth on account of [the act of] this person’".

[F] And the sages said, “[The earth quivers] on account of disputes. [As it says, ‘And the valley of my mountains shall be stopped up, for the valley of the mountains shall touch the side of it;] and you shall flee as you fled from the earthquake in the days of Uzziah king of Judah’ [Zech. 14:5].” [Uzziah contested the authority of the priesthood and attempted to enter the Temple and offer an incense offering, cf. II Chron. 26:16 23. This dispute caused an earthquake.].

[G] Said R. Samuel, “An earthquake is a sign of the cessation of kingship. As it says, ‘The land trembles and writhes in pain.’ On what account? ‘For the Lord’s purposes against Babylon stand, to make the land of Babylon a desolation, without inhabitant.’ [Jer. 51:29].”

[Previously re-posted 5/16/2015]