• Who is my audience?
• What is my purpose?
• How will my readers use the document?

Start with basic decisions:

• Page size: which works best with your document (letter, legal, etc.)?
• Quality of paper: which type is appropriate for your document (i.e., cotton bond paper for a résumé, lamination for signs, or sturdy paper for brochures)?

Five principles should guide formatting decisions:

• Proximity: group related items together.
• Alignment & Balance: make sure that text and graphics line up and create a unified design.
• Repetition: work with similar information in similar places to create consistent patterns.
• Contrast: make opposing elements of a document stand out against each other (i.e., black text on a white background).
• Emphasis: place and format elements, such as headings and subheadings, so they catch readers’ attention.

Six techniques used to emphasis text:

Emphasizing parts of the page draws readers’ attention to a particular area. Use the following techniques for emphasis:

• Chunking: information clustered in small chunks­­ makes it easier for the reader to understand.
• Queuing: the order of visual information displayed indicates level of importance.
• Filtering: visual patterns distinguish various types of information (i.e., notes in a box or a border around an important paragraph).
• Color variation: different colors can add emphasis to a particular heading or subheading.
• Highlighting: use boldface, italics, SMALL CAPITALS, large font size, or underlining to bring attention to words.
• Illustrations:  they are often viewed first; use them to convey ideas discussed in the surrounding paragraphs (i.e., photographs, drawings charts, or graphs).

Page Design Details:

• Symmetrical designs evoke a balanced and restful appearance.
• Asymmetrical designs are unbalanced and suggest movement across the page.

(See http://desktoppub.about.com/od/designprinciples/l/aa_balance1.htm and http://desktoppub.about.com/od/designprinciples/l/aa_balance2.htm)

White space:

• Keeps related elements together
• Isolates and emphasizes important elements
• Provides breathing room between blocks of information

Line length: Readers tend to tire when reading long lines; but short lines can interrupt normal reading pattern.

Line spacing: Should be consistent. Most technical documents use single spacing within paragraphs and double spacing (letters, memos, instructions) or space and a half (proposals, formal reports).

Lists: Can be bulleted, numbered, or in the form of a checklist. Generally, they make easy reading. However, do not overuse lists. Too many bullets at too many levels can make a document choppy and difficult to read. Most importantly, keep lists grammatically consistent (Parallel). Example: Non-parallel (I like swimming, to run and biking.) Parallel (I like swimming, running, and biking.)

(See http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/SentParallel.html)

Columns make room for more information on the page, facilitate repetition, and create a visual pattern. While they are seldom used in academic papers, they are used frequently in journal and other periodicals, brochures, and posters.

Headings help guide the reader through the document.

Font styles are easy to read and appropriate for the document are best. Serif fonts are considered easier to read for body text; sans serif fonts are often used for headings.

Font size should be 12 point for an essay or report, 28 point for a Power Point slide show, and  larger fonts for headings or titles; smaller for captions).

Font effects, such as full capitalization, engraving, or outlining, are best used in informal documents.    

Justification is the alignment of words along the left and right margins of the text. Most documents are left-justified. Use ragged right margins if a justified (straight) right margin results in large, unequal spaces between words or odd hyphenation.

References

Lannon, John M. Technical Communication.  New York: Longman, 2006.

Markel, Mike. Technical Communication. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007.

Palmquist, Mike. Design Writing: A Practical Guide. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005. 

How should I construct a paragraph?

Include a Topic Sentence: This sentence is usually placed at the beginning of a paragraph. It states the topic being discussed in the paragraph.

Establish Unity: A paragraph is unified if each sentence supports a single topic (the topic sentence). Unity comes from what you say.

Establish Coherence: While paragraph unity requires that all sentences in the paragraph support a single paragraph idea, coherence requires that it be clear, logical, and readily obvious to the reader how each sentence supports that idea. To establish coherence, think about transitions between sentences, not just when beginning new paragraphs. To achieve coherence:

• Use key words to tie ideas together. Be careful of using synonyms just for variety–the same word creates coherence.
• Write new sentences to expand upon or further develop the previous ones (connecting old information with new)
• Use transitions to connect ideas within a paragraph. The University Writing Center handout, Transition Words and Phrases can help you compose transitions.

Example: Good writing comes from hard work [topic]. But [transition word] hard work [repeated key word and old information] never scared me. In fact [transition word], I relish the challenge of creating something new, no matter how difficult [key word] or time consuming [new information]. I have spent weeks on a few pages, months on an essay, and years on a book [old, i.e., time].

How do I know when to begin a new paragraph?

There is no hard and fast rule for when to begin a new paragraph, but consider the following junctures:

• When beginning a new idea
• When breaking an idea down into its more descriptive subsets
• In dialogue, when the speaker changes
• When summing up ideas (e.g., a conclusion)
• When a paragraph gets long and looks intimidating (usually over 12 sentences)

How can I organize and develop my paragraphs?

Two basic organizations can satisfy many needs:

1. Coordinate: Each sentence except the topic sentence is at the same level of specificity. This is somewhat like a list. Example: Good writing comes from hard work. First, you plan what you want to say, taking into account your audience. Next, you jot down some ideas, do some research, and write a rough outline or draft. After that, you’ll have to write a few more drafts, revising as your ideas take shape and develop, and as others read your work and give you feedback. In the final stages, you should proofread and polish.
2. Subordinate: Each sentence further develops the ideas addressed in the sentences preceding it. It gets more specific as it continues. Example: Good writing comes from hard work. Almost all expert writers produce multiple drafts. I have known a writer who claims he regularly drafts simple one-page memos an average of ten times, and it’s not uncommon for an experienced writer to produce five or six drafts before letting another person read on a first round. Usually, after a draft has been read by another person, the writer goes back for even more revision before beginning the final editing. With all that, most writers end up feeling their work is unfinished, even after publication.

You can organize by using a considering a few simple patterns:

1. Enumeration: Follow an ordered pattern of one, two, three.
2. Chronology: Use time to organize an event or tell a story or to describe how a process unfolds.
3. Space: In descriptions, start at the top and move to the bottom, or go from left to right, inside to outside, and so on.
4. General to specific or abstract to concrete: Although this pattern can be reversed, it is easier to read when the general statement comes first and the supporting examples, evidence, or illustrations follow.
5. Order of importance: You can begin with the most important point or end with it, but decide on the importance of each point within the paragraph and order accordingly.

To develop paragraphs (find something to say), consider these options:

1. Give examples, illustrations, or testimony: Examples and illustrations clarify your meaning and help your reader connect to what you are saying in a concrete way. You can also use quotes from an authority or from a text to clarify and emphasize your points.
2. Data: Facts and statistics can be used to support or illustrate your points.
3. Use the modes of exposition or argument to develop a topic within a paragraph:

• Analysis: Break the topic down into its constituent parts and then examine each part.
• Comparison and Contrast: What is the topic like? How does it differ from something else?
• Cause and Effect (Consequence): What caused it to happen? What effects does it have, or what are the consequences of the topic?
• Definition: Do you need to define the topic? Would a definition help to make the point?
• Evaluation: Does the topic lend itself to evaluation? Is it helpful to judge its value or power?
• Classification: Can you fit it into a class with other like things? Does doing so clarify it?
• Narration: Is there a story to tell about the topic?

Paragraph Clusters

It can be helpful to think of any written document as broken into clusters of paragraphs, especially if your paragraphs are getting very long. A cluster is a group of related paragraphs. So, for example, one paragraph might cover every step in a process, but if you want more detail, each step might be covered in a single paragraph. In describing a person, the first paragraph in a cluster might describe the face, the next, the torso and arms, and a third, the legs and feet.

Further Reading

• http://www.utoronto.ca/ writing/parag.html – Good discussion of how to create coherency in paragraphs.
• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/ general/gl_pgrph2.html – Describes the four traits of an effective paragraph and lists suggestions to ensure a well-developed paragraph. Click through to link on creating balanced paragraphs.
• http://www.ems.psu.edu/~schall/Paragraphing.html – Four methods for writing paragraphs and types of topic sentences. Includes a substantial list of transition words, sorted by function like causality and amplification.
• http://www.tc.umn.edu/~jewel001/CollegeWriting/REVISE+ EDIT/REVISE/Paragraph.htm – An excellent site on paragraphing, including examples of how to structure several different types of paragraphs, including topic shifts and dialogue.
• http://www .indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/paragraphs.shtml – Indiana University’s discussion of paragraphs includes topic sentences, structire, creating coherence, and transitions.
• http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/ – Thorough and well-written discussion of focus and topic sentences, and another on coherence. Effective examples offered.
• http:/ /writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/paragrph.html – Features lists of strategies for developing paragraphs, reasons to start a new paragraph, and ways of ordering information within a paragraph.

Who will ultimately read your work? While in the university classroom, your audience is often your instructor; however, some assignments are designed so that you are also writing to a secondary audience, for example, to an expert in your field or to the general public. Your instructor may designate an audience, or you may have to imagine one that you feel is most appropriate for your topic or thesis. Even when your audience is your instructor, you have to tailor your writing to meet expectations. Your instructor may expect you to demonstrate knowledge or critical thinking or to write in a certain style.

How does an analysis of audience affect my writing? When you tailor your writing to a specific audience, you also tailor features of the text. Audience affects the following:

• your message (What do readers care about? What are they likely to act upon?);
• your argument (What would be convincing? What kinds of evidence are normally used for this type of reader?);
• your word choice (Should you use jargon/slang or formal/professional language ?);
• your sentences types or lengths (Can you use fragments? Long, complex patterns or short simple ones, or a combination?);
• your tone (Is it personal, friendly, distanced, humorous, serious?).

Together, these elements constitute your style. Style should be adjusted appropriately to your audience.

Do I have to analyze audience before I begin writing? You should consider audience early in the writing process, but not necessarily as the first step. The more you know about your audience, the better you can tailor your message. However, thinking too much about accommodating an audience can inhibit you. Try doing some prewriting and research first. When you are confident that you are knowledgeable about your topic and have something to say about it, consider how to make it interesting and significant for specific readers.

Below are some questions you might consider in an audience analysis:

• How much does the audience know about your subject?
  Gulf Coast fishermen might know a great deal about saltwater fishing regulations, but might not be receptive to an intellectual, academic tone. Chemistry professors would probably know little about saltwater fishing, but would expect a more restrained, academic approach. Level and type of knowledge determines how much background or history you will have to provide, what terms might need definition or explanation, and whether to use an academic or familiar tone.

• How does the audience feel about your subject?
  Are they indifferent? Do they need to be convinced? Your paper may have to engage indifferent readers and convince them that your topic has some merit. If the audience is biased against your view, you’ll have to find ways to argue effectively for your position. For example, citing some common ground between your beliefs and theirs might be one place to start.

• What new information can you provide for readers?
  Why is what you are saying valuable to your readers? What can they take away from your paper? Can you motivate them to think more about your issue?

• What is your relationship to the audience?
  Are you an equal, an authority, or a subordinate? Are you giving order, suggestions, or friendly advice? You might be more colloquial or personal with a peer and more distanced and careful with a subordinate. As an authority, you’ll want to sound sure of yourself; a peer or subordinate might be more tentative or suggestive.

How is knowing my audience related to writing my introduction? A reader expects the introduction of any text (letter, report, essay, and so on) to clarify whether the piece is worth reading.  Is the reader part of the text’s intended audience?  The features of the text will provide clues.

Example 1

How would you characterize the audience for the following introduction?

Natalie, 11, is a timid kid, and her parents, though possessing the best of intentions, aren’t making it any easier for her.  The Portland, Maine, sixth grader says, “I hate it when Mom and Dad get all supercheery and say, ‘Don’t be shy.  See how your sister Tracy does it?  Just go up to that kid and say hi.’  But I’m not Tracy.  It’s really hard for me.  I feel like everyone is watching me and waiting for me to mess up.”

This is from a Good Housekeeping article, “10 Smart Ways to Help a Shy Child” (March 2001, p. 89).  The audience is middle-class American women, probably with at least a high school education; the writer is presenting herself as their peer, and her purpose is to convey news and ideas from the experts. Many of the readers will have children, and many will know something about dealing with children, even shy ones, but they expect to read something new here as well; in other words, most are somewhat familiar with the topic.

What features of this text are appropriate to this audience?

The topic is introduced with a story about a particular child (human interest).  Direct quotes are used to show that child’s feelings.  The language is everyday (colloquial): “kid” replaces “child”;  “are not” is contracted (”aren’t”); phrases like “any easier” replace the more formal “are not making it easier”;  and “supercheery” is slang.  The writer uses active voice and a casual style.  The paragraph is fairly short.

Example 2

How would you characterize the audience for the following introduction?

A fundamental problem in recording continuous and rapidly varying physiological signals such as the electrocardiogram (ECG), electromyogram (EMG), or electroencephalogram (EEG) from freely-moving subjects over extended periods of time is the large volume of data that must be collected.  This problem is further exacerbated when a number of signals and/or subjects are monitored simultaneously.  In animal welfare studies researchers often wish to record multiple signals from multiple animals while the animals are subjected to various stressors over periods of several weeks (Krantz and Falconer, 1995; Rollin, 1997).  The volume of data being recorded poses a number of technical difficulties; any storage medium on the subject is soon filled, the capacity of a radio data channel is soon exceeded, constant transmitter operation soon drains battery power, and the volume and subsequent processing of raw data after the experiment becomes formidable.  A solution to these problems is to provide the ability to analyze the raw data at the subject as it is recorded, with only the summary results being sent back to the researcher.

The text above is from “An Ambulatory Physiological Monitor for Animal Welfare Studies” (Phillip J. Harris, Peter N. Schaare, Christian J. Cook, and Jon D. Henderson, in i>Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 32 (2001) 181-194.

What features of this text are appropriate to this audience?

The audience is expecting to hear from fellow researchers who have gained some authority on a subject with which they are very familiar.  They want to know what the writers have discovered that advances knowledge of their subject or that solves a problem (“A fundamental problem”; “A solution to these problems”). They also want to be reassured that the writers have the most recent literature on the topic, so the writers provide careful documentation. The writers use passive voice (“data must be collected”), jargon (“stressors”); and acronyms (“ECG”).  The language is a bit wordy and elevated (“extended periods of time” instead of “a long time”; “further” instead or “also”; “exacerbated”).  Sentences tend to be long, with many modifiers.  For example, the opening sentence has 26 words separating the subject from the predicate.  One sentence uses a semi-colon to link two long clauses.  The paragraph is also long.

Further Reading

• Audience Analysis (TAMU handout) – a primer on audience and how it affects your whole document.
• http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/processes/audmod/list6.cfm – This site provides a detailed look at audience, and is divided into organized sections with easy to follow individual links.
• http:// papyr.com/hypertextbooks/engl_101/audience.htm – A thorough explanation of what should be considered when analyzing an audience.
• http:// web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/EssayWritingAud.html (University of Victoria) focuses on audience and tone.
• http://www.io .com/~hcexres/tcm1603/acchtml/aud.html – This site is directed to technical writing, but is useful for general purposes as well.

The Arguments handout provides helpful hints if you’re in a class that requires persuasive writing, and Techniques and Terms Used in Argument lists and defines terms you may hear in an argument class like English 104 here at A&M. Have you decided who your audience is for this assignment? If any case, doing an Audience Analysis will help you. And then we also have handouts on writing specific types of documents  (abstracts, book reviews, comparison/contrast essays and more) in the How To Write page.

Analyze To separate something into parts and discuss, examine, or interpret each part.

Classify To put something into a category with things of a similar type. You might need to defend or explain how you arrived at a category and how one category differs from another.

Compare To examine two or more things and to show their similarities.

Contrast To examine two or more things and to show their differences.

Criticize To analyze and make reasoned judgments about something. Please note that your judgments may be positive, negative, or both.

Define To give the meaning of a term or concept. A definition may be simple or complex. The available techniques for definition include examples, synonyms, antonyms (opposites), etymology (word history), or dictionary definitions.

Describe To give the physical or non-physical qualities or characteristics of something.

Discuss To offer the pros and cons of an issue. Sometimes “discuss” is used more broadly to include any of the other terms on this list—for example, it may mean “write something interesting or significant about a topic.”

Enumerate To make a list of something’s component ideas, aspects or parts.

Evaluate To give a reasoned opinion about something, usually in terms of the merit of a particular work, idea, or person.

Explain To describe how something functions. To give a definition for something.

Identify To indicate, or describe, what a thing is, what it is composed of, or when and where it occurs.

Illustrate To give examples or to describe something.

Interpret To comment upon something or explain its meaning.

Outline To give a historical overview of something, or to describe its main ideas or parts.

Prove To argue a position by supporting your claims with factual evidence.

State To explain something clearly and concisely.

Summarize To give the main points or highlights of a longer work. To give a condensed account of an article, story, or event.

Trace To give a historical overview or outline of some change. To summarize a chronological or sequential order of events.

Further Reading

• http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/form.pdf – A worksheet for deciding if the topic you’ve chosen is workable.
• http:// www.sss.uq.edu.au/linkto/ugweb/linkAnalyse.html – Introduces topic analysis from the perspective of teacher expectations, and then proceeds to develop the subject thoroughly.

1. The topic must be interesting. Writers who are interested in their topics have a good chance of making their topics interesting to readers.
2. The topic must be researchable. Trivial topics that might have popular interest but little serious scholarly interest are not appropriate for assignments in many academic writing courses: for example, “The Best Place to Spend Spring Break.” The topic must be old enough to have a substantial research base yet new enough to still be relevant and interesting. Do not commit yourself if you are unsure about the availability of sources. Find out how much material the library has on the topic.

Your instructor may ask you to avoid topics that are overworked–for example, gun control, abortion, capital punishment. Be sure to record other topics your instructor asks you to avoid.

The following questions might help you to select a topic.

• Briefly define or describe your topic. Try to answer questions reporters usually ask — who? what? when? where? why?
• What claim are you going to make about this topic? What is your thesis?
• What is the scope of your topic? What are the main points you will discuss? List them in their order of importance.
• Are there points or issues you will need to omit in order to narrow your topic? What are they?
• Give a brief account of what other people have said or written about your topic.
• In a paper, your personal opinion should be clear. Check with your professor to see whether he/she wants you to expressly state your opinion with terms like “I think” or “I believe.”
• Who is your audience for this essay? What aspects of the topic will be interesting and relevant to your audience?
• What aspects of the topic may not be interesting or relevant to your audience?
• Give a brief explanation of issues that might make your topic arguable or controversial.
• Which of these issues will you emphasize in your essay? Explain why these issues seem relevant to your thesis.
• Will you purposely avoid any of these issues? Explain why.

Source
Gibson, Joanna B., and M. Jimmie Killingsworth. Academic Writing: An Introductory Guide. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt, 1991.

Further Reading

• http://library. webster.edu/wbt/t-w1-00.html – First-rate advice, nicely organized.
• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_plan3.html – Purdue provides tips on starting the writing process in the form of “thought starters.”
• http://www. utoronto.ca/writing/critrdg.html – This site on how to read critically could be helpful in developing a topic as well.
• http://www. cs.umd.edu/~oleary/gradstudy/node9.html – Directed at graduate study and finding a topic for research, but some good general advice can be gained from the site as well.
• http ://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_plan2.html – Thinking through a topic, and planning how to begin is covered at this site.
• http://uga.berkeley.edu/apa/personalstatement/proofreading.html – Although this site is designed to help students in drafting, revising, and proofreading a personal statement, the guidelines apply to writing in general.
• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_outlin.html – Instructions on the “how to” of an effective outline.
• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_outlinS.html – A sample outline.

Even if you do begin with a workable thesis, it might not be the one you end up with. As you work and discover new meanings, you might need to revise or even discard your thesis and start again. Nothing in the writing process is finished until everything is finished.

Here are some techniques that might help you decide what you want to say:

KEEP A JOURNAL

• Use a well-constructed notebook
• Record your reactions to something you’ve read or seen
• Ask questions and answer them
• Describe people, places, and things
• Explore fantasies, daydreams, nightmares, fears, hopes
• Write conversations or letters that will never be heard or read
• Examine the things you hate or love

USE JOURNALISTS QUESTIONS

• Who was involved?
• What happened?
• When did it happen?
• Where did it happen?
• How did it happen?
• Why did it happen?

ASK YOURSELF ANALYTICAL QUESTIONS

• What is my opinion of X?
  Is it good or bad?
  Is it beneficial or harmful?
  Will it work or fail?
  Does it make sense?

• What is my attitude about X?
  Am I for it or against it?
  Do I like it or dislike it?
  Do I accept it or reject it?
  Does it make me happy or sad?
  Do I approve or disapprove?

• What have I observed about X?
  What have I seen happen?
  What is special or unique about it?
  What strikes me about it?

• What can I suggest about X?
  What would I like to see happen?
  What should be done?
  What should not be done?

BRAINSTORM AND LIST

1. Find a quiet spot, and bring a timer, a pen or pencil, and paper.
2. Set the timer for 30 minutes.
3. Try to protect yourself from interruptions. Sit with your eyes closed for a while, thinking about absolutely nothing.
4. If you’ve already spelled out your purpose and your audience’s questions, focus on these. Otherwise, repeat this question: “What can I say about my topic?”
5. Write down every idea that occurs to you. Don’t evaluate them. Don’t worry about complete sentences or other grammar problems. Trust your imagination. Even the wildest ideas might have some merit.
6. Keep pushing and sweating until the timer goes off. No matter how silly the ideas become.
7. If the ideas are still flowing, reset the timer and continue.
8. Take a break.
9. Confront your list. Strike out useless material, and sort what’s left into categories. Include any other ideas that pop up.
10. Identify a pattern of thought.
11. Fill in holes by elaborating, clarifying, and supporting your ideas.

DO SOMETHING OFF THE WALL

• Use information from your research or quotes from what you have read that you find inspiring.
• Try rewriting the information or quote (or whatever you are rewriting) without using the vowel e, or something really unusual like that.
• This takes your mind off the fact that you don’t know what to write and forces you to focus on having a ton of things to write about and no idea how to do it.
• When this happens, your own ideas start to pop out, and you can let yourself slip back into using that oh-so-useful letter e. The French novelist Perec broke years of writer’s block by playing this challenge game with himself. He eventually wrote an entire novel without the letter e anywhere in it. The book was entitled La disparition and was translated into English by Gilbert Adair and re-titled A Void.

FREEWRITE

Write quickly for five to ten minutes without stopping. If you can’t think of anything to say, writing, “I’m stuck-I can’t think of anything!” over and over will at least force you to start moving your pen on the paper. You’ll soon become bored and more interesting ideas will begin to appear on your paper.

FOCUS YOUR FREEWRITE

In focused freewriting, you begin with a general idea in mind. Let’s say you’ve decided to write an argument paper on gene therapy; you might start with “I don’t have a clue what to think about gene therapy, but I guess if it’s something that might help people. . .” You should find yourself thinking about what you already know or feel about the topic you’re considering.

VISUALIZE IT

Clustering is a way of generating ideas by creating a visual. A cluster is useful for understanding the relationships among the parts of a broad topic or for developing subtopics. To create a cluster, do the following:

Sample brainstorming cluster

1. Write down your topic, or thesis, in the middle of a blank piece of paper, and circle it.
2. Write down what you see as the main parts of the topic in a ring around the topic circle. Circle each one and draw a line from it to the topic in the center.
3. Think of any ideas, examples, facts, or other details relating to each main part. Write each of these down near the appropriate part, circle it, and draw a line from it to the part.
4. Repeat this process with each new circle until you can’t think of any more details to add. Some of the trails may lead to dead ends, but you will end up with various trains of thought to follow and many useful connections among ideas.

(Source: Andrea Lunsford and Robert Connors. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 2nd ed. New York: St. Martin’s P, 1992.)

If you prefer a tighter organizational structure, try creating a flow chart to map out your ideas:

1. Write down your topic at the top of a lined page.
2. Underneath the main topic in a horizontal row, write down what you see as the main sub-points of your topic.
3. Think of examples, facts, and/or other details relating to each sub-point, and arrange in vertical lists underneath the appropriate headings.

Further Reading

• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/general/gl_plan1.html – Though this link’s title begins with the word “Planning” followed by “Invention” in parentheses, the focus is on invention, which it investigates thoroughly.
• http://www. csuohio.edu/writingcenter/invent.html – Provides a thorough overview of the possibilities encompassed in the invention process.
• http://www.selu.edu/Academics/Faculty/elejeune/prewriting.htm – Just some good general advice on getting started.

• http ://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_plan2.html – Thinking through a topic, and planning how to begin is covered at this site.
• http://uga.berkeley.edu/apa/personalstatement/proofreading.html – Although this site is designed to help students in drafting, revising, and proofreading a personal statement, the guidelines apply to writing in general.
• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_outlin.html – Instructions on the “how to” of an effective outline.
• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_outlinS.html – A sample outline.

Ask questions
Mulling over a topical checklist can help you circumvent writer’s block; it can also help you discover a number of possibilities for developing a thesis. While thinking through these questions, consider whether you want to inform or persuade your readers.

1. Exactly what is my subject? Can my paper inform or persuade my audience on this point?
2. Should I emphasize the positive or the negative aspects of my subject?
3. Can my subject be divided up into parts? Is one aspect more important or more relevant to my audience than others? What point should I stress in my thesis? How should I organize the paper to achieve this emphasis?
4. What does my subject remind me of? Is my subject—whether a person, a thing, or an event—similar to another subject that may be familiar to my readers? Are there any unexpected and enlightening similarities? Is the comparison favorable or unfavorable? Does this comparison make my subject easier to understand? How can I use these comparisons to clarify my point for my reader?
5. If my subject is an event or object, what caused or created it? Would understanding the cause or a precedent make it easier for my audience to understand my subject?
6. What effects has my subject had or is it likely to have? Are the effects important or unexpected?

Developing a working thesis
Once you’ve chosen a topic, you need to decide what you’re going to say about it. Remember the working thesis should have two parts: the topic itself and your comment on the topic. You can make the thesis more explicit later, but for now, get the basics down. For example:

The use of public school vouchers by the states should not only be allowed but encouraged by the federal government.

Note that the chosen topic is at the first of the sentence, and what the writer wants to say about it is at the end. This working thesis is enough to get you started. You can begin researching and reading about the topic, gaining information to support the above claim.

An explicit thesis statement
When your research is underway, you can make the thesis statement more explicit by articulating the lines of argument, analysis, or explanation, depending upon what you need for the type of paper you are writing. You can complicate the language and make the thesis more interesting later. For now, using the following template may help you get started on your writing project.

In this essay, I plan to (argue, defend, explain, demonstrate, analyze) that ____________________ because (1)_______________, (2)_________, and (3)_______________.

When this formula is applied to the sample working thesis stated earlier, it becomes:

In this essay, I plan to argue that the use of public school vouchers should be encouraged by the federal government because public schools will be forced to improve if they have to compete for students, because students should be able to have access to the best education possible, no matter where they live, and because the future of our country depends on quality education for everyone.

Refining the thesis statement
After working on the paper and building an introduction, the thesis can always be reworded, or refined.

While the use of school vouchers is currently up to the discretion of the states with no interaction or interference from the federal government, the country would be best served if the government would not only recommend but encourage the use of vouchers.

Notice that the lines of argument are not articulated in this version of the thesis statement. If you’ve created an outline or developed an explicit thesis and are sure where you’re going with the rest of the paper, this is an acceptable way to approach the assignment. The obvious danger in this method is the temptation to wander or stray off topic.

One way to curb that tendency is to go ahead and fully detail your plan for the paper in the thesis statement. You may prefer this method even if you don’t tend to wander off track! Consider this version of our sample thesis:

While the use of school vouchers is currently up to the discretion of the states with no interaction or interference from the federal government, the country would be best served if the government would encourage the use of vouchers; if more people used vouchers, public schools would be forced to improve because they would be competing for students, students would have access to quality education, no matter where they lived, and the future of our country depends on a quality education for all its citizens.

You’re probably thinking, “But that’s too long!” It is a long sentence, but it’s a grammatically correct sentence. And really, a thesis doesn’t have to be just one sentence. A period could easily replace the semi-colon after “vouchers” and before “if more people.” Sometimes for longer papers, a thesis paragraph is perfectly appropriate.

The bottom line is, keep your options open—develop a working thesis and then an explicit thesis to guide you, but allow yourself the freedom to write the type of thesis that’s right for your writing assignment. Think of the thesis statement as an umbrella shielding your whole paper. If a portion of your paper falls outside the umbrella, either cut it out or extend the breadth of your umbrella.

Further Reading

• http://www.utoronto.ca /writing/thesis.html – Provides helpful information on developing a thesis as well as a list of “myths” about what thesis statements are not.
• http://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/ wworkshop/writer_resources/writing_tips/thesis_statements.htm – Asks questions, and then provides sample thesis statements in order to illustrate whether a thesis is restricted, unified, clear, analytic, original, and/or energetic.
• http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/thesis_statement.shtml - Lists attributes of a good thesis, gives equations for developing a thesis followed by tests to evaluate a thesis.