Vedic Mathematics Tricks

What is the difference between envy and jealousy?

2018-07-31T22:05:00.001+05:30

If we're talking about you, then jealousy pertains to things you own (usually a relationship). Envy, on the other hand, pertains to things someone else owns.

It is all about who owns the object being desired. Typically, jealousy is a three-person situation, but envy is a two-person situtation.
For example: I am filled with jealousy when you speak to my girlfriend.(Here, there are three people involved.)

I am filled with envy over your new house.(Here, there are two people involved.)

The Difference between Envy and Jealousy
Even though the words envy and jealousy are used interchangeably these days, there is a clear distinction between the two words that is still observed by language purists.

Jealousy over My Things but Envy over Your Things

The noun jealousy describes a negative emotion caused by an attack on something we already have (usually a relationship). It contrasts with envy, which is a negative emotion caused by wanting something owned by someone else (usually a possession or a personal trait).

Examples:
I felt jealous when you danced with my wife.(Jealousy is about protecting something you already have.)

I felt envious of your good looks.(Envy is about wanting something somebody else has.)

I'm really jealous of your new car.(This should be envious not jealous.)

The adjective jealous comes from jealousy, and the adjective envious comes from envy.

इटली का एकीकरण - Unification of Italy in Hindi

2018-08-11T11:17:00.000+05:30

एकीकरण के पूर्व इटली एक 'भौगोलिक अभिव्यक्ति” मात्र था. वह अनेक छोटे-छोटे राज्यों में विभाजित था. राज्यों में मतभेद था और सभी अपने स्वार्थ में लिप्त थे. एकीकरण (Unification) के मार्ग में अनेक बाधाएँ थीं. लेकिन इटली (Italy) के कुछ प्रगतिवादी लोगों ने एकता की दिशा में कदम उठाया. इटली के एकीकरण (Unification of Italy) में आर्थिक तत्त्वों की भूमिका महत्त्वपूर्ण थी. इटली के एकीकरण में सबसे अधिक योगदान रेलवे के विकास था. इटली में राष्ट्रीय आन्दोलन चलाने के लिए अनेक गुप्त समितियों का संगठन किया गया. इन गुप्त समितियों में कार्बोनरी प्रमुख था. इसके नेतृत्व में 1831 ई. तक इटली का एकता-आन्दोलन चलता रहा. मेजिनी (Giuseppe Mazzini) को इटली के राष्ट्रीय आन्दोलन का पैगम्बर कहा जाता है. उसने 'युवा इटली” नामक संस्था की स्थापना की. इसके सदस्यों ने मजदूरों और गाँवों तथा नगरों के लोगों के बीच चेतना फैलायी. 1848 ई. की क्रांति का प्रभाव भी इटली पर पड़ा था. काबूर (Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour) और गैरीबाल्डी (Giuseppe Garibaldi) ने भी इटली के राष्ट्रीय एकीकरण (Unification of Italy) में महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान दिया था. 1871 ई. में इटली का एकीकरण पूरा हुआ.

19वीं सदी के पूर्वार्द्ध में इटली अनेक भागों में विभाजित था. वह यूरोपीय शक्तियों के संघर्ष का अखाड़ा बना हुआ था. फ्रांस की क्रांति का प्रभाव इटली पर भी पड़ा था. इटली के निवासियों में राष्ट्रीय भावना जाग चुकी थी. इटली ऑस्ट्रिया के प्रभाव में था. ऑस्ट्रिया का प्रधानमंत्री मेटरनिख (Metternich) और पोप का शक्तिशाली राज्य इटली के एकीकरण के मार्ग में बाधक थे. 1848 ई. की घटनाओं के फलस्वरूप इटली का एकीकरण आन्दोलन ने एक नया मोड़ ले लिया. इटली का एकीकरण (Unification of Italy) चार चरणों में हुआ -

इटली के एकीकरण का प्रथम चरण (The first phase of the Italian unification)

1848 ई. के बाद पिडमांट-सार्डिनिया (Piedmont-Sardinia) का राज्य इटली के एकीकरण (Unification of Italy) आन्दोलन से सम्बंधित गतिविधियों का केंद्र बन गया. काउंट वहाँ का प्रधानमंत्री बना. उसने अपने आंतरिक सुधारों द्वारा पिडमांट राज्य की शक्ति बढ़ाई. उसने क्रीमिया के युद्ध में मित्रराष्ट्रों की सहायता की और पिडमांट-सार्डिनिया (Piedmont-Sardinia) के राज्य को बड़े राज्यों की पंक्ति में ला खड़ा किया. मित्रराष्ट्रों ने कबूर को एकीकरण आन्दोलन में मदद देने का आश्वासन दिया. कबूर (Count of Cavour)और नेपोलियन तृतीय (Napoleon III) के बीच प्लाम्बियर्स की संधि (Plombières Agreement) हुई.काबूर ने ऑस्ट्रिया के विरुद्ध युद्ध की घोषणा कर दी. ऑस्ट्रिया युद्ध में पराजित हुआ. लोम्बार्डी को पिडमाउंट-सार्डिनिया राज्य में मिला लिया गया.

इटली के एकीकरण का द्वितीय चरण (Phase II of Italy's unification)

जिस समय ऑस्ट्रिया के विरुद्ध पिडमांट-सार्डिनिया (Piedmont-Sardinia) सेना लड़ रही थी, उस समय मध्य इटली की जनता ने विद्रोह कर दिया. पारमा, मोडेना और टस्कनी के शासकों को देश छोड़कर भागना पड़ा. इन राज्यों को जनमत-संग्रह द्वारा सार्डिनिया में मिला लिया गया.

इटली के एकीकरण का तृतीय चरण (The third stage of the Italian Unification)

इटली के एकीकरण (Unification of Italy) के तृतीय चरण में गैराबाल्डी का नाम लिया जाता है. 1860 ई. में उसने सिसली और नेपुल्स पर अधिकार कर लिया. विक्टर एमैन्युएल ने पोप के राज्य के दो भागों पर अधिकार कर लिया. गैरीबाल्डी ने उसका विरोध नहीं किया. नेपुल्स का शासन भी उसे सौंप दिया. वहाँ की जनता ने भी बहुमत से इटली के राज्य में शामिल होने की इच्छा प्रकट की.

इटली के एकीकरण का चतुर्थ चरण (Phase IV of the Italian Unification)

रोम और वेनेशिया इटली से बाहर थे. 1860 ई. में वेनेशिया पर अधिकार हो गया. 1870 ई. में रोम पर अधिकार कर लिया गया. 1871 ई. में रोम स्वतंत्र हुआ और संयुक्त इटली की राजधानी बनाया गया. इस प्रकार इटली का एकीकरण (Unification of Italy) पूरा हुआ.

इटली के एकीकरण में Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour का योगदान (Contribution of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour in unification of Italy)

इटली के राजनीतिक मंच पर Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour के पदार्पण से एकीकरण आन्दोलन में एक नया मोड़ आया. इटली को ऑस्ट्रिया की अधीनता से मुक्त करना काउंट कबूर की नीति थी. वह इटली के एकीकरण (Unification of Italy) को पिडमांट-सार्डिनिया (Piedmont-Sardinia) के नेतृत्व में पूरा करना चाहता था. उसने अपनी कूटनीति से इटली के प्रश्न को यूरोपीय अभिरुचि का प्रश्न बना दिया. उसका विश्वास था कि ऑस्ट्रिया के प्रभाव को समाप्त करने के लिए इटली को किसी यूरोपीय शक्ति से मित्रता करनी होगी. उस समय फ्रांस ने ऑस्ट्रिया के विरुद्ध इटली को सैनिक सहायता देने का वचन दिया. शीघ्र ही इटली और ऑस्ट्रिया के बीच युद्ध प्रारंभ हो गया. प्रारंभ में पिडमांट और फ्रांस की विजय हुई. इटली में क्रांति की लहर चल पड़ी. टस्कनी, मोडेना और पारमा की जनता ने अपने शासकों के विरुद्ध विद्रोह कर दिया. इस समय नेपोलियन तृतीय ने ऑस्ट्रिया से विराम संधि कर ली. ऑस्ट्रिया-सार्डिनिया युद्ध (Austrian Sardinia War) का एक महत्त्वपूर्ण परिणाम यह हुआ कि इससे इटली के एकीकरण (Unification of Italy) आन्दोलन को बल मिला. युद्ध-काल में ही मध्य इटली के राज्यों में राष्ट्रीयता की भावना प्रबल हो चुकी थी. टस्कनी, पार्मा और मोडेना की जनता ने विद्रोह कर दिया और वहाँ के राजाओं को देश छोड़कर भागना पड़ा. इन राज्यों ने सार्डिनीया के साथ मिलने का निर्णय लिया.

इटली के एकीकरण में गैरीबाल्डी/Giuseppe Garibaldi का योगदान (Contribution of Garibaldi / Giuseppe Garibaldi in the unification of Italy)

काउंट कबूर (Count of Cavour) के प्रयत्नों के फलस्वरूप संयुक्त इटली के लिए आधार तैयार हो चुका था. लेकिन अभी उसका एकीकरण पूरा नहीं हुआ था. अभी नेपुल्स, सिसली, वेनेशिया और रोम पर अधिकार करना बाकी था. मई, 1860 ई. में गैरीबाल्डी ने सिसली पर आक्रमण कर दिया. नेपुल्स और सिसली को जीतने के बाद उसने रोम को जीतने की योजना बनाई. 18 फरवरी, 1861 ई. में सार्डिनिया की राजधानी में नवीन संसद का उद्घाटन हुआ. इसमें रोम और वेनेशिया को छोड़कर शेष सभी राज्यों के प्रतिनिधि सम्मिलित हुए थे. 1866 ई. में वेनेशिया पर आक्रमण हुआ और वेनेशिया को इटली के राज्य में मिला लिया गया. 20 सितम्बर, 1871 ई. को रोम पर अधिकार कर लिया गया. रोम को स्वतंत्र इटली की राजधानी घोषित किया गया.

इटली के एकीकरण में मेजिनी/Giuseppe Mazzini का योगदान (
Contribution of Mazzini / Giuseppe Mazzini in the unification of Italy)

इटली के एकीकरण आन्दोलन के पैगम्बर मेजिनी का प्रादुर्भाव उस समय हुआ जब वहाँ राष्ट्रीय एकता के सारे प्रयास विफल हो चुके थे. मेजिनी का करूण हृदय देश की दुर्दशा पर विलाप कर रहा था. वह अपने देशवासियों को अत्याचारी, निरंकुश शासकों के चंगुल से मुक्त करना चाहता था. वह अपने देशवासियों को अत्याचारी, निरंकुश शासकों के चंगुल से मुक्त करना चाहता था. वह इटली में गणतंत्र की स्थापना करना चाहता था. एकता और स्वाधीनता नके लिए उसने युवा इटली (Young Italy) की नामक संस्था की स्थापना की.

अमेरिका का स्वतंत्रता-संग्राम - American Revolution

2018-07-29T10:54:00.001+05:30

आपको पता ही होगा कि क्रिस्टोफ़र कोलम्बस ने अमेरिका का पता लगाया था. अमेरिका का पता लगने के बाद यूरोप के बड़े-बड़े धनवान लोगों ने अमेरिका को बाँटना शुरू कर दिया. स्पेन, पुर्तगाल, हॉलैंड, फ्रांस औरइंग्लैंड ने वहाँ अपनी बस्तियाँ बसायीं. अमेरिका में अंग्रेजों के 13 उपनिवेश (Colonies) थे. उपनिवेशों में रहनेवाले अंग्रेज स्वतंत्रता-प्रेमी थे. वे अपनी स्वतंत्रता की रक्षा के लिए मातृभूमि छोड़कर उपनिवेशों में जा बसे थे. लेकिन जब जॉर्ज तृतीय (George III of the United Kingdom) ने उपनिवेशों पर अपना निरंकुश शासन लादना चाहा तो स्वतंत्रता-प्रेमी उपनिवेशवासियों ने विद्रोह कर दिया.

किसी भी देश में क्रांति की बीज वहाँ की सामाजिक, आर्थिक, राजनीतिक और धार्मिक अवस्थाओं में छिपा रहता है जो अनुकूल परिस्थिति पाकर प्रस्फुटित होता है.

अमेरिका के स्वतंत्रता-संग्राम ( American Revolution) ने सर्वप्रथम यह उदाहरण उपस्थित किया कि जागृत राष्ट्रीय भावना को कुचलना मुश्किल है…याद कीजिये हमने 1857 की भारतीय क्रांति में क्या पढ़ा था? अमेरिका के स्वतंत्रता संग्राम (American Revolution) ने पूँजीवाद को बढ़ाने का मौका दिया. अमेरिका पहला देश बना जिसने वंशानुगत राजतंत्र का अंत कर प्रजातंत्र की स्थापना की.

अमेरिकी उपनिवेशों औरइंग्लैंड के बीच संघर्ष अनिवार्य था. इसके पीछे कारण यह था कि उनके राजनीतिक, आर्थिक, सामजिक और धार्मिक जीवन में इतना फर्क था कि अधिक दिनों तक उनके बीच मधुर सम्बन्ध कायम नहीं रह सकता था. यदि अमेरिका में होने वाले स्वातंत्र्य-संग्राम (American Revolution) के कारणों की बात करें तो संक्षेप में हम इन कारणों को निम्नवत रूप से रख सकते हैं -

American Revolution's Causesi) धार्मिक मतभेद

उपनिवेशवासियों और अंग्रेजों के धार्मिक दृष्टिकोण में भिन्नता क्रांति का एक महत्त्वपूर्ण कारण थी. इंग्लैंड के अधिकांश निवासी का Anglicanism (what is Anglicanism, check WIKI)… की तरफ झुकाव था. वे बिशप (Bishop) और धर्म के आधिपत्य पर विश्वास रखते थे, उपनिवेशवासी प्यूरिटन (Puritan) मतावलम्बी थे. वे Anglican मत से घृणा करते थे. बिशप-व्यवस्था और धर्म के आधिपत्य के विरोधी थे. धार्मिक भिन्नता के कारण उपनिवेशवासी इंग्लैंड के साथ किसी प्रकार का सम्बन्ध नहीं रखना चाहते थे.

ii) सामाजिक भिन्नता

अमेरिका की सामाजिक संरचनाइंग्लैंड की सामाजिक संरचना से भिन्न थी.इंग्लैंड का समाज सामंती था जबकि अमेरिका का समाज जनतंत्रात्मक था. इंग्लैंड का समाज रुढ़िवादी और कृत्रिम था, जबकि अमेरिका का समाज मौलिक और आदर्शवादी था. रुढ़िवादी और प्रगतिशील समाज में कभी समन्वय नहीं हो सकता. अंग्रेजों की राजनीति पर धनिकों का प्रभाव था. अंग्रेजी राजनीति में गरीबों के लिए कोई स्थान नहीं था. अमेरिका के समाज में अमीर-गरीब की भावना नहीं थी.

iii) असंतोषजनक शासन-प्रणाली

उपनिवेशों में बसनेवाले अंग्रेज अपने साथ इंग्लैंड की मान्यताएँ और संस्थाएँ भी लेते आये थे. उपनिवेशों की शासन-प्रणाली असंतोषजनक थी. कार्यकारिणी और व्यस्थापिका में निरंतर संघर्ष होता रहता था. उपनिवेश का गवर्नर इंग्लैंड के राजा नियुक्त होता था. गवर्नर को विशेषाधिकार प्राप्त था. वह व्यवस्थापिका सभा भी गवर्नर के वेतन को रोककर उस पर नियंत्रण रख सकती थी. उपनिवेशवासी व्यवस्थापिका सभा को सर्वशक्तिशाली संस्था मानते थे लेकिन ब्रिटेन की सरकार उसे अधीनस्थ एवं स्थानीय संस्था मानती थी. फलतः दोनों में संघर्ष स्वाभाविक था.

उपनिवेशवासियों को राजनीतिक अधिकारों से वंचित रखा गया था. ब्रिटिश शासकों का विचार था कि उपनिवेशवासियों में शासन करने की योग्यता नहीं है. इसलिए बड़े-बड़े पदों पर अंग्रेजों को ही नियुक्ति किया जाता था. ब्रिटिश सरकार की इस नीति से भी उपनिवेशवासी असंतुष्ट थे.

iv) जातीय समानता

उपनिवेशवासियों की धमनियों में भी अंग्रेजी रक्त प्रवाहित हो रहा था. वे भी अंग्रेजों की तरह स्वतंत्रता और स्वराज्य के पुजारी थे और गुलामी की जंजीर को तोड़ देना चाहते थे. अपनी ही जाति के लोगों द्वारा शासित होना उपनिवेशवासियों को अरुचिकर प्रतीत होता था.

v) उपनिवेशवासियों का ब्रिटेन के प्रति रुख

इंग्लैंड के सताए हुए कैथोलिक और प्रोटेस्टेंट ही उपनिवेशों में जाकर बसे थे. वे वहाँ स्वतंत्रता की साँस लेना चाहते थे. किन्तु जब इंग्लैंड की सरकार ने उपनिवेशों को भी अत्याचार और अन्याय का अखाड़ा बना दिया तो वे विद्रोह कर उठे.

vi) स्वायत्त शासन की भावना का विकास

अमेरिका की भौगोलिक स्थिति के कारण इंग्लैंड की सरकार उपनिवेशों के मामलों में दिलचस्पी नहीं ले रही थी. दूरी औरयातायात के साधनों के अभाव के कारण इंग्लैंड की सरकार उपनिवेशों पर नितंत्रण रखने में असमर्थ थी. इसलिए उपनिवेशवासियों ने शासन सम्बन्धी समस्याओं का समाधान स्वयं खोज निकला और उनमें स्वशासन की भावना जगी. इंग्लैंड की प्रजातांत्रिक परम्परा में पीला उपनिवेशवासी उत्तरदायी शासन के गुणों का उपयोग करना चाहते थे.

vii) बुद्धिजीवी वर्ग का नेतृत्व

जनक्रांति का नेतृत्व हमेशा ही बुद्धिजीवी वर्ग करता है. उपनिवेशवासियों को संघर्ष का नारा अंग्रेजों से ही मिला था. जॉन लॉक, रूसो, वाल्टेयर, मांटेस्क्यू जैसे दार्शिनकों का प्रभाव उपनिवेशवासियों पर पड़ा था. टॉमस पेन, जेम्स ओरिस जैसे लेखकों ने राजा के दैवी अधिकार के विरुद्ध आवाज़ उठाई, इससे भी लोगों में जागरण आया.

viii) व्यापारिक एवं औद्योगिक प्रतिबंध

उपनिवेशों के वाणिज्य-व्यवसाय पर अनेक प्रकार के प्रतिबंध लगाए गए थे. वे इंग्लैंड के साथ व्यापारिक प्रतिद्वंद्विता नहीं कर सकते थे और न इंग्लैंड के शत्रु-देशों के साथ व्यापारिक सम्बन्ध कायम कर सकते थे. वस्तुओं के आयात-निर्यात पर भी प्रतिबंध लगा हुआ था. इंग्लैंड और उपनिवेशों के बीच तथा उपनिवेशों एवं अन्य यूरोपीय देशों के बीच वस्तुओं का आयात-निर्यात ब्रिटिश जहाज़ों के द्वारा ही होता था. कुछ व्यापार सम्बन्धी कानून भी थे. कुछ वस्तुएँ कपास, चीनी, तम्बाकू केवल इंग्लैंड ही भेजी का सकती थीं. वस्तुओं के उत्पादन पर भी प्रतिबंध लगाया गया था. उपनिवेशवासी लोहा, सूती कपड़ों जैसी आवश्यक वस्तुओं का उद्योग अपने यहाँ अलग नहीं कर सकते थे. औद्योगिक एवं व्यापारिक प्रतिबंधों के कारण उपनिवेशों की औद्योगिक एवं व्यापारिक प्रगति नहीं हो रही थी. इससे उपनिवेशवासी काफी असंतुष्ट थे और वे परतंत्रता की बेड़ी को तोड़ देना चाहते थे.

ix) सप्तवर्षीय युद्ध के परिणाम

इस युद्ध के परिणामस्वरूप उपनिवेशवासियों में आत्मविश्वास की भावना जगी. अमेरिकन सैनिकों ने अंग्रेज़ सैनकों के साथ मिलकर फ्रांस का मुकाबला युद्ध में किया था. उन्हें विश्वास हो गया कि वे अंग्रेजों से अच्छा लड़ सकते हैं. आर्थिक स्थितियाँ में सुधार और शिक्षा के विकास के कारण उपनिवेशों में मध्यम वर्ग का जन्म हुआ जो राजनीतिक स्वतंत्रता के लिए प्रयास करने लगा. इस वर्ग के लोग स्वतंत्रता के इस संग्राम (American Revolution) के अग्रदूत बने.

x) तात्कालिक कारण

अमेरिका के स्वतंत्रता-संग्राम (American Revolution) का तात्कालिक ग्रेनविल के कुछ आपत्तिजनक कार्य थे. सप्तवर्षीय युद्ध के परिणामस्वरूप आर्थिक संकट पैदा हो गया था. किसान और मजदूर अपनी सीमा से बाहर जाकर आदिवासियों की भूमि आबाद करना चाहते थे, लेकिन ग्रेनविल ने इस पर प्रतिबंध लगा दिया. ग्रेनविल ने नेविगेशन एक्ट कड़ाई से लागू किया. चोरबाजारी सम्बन्धी मामलों की जाँच के लिए admiralty court की स्थापना की गई. 1733 ई. में Molasses Actबना - . a British law that imposed a tax on molasses, sugar, and rum imported from non-British foreign colonies into the North American colonies. ग्रेनविल ने चुंगी की वसूली में सख्ती दिखलाई. बंदरगाहों पर अंग्रेज कर्मचारी तैनात किए गए और टैक्स नहीं देनेवालों के घर की तलाशी ली जाती थी. 1765 में Stamp Act बनाया गया. अब अखबारों, कानूनी कागजातों, बंधक सम्बन्धी दस्तावेजों और इश्तहारों पर सरकारी टिकट लगाना अनिवार्य कर दिया गया. इस कानून के कारण उपनिवेशों के पात्र-प्रकाशकों, इश्तहार निकाल्नेवालों, वकीलों, व्यापारियों को भारी क्षति उठानी पड़ी. उपनिवेशवासियों के विरोध के कारण 1766 ई. में स्टाम्प एक्ट को बंद कर दिया गया. लेकिन यह स्पष्ट कर दिया गया कि ब्रिटिश सरकार को उपनिवेशों पर कर लगाने का अधिकार है.

इंग्लैंड की गौरवपूर्ण क्रांति - Glorious Revolution 1688 in Hindi

2018-07-29T21:04:00.001+05:30

जेम्स द्वितीय 1685 ई. में इंग्लैंड का राजा बना. उसे बहुत सुरक्षित सिंहासन प्राप्त हुआ था. परिस्थिति राजतंत्र के पक्ष में थी. विरोधी दल कुचला जा चूका था. राज्य के प्रति निर्विरोध आज्ञाकारिता का सिद्धांत स्वीकृत हो चूका था. संसद के अधिकांश सदस्य राजा के दैवी अधिकार सिद्धांत के समर्थक थे. जेम्स द्वितीय ने स्वयं ही परिस्थिति को विपरीत बना दिया और उसे अंततोगत्वा गद्दी छोड़कर भागना पड़ा. 1688 ई. में हुए इंग्लैंड की क्रांति को 'गौरवपूर्ण क्रांति (Glorious Revolution)” भी कहा जाता है.

इंग्लैंड की क्रांति संक्षेप में

1688 ई. की क्रांति जेम्स द्वितीय के शासनकाल में हुई थी. क्रांति के लिए जेम्स द्वितीय ने खुद वातावरण तैयार किया था. उसके कार्यों से सभी दल के लोग असंतुष्ट थे. उन्हें विश्वास हो गया था कि राजा स्वेच्छाचारी शासन की पुनरावृत्ति करना चाहता है. जेम्स द्वितीय रोमन कैथोलिक चर्च की शक्ति को बढ़ाना चाहता था. वह कैथलिकों को राज्य के महत्त्वपूर्ण पदों पर नियुक्त करना चाहता था. वह किसी भी कानून को स्थगित अथवा रद्द करने के अधिकार द्वारा अपनी सत्ता को सर्वोपरि बनाना चाहता था. वह टेस्ट एक्ट को समाप्त करना चाहता था और इसलिए उसने न्यायालय में अपने समर्थक न्यायाधीशों को ही रहने दिया. वह स्थाई सेना की सहायता से विरोधियों पर नियंत्रण रखना चाहता था. इंग्लैंड की जनता जेम्स द्वितीय के क्रूर शासन को इसलिए बर्दास्त कर रही थी कि उसकी मृत्यु के बाद इंग्लैंड में कैथोलिक शासन का अंत होगा. लेकिन जून, 1688 ई में जेम्स द्वितीय की दूसरी कैथोलिक पत्नी से एक पुत्र उत्पन्न हुआ. पुत्र के जन्म ने इंग्लैंड की क्रांति को अवश्यम्भावी बना दिया. लोगों को विश्वास हो गया कि जेम्स द्वितीय की नीति अनंत काल तक चलती रहेगी. इस आशंका से लोग भयभीत हो गए. वे क्रांति द्वारा कैथोलिक शासन के अंत का प्रयास करने लगे. प्रतिकूल परिस्थिति के कारण जेम्स द्वितीय ने गद्दी छोड़ दिया. विलियम तृतीय और मेरी को इंग्लैंड का सम्राट और साम्राज्ञी घोषित किया गया. 'अधिकारों का घोषणापत्र” तैयार किया गया. जेम्स द्वितीय के सभी कार्यों को अवैध घोषित किया गया. प्रजा तथा संसद के अधिकारों की पुष्टि की गई.

1688 ई. की क्रांति के कारण

1688 ई. के इंग्लैंड की क्रांति के प्रमुख कारण निम्नलिखित थे -

जेम्स द्वितीय की धार्मिक नीति

जेम्स द्वितीय कट्टर कैथोलिक था. कैथोलिक धर्म के सिधान्तों में उसकी गहरी आस्था थी. वह कैथोलिकों को राज्य के प्रमुख पदों पर नियुक्त करना चाहता था. इस पक्षपात को देखते हुए प्रोटेस्टेंट लोगों ने जेम्स के कार्यों का विरोध करना शुरू कर दिया. विरोधियों का दमन करने के लिए जेम्स द्वितीय ने अनेक कठोर कदम उठाये. हाई कमीशन नामक न्यायालय की स्थापना की गई. कैथोलिक धर्म की आलोचना अथवा निंदा करने का अधिकार किसी को नहीं था. विरोध की परवाह न करते हुए जेम्स द्वितीय ने कैथोलिक धर्म का प्रचार जारी रखा.

फ्रांस के साथ मैत्री सम्बन्ध

जेम्स द्वितीय का विश्वास था कि आवश्यकता पड़ने पर फ़्रांस का राजा लुई चौदहवाँ उसे सेना और धन से सहायता देगा. इस कारण उसने फ्रांस के साथ मैत्री सम्बन्ध बनाए रखना का पूर्ण रूप से प्रयास किया. उसने रोमन कैथोलिकों की सुविधाएँ प्रदान की और प्रोटेस्टेंट धर्म के अनुयायियों पर घोर अत्याचार किया. इंग्लैंड की प्रोटेस्टेंट जनता इस प्रकार के अत्याचार को सहन नहीं कर सकी. उसने जेम्स द्वितीय का विरोध करना शुरू कर दिया.

टेस्ट एक्ट के प्रति उदासीनाता

टेस्ट एक्ट के अनुसार केवल अंग्रेजी चर्च के अनुयायियों को ही राज्य कर्मचारी के रूप में नियुक्त किया जा सकता था. इस नियम के कारण कैथोलिकों की नियुक्ति नहीं की जा सकती थी. इसलिए जेम्स द्वितीय ने टेस्ट एक्ट को रद्द करने का प्रयास किया लेकिन संसद ने ऐसा करने की अनुमति नहीं दी. इससे असंतुष्ट होकर जेम्स द्वितीय ने संसद को ही स्थगित कर दिया.

निलंबन और विमोचन के अधिकार का प्रयोग

जेम्स द्वितीय का कहना था कि आवश्यकता होने पर राजा किसी भी नियम को स्थगित अथवा रद्द कर सकता है. इस अधिकार का प्रयोग करके उसने कैथोलिकों के विरुद्ध बने सभी कानूनों को रद्द कर दिया. इंग्लैंड की जनता ने राजा का विरोध किया.

विश्वविद्यालय में हस्तक्षेप

जेम्स द्वितीय ने विश्वविद्यालय के कार्यों में भी हस्तक्षेप किया. विश्वविद्यालय में बड़े-बड़े पदों पर कैथोलिकों की नियुक्ति की गई. कैंब्रिज विश्वविद्यालय के उप-कुलपति को पदच्युत कर दिया गया था क्योंकि उसने एक कैथोलिक को डिग्री देने से इनकार कर दिया था. ऑक्सफ़ोर्ड विश्वविद्यालय में भी कैथोलिक धर्म का प्रचार की व्यवस्था की गई. क्रिस्ट चर्च के अध्यक्ष के पद पर एक कट्टर रोमन कैथोलिक को नियुक्त किया गया. विश्वविद्यालय के कार्यों में हस्तक्षेप से भी इंग्लैंड की जनता असंतुष्ट थी.

धार्मिक न्यायालय की स्थापना

1686 ई. में जेम्स द्वितीय ने धार्मिक न्यायालय की स्थापना की. इस न्यायालय का मुख्य उद्देश्य पादरियों को राजा की इच्छानुसार कार्य करने के लिए बाध्य करना था. धार्मिक न्यायालय द्वारा कैथोलिक धर्म के विरोधियों को क्रूर सजा दी जाती थी.

स्थायी सेना में वृद्धि

जेम्स द्वितीय को सुरक्षित सिंहासन प्राप्त हुआ था. उस समय न तो आंतरिक विरोध की संभावना थी और न विदेशी आक्रमण का भय था. फिर भी जेम्स द्वितीय स्थायी सेना में वृद्धि करना चाहता था. सैनिकों में अधिकांश कैथोलिक थे. इससे लोगों का आतंकित होना स्वाभाविक था. उन्हें विश्वास हो गया था कि जेम्स द्वितीय स्थायी सेना की सहायता से स्वेच्छाचारी शासन की स्थापना करेगा और कैथोलिक धर्म का प्रचार-प्रसार करेगा.

स्कॉटलैंड और आयरलैंड के प्रति नीति

`जेम्स द्वितीय के स्वेच्छाचारी शासन का प्रभाव स्कॉटलैंड और आयरलैंड पर भी पड़ा था. उसने वहाँ भी ऊँचे-ऊँचे पदों पर कैथोलिकों की नियुक्ति की. आयरलैंड के प्रोटोस्टेंट भयभीत हो गए. स्कॉटलैंड में रोमन कैथोलिकों को पूरी धार्मिक स्वतंत्रता दी गई. इससे लोगों में असंतोष बढ़ा जिसके कारण आगे चलकर क्रांति संभव हो सकी.

चुनाव में हस्तक्षेप

जेम्स द्वितीय चुनाव में भी हस्तक्षेप करने लगा था. वह संसद के सदस्यों को नामजद (nominate) भी करने लगा था. वह अपने समर्थकों की संख्या संसद में बढ़ाना चाहता था. इससे संसद के सदस्य असंतुष्ट थे.

सात पादरियों का मुकदमा

जेम्स द्वितीय ने 1688 ई. में दूसरी घोषणा प्रकाशित की. उसने राज्य के प्रत्येक चर्च में इसे लगातार दो रविवारों को पढ़ने का आदेश दिया था. राजा की घोषणा की संसद की स्वीकृति प्राप्त नहीं थी. इसलिए राजा के आदेश को स्वीकार करना राजा की निरंकुशता को स्वीकार करना था. कैंटरबरी के आर्कविशप और छ: अन्य विशपों ने राजा के सामने एक आवेदन-पत्र प्रस्तुत कर आदेश को वापस लेने की माँग की. जेम्स द्वितीय ने इनपर राजद्रोह का अभियोग लगाकर मुकदमा चलवाया. लेकिन न्यायालय ने विशपों को निर्दोष घोषित किया. इससे लोगों ने आनंद और उत्साह की लहर दौड़ गई.

पुत्र का जन्म

जैसा हमने ऊपर भी लिखा है कि जेम्स द्वितीय ने अपनी कैथोलिक पत्नी से एक पुत्र को को जन्म दिया. इससे लोगों को लगने लगा कि यह कैथोलिक हमेशा उनपर भविष्य में भी हावी ही रहेंगे. उन्हें विश्वास हो गया कि बच्चे का लालन-पालन कैथोलिक वातावरण में होगा और उसे कैथोलिक शिक्षा दी जाएगी. इस प्रकार जेम्स द्वितीय की मृत्यु के बाद कैथोलिक शासन चलता रहेगा. इस आसह्नका से ही लोग भयभीत हो गए. अब वे क्रांति के द्वारा ही कैथोलिक शासन का अंत कर सकते थे.

क्रांति के परिणामराजा की शक्ति में कमी आई.संसद के अधिकारों में वृद्धि हुई.क्रांति के बाद अनेक अधिनियम बने.धार्मिक सहिष्णुता को बढ़ावा दिया गया.नौ-सेना, स्थल सेना आदि के व्यय के ब्योरे और ऋण का अनुमान लगाया.न्यायालय को स्वतंत्रता मिली.फ़्रांस को पराजित कर इंग्लैंड ने एक नयी यूरोपीय नीति अपनाई.स्कॉटलैंड को क्रांति से सांविधानिक और राजनीतिक लाभ प्राप्त हुए.क्रांति का आयरलैंड पर अच्छा प्रभाव नहीं पड़ा. आयरलैंड का ऊन का व्यापार चौपट हो गया.

1688 ई. की क्रांति इंग्लैंड के इतिहास में एक युगांतकारी घटना थी. निरंकुश राजतंत्र की परम्परा समाप्त हो गयी और राजा को वैधानिक सीमा में जकड़ दिया गया. 1689 ई . में अधिकार-विधेयक पारित हुआ. इसके अनुसार, राजा संसद की सहमति के बिना न तो किसी कानून को स्थगित कर सकता था, न किसी नए कानून को लागू कर सकता था, न नया कर लगा सकता था और न किसी व्यक्ति की सजा माफ़ कर सकता था. यह भी स्पष्ट कर दिया गया कि कैथोलिक या कैथोलिक स्त्री से शादी करने वाला कोई भी व्यक्ति इंग्लैंड की गद्दी का अधिकारी नहीं होगा. निरंकुश राजतंत्र की जगह नियमानुमोदित शासन की स्थापना हुई. संसद की शक्ति बढ़ी. वह राजसत्ता पर नियंत्रण रखने लगी और राजकोष पर उसका एकमात्र अधिकार हो गया.

संसद ने विद्रोही-कानून पास किया गया. इससे सेना पर संसद का नियंत्रण हो गया. त्रैवार्षिक कानून पास कर हर तीसरे वर्ष पर संसद का निर्वाचन अनिवार्य कर दिया गया. सहिष्णुता-कानून पास कर सभी प्रोटेस्टेंट सम्प्रदायों को धार्मिक स्वतंत्रता दी गयी. 1701 ई. में उत्तराधिकार निर्णायक कानून बना. इसके अनुसार ये तय हुआ कि इंग्लैंड का राजा प्रोटेस्टेंट ही होगा. कार्यपालिका, न्यायपालिका और व्यवस्थापिका पर संसद का पूर्ण नियंत्रण स्थापित हो गया. अब राजा की जगह संसद संप्रभु हो गया. राजा की निरंकुशता समाप्त हो गई और संसद की संप्रुभता स्थापित हुई.

[विश्व इतिहास] फ्रांस की क्रांति - 1789 French Revolution

2018-07-29T01:45:00.001+05:30

फ्रांस की क्रांति (French Revolution): भूमिका

18वीं शताब्दी के 70-80 के दशकों में विभिन्न कारणों से राजा और तत्कालीन राजव्यवस्था के प्रति फ्रांस के नागरिकों में विद्रोह की भावना पनप रही थी. यह विरोध धीरे-धीरे तीव्र होता चला गया. अंततोगत्वा 1789 में राजा लुई 16वाँ (Louis XVI) को एक सभा बुलानी पड़ी. इस सभा का नाम General State था. यह सभा कई वर्षों से बुलाई नहीं गयी थी. इसमें सामंतों के अतिरिक्त सामान्य वर्ग के भी प्रतिनिधि होते थे. इस सभा में जनता की माँगों पर जोरदार बहस हुई. स्पष्ट हो गया कि लोगों में व्यवस्था की बदलने की बैचैनी थी. इसी बैचैनी का यह परिणाम हुआ कि इस सभा के आयोजन के कुछ ही दिनों के बाद सामान्य नागरिकों का एक जुलूस बास्तिल नामक जेलपहुँच गया और उसके दरवाजे तोड़ डाले गए. सभी कैदी बाहर निकल गए. सच पूंछे तो नागरिक इस जेल को जनता के दमन का प्रतीक मानते थे. कुछ दिनों के बाद महिलाओं का एक दल राजा के वर्साय स्थित दरबार को घेरने निकल गया जिसके फलस्वरूप राजा को पेरिस चले जाना पड़ा. इसी बीच General State ने कई क्रांतिकारी कदम भी उठाना शुरू किए. यथा - मानव के अधिकारों की घोषणा, मेट्रिक प्रणाली का आरम्भ, चर्च के प्रभाव का समापन, सामंतवाद की समाप्ति की घोषणा, दास प्रथा के अंत की घोषणा आदि. General State के सदस्यों में मतभेद भी हुए. कुछ लोग क्रांति के गति को धीमी रखना चाहते थे. कुछ अन्य प्रखर क्रान्ति के पोषक थे. इन लोगों में आपसी झगड़े भी होने लगे पर इनका नेतृत्व कट्टर क्रांतिकारियों के हाथ में रहा. बाद में इनके एक नेता Maximilian Robespierre हुआ जिसने हज़ारों को मौत के घाट उतार दिया. उसके एक वर्ष के नेतृत्व को आज भी आतंक का राज (Reign of terror) कहते हैं. इसकी परिणति स्वयं Louis 16th और उसकी रानी की हत्या से हुई. राजपरिवार के हत्या के पश्चात् यूरोप के अन्य राजाओं में क्रोध उत्पन्न हुआ और वे लोग संयुक्त सेना बना-बना कर क्रांतिकारियों के विरुद्ध लड़ने लगे. क्रांतिकारियों ने भी एक सेना बना ली जिसमें सामान्य वर्ग के लोग भी सम्मिलित हुए. क्रान्ति के नए-नए उत्साह के कारण क्रांतिकारियों की सेना बार-बार सफल हुई और उसका उत्साह बढ़ता चला गया. यह सेना फ्रांस के बाहर भी भूमि जीतने लगी. इसी बीच इस सेना का एक सेनापति जिसका नाम नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट था, अपनी विजयों के कारण बहुत लोकप्रिय हुआ. इधर फ्रांस के अन्दर कट्टर क्रांति से लोग ऊब चुके थे. इसका लाभ उठाते हुए और अपनी लोकप्रियता को भुनाते हुए नेपोलियन ने सत्ता पर कब्ज़ा कर लिया और एक Consulate बना कर शासन चालने लगा. यह शासन क्रांतिकारी सिद्धांतों पर चलता रहा. अंततः नेपोलियन ने सम्राट की उपाधि अपने आप को प्रदान की और इस प्रकार फ्रांसमें राजतंत्र दुबारा लौट आया. इस प्रकार हम कह सकते हैं फ्रांस की क्रांति (French Revolution) अपनी चरम अवस्था में थी.

1789 ई. की फ्रांसीसी क्रांति (French Revolution) आधुनिक युग की एक महत्त्वपूर्ण घटना थी. यह क्रांति (French Revolution) निरंकुश राजतंत्र, सामंती शोषण, वर्गीय विशेषाधिकार तथा प्रजा की भलाई के प्रति शासकों की उदासीनता के विरुद्ध प्रारंभ हुई थी. उस समय फ्रांस में न केवल शोषित और असंतुष्ट वर्ग की विद्दमान थे, बल्कि वहाँ के आर्थिक और राजनैतिक ढाँचा में भी विरोधाभास देखा जा सकता था. राजनैतिक शक्ति का केन्द्रीकरण हो चुका था. सम्पूर्ण देश की धुरी एकमात्र राज्य था. समाज का नेतृत्व शनैः शनैः बुद्धिजीवी वर्ग के हाथ में आ रहा था. राजा शासन का सर्वोच्च अधिकारी होता था. राजा की इच्छाएँ ही राज्य का कानून था. लोगों को किसी प्रकार का नागरिक अधिकार प्राप्त नहीं था. राजा के अन्यायों और अत्याचारों से आम जनता परेशान थी. भाषण, लेखन और प्रकाशन पर कड़ा प्रतिबंध लगा हुआ था. लोगों को धार्मिक स्वंतत्रता भी नहीं दी गयी थी. राष्ट्र की सम्पूर्ण आय पर राजा का निजी अधिकार था. सम्पूर्ण आमदनी राजा-रानी और दरबारियों के भोग-विलास तथा आमोद-प्रमोद पर खर्च हो जाता था. राज्य के उच्च पदों पर राजा के कृपापात्रों की नियुक्ति होती थी. स्थानीय स्वशासन का अभाव था. फ्रांसीसी समाज दो टुकड़ों में बँट कर रह गया था - एक सुविधा-प्राप्त वर्ग और दूसरा सुविधाहीन वर्ग.

फ्रांस की क्रांति (French Revolution) का प्रभाव विश्वव्यापी हुआ. इसके फलस्वरूप निरंकुश शासन तथा सामंती व्यवस्था का अंत हुआ. प्रजातंत्रात्मक शासन-प्रणाली की नींव डाली गई. सामजिक, आर्थिक और धार्मिक व्यवस्था में महत्त्वपूर्ण सुधार लाये गए.

राजनैतिक कारण

i) निरंकुश राजतंत्र

राजतंत्र की निरंकुशता फ्रांसीसी क्रांति (French Revolution) का एक प्रमुख कारण था. राजा शासन का सर्वोच्च अधिकारी होता था. वह अपनी इच्छानुसार काम करता था. वह अपने को ईश्वर का प्रतिनिधि बतलाता था. राजा के कार्यों के आलोचकों को बिना कारण बताए जेल में डाल दिया जाता था. राजा के अन्यायों और अत्याचारों से आम जनता तबाह थी. वह निरंकुश से छुटकारा पाने के लिए कोशिश करने लगी.

ii) स्वतंत्रताओं का अभाव

फ्रान्स में शासन का अति केन्द्रीकरण था. शासन के सभी सूत्र राजा के हाथों में थे. भाषण, लेखन और प्रकाशन पर कड़ा प्रतिबंध लगा हुआ था. राजनैतिक स्वतंत्रता का पूर्ण अभाव था. लोगों को धार्मिक स्वतंत्रता भी नहीं थी. बंदी प्रत्यक्षीकरण नियम की व्यवस्था नहीं थी. न्याय और स्वतंत्रता की इस नग्न अवहेलना के कारण लोगों का रोष धीरे-धीरे क्रांति का रूप ले रहा था.

iii) राजप्रसाद का विलासी जीवन और धन का अपव्यय

राष्ट्र की सम्पूर्ण आय पर राजा का निजी अधिकार था. सम्पूर्ण आमदनी राजा-रानी और दरबारियों के भोग-विलास तथा आमोद-प्रमोद पर खर्च हुआ होता था. रानी बहुमूल्य वस्तुएँ खरीदने में अपार धन खर्च करती थी. एक ओर किसानों, श्रमिकों को भरपेट भोजन नहीं मिलता था तो दूसरी ओर सामंत, कुलीन और राजपरिवार के सदस्य विलासिता का जीवन बिताते थे.

iv) प्रशासनिक अव्यवस्था

फ्रान्स का शासन बेढंगा और अव्यवस्थित था. सरकारी पदों पर नियुक्ति योग्यता के आधार पर नहीं होती थी. राजा के कृपापात्रों की नियुक्ति राज्य के उच्च पदों पर होती थी. भिन्न-भिन्न प्रान्तों में अलग-अलग कानून थे. कानून की विविधता के चलते स्वच्छ न्याय की आशा करना बेकार था.

सामजिक कारण

i) पादरी वर्ग

फ्रांसमें रोमन कैथोलिक चर्च की प्रधानता थी. चर्च एक स्वतंत्र संस्था के रूप में काम कर रहा था. इसका अपना अलग संगठन था, अपना न्यायालय था और धन प्राप्ति का स्रोत था. देश की भूमि का पाँचवा भाग चर्च के पास था. चर्च की वार्षिक आमदनी करीब तीस करोड़ रुपये थी. चर्च स्वयं करमुक्त था, लेकिन उसे लोगों पर कर लगाने का विशेष अधिकार प्राप्त था. चर्च की अपार संपत्ति से बड़े-बड़े पादरी भोग-विलास का जीवन बिताते थे. धर्म के कार्यों से उन्हें कोई मतलब नहीं था. वे पूर्णतया सांसारिक जीवन व्यतीत करते थे.

ii) कुलीन वर्ग

फ्रांसका कुलीन वर्ग सुविधायुक्त एवं सम्पन्न वर्ग था. कुलीनों को अनेक विशेषाधिकार प्राप्त थे. वे राजकीय कर से मुक्त थे. राज्य, धर्म और सेना के उच्च पदों पर कुलीनों की नियुक्ति होती थी. वे किसानों से कर वसूल करते थे. वे वर्साय के राजमहल में जमे रहते और राजा को अपने प्रभाव में बनाए रखने की पूरी कोशिश करते थे. कुलीनों के विशेषाधिकार और उत्पीड़न ने साधारण लोगों को क्रांतिकारी बनाया था.

iii) कृषक वर्ग

किसानों का वर्ग सबसे अधिक शोषित और पीड़ित था. उन्हें कर का बोझ उठाना पड़ता था. उन्हें राज्य, चर्च और जमींदारों को अनेक प्रकार के कर देने पड़ते थे. कृषक वर्ग अपनी दशा में सुधार लान चाहते थे और यह सुधार सिर्फ एक क्रांति द्वारा ही आ सकती थी.

iv) मजदूर वर्ग

मजदूरों और कारीगरों की दशा अत्यंत दयनीय थी. औद्योगिक क्रान्ति के कारण घरेलू उद्योग-धंधों का विनाश हो चुका था और मजदूर वर्ग बेरोजगार हो गए थे. देहात के मजदूर रोजगार की तलाश में पेरिस भाग रहे थे. क्रांति के समय (French Revolution) मजदूर वर्ग का एक बड़ा गिरोह तैयार हो चुका था.

v) मध्यम वर्ग

माध्यम वर्ग के लोग सामजिक असमानता को समाप्त करना चाहते थे. चूँकि तत्कालीन शासन के प्रति सबसे अधिक असंतोष मध्यम वर्ग में था, इसलिए क्रांति (French Revolution) का संचालन और नेतृत्व इसी वर्ग ने किया.

आर्थिक कारण

विदेशी युद्ध और राजमहल के अपव्यय के कारण फ्रांस की आर्थिक स्थिति लचर हो गयी थी. आय से अधिक व्यय हो चुका था. खर्च पूरा करने के लिए सरकार को कर्ज लेना पड़ रहा था. कर की असंतोषजनक व्यवस्था के साथ-साथ शासकों की फिजूलखर्ची से फ्रांसकी हालत और भी ख़राब हो गई थी.

बौधिक जागरण

विचारकों और दार्शनिकों ने फ्रांसकी राजनैतिक एवं सामाजिक बुराइयों की ओर लोगों का ध्यान आकृष्ट किया और तत्कालीन व्यवस्था के प्रति असंतोष, घृणा और विद्रोह की भावना को उभरा. Montesquieu, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau के विचारों से मध्यम वर्ग सबसे अधिक प्रभावित था. Montesquieu ने समाज और शासन-व्यवस्था की प्रसंशा Power-Separation Theory का प्रतिपादन किया. वाल्टेयर ने सामाजिक एवं धार्मिक कुप्रथाओं पर प्रहार किया. रूसो ने राजतंत्र का विरोध किया और व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता पर बल दिया. उसने जनता की सार्वभौमिकता के सिद्धांत (Principles of Rational and Just Civic Association) का प्रतिपादन किया. इन लेखकों ने लोगों को मानसिक रूप से क्रान्ति के लिए तैयार किया.

सैनिकों में असंतोष

फ्रांस की सेना भी तत्कालीन शासन-व्यवस्था से असंतुष्ट थी. सेना में असंतोष फैलते ही शासन का पतन अवश्यम्भावी हो जाता है. सैनिकों को समय पर वेतन नहीं मिलता था. उनके खाने-पीने तथा रहने की उचित व्यवस्था नहीं थी. उन्हें युद्ध के समय पुराने अस्त्र-शस्त्र दिए जाते थे. ऐसी स्थिति में सेना में रोष का उत्पन्न होना स्वाभाविक था.

फ्रांसीसी क्रांति के परिणाम

निरंकुश शासन का अंत कर प्रजातंत्रात्मक शासन-प्रणाली की नींव डाली गई. प्रशासन के साथ-साथ सामजिक, धार्मिक एवं आर्थिक जीवन में महत्त्वपूर्ण परिवर्तन हुए. फ्रांस की क्रांति (French Revolution) ने निरंकुश शासन का अंत कर लोकप्रिय संप्रभुता के सिद्धांत को प्रतिपादित किया. क्रांति के पूर्व फ्रांसऔर अन्य यूरोपीय देशों के शासक निरंकुश थे. उनपर किसी प्रकार का वैधानिक अंकुश नहीं था. क्रांति ने राजा के विशेषाधिकारों और दैवी अधिकार सिद्धांत पर आघात किया. इस क्रांति के फलस्वरूप सामंती प्रथा (Feudal System) का अंत हो गया. कुलीनों के विदेषाधिकार समाप्त कर दिए गए. किसानों को सामंती कर से मुक्त कर दिया गया. कुलीनों और पादरियों के विशेषाधिकार समाप्त कर दिए गये. लोगों को भाषण-लेखन तथा विचार-अभीव्यक्ति का अधिकार दिया गया. फ्रांस की आर्थिक स्थिति को सुधारने के लिए कर-प्रणाली (tax system) में सुधार लाया गया. कार्यपालिका, न्यायपालिका और व्यवस्थापिका को एक-दूसरे से पृथक् कर दिया गया. अब राजा को संसद के परामर्श से काम करना पड़ता था. न्याय को सुलभ बनाने के लिए न्यायालय का पुनर्गठन किया गया. सरकार के द्वारा सार्वजनिक शिक्षा की व्यवस्था की गई. फ्रांसमें एक एक प्रकार की शासन-व्यवस्था स्थापित की गई, एक प्रकार के आर्थिक नियम बने और नाप-तौल की नयी व्यवस्था चालू की गई. लोगों को धार्मिक स्वतंत्रता मिली. उन्हें किसी भी धर्म के पालन और प्रचार का अधिकार मिला. पादरियों को संविधान के प्रति वफादारी की शपथ लेनी पड़ती थी. French Revolution ने लोगों को विश्वास दिलाया कि राजा एक अनुबंध के अंतर्गत प्रजा के प्रति उत्तरदायी है. यदि राजा अनुबंध को भंग करता है तो प्रजा का अधिकार है कि वह राजा को पदच्युत कर दे. यूरोप के अनेक देशों में निरंकुश राजतंत्र को समाप्त कर प्रजातंत्र की स्थापना की गयी.

Upcoming Summits and their Venues

2016-08-23T23:03:00.001+05:30

Summit Name	Place and Country
APEC 2016 Summit	Lima, Peru
APEC 2017 Summit	Hano, Vietnam
Nuclear Summit 2016	US
G7 Summit 2016	Shima, Japan
G7 Foreign Ministers Meeting	Hirosh,Japan
G8 Summit 2016	Sendai, Japan
G20 Summit 2016	Hangzhou, China
8th BRICS Summit	Goa, India
SCO Summit	Tashkent, Uzbekistan
India Investment Summit	New Delhi
World Humanitarian Summit	Istanbul
Heart of Asia conference	New Delhi
13th Islamic Summit Conference	Istanbul
14th meeting of Foreign Ministers of Russia, India and China	Moscow, Russia
Maritime India Summit 2016	Mumbai, India
North East ASEAN Business Summit	Imphal, India
National Summit on Family Planning	Delhi
International Conference On Zero	Paris
13th India – EU Summit	Brussels, Belgium
59th Session of Commission on Narcotic Drugs	Vienna, Austria
60th Session of Commission on the Status of Women	New York
Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development	Dubai
World Congress of Biosphere Reserves	Lima, Peru
World Government Summit	Dubai
World Internet Conference	Wuzen, by China
2016 Nuclear Industry Summit	Washington
SAARC Summit 2016	Islamabad, Pakistan
East - Asia Summit 2016	Vientiane

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Squaring of Numbers ending in 5 (Five)

2014-09-04T23:46:00.000+05:30

Squaring is multiplying a number by itself. Let us have a look at how to square a numbers ending in 5 (five) in a simplest way.

Example 1 : Square of 75

Apart from 5 the number is 7. The number that comes after 7 is 8. We multiply 7 with 8 and write the answer LHS 56. Next, we multiply the last digit (5x5) and put 25 beside it and get our answer as 5625. Thus, 75x75 = 5625.

Example 2 : Square of 115

In the previous example we have solved two digits number. But, the same technique can be extended to numbers of any length. In Example 2, we will try to determine square of a three digit number 115.

Apart from 5 the digits are 1 and 1 i.e. 11. The number that comes after 11 is 12. We multiply 11 with 12 and write the answer LHS 132. We suffix 25 to it and write the final answer as 13225. So, the square of 115 is 13225.

A few more examples are given below:

25x25 = (2x3)|(5x5) = 625
45x45 = (4x5)|(5x5) = 2025
65x65 = (6x7)|(5x5) = 4225
85x85 = (8x9)|(5x5) = 7225
105x105 = (10x11)|(5x5) = 11025
125x125 = (12x13)|(5x5) = 15625

Fact:- LHS will always be 25, in case of squaring numbering ending in 5

Filmfare Awards 2013 Winners List

2013-01-25T16:49:00.001+05:30

POPULAR AWARDS

Best Actor Ranbir Kapoor (Barfi!)
Best Actress Vidya Balan (Kahaani)
Best Film Barfi!
Best Director Sujoy Ghosh (Kahaani)
Best Dialogue Anurag Kashyap, Akhilesh Jaiswal, Sachin K Ladia, Zeishan Qadri (Gangs of Wasseypur)
Best Screenplay Sanjay Chouhan & Tigmanshu Dhulia (Paan Singh Tomar)
Best Story Juhi Chaturvedi (Vicky Donor)
Best Supporting Actor (Male) Annu Kapoor (Vicky Donor)
Best Supporting Actor (Female) Anushka Sharma (Jab Tak Hai Jaan)
Best Music Director Pritam (Barfi!)
Best Lyrics Gulzar (Challa), Jab Tak Hai Jaan
Best Playback (Male) Ayushmann Khurrana (Paani Da Rang) (Vicky Donor)
Best Playback (Female) Shalmali Kholgade (Pareshaan)(Ishaqzaade)
RD Burman Award For Upcoming Talent In Music Neeti Mohan (Jiya Re) (Jab Tak Hain Jaan)
Lifetime Achievement Award Yash Chopra Sony Trendsetter Of The Year Barfi!
Best Debut (Male) Ayushmann Khurrana (Vicky Donor)
Best Debut (Female) Ileana D'Cruz (Barfi!)
Best Debut (Director) Gauri Shinde (English Vinglish)

CRITICS AWARDS

Critics' Award for Best Actor (Male) Irrfan Khan (Paan Singh Tomar)
Critics' Award for Best Actor (Female) Richa Chadda (Gangs of Wasseypur)
Critics' Award for Best Film Gangs of Wasseypur

FILMFARE TECHNICAL AWARDS

Best Action Sham Kaushal (Gangs Of Wasseypur)
Best Cinematography Setu (Kahaani)
Best Editing Namrata Rao (Kahaani)
Best Production Design Rajat Podar (Barfi!)
Best Sound Design Sanjay Maurya & Allwin Rego (Kahaani)
Best Costume Design Manoshi Nath & Rushi Sharma (Shanghai)
Best Choreography Bosco-Caesar (Aunty Ji - Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu)
Best Background Score Pritam (Barfi!)

Some Commonly Used Terms in Computers

2012-09-10T13:47:00.000+05:30

Programme: It is a set of instructions given to the computer in a particular sequence for solving a given problem. In other words, it contains a set of actions to be performed by the computer on the data to produce necessary result. Programming is done in one of the computer languages.
Software: It is a collection of programmes written to bring the hardware of a computer system into operation. We cannot do any thing useful with the computer hardware on its own. It has to be driven by certain utility programmes called software which are stored in the computer system. There are two types of software:

Application Software: It refers to programmes or sets of programmes that perform a specific processing application, e.g., payroll and inventory control.
System Software: It consists of sets of programmes that act as an interface between the user and hardware, e.g., operating system like Windows, Mac OS, and UNIX etc.

Hardware: It is the term given to the machinery itself and to the various individual pieces of electronic equipment.
Liveware: The users working on the system are termed as ?liveware?.
Firmware: It is defined as software embedded into the hardware, e.g., ROM, which has the basic input-output system (BIOS).
Compiler: A programme which translates a high-level language programme into machine language.
Interpreter: A programme that translates each instruction of high level language and executes it before passing on to the next instruction.
Assembler: A programme which converts assembly language programme into machine language programme. It is system software.
Multiprocessing: In this of processing, the CPU has a number of processors which operate in parallel, thereby allowing simultaneous execution of several programmes.
Multiprogramming: This type of processing enables more than one programme to reside in the central memory at the same time, and share the available processor time and peripheral units.

Basic Computer Terminology - A to Z

2012-09-10T13:54:00.000+05:30

Access Time	The time taken to retrieve date from a storage device or to obtain data from peripheral unit
Alphanumeric	Pertaining to a character set that contains letters, digits and usually other characters such as punctuation marks
Background Job	A Job in an operation system which has a lower priority than jobs being run simultaneously which involve any online activity
Binary Digit	The digit 0 to 1
Binary Number System	Number system with a base of 2
Bit	Smallest possible unit of information (Binary digit)
Bug	Any mistake or malfunction of computer (programme or system
Bus	A line or circuit used for transmitting data or power to a large number of devices
Central Processing Unit	The computer unit that performs the execution of instructions
Character Set	A set of unique symbols arranged in a fixed order used by a device or language to denote information
Chip	The tiny bit of silicon that forms the heart of an integrated circuit
Cobol	Common Business Oriented Language
Compile	To translate a computer programme written in a higher level source language into a machine language programme
Computer System	A central processor and associated peripheral units
Data processing	The operations performed on data
Debug	To locate and correct any errors in a computer programme or to correct malfunctions in the computer or its peripheral equipment
Downtime	The period during which a computer is not operating correctly due to mechanical or electronic failure or malfunction
EDP	Electronic Data Processing; the processing of data with electronic equipment
Executive	A Programme that helps manage the operation of a computer system
Flowchart	A graphic representation of the definition analysis or solution to a problem in which symbols are used to represent operations, data flow or equipment
FORTRAN	A high level programming language for scientific and mathematical use (Formula Translation)
Hardware	Physical equipment such as mechanical, magnetic, electrical or electronic devices
Hexadecimal Number System	Number system with a base of 16
High-Level language	Developed to make the task of programming easier
Input	The actual data which must be put into the computer to accomplish some task
Label	A group of characters used as a symbol to identify an item of data, an area of memory
Machine language	Refer to instructions written in machine code which can be immediately obeyed by a computer without translation
Main Storage	The store from which instruction are executed
Memory	The chips in the computer where information and instructions are stored in Binary code
Micro Second	One Millionth of a second
Millisecond	One Thousandth of a second
Octal Number System	Number system with a base of 8
Offline	Not connected directly to the main computer system
Online	Refers to any equipment or process that sends information directly to the computer for immediate processing and immediate results
Operating System	An integrated collection of computer programmes which supervises the sequencing of programme by a computer
Output	The results of the computer's processing
Over Flow	A quantity of data that exceeds the memory capacity of the storage register or location which is to receive the result
Packaged Programme	Programmes and subroutines written and supplied by the computer manufacturers to their customers
Processing	A general term for any device capable of carrying out operation on data; sometimes used as a synonym for central processor
Programme	A sequence of instructions written in computer language
Programmer	A person who prepares problem solving
Programming Language	A special language, such as COBOL or BASIC, in which a program is written so the computer can understand it
Queue	A line or group of items of tasks in a computer system awaiting service
Random Access	The part of the computer's memory where data, instructions are stored temporarily
Read Only Memory	The part of the computer's memory where permanent instructions are stored
Real-Time	Method of operation where data is absorbed by the computer at the actual time of its occurrence
Reserve Words	Words that cannot be used as data names, filenames or procedure names
Remote Access	Communication between a computer system and one or more stations that are located at a distance from the actual computer system
Response Time	In time-sharing system, the elapsed time between the generation of a message at a terminal and the receipt of a reply at the terminal
Routine	A set of coded instructions arranged in proper sequence to direct the computer to perform a specific operation or series of operations
Serial	The handling of operations or processes in a single device in sequential order, one at a time
Software	A set of computer programs or procedures concerned with the operation of data processing
Source Language	A language used by the programmer to write a computer program
Storage String	A line of symbols of indefinite length treated as a single unit
Structured programming	A systematic procedure for writing program in modular form with a clear logical structure
System	A combination of processes, procedures or techniques that work together in an organized effort to accomplish specific and desired operations or tasks
System Analyst	Person trained in the analysis of business problems from solution with the aid of a computing system
Systems Program	Controls the operations of the computer system
Terminal	A device or a point for communicating with the computer
Time-Sharing	A mode of operation in which several users, through numerous terminal devices, share access to a central computer concurrently and interact with the programs during execution
Time-Slicing	Mode of operation in which the computer performs on one program for a short while, then goes to work on another program for another short time and so forth
Track	The actual path on a moving storage medium on which data is recorded
Zero Suppression	Deleting leading zeros from number in order to make results more readable

Economics Terminology

2012-09-11T16:07:00.000+05:30

Active Market :- This is a term used by stock exchange which specifies the particular stock or share which deals in frequent and regular transactions. It helps the buyers to obtain reasonably large amounts at any time.
Administered Price :- The administrative body e.g., the government a marketing board or a trading group determines this price. The competitive market force are not entitled to determine this price. The government fixes a price in accordance with demand supply portion in the market.
Ad-valorem Tax :- Ad-valorem tax is a kind of indirect tax in which goods are taxed by their values. In the case of ad-volorem tax, the tax amount is calculated as the proportion of the price of the goods. Value added Tax (VAT) is an ad-volorem Tax.
Advanced Countries :- Advanced countries are countries which are industrially advanced, having high national and per capita income and ensure high rate of capital formation. These countries possess highly developed infrastructure and apply most updated and advanced technical know-how in their productive activities. A strong and well organised financial structure is found in these advanced countries.
Amalgamation :- It means 'merger'. As and when necessity arises two or more companies are merged into a large organisation. This merger takes place in order to effect economies, reduce competition and capture market. The old firms completely lose their identity when the merger takes place.
Appreciation :- Appreciation means an increase in the value of something e.g., stock of raw materials or manufactured goods. It also includes an increase in the traded value of a currency. It is the antonym of Depreciation. When the prices rise due to inflation, appreciation may occur. It causes scarcity or increase in earning power.
Arbitrage :- When a person performs functions of middle man and buys and sells goods at a particular time to cash the price differences of two markets, this action is termed as arbitrage. Purchases are made in the market where price is low and at the same time, goods are sold in other market where the price are high. Thus the middleman earns profit due to price difference in two markets.
Arbitration :- Where there is an industrial dispute, the Arbitration comes to the force. The judgement is given by the Arbitrator. Both the parties have to accept and honour the Arbitration. Arbitration is the settlement of labour disputes that takes place between employer and the employees.
Auction :- When a commodity is sold by auction, the bids are made by the buyers. Whose ever makes the highest bid, gets the commodity which is being sold. The buyers make the bidtaking into consideration the quality and quantity of the commodity.
Autarchy :- If a country is self-sufficient, it does not require the imports for the country. Autarchy is an indicator of self-sufficiency. It means that the country itself can satisfy the needs of its population without making imports from other countries.
Automation :- Automation means the use of machinery & technology to replace the labour's work. Automation increases the demand of skilled workers. Unskilled and semiskilled workers are reduced as a result of automation.
Balanced Budget :- When the total revenue of the government exactly equals the total expenditure incurred by the government, the budget becomes a balanced budget. But it is a conservative view point. In present days, the welfare government has to regulate a number of economic and social activities which increase the expenditure burden on the government and results in deficit budget.
Balance of Payment :- Balance of payment of a country is a systematic record of all economic transactions completed between its residents and the residents of remaining world during a year. In other words, the balance of payment shows the relationship between the one country's total payment to all other countries and its total receipts from them. Balance of payment is a comprehensive term which includes both visible and invisible items. Balance of payment not only include visible export and imports but also invisible trade like shipping, banking, insurance, tourism, royalty, payments of interest on foreign debts.
Balance of Trade :- Balance of trade refers to the total value of a country's export commodities and total value of imports commodities. Thus balance of trade includes only visible trade i.e., movement of goods (exports and imports of goods). Balance of trade is a part of Balance of payment statement.
Balance Sheet :- Balance sheet is a statement showing the assets and liabilities of a business at a certain date. Balance sheet helps in estimating the real financial situation of a firm.
Bank :- Bank is a financial institution. It accepts funds on current and deposit accounts. It also lends money. The bank pays the cheques drawn by customers against current and deposits accounts. The bank is a trader that deals in money and credit.
Bank Draft :- Banker's draft is a negotiable claim drawn upon a bank. Drafts are as good as cash. The drafts cannot be returned and unpaid. Draft is issued when a customer shows his unwillingness to accept cheque in payment for his services or mercantile goods. Bank Draft is safer than a cheque.
Bank Rate :- Bank Rate is the rate of discount at which the central bank of the country discounts first class bills. It is the rate of interest at which the central bank lends money to the lower banking institutions. Bank rate is a direct quantitative method of credit control in the economy.
Bilateralism :- It implies an agreement between two countries to extend to each other specific privileges in their international trade which are not extended to others.
Birth Rate :- Birth Rate (or Crude Birth Rate) is number of the births per thousand of the population during a period, usually a year. Only live births are included in the calculation of birth rate.
Black Money :- It is unaccounted money which is concealed from tax authorities. All illegal economic activities are dealt with this black Money. Hawala market has deep roots with this black money. Black money creates parallel economy. It puts an adverse pressure on equitable distribution of wealth and income in the economy.
Blue Chip :- It is concerned with such equity shares whose purchase is extremely safe. It is a safe investment. It does not involve any risk.
Blue Collar Jobs :- These Jobs are concerned with factory. Persons who are unskilled and depend upon manual jobs that require physical strain on human muscle are said to be engaged in Blue Collar Jobs. In the age of machinery, such Jobs are on the decline these days.
Brain-Drain :- It means the drift of intellectuals of a country to another country. Scientists, doctors and technology experts generally go to other prominent countries of the world to better their lot and earn huge sums of money. This Brain-Drain deprives a country of its genius and capabilities.
Bridge Loan :- A loan made by a bank for a short period to make up for a temporary shortage of cash. On the part of borrower, mostly the companies for example, a business organization wants to install a new company with new equipments etc. while his present installed company / equipments etc. are not yet disposed off. Bridge loan covers this period between the buying the new and disposing of the old one.
Budget :- It is a document containing a preliminary approved plan of public revenue and public expenditure. It is a statement of the estimated receipt and expenses during a fixed period, it is a comparative table giving the accounts of the receipts to be realized and of the expenses to be incurred.
Budget Deficit :- Budget may take a shape of deficit when the public revenue falls short to public expenditure. Budget deficit is the difference between the estimated public expenditure and public revenue. The government meets this deficit by way of printing new currency or by borrowing.
Bull :- Bull is that type of speculator who gains with the rise in prices of shares and stocks. He buys share or commodities in anticipation of rising prices and sells them later at a profit.
Bull Market :- It is a market where the speculators buy shares or commodities in anticipation of rising prices. This market enables the speculators to resale such shares and make a profit.
Buoyancy :- When the government fails to check inflation, it raises income tax and the corporate tax. Such a tax is called Buoyancy. It concerns with the revenue from taxation in the period of inflation.
Business Cycle :- Business cycle (also known as trade cycle) are species of fluctuations in the economic activity of organised communities. It is composed of period of good trade characterised
by rising prices and low unemployment, alternating with period of bad trade characterised by falling prices and high unemployment. Every trade cycle have five different subphases–depression, recovery, full employment, prosperity (boom) and recession.
Call Money :- Call money is in the form of loans and advances which are payable on demand or within the number of days specified for the purpose.
Capital Budgeting :- Capital budgeting represents the process of preparing budget for a period of a year or even for several years allocating capital outlays for the various investment projects. In other words, it is the process of budgeting capital expenditure by means of an annual or longer period capital budget.
Capital-labour Ratio :- Latest models of machinery and equipment raise the labour efficiency and the output is maximized. Capitallabour ratio is the amount of capital against the given labours that a firm employs. Capital-labour ratio is the ratio of capital to labour.
Capital Market :- Capital market is the market which gives medium term and long term loans. It is different from money market which deals only in short term loans.
Capitalism :- Capitalism is an economic system in which all means of production are owned by private individuals Selfprofit motive is the guiding feature for all the economic activates under capitalism. Under pure capitalism system economic conditions are regulated solely by free market forces. This system is based on 'Laissez-faire system' i.e., no state intervention. Sovereignty of consumer prevails in this system. Consumer behaves like a king under capitalism.
Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) :- The commercial banks are required to keep a certain amount of cash reserves at the central bank. This percentage amount is called CRR. It influences the commercial bank's volume of credit because variation in CRR affects the liquidity position of the banks and hence their ability to lend.
Census :- Census gives us estimates of population. Census is of great economic importance for the country. It tells us the rate at which the total population is increasing among different age groups. In India census is done after every 10 years. The latest census in India has been done in 2001.
Central Bank :- Central Bank may be defined as the apex barking and monetary institution whose main function is to control, regulate and stabilize the banking and the monetary system of the country in the national interest.
Cheque :- Cheque is an order in writing issued by the drawer to a bank. If the customer has sufficient amount in his account, the cheque is paid by the bank. Cheques are used in place of cash money.
Clearing Bank :- Clearing bank is one which settles the debits and credits of the commercial banks. Even of the cash balances are lesser, clearing bank facilitates banking operation of the commercial bank.
Clearing House :- Clearing house is an institution which helps to settle the mutual indebtedness that occurs among the members of its organisation.
Closed Economy :- Closed economy refers to the economy having no foreign trade (i.e., export and import). Such economies depend exclusively on their own internal domestic resources and have no dependence on outside world.
Collusion :- Producers of an industry reduce competition among themselves to raise their profits. They fix the price themselves with a clear understanding in this regard. This understanding among different firms is called collusion.
Coinage :- Art and practice of making coins is called coinage. The metal is melted and moulded to shape into a coin. The coinage is a medium of exchange (money).
Collectivism :- Collectivism is a belief that nation's interest is superior to individual interest. This is the collective thinking of the society and polity national leaders and also communist opine the theory of collection.
Commercial Bank :- Commercial Bank is an institution of finance. It deals with the banking services through its branches in whole of the country. Operation of current accounts, deposits, granting of loans to individuals and companies etc. are various functions of the commercial bank.
Communism :- Communism is a political and economic system in which the state makes the major economic decision State owns the bulk of capital assets. Responsibility for production and distribution lies with the state in this system.
Core Sector :- Economy needs basic infrastructure for accelerating development. Development of infrastructure industries like cement, iron and steel, petroleum, heavy machinery etc. can only ensure the development of the economy as a whole. Such industries are core sector industries.
Corporation Tax :- It is a tax on company's profit. It is a direct tax which is calculated on profits after interest payments and allowance (i.e., Capital allowance) have been deducted but before dividends are allowed for.
Cost-push Inflation :- It arises due to an increase in production cost. Such type of inflation is caused by three factors : (i) an increase in wages, (ii) an increase in the profit margin and (iii) imposition of heavy taxation.
Credit Rationing :- Credit rationing takes place when the banks discriminates between the borrowers. Credit rationing empowers the bank to lend to some and to refuse to lend to others. In this way credit rationing restricts lending on the part of bank.
Credit Squeeze :- Monetary authorities restrict credit as and when required. This credit restriction is called credit squeeze. Monetary authorities adopt the policy of credit squeeze to control inflationary pressure in the economy.
Custom Duty :- Custom duty is a duty that is imposed on the products received from exporting nations of the world. It is also called protective duty as it protects the home industries.
Cyclical Unemployment :- It is that phase of unemployment which appears due to the occurrence of the downward phase of the trade cycle. Such an employment is reduced or eliminated when the business cycle turns up again.
Dear Money :- Dear money is that money which can only be borrowed at a high rate of interest. In dear money policy, bank rate and other rates of interest are high and as a result borrowing becomes expensive. Dear money policy is deliberate policy which is adopted by the monetary authorities to check inflation in the economy.
Death Duty :- It is a direct tax which is imposed on the estate of deceased person. Death duty or Death Tax is a form of personal tax on property which is levied when property passes from one person to other at the time of death of the former.
Death Rate :- Death rate signifies the number of deaths in a year per thousand of the population. It is mostly known as crude death rate. Life expectancy is important determinant of death rate.
A country having high life expectancy will have a high crude death rate.
Decentralisation :- Decentralisation means the establishment of various unit of the same industry at different places. Large scale organisation or industry can not be run at one particular place or territory. In order to increase the efficiency of the industry, various units at different places are located.
Debt Service (Total) :- The sum of principal repayments and interest actually paid in foreign currency, goods and services on longterm debt (having maturity of more than one year), interest paid on shortterm debt and repayments to IMF.
Deficit Financing :- It is a practice resorted to by modern government of spending more money than it receives in revenue. It is a policy of bridging a deficit between governments expenditure and revenue. Deliberately budgeting for a deficit is called deficit financing. This practice was popularised by Prof. J. M. Keynes to deal with the depression and unemployment situations and to stimulate economic activity. Deficit financing, though having inflationary effects, has now become a common practice in all countries.
Deflation :- Deflation is the reverse case of inflation. Deflation is that state of falling prices which occurs at that time when the output of goods and services increases more rapidly than the volume of money in the economy. In the deflation the general price level falls and the value of money rises.
Devaluation :- The loss of value of currency of a country relative to other foreign currency is known as devaluation. Devaluation is a process in which the government deliberately cheapens the exchange value of its own currency in terms of other currency by giving it a lower exchange value. Devaluation is used for improving, the balance of payment situation in the country.
Direct Tax :- A tax is said to be a direct tax when it is not intended to be shifted to anybody else. The person who pays it in the first instance is also excepted to bear it. Thus the impact and incidence of direct tax fall on the same person shifting of direct tax is not possible Income Tax is a example of direct tax.
Disinflation :- It refers to a process of bringing down prices moderately from their high level without any adverse impact on production and employment. Thus, disinflation is an anti-inflationary measure.
Dissaving :- Dissaving occurs when expenditure exceeds income. Raising of loans or utilization of past accumulated savings takes place in such eventuality.
Dividend :- Dividend is the amount which the company distributes to shareholders when the profits of the company are calculated by the board of directors.
Economic Integration :- Economic integration appears when two or more nations coordinate themselves and their economies are linked up. It may exhibit itself in the form of free trade area or a full economic union. EEC is an example of economic integration.
Engel's Law :- This law was formulated by Ernst Engel. This law states that, with given taste and preference, the portion of income spend on food diminishes as income increases. According to this law, smaller a person's income, the greater the proportion of it that he will spend on food and vice versa.
Estate Duty :- It is a tax which is levied on the estate of a decreased person. It is also known as death duty. The ownership of state changes hands only after the payments of the estate duty. It is an progressive tax in nature.
Excise Duty :- It is a tax which is imposed on certain indigenous production (e.g., petroleum products, cigarettes etc.) of the country. Excise duty may be imposed either to raise revenue or to check the consumption of the commodities on which they are imposed. Excise duty is progressive in nature.
Face Value :- It refers to that normal value of coin at which the coin circulates and is accepted in the discharge of debit or obligation. Broadly speaking, the face value refers to domination stamped on a coin / or documents when it is issued. In securities, it refers to par value.
Fascism :- It is a form of political system. In it every economic consideration rests on one criterion—the increase in the people's standard of living. It also lays emphasis on military strength and prestige of the country. It is the extreme nationalism and the ultimate goal is self-sufficiency.
Federal Economy :- It refers to a federation which is an association of two and more states. A federal state is a union of state in which authority is divided between the federal (or central) government and the state governments. In a federal economy both the centre and the states are independent in the exercise of this authority.
Fiduciary Issue :- Generally bank-note are backed by gold. But when they are not backed by gold and government securities replace gold, it is called fiduciary issue. Such fiduciary issue results in inflation.
Fertility Rate :- The term fertility refers to the actual bearing of children or 'occurrence of births'. Fertility rate measures the average number of the live births per 1000 women. This rate is one of the most important and useful aids to population projection. It helps in assessing population trends in the economy.
Fiscal Policy :- Fiscal policy is that part of government economic policy which deals with taxation, expenditure, borrowing, and the management of public debt in the economy. Fiscal policy primarily concerns itself with the flow of funds in the economy. Fiscal policy primarily concerns itself with the flow of funds in the economy. It exerts a very powerful influence on the working of economy as a whole.
GEM :- GEM (Gender Empowerment Measure) is a composite index measuring gender inequality in three basic dimensions of empowerment–economic participation and decision making, political participation and decision making, and power over economic resources.
GDI :- GDI (Gender Related Development Index) is a composite index measuring average achievement in the three basic dimensions captured in the human development index–a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living–adjusted to account for inequalities between men and women.
Gini-coefficient :- It represents the measurement of inequality derived from the 'Lorenz Curve,' with every increase in the degree of inequality, the curvature of the Lorenz Curve also increases and the area between the curve and 45line becomes larger. The Gini-coefficient is measured as— G =Area between Lorenz Curve & 45Line/Area above the 45Line
Giffin Goods :- Giffin goods have the positive relationship between price and quantity demanded and as a result demand curve of Giffin goods slopes upward from left to right. This phenomenon was first observed by Sir Robert Giffin in relation to the demand for bread by poor labours.
Gresham's Law :- "Bad money (if not limited in quantity) drives good money out of circulation"—This statement was given by Sir Thomas Gresham, the economic Adviser of Queen Elizabeth. This law states that people always want to hoard good money and spend bad money when two forms of money are in circulation at the same time.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) :- It is the money value of all final goods and services produced within the geographical boundaries of the country during a given period of time (usually a year). GDP can be calculated both at current prices and at constant prices. If we add net factor income from abroad to the GDP, we get 'Gross National Product' (GNP).
Gross National Product (GNP) :- It refers to the money value of total output or production of final goods and services produced by the nationals of a country during a given period of time, generally a year.
Gross National Product Deflator :- It is a Price Index Number used to correct the money value of Gross National Product (GNP) for price changes so as to isolate the changes which have taken place in the physical output of goods and services.
Guild Socialism :- This form of socialism accepts the leadership of artisans. The operation of the whole economy specially the management and control of industries lies in the hands of artisans Socialism established by artisans is termed a Guild Socialism.
HDI :- HDI (Human Development Index) is a composite index measuring average achievement in three basic dimensions of human life–a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living.
Import Duty :- Import duty is a tax on imports imposed on an ad-valorem basis i.e., fixed in the form of a percentage on the value of the commodity imported.
Indirect Tax :- Indirect tax is that tax which is levied on goods or services produced or purchased. Indirect taxes are those which are demanded from one person in the expectation and intention that he shall indemnify himself at the expense to another.
Inflation :- A situation of a steady and sustained rise in general prices is usually known as inflation. Inflation is a state in which the value of money is falling i.e., prices are rising.
Joint Demand :- Joint demand appears in case of complementary goods. When two commodities are complementary to one another and cannot be used separately, they have joint demand. Bread and butter, sugar and tea, pen and ink are a few examples of joint demand. In joint demand a change in demand of one commodity bring about the proportionate change in demand for the other.
Joint Sector :- When a sector is jointly owned, managed and run by both public and private sector, it is called joint sector. This sector indicates the partnership between the two i.e., public and private sector.
Labour Union :- Labour union represents that organisation of workers which works for improving working condition of labours and also for raising their wage by adopting 'collective bargaining' measures with the management of the industry in particular.
Laffer Curve :- This curve is given by American economist Prof. Arthur Laffer. It represents relationship between total tax revenue and corresponding tax rates.
Laissez Faire :- It is a French word meaning 'non-interference'. This doctrine was popularised by classical economists who gave the view that government should interfere as little as possible in the economic activities of the individuals.
Life Expectancy at Birth :- The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing pattern of age specific mortality rates at the time of birth were to stay the same throughout the child's life.
Liquidation :- It refers to the termination (or winding up) of a registered company. Liquidation takes place because of company's insolvency. In liquidation, assets are turned into cash for settling outstanding debts and for apportioning the balance, if any, amongst the owners.
Liquidity :- Assets which can easily be converted into cash money are said to have liquidity. Land does not possess liquidity at it takes longer time to get converted into cash.
Liquidity Ratio :- The commercial banks under banking regulations have to maintain a certain specified proportion of their total deposits of various categories in liquid assets. This maintainable proportion is called liquidity ratio.
Lock-out :- Lock-out refers to such a situation when the management does not permit the workers to work unless they agree to accept the employer's term. Lock-out is the closing of work by the management for an uncertain period of time to put pressure on the labour union. It is an action by the employer equivalent to a strike by employees.
Lorentz Curve :- This curve shows the degree of inequalities of a frequency distribution in a graphical manner. It is a curve on a graph which shows the cumulative proportion of a statistical population against this cumulative share of some characteristic. This curve is commonly used to depict income distribution showing the cumulative percentage of people from the poorest up and their cumulative share of national income.
Lump Sum Tax :- Lump sum tax is a fixed amount which has imperative nature irrespective of the income level. This tax is not equitable in nature.
Merit Goods :- Merit goods refer those goods that are very essential to the society as a whole and hence the government ensures their availability to all consumers, regardless of their ability to pay to reasonable price.
Mixed Economy :- It refers to that economic system in which both private and public sector co-exists. Indian economy is an example of a mixed economy.
Monetary Policy :- Monetary policy comprises all measures applied by the monetary authorities with a view to produce a deliberate impact on the nature and volume of money so as to achieve the objectives of general economic policy. It aims at regulating the flow of currency, credit and other money substitutes in an economy with a view to affect the total stock of such assets as well as to influence the demand of the community for such assets.
Monetary Reforms :- When a new currency is introduced in a country due to hyperinflation or due to a deliberate policy measure (such as decimalization) it is termed as monetary reform.
Monopoly :- Monopoly refers to that market structure where there is only one seller in the market who controls the entire market supply and no substitute of the product is available in the market.
Monopsony :- Monopsony is that market situation in which there is only one single buyer of the product in the market. In other word, 'buyer's monopoly' is termed as monopsony.
Multinational Company :- It is a large scale company which has its production base in several countries and the bulk of the production is produced in outside nations. This company produces more overseas than they do in its parent country. Increased trade and economies of scale have encouraged such type of companies in the recent years.
National Income :- In the simplest way it can be defined as 'factor income accruing to the national residents of a country.' It is the sum of domestic factor income and net factor income earned from abroad. Net national product at factor cost is called national income.
Net National Product (NNP) :- When depreciation is deducted from GNP i.e., Gross National Product, we get Net National Product (NNP).
Oligopoly :- Oligopoly is that form of imperfect competition in which there are only a few firms in the industry (or group) producing either homogeneous products or may be having product differentiation in a given line of production.
Open Economy :- Open economy is that economy which is left free and the government imposes no restrictions on trade with areas outside that economy.
Okun's Law :- Arthur Okun presented an empirical relationship between cyclical movements in GNP and unemployment. Okun found that an annual 2•5% increase in the rate of real growth above the trend growth results in a 1% decrease in the rate of unemployment. This relationship is known as Okun's Law.
Perfect Competition :- Perfect competition is the market in which there are many firms selling identical products with no firm large enough relative to the entire market to be able to influence market price.
Poverty Line :- Poverty line is a virtual line demarcating persons living below and above it. In India all those persons are treated living below poverty line who are not able to earn that much of income which is not sufficient to acquire food equivalent to 2100 calories per person per day in urban areas and 2400 calories per person per day in rural areas. As per UNDP, one US dollar (1993 PPP US $) per person per day is treated as poverty line.
PQLI :- PQLI is known as Physical Quality of Life Index which is used to assess the level of social development. This index was developed by Jim Grant for The Overseas Development Council PQLI is calculated by using indices of (i) Adult literacy rate, (ii) IMR, (iii) Life Expectancy.
Price Mechanism :- Price mechanism signifies the working of those market forces which establishes equilibrium in the economy. Laissez faire policy is the basis for the working of price mechanism.
Price Ring :- It is an unofficial syndicate by which the prices are controlled with the prior understanding among the traders. These dealers under a price ring decide not to over-bid one another at the public auction to keep the prices low. This price ring may discourage outsiders from coming to the auctions.
Private Sector :- Private Sector is that part of the economy which is not owned by the government and is under the hands of private enterprise. In other words, private sector is not under direct government control. Private sector includes the personal as well as the corporate sector.
Privatisation :- Privatisation is the antithesis of nationalisation. When the government owned public industries are denationalised and the disinvestment process is initiated, it is called privatisation.
Public Debt :- Public debt represents borrowing by the state and public authorities. All loans taken by the public authorities constitute public debt.
Public Goods :- Public goods are those goods which belong to the entire community. None of the individual of the society can be made deprived of using these public goods. National defence, Police, Street lighting etc. are examples of public goods.
Public Sector :- Public sector signifies those undertakings which are owned, managed and run by public authorities. Public sector includes direct government enterprise, the nationalized industries and public corporations. In this sector of the economy the government acts itself as an entrepreneur.
Peril Point :- It indicates that point beyond which tariff reductions would threaten the existence of domestic industry.
Quick Asset :- Those assets are quick assets which are liquid or nearly liquid in nature and easily be turned into cash.
Quoted Company :- That company is called quoted company whose share prices are quoted on a stock exchange.
Reflation :- It signifies general increase in the level of business activity in the economy. Reflation generally involves greater government expenditure and the easing of credit to encourage increased production.
Regressive Tax :- It is a tax in which rate of taxation falls with an increase in income. In regressive taxation incidence falls more on people having lower incomes than that of those having higher incomes.
Repressed Inflation :- It is a state in which aggregate demand is greater than the total supply of goods and services in an economy, but prices are prevented from rising to eliminate excess demand. The holding down of price is sometimes done by government as a means of suppressing inflation.
Reserve Asset Ratio :- It is the ratio of a bank's reserve assets to its eligible liabilities.
Revolving Credit :- It is a bank credit that is renewed automatically until notice of cancellation is received. Revolving credits may be sanctioned for an unlimited amount in total but with a limit on the amount that may be drawn at any one time or within a specified period, e.g., one month.
Seasonal Unemployment :- It is that unemployment which is caused by seasonal variation in demand for labour by various industries, such as agriculture, construction and tourism. Seasonal unemployment normally declines in spring as more outdoor work can be undertaken.
Security :- Security refers to a share, bond or government stock that can be bought and sold, usually on the stock exchange or on a secondary market, and carries a right to some form of income, either in the form of a fixed rate of interest or dividends.
Shadow Price :- It is an imputed value for a good based on the opportunity costs of the resources used to produce it such values are of particular significance in resolving problems of resource allocating with respect to the effect on welfare.
Share Capital :- It is the amount of money raised by a company by issuing shares. The authorized share capital is the amount that a company is allowed to issue as laid down in its Articles of Association. The issued share capital is the amount actually issued i.e., the number of issued shares multiplied by their par value. Fully paid share capital is the amount raised by payment of the full par value of the issued shares.
Single Tax System :- It is a system in which all tax revenues are raised from one form of taxation.
Socialism :- The political doctrine that the means of production (machines, materials and output) should be owned by society and specifically either by the state, as in the case of nationalized industries or by the workers directly, as in the case of producer co-operatives.
Social Security :- Provision by the state out of taxation of welfare assistance to those in need as a result of illness, unemployment, or old age compare national insurance refers to social security.
Soft Currency :- A currency with limited convertibility into gold and other currencies, either because it is depreciating due to balance of payments difficulties or because controls have been placed on it to prevent the exchange rate falling.
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) :- It is a reserve asset (known as 'Paper Gold') created within the framework of the International Monetary Fund in an attempt to increase international liquidity, and now forming a part of countries official reserves along with gold, reserve positions in the IMF and convertible foreign currencies.
Special Tax (Unit Tax) :- It is a tax imposed per unit of a commodity rather than on the value of the commodity compare ad-valorem.
Stabilization Policy :- It is Government economic policy announced at reducing the cyclical and other fluctuations that take place in a market economy.
Stagflation :- It is a state of the economy in which economic activity is slowing down, but wages and prices continue to rise. The term is a blend of the words stagnation and inflation.
Surplus Value :- It is the difference between the amount paid to a factor and the revenue earned by selling the output it produced.
Tariff :- It is a tax or a duty on imports, which can be levied either on physical units, e.g., per tonne (specific), or on value (ad-valorem). Tariffs may be imposed for a variety of reasons including; to raise government revenue, to protect domestic industry from subsidized or low-wage imports, to boost domestic employment, or to ease a deficit on the balance of payments.
Trade Gap :- It signifies the size of the deficit (or surplus) in the balance of trade i.e., the difference in value between visible imports and exports.
Trade Union :- It is an organisation of employees who join together to further their interests. Trade Unions negotiate on behalf of their members in collective bargaining with employers, and in the event of a dispute may put pressure on employers by withdrawing labour (i.e. strike) or by some less drastic form of action (i.e. go-slow, working to rule).
Transfer Payment :- It is a payment made by public authority other than one made in exchange for goods or services produced. Transfer payments are not the part of National Income. Examples includes unemployment benefit and child benefits.
Vital Statistics :- Vital statistics refers to those data which are associated with vital events of masses like birth, death, marriage divorce etc.
VAT (Value Added Tax) :- VAT seeks to tax the value added at every stage of manufacturing and sale, with a provision of refunding the amount of VAT already paid at the earlier stages to avoid double taxation. In other words, the tax already paid can be claimed at the next stage of value addition.
Wealth Tax :- Wealth tax is that tax which is imposed on the value of total assets but the wealth upto a certain limit is exempted from such tax.
Welfare State :- It refers to a nation that provides to all at least the minimum standards in respect of education, health, housing, pensions and other social benefits.
Wholesale Price Index :- Wholesale Price Index is that index which is calculated on the basis of wholesale prices. It is calculated in a similar way to the Retail Price Index.

Kaushik Basu is now Chief Economist of World Bank

2012-09-10T14:11:00.000+05:30

The World Bank on 5 September, 2012 named as its chief economist and senior vice President, placing a candidate from an emerging market country in a key position at the global development lender.

Basu, who was most recently chief economic adviser to the government of India, is the World Bank's second chief economist from a developing country. He replaces Justin Lin, a citizen of China, whose term expired on June 1, 2012.

Basu, who holds a Ph.D. from the London School of Economics, is on leave from his position as a professor of economics and international studies at Cornell University in New York. He previously founded the Centre for Development Economics at the Delhi School of Economics.

Emerging market countries have long pushed for more clout at the poverty-fighting World Bank and its sister institution, the International Monetary Fund.

Starting from October, Basu will serve under new World Bank President Jim Yong Kim, a Korean-American and who took the helm of the World Bank two months ago.

List of World Bank Chief Economists

Hollis B. Chenery — 1972–1982
Anne Osborn Krueger — 1982–1986
Stanley Fischer — 1988–1990
Lawrence Summers — 1991–1993
Michael Bruno — 1993–1996
Joseph E. Stiglitz - 1997–2000
Nicholas Stern - 2000–2003
François Bourguignon — 2003–2007
Justin Yifu Lin — June 2008– June 2012
Martin Ravallion — June 2012- (Acting Chief Economist)

2012 French Open Winners list

2012-06-13T15:53:00.000+05:30

The 2012 French Open 111th edition of the French Open, and took place at the Stade Roland Garros from 27 May to 11 June 2012 .
Champions:
Men’s Singles Rafael Nadal
Runners up Novak Djokovic
Women’s Singles Maria Sharapova
Runners up Sara Errani
Men’s Doubles Max Mirnyi / Daniel Nestor
Women’s Doubles Sara Errani / Roberta Vinci
Mixed Doubles Sania Mirza / Mahesh Bhupathi
Boys’ Singles Kimmer Coppejans
Girls’ Singles Annika Beck
Boys’ Doubles Andrew Harris / Nick Kyrgios
Girls’ Doubles Daria Gavrilova / Irina Khromacheva
Legends Under 45 Doubles Albert Costa / Carlos Moyá
Women’s Legends Doubles Lindsay Davenport / Martina Hingis
Legends Over 45 Doubles John McEnroe / Patrick McEnroe
Wheelchair Men’s Singles Stéphane Houdet
Wheelchair Women’s Singles Esther Vergeer
Wheelchair Men’s Doubles Frédéric Cattaneo / Shingo Kunieda
Wheelchair Women’s Doubles Marjolein Buis / Esther Vergeer

List of Different Types of Doctors

2012-06-04T12:31:00.000+05:30

There are different types of doctors and what they do depends on their field of specialty. This article contains the list of different types of doctors and their descriptions. There are many types of doctors and this list clearly explains various types of doctors and what they do.

Different Types of Doctors and What They Do

Here is a list of different types of doctors and their medical specialties.

Psychiatrist - Deals with mental health
Podiatrist - Foot doctor
Ophthalmologist - Eye doctor
Dentist - Tooth doctor
Urologist - Deals with bladder
Obstetrician - Deals with pregnancy and birth
Pediatrician - Child doctor
Oncologist- Cancer doctor
Neurologist - Deals with the problems of Brain and nerves
Cardiologist - Heart doctor
Nephrologist - Kidney doctor
Rheumatologist - Deals with treatment of arthritis and other diseases of the joints, muscles and bones
Dermatologist - Deals with skin problems
Endocrinologist - Deals with the problems of thyroid and ductless glands
Gastrologist - Deals with digestive system problems

Sports Questions and Answers 2012

2012-05-31T15:26:00.001+05:30

1. Narain Karthikenyan is the sportsman in the field of—
(A) Formula One Car Racing
(B) Shooting
(C) Chess
(D) Golf
Ans : (A)

2. Which of the following Tennis players announced his retirement from the game recently ?
(A) Benjamin Becker
(B) Rafael Nadal
(C) Andre Agassi
(D) Lleyton Hewit
Ans : (C)

3. Which team won FIFA Club World Cup 2011 in December 2011 final against which of the following countries ?
(A) Manchester United
(B) Barcelona
(C) Al-Sadd
(D) Kashiawa Reysol
Ans : (B)

4. Usain Bolt, The 100-metres race world record holder is from which countries ?
(A) Jamaica
(B) U.S.A.
(C) Canada
(D) Nigeria
Ans : (A)

5. What is the total number of matches which were played in the FIFA World Cup - 2010 in Germany ?
(A) 48
(B) 52
(C) 63
(D) 64
Ans : (D)

6. The 20th Commonwealth Games will be held in 2014 in—
(A) Jaipur
(B) Kolkata
(C) Glasgow
(D) Mumbai
Ans : (C)

7. M. S. Dhoni is the first wicket keeper to make two centuries in One-day International cricket in India. He made these centuries while playing against—
(A) Sri Lanka and Pakistan
(B) Pakistan and Bangladesh
(C) Bangladesh and New Zealand
(D) Australia and Sri Lanka
Ans : (A)

8. Which of the following Trophies/Cups is associated with the game of Golf ?
(A) Iran Cup
(B) Padmawati Trophy
(C) Topolino Trophy
(D) V. C. Gupta Trophy
Ans : (C)

9. OTIS is brand name of—
(A) Software
(B) Shoes
(C) Lifts and elevators
(D) Chemicals and paints
Ans : (C)

10. The term ‘Grand Slam’ is associated with—
(A) Table Tennis
(B) Chess
(C) Football
(D) Bridge & Lawn Tennis
Ans : (D)

11. The International Cricket Council (ICC) awarded the right to host the Cricket World Cup - 2011 to three countries jointly. Which of the following is not amongst these four countries ?
(A) India
(B) Pakistan
(C) Bangladesh
(D) Sri Lanka
Ans : (B)

12. “Crown Prince Cup Basketball” in which India won a Bronze Medal was organized recently in—
(A) India
(B) Thailand
(C) China
(D) Japan
Ans : (B)

13. Who amongst the following won the Australian Open 2012 Men’s Singles Tennis Cup held January 2012 ?
(A) Roger Federer
(B) Novak Djokovic
(C) Bob Bryan
(D) Vera Zvonareva
Ans : (B)

14. Which of the following countries won Sultan Azlan Shah Hockey Tournament 2011 ?
(A) Australia
(B) Argentina
(C) Malaysia
(D) Pakistan
Ans : (A)

15. Colombo cup is associated with the game of—
(A) Hockey
(B) Basketball
(C) Football
(D) Cricket
Ans : (C)

16. Which of the following terms is not related with the game of Hockey ?
(A) Follow on
(B) Tie breaker
(C) Hat trick
(D) Half volley
Ans : (A)

17. Mr. Alan Issac who is newly appointed Vice-President of the International Cricket Council (ICC) is from which of the following countries ?
(A) New Zealand
(B) South Africa
(C) England
(D) Australia
Ans : (A)

18. The term ‘Beamer’ is associated with—
(A) Football
(B) Hockey
(C) Cricket
(D) Chess
Ans : (C)

19. Of which country is Bull-fighting the National game?
(A) Spain
(B) Japan
(C) Portugal
(D) Poland
Ans : (A)

20. The 2008 Olympic Games were held at—
(A) Beijing
(B) Montreal
(C) Atlanta
(D) London
Ans : (A)

Governors and Chief Ministers of States (India 2012)

2012-05-30T15:31:00.000+05:30

Capitals, Governors and Chief Ministers of States

States	Capitals	Governors	Chief Ministers
Andhra Pradesh	Hyderabad	Mr. E.S.L.Narasimhan	Mr. N.Kiran Kumar Reddy
Arunachal Pradesh	Itanagar	Gen. (Retd.) J. J. Singh	Mr. Jarbom Gamlin
Assam	Dispur	Mr. J. B. Patnaik	Mr. Tarun Gogoi
Bihar	Patna	Mr. Devanand Konwar	Mr. Nitish Kumar
Chhattisgarh	Raipur	Mr. Shekhar Dutt	Dr. Raman Singh
Goa	Panaji	Mr. B.V. Wanchoo	Mr. Manohar Parrikar
Gujarat	Gandhinagar	Dr. Kamla	Mr. Narendra Modi
Haryana	Chandigarh	Mr. Jagannath Pahadia	Mr. Bhupinder S. Hooda
Himachal Pradesh	Shimla	Ms. Urmila Singh	Mr. Prem Kumar Dhumal
Jammu and Kashmir	Srinagar (Summer) Jammu (Winter)	Mr. N. N. Vohra	Mr. Omar Abdullah
Jharkhand	Ranchi	Dr. Syed Ahmed	Mr. Arjun Munda
Karnataka	Bengaluru	Mr. Hans Raj Bhardwaj	Mr. DV Sadananda Gowda
Kerala	Thiruvananthapuram	Mr. M. O. H. Farook	Mr. V. S. Achuthanandan
Madhya Pradesh	Bhopal	Mr. Ram Naresh Yadav	Mr. Shivraj Singh Chauhan
Maharashtra	Mumbai	Mr. K. Sankaranarayan	Mr. Prithviraj Chavan
Manipur	Imphal	Mr. Gurbachan Jagat	Mr.Okram Ibobi Singh
Meghalaya	Shillong	Mr. R. S. Mooshahary	Mr. Mukul A. Sangma
Mizoram	Aizawl	Mr. Vakkom Purushothaman	Mr.Lalthanhawla
Nagaland	Kohima	Mr. Nikhil Kumar	Mr. Neiphiu Rio
Odisha	Bhubaneswar	Mr. M. C. Bhandare	Mr. Naveen Patnaik
Punjab	Chandigarh	Mr. Shivraj V. Patil	Mr. Parkash Singh Badal
Rajasthan	Jaipur	Ms. Margaret Alva	Mr. Ashok Gehlot
Sikkim	Gangtok	Mr. Balmiki Prasad Singh	Mr. Pawan Chamling
Tamil Nadu	Chennai	Mr. K Rosaiah	Ms. Jayalalithaa
Tripura	Agartala	Mr. D. Y. Patil	Mr. Manik Sarkar
Uttarakhand	Dehradun	Dr. Aziz Qureshi	Mr. Vijay Bahuguna
Uttar Pradesh	Lucknow	Mr. B. L. Joshi	Mr. Akhilesh Yadav
West Bengal	Kolkata	Mr. M. K. Narayanan	Ms. Mamata Banerjee

Sports - General Knowledge Questions and Answers

2012-05-29T13:34:00.000+05:30

1. Victoria Azarenka, who won the Australian Open Tennis women’s singles title 2012, is from which country ?
(A) USA
(B) Belarus
(C) Germany
(D) Slovakia
Ans : (B)

2. With which one of the following sports is Saurabh Tiwary associated ?
(A) Golf
(B) Snooker
(C) Cricket
(D) Shooting
Ans : (C)

3. Which of the following team has won the ICC World Cup Cricket 2011 ?
(A) Australia
(B) New Zealand
(C) India
(D) England
Ans : (C)

4. The term ‘Duck’ is associated with—
(A) Chess
(B) Volleyball
(C) Golf
(D) Cricket
Ans : (D)

5. Usain Bolt, The 100-metres race world record holder is from which countries ?
(A) Jamaica
(B) U.S.A.
(C) Canada
(D) Nigeria
Ans : (A)

6. What is the total number of matches which were played in the FIFA World Cup - 2010 in Germany ?
(A) 48
(B) 52
(C) 63
(D) 64
Ans : (D)

7. The 20th Commonwealth Games will be held in 2014 in—
(A) Jaipur
(B) Kolkata
(C) Glasgow
(D) Mumbai
Ans : (C)

8. M. S. Dhoni is the first wicket keeper to make two centuries in One-day International cricket in India. He made these centuries while playing against—
(A) Sri Lanka and Pakistan
(B) Pakistan and Bangladesh
(C) Bangladesh and New Zealand
(D) Australia and Sri Lanka
Ans : (A)

9. Which of the following Trophies/Cups is associated with the game of Golf ?
(A) Iran Cup
(B) Padmawati Trophy
(C) Topolino Trophy
(D) V. C. Gupta Trophy
Ans : (C)

10. OTIS is brand name of—
(A) Software
(B) Shoes
(C) Lifts and elevators
(D) Chemicals and paints
Ans : (C)

11. The final match of the Uber Cup Badminton 2010 was played between China and—
(A) Japan
(B) Denmark
(C) Italy
(D) Korea
Ans : (D)

12. Which of the following country will host world team Table Tennis Championship 2012 for men and women both ?
(A) Japan
(B) Germany
(C) Hong Kong
(D) Russia
Ans : (B)

13. The World Sports Award ceremony was held recently in—
(A) Spain
(B) Italy
(C) France
(D) Germany
Ans : (A)

14. Marion Jones is a well known—
(A) Badminton players
(B) Tennis player
(C) Golfer
(D) Athlete
Ans : (D)

15. Which of the following Cups/Trophies is associated with the game of Volleyball ?
(A) India Swarn Cup
(B) Ramanujam Trophy
(C) Lincoln Trophy
(D) Dhyanchand Trophy
Ans : (A)

Current Sports Quiz Questions

2012-05-29T12:29:00.000+05:30

1. FIFA World Cup 2014 will be organized in—
(A) Italy
(B) South Africa
(C) Brazil
(D) Britain
Ans : (C)

2. Which of the following terms is not related with the game of Hockey ?
(A) Follow on
(B) Tie breaker
(C) Hat trick
(D) Half volley
Ans : (A)

3. Which of the following country has won the Hopman Cup 2011 ?
(A) USA
(B) Great Britain
(C) Slovakia
(D) Australia
Ans : (A)

4. Subroto Cup is associated with which of the following games ?
(A) Cricket
(B) Football
(C) Hockey
(D) Volleyball
Ans : (B)

5. What is the length of each stump in cricket ?
(A) 28 Inches
(B) 32 Inches
(C) 24 Inches
(D) 30 Inches
Ans : (A)

6. The term ‘Beamer’ is associated with—
(A) Football
(B) Hockey
(C) Cricket
(D) Chess
Ans : (C)

7. Of which country is Bull-fighting the National game?
(A) Spain
(B) Japan
(C) Portugal
(D) Poland
Ans : (A)

8. The 2008 Olympic Games were held at—
(A) Beijing
(B) Montreal
(C) Atlanta
(D) London
Ans : (A)

9. Narain Karthikenyan is the sportsman in the field of—
(A) Formula One Car Racing
(B) Shooting
(C) Chess
(D) Golf
Ans : (A)

10. Which of the following Tennis players announced his retirement from the game recently ?
(A) Benjamin Becker
(B) Rafael Nadal
(C) Andre Agassi
(D) Lleyton Hewit
Ans : (C)

11. Which team won FIFA Club World Cup 2011 in December 2011 final against which of the following countries ?
(A) Manchester United
(B) Barcelona
(C) Al-Sadd
(D) Kashiawa Reysol
Ans : (B)

12. Who amongst the following is not a Australian Open Tennis 2012 winner ? (Under any category)
(A) Leander Paes
(B) Serena Williams
(C) Victoria Azarenka
(D) Novak Djokovic
Ans : (B)

13. The National Sports Day is observed on which of the following days ?
(A) August 29th
(B) July 29th
(C) September 29th
(D) August 20th
Ans : (A)

14. Which of the following Cups/Trophies is associated with the game of Football ?
(A) Wimbledon Cup
(B) Evert Cup
(C) Agha Khan Cup
(D) Mardeka Cup
Ans : (D)

15. Which of the following terms is not associated with the game of Lawn Tennis ?
(A) Smash
(B) Slice
(C) Bouncer
(D) Delice
Ans : (C)

Divisibility tests of common numbers

2011-02-26T21:18:00.001+05:30

Divisibility of different numbers has been listed below:

Divisibility by 2 : A number is divisible by 2, if its unit digits is any of 0,2,4,6,8.
In other words, when the unit's place digit is even or zero (0).
Divisibility by 3 : A number is divisible by 3 only when the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. In other words, All numbers with a digit sum of three (3), six (6) or nine (9) are divisible by 3.
Divisibility by 4 : A number is divisible by four (4), if its last two (2) digits are divisible by 4.
Divisibility by 5 : A number is divisible by 5 if its unit digit is five (5) or zero (0).
Divisibility by 6 : A number is divisible by 6 if it is divisible by both two (2) and three (3).
Divisibility by 8 : A number is divisible by eight (8) only when the number formed by its last three (3) digits is divisible by eight (8).
Divisibility by 9 : A number is divisible by nine (9) if sum of its digits is divisible by nine (9). In other words, All numbers with a digit sum is nine (9) are divisible by nine (9).
Divisibility by 10 : A number is divisible by ten (10) only when its unit digit is zero (0).
Divisibility by 11 : A number is divisible by 11, if the difference of the sum of its digits at odd places and the sum of its digits at even places is either zero (0) or number is divisible by 11. In simple words, Add all the digits in the ODD position and all digits in the EVEN position and subtract the smaller result from the larger result. If we get 0 or 11 or any multiples of 11 , then the number is divisible by 11.
Example : 7352631
Sum of odd digits : 7+5+6+1 = 19
Sum of Even digits : 3+2+3 = 8
19-8 = 11. So, number 7352631 is divisible by 11
Divisibility by 12 : A number is divisible by 12 if it is divisible by both three (3) and four (4). In other words, All numbers divisible by both 3 and 4 are divisible by 12.
Divisibility by 15 : A number is divisible by 15 if it is divisible by both three (3) and five (5). In other words, All numbers divisible by both 3 and 5 are divisible by 15.
Divisibility by 25 : A number is divisible by twenty-five (25) only when the number formed by its last two (2) digits is divisible by twenty-five (25).
Divisibility by 27 : A number is divisible by twenty-seven(27) if sum of its digits is divisible by twenty-seven(27).
Divisibility by 125 : A number is divisible by one hundred and twenty-five (125) only when the number formed by its last three (3) digits is divisible by one hundred and twenty-five (125).

An important note : If a number N is divisible by two numbers m and n, where m and n are co-primes(numbers having only 1 as a common factor or Two natural numbers a and b are said to be co-prime if their HCF(Highest Common Factor) is 1.), then N is divisible by mn.

Too err is human. If you see a typo, a spelling mistake, an error, or any other issue, please express via comments.

Speed And Correct Division by 9 (Nine)

2010-12-13T13:08:00.000+05:30

In Vedic Mathematics, there are several divisibility test for different numbers. I am going to explain one of the very simple and correct trick (method) of division by 9. You only require to have knowledge of addition and you will get your Remainder and Quotient. So, Lets start.

Example 1: So, start with easier two digit example. Divide 34 with 9

1. Write extreme Left side digit at bottom.

2. Put the first digit of the dividend as it is under the horizontal line. Put the same digit under the right hand part for the remainder, add the two and place the sum i.e.,, sum of the digits of the numbers as the remainder.

Let's consider some examples of two digits: Find 15/9 , 44/9 and 71/9

1 / 5       4 / 4           7 / 1
     1             4                7
1 / 6        4 / 8           7 / 8

15 / 9 gives Q = 1, R = 6
44 / 9 gives Q = 4, R = 8
71 / 9 gives Q = 7, R = 8

In the division of two digit numbers by 9, we can take the first digit down for the quotient-column and by adding the quotient to the second digit, we get the remainder.

Let's consider some examples of three digits: Find 124 /9, 215 / 9 and 403 / 9

12 / 4       21 / 5           40 / 3
  1 / 3        2 / 3             4 / 4
13 / 7      23 / 8           44 / 7

124 / 9 gives Q = 13, R = 7
215 / 9 gives Q = 23, R = 8
403 / 9 gives Q = 44, R = 7

Note : The remainder is the sum of the digits (digital sum) of the dividend. The first digit of the dividend from left is added to the second digit of the dividend to obtain the second digit of the quotient. This digit added to the third digit sets the remainder. The first digit of the dividend remains as the first digit of the quotient.

Division by 9 (nine) rules:

The remainder is the sum of the digits (digital sum) of the dividend.
The first digit of the dividend from left is added to the second digit of the dividend to obtain the second digit of the quotient.
This digit is added to the third digit set the remainder.

Let's consider some more examples:

Example : Find 611 / 9

Add the first digit 6 to second digit 1 getting 6 + 1 = 7. Hence, Quotient is 67. Now second digit of 67 i.e.,, 7 is added to third digit 1 of dividend to get the remainder i.e.,, 1 + 7 = 8

9 ) 61 / 1
       6 / 7
    67 /  8
Q is 67, R is 8.

Example : Find 234571 / 9

The first digit 2 is set down as the first answer digit . Take this 2 and add the next digit 3. This (2+3) gives 5 as the next digit. Working this way 5+4 =9, 9+5 =14 , 14+7 =21 and the remainder is 21+1 =22

9 ) 234 5 7 / 1
259 ₁4 ₂1/ 22
26061 / 22

The remainder 22 is larger than 9 , the divisor and so divide by 9 giving 2 and remainder 4. This 2 is carried over to the left giving answer are 26063/4

Q= 26063, R = 4

Example : Find 13210 / 9

The first digit 1 is set down as the first answer digit . Take this 1 and add the next digit 3. This gives 4 as the next digit. Working this way 4+2 =6, 6+1 =7 and the remainder is 7+0 =7

9 ) 1321 / 0
     1467 / 7
Q = 1467, R = 7

Find 214091/9

9 ) 2140 9 / 1
2377 ₁6/ 17
23786 / 17

The remainder 17 is larger than 9 , the divisor and so divide by 9 giving 1 and remainder 8. This 1 is carried over to the left giving answer are 23787/8

Q= 23787, R = 8

Too err is human. If you see a typo, a spelling mistake, an error, or any other issue, please express via comments.

Digital roots or Digital Sum of Numbers

2010-12-13T12:40:00.001+05:30

The word Digit means the single figure numbers; the numbers from 1 to 9 and zero

Digital Root or Digital Sum of a number : is the remainder when the number is divided by 9.

So for 31, the remainder is 4 because 31/ 9 = 3 remainder 4. The digital root is also 4.

The digital root can also be obtained by summing the digits of the number.

For example,

Digital sum of 26 is 2 + 6 = 8.
Digital sum of 14 is 1 + 4 = 5.
Digital sum of 764 is 7 + 6 + 4 =17. And 17 is a 2-digit number and we add the figures in 17 to get 1 + 7 = 8. So digital root of 764 is 8.
When the sum of digits is greater than 9, you keep adding. So for 3856, the digital root is 3 + 8 + 5 + 6 = 22, 2 + 2 = 4.

Some facts of digital roots or Digital Sum:

Adding 9 to a number does not affect its digit sum. So 1,10,19, 28 all have a digit sum of 1.
Digital sum of 59309 is 5 + 3 + 0 = 8, ignore all 9's
In terms of digit sums 9 and 0 are equivalent
Any group of digits in a number that add up to a 9 can also be removed.
Digit sum of 26701 is 7.
We see that 2 and 7 which adds up to 9. We can remove 2 and 7 and add up only other digits 6 + 0 + 1 = 7.

If you feel like reading something else, may I recommend:

Speed and correct division by 9 (nine).

To err is human. If you see a typo, a spelling mistake, an error, or any other issue, please express via comments.

How to Multiply with base of 100 – Vedic Multiplication - Lesson Three

2010-05-14T22:55:00.000+05:30

In the last lesson of Vedic Multiplication Methods, I mean here that in my last post I have explained the step-by-step procedure of Vedic Multiplication Methods. If you not read that post, you can read here to understand full concept of this fast calculation methods. In this post, I will demonstrate How to multiply with base of hundred within 15 secs? As I already explained the concept of Vedic Multiplication in my previous post. Now, I will show the examples with little description. But you will be able to understand. So, Lets start with the first example:
How to Multiply with Base of 100
Example 1. Multiply 78 by 96
Step 1. Well, here base is hundred, Put the two numbers 78 and 96 above and below on the left-hand side.
Step 2. For the right-hand-side, find out Deviation of both numbers. That is, 78-100 = -22 and 96-100 = –04 , Write Numbers as shown below:

Step 3. Now, for the right-hand-side of answer multiply the deviations 22 and 04, you will get 88, that is right hand side of the answer.
Step 4. As I already explained that there are four ways of find out the left-hand-side of the answer. Here, I used 78-04=74. You can use any of the four ways to find out left-portion of the answer.

Hence, 78 x 96 = 7488, Here, A vertical dividing line(‘|’) has drawn for the purpose of demarcation of the two parts. Below are the some examples of Multiply with base of 100.

Here are some points to remember:

In all these cases, note that both the cross-subtractions always give the same remainder (for the left-hand-side portion of the-answer)
Here too, note that the vertical multiplication (for the right-hand side portion of the product) may, in some cases, yield a more-than-two-digit product ; but, with 100 as our base, we can have only two digits on the right-hand side. We should therefore adopt the same method as before (i.e. keep the permissible two digits on the right-hand side and "carry" the surplus or extra digit over to the left) (as in the case of ordinary addition, compound addition etc.). See the following examples.

Have you realize that when we multiply with base of 10 and 100 the left portion contains 1 digit and 2 digits respectively. Next, when we multiply with base of 1000 then left side will contain 3 digits. So, fact is that how many zeros('0') a base have, that many digits left side will contain.

Even if you don't understand the above steps. Don't worry! Then, Start from here.

Attempt the following and post their answers in comments:

93x98 = ?
27 x 99 = ?
81x91 = ?
25x78 = ?
56 x98 = ?

So, another lesson of Vedic Multiplication Methods comes to end. In the next lesson we will learn how to multiply with base of 1000.

Multiply 11 to 19 In Your Head

2010-07-11T18:52:00.006+05:30

In this vedic trick you would learn to quickly multiply numbers between 11 and 19 in your head. With this trick, you will be able to multiply any two numbers from 11 to 19 in your head quickly, without the use of a calculator.

It is assumed that you know your multiplication table reasonably well up to 10x10.
Example 1: Multiply 14 by 17

Always place the larger number of the two on top in your mind.
Add right portion of lower number. 17 + 4 = 21
Add a zero behind it (multiply by 10) to get 210.
Multiply right portions of both numbers (4x7 = 28)
Add 210 + 28 = 238.

Hence, 14 x 17 = 238
Example 2: Multiply 15 by 18

Place the larger number of the two on top in your mind.
First add 18 + 5 = 23
Add a zero behind it (multiply by 10) to get 230.
Multiply the covered lower 5 x the single digit above it the "8" (5x8 = 40)
Add 230 + 40 = 270.

Hence, 15 x 18 = 270
That is It! Wasn't that easy? Practice it on paper first!
Note: This Method works only numbers between 11 and 19.

How to Multiply with base of 1000 – Vedic Multiplication – Lesson Four

2010-05-30T12:54:00.002+05:30

What we have done so for? Multiply with base of 100, Multiply with base of 10. Now, we learn how to multiply with base of 1000.
Let’s take first example.
Example 1 .Multiply 787 by 998
Deviation of 998 is –002, and Deviation of 787 is –213.

787 -213

998 -002

(787-002) or (998-213) | (213x2)

Solving above, we get

787 -213

998 -002

785 | 426

Hence, 787x998 = 785426
Let's take another example when right-hand-side contains two digits.
Example 2. Multiply 995 by 987
Deviation of 995 is –005, and Deviation of 987 is –013.

987 -013

995 -005

(987-005) or (995-013) | (13x5)

Solving above, we get

987 -013

995 -005

982 | 065

As I already explained in previous post that how many Zeros(0) a base will have that many digits right side will contain. Here base is 1000, so it will contain 3 digits on the left side.
Hence, 987x995 = 982065
Now, another example when we got carry on right hand side. Example 3 .Multiply 770 by 990
Deviation of 990 is –010, and Deviation of 770 is –230.

770 -230

990 -010

(770-010) or (990-230) | (230x10)

Solving above, we get

770 -230

990 -010

760 | ₂300

Here, we get carry 2, simply add it to left side as we do in natural addition.
Hence, 770x990 = 762300
In this post I just focus on examples. If you not able to understand yet, you can check the previous post. Where I explained full step by step methods.

Current Events 2010

2010-06-16T08:19:00.005+05:30

Friends, You might be thinking that on maths blog where from Current Affairs come. I posted these because SBI is going to recruit 22,000 more clerks at various branches, 'Current Affairs and General Awareness' is main part of their syllabus. It is also helpful for other exams also. So, here are some Current Affairs.

January 2010 Current Events	February 2010 Current Events
World News	World News
U.S. News	U.S. News
Business News	Business News
Disasters and Science News	Disasters and Science News
March 2010 Current Events	April 2010 Current Events
World News	World News
U.S. News	U.S. News
Business News	Business News
Disasters and Science News	Disasters and Science News
May 2010 Current Events	June 2010 Current Events
World News	World News
U.S. News	U.S. News
Business News	Business News
Disasters and Science News	Disasters and Science News

Source: Info Please
If you want to share your knowledge, comment, your experience or even a small problem. Feel free to express via comments. Soon, I'll back with latest news, techniques

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इटली के एकीकरण में Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour का योगदान (Contribution of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour in unification of Italy)

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इटली के एकीकरण में मेजिनी/Giuseppe Mazzini का योगदान (Contribution of Mazzini / Giuseppe Mazzini in the unification of Italy)

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Speed And Correct Division by 9 (Nine)

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How to Multiply with base of 100 – Vedic Multiplication - Lesson Three

Multiply 11 to 19 In Your Head

How to Multiply with base of 1000 – Vedic Multiplication – Lesson Four

Current Events 2010

इटली के एकीकरण में मेजिनी/Giuseppe Mazzini का योगदान (
Contribution of Mazzini / Giuseppe Mazzini in the unification of Italy)