Welcome to Interesting Topics

2011-07-03T03:03:00.000-07:00

What Are the Causes of Stress in High School?

High school is a time of change, excitement and physical, intellectual and emotional growth, and these factors contribute to a great deal of stress. High school can be an emotional roller coaster with wonderful highs and dramatic lows. Recognizing the causes of high school stress can help students learn to manage symptoms and minimize the roller coaster effect. In addition, learning to manage stress in adolescence might benefit high school students into adulthood.

Dating is a major part of high school life for many students. Dating and being in a relationship can mean feeling an emotional bond with someone, receiving and giving affection and attending social events. However, relationship also are a major cause of stress for adolescents. Sexual relationships can become even more stressful because of the increased emotional bond, pressure to do something an adolescent is uncomfortable with, concerns regarding pregnancy or sexual transmitted diseases and infidelity within the relationship.

High school students are significantly susceptible to peer pressure and bullying. Adolescents might be pressured to have sex, drink or use drugs, give less importance to studies or myriad other inappropriate or dangerous activities. This can be conflicting for students who know right from wrong and might not choose inappropriate behavior without feeling pressured. Students also might be victims of bullying by insulting, teasing, playing pranks or threatening other students. Perpetrators of bullying also experience stress as they might be pressured into bullying themselves or experiencing emotional problems that lead to the bullying behavior.

Many high school students seem to be physically attached to their mobile phones and devices. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy found that 39 percent of teens had sent sexually suggestive text messages, and 48 percent had received them. In addition, 40 percent of teens reported having a sexually suggestive message shown to them, and 20 percent showed such messages to someone else. This leads to stress from the embarrassment about personal information or sexually suggestive pictures being spread to others. The constant use of technology could also be stressful because of the constant use of these tools.

Students might feel stress because of the pressure to keep grades high or to raise low grades. Under-performing students might struggle to pass or to raise their grade-point average to be accepted into college, remain on or qualify for an athletic team or meet their parents' expectations. Higher-achieving students might feel stress to maintain a high GPA or receive college scholarships.

High school is a time of transition. High school students are encouraged to choose a career goal, choose academic tracts that correlate to their academic goals for college or trade school, as well as choosing which college or trade school they plan to attend. Students might feel pressured to choose careers or colleges that their parents have suggested or to be close to their friends. There are financial concerns as well. College scholarships are competitive, and prices for secondary education continue to rise faster than the rate of inflation.

Self-esteem is a source of stress for many adolescents. Teens often worry about what clothes to wear, how to wear their hair and in which activities to participate. This is a time of development when adolescents are struggling to find out who they are as a person, and they often look to their peers and the media to help shape their personal appearance, interests and activities. Body image is a significant source of stress. Child.net states that teens often feel pressured to be skinny so they can fit in.

Angry Management

2011-06-26T01:38:00.000-07:00

Click here

Brain Damaging Habbits

2011-06-19T01:07:00.000-07:00

BRAIN DAMAGING HABITS

1. No Breakfast

People who do not take breakfast are going to have a lower blood sugar level. This leads to an insufficient supply of nutrients to the brain causing brain degeneration.

2 . Overeating=2 0
It causes hardening of the brain arteries, leading to a decrease in mental power.

3. Smoking
It causes multiple brain shrinkage and may lead to Alzheimer disease.

4. High Sugar consumption
Too much sugar will interrupt the absorption of proteins and nutrients causing malnutrition and may interfere with brain development.

5. Air Pollution
The brain is the largest oxygen consumer in our 20 body. Inhaling polluted air decreases the supply of oxygen to the brain, bringing about a decrease in brain efficiency.

6 . Sleep Deprivation
Sleep allows our brain to rest.. Long term deprivation from sleep will accelerate the death of brain cells..

7. Head covered while sleeping
Sleeping with the head covered increases the concentration of carbon dioxide and decrease concentration of oxygen that may lead to brain damaging effects.

8. Working your brain during illness
Working hard or studying with sickness may lead to a decrease in effectiveness of the brain as well as damage the brain.

9. Lacking in stimulating thoughts
Thinking is the best way to train our brain, lacking in brain stimulation thoughts may cause brain shrinkage.

10. Talking Rarely
Intellectual conversations will promote the efficiency of the brain

Mobile Phone Codes

2011-06-19T00:40:00.000-07:00

Nokia Codes

*#3370# Deactivate Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR) .

*#4720# Activate Half Rate Codec - Your phone uses a lower quality sound but you should gain approx 30% more Talk Time.

*#4720# With this Nokia code you can deactivate the Half Rate Codec.

*#0000# Displays your phones software version, 1st Line : Software Version, 2nd Line : Software Release Date, 3rd Line : Compression Type .

*#9999# Phones software version if *#0000# does not work.

*#06# For checking the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI Number) .

*#pw+1234567890+1# Provider Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols).

#pw+1234567890+2# Network Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols) .
#pw+1234567890+3# Country Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols).
#pw+1234567890+4# SIM Card Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols) .
*#147# This lets you know who called you last (Only vodofone).
*#1471# Last call (Only vodofone) .
*#21# This phone code allows you to check the number that "All Calls" are diverted to.
*#2640# Displays phone security code in use .
*#30# Lets you see the private number.
*#43# Allows you to check the "Call Waiting" status of your cell phone.
*#61# Allows you to check the number that "On No Reply" calls are diverted to .
*#62# Allows you to check the number that "Divert If Unreachable (no service)" calls are diverted to .
*#67# Allows you to check the number that "On Busy Calls" are diverted to
*#67705646# Phone code that removes operator logo on 3310 & 3330
*#73# Reset phone timers and game scores.
*#746025625# Displays the SIM Clock status, if your phone supports this power saving feature "SIM Clock Stop Allowed", it means you will get the best standby time possible .
*#7760# Manufactures code.
*#7780# Restore factory settings.
*#8110# Software version for the nokia 8110.
*#92702689# Displays - 1.Serial Number, 2.Date Made, 3.Purchase Date, 4.Date of last repair (0000 for no repairs), 5.Transfer User Data. To exit this mode you need to switch your phone off then on again.
*#94870345123456789# Deactivate the PWM-Mem.
**21*number# Turn on "All Calls" diverting to the phone number entered.
**61*number# Turn on "No Reply" diverting to the phone number entered .
**67*number# Turn on "On Busy" diverting to the phone number entered .
12345 This is the default security code .
press and hold # Lets you switch between lines.

SAMSUNG Source Code

*#06# Show IMEI
*#9999# Show mobile Software Version
*#0837# Show mobile Software Version (instructions)
*#0001# Show Serial Parameters
*#9125# Activates the smiley when charging
*#0523# LCD Contrast

*#9998*228# Battery status (capacity, voltage, temperature)
*#9998*246# Program status
*#9998*289# Change Alarm Buzzer Frequency
*#9998*324# Debug Screens
*#9998*364# Watchdog
*#9998*377# EEPROM Error Stack - Use side keys to select values
*#9998*427# Trace Watchdog
*#9998*523# Change LCD contrast
*#9998*544# Jig detect
*#9998*636# Memory status
*#9998*746# SIM File Size
*#9998*778# SIM Service Table
*#9998*785# RTK (Run Time Kernel) errors - if ok then phn is reset, info is put in memory error
*#9998*786# Run, Last UP, Last DOWN
*#9998*837# Mobile Software Version
*#9998*842# Test Vibrator - Flash the screenlight during 10 sec and vibration activated
*#9998*862# Vocoder Reg - Normal, Earphone or Carkit
*#9998*872# Diag
*#9998*947# Reset On Fatal Error
*#9998*999# Last/Chk
*#9998*9266# Yann debug screen (Debug Screens?)
*#9998*9999# Software version
*0001*s*f*t# Changes serial parameters (s=?, f=0.1, t=0.1)
*0002*?# unknown Samsung's comand
*0003*?# unknown Samsung's comand

For Mobile phones SGH (R210, T100, A300...)
if Samsung code is in format *#9998*xxx#
try write in this *#0xxx#

SGH-600
SGH-2100

*2767*3855# Full EEPROM Reset (THIS CODE REMMOVES SP-LOCK! but also changes IMEI to 447967-89-400044-0
*2767*2878# Custom EEPROM Reset

Samsung mobile phone codes: Samsung E700

*2767*688# remove USER CODE and SIMLOCK

Samsung mobile phone codes: Samsung V200

Unlocking:
Power on the mobile phone without SIM card and type these codes:

*2767*63342# and press green button
*2767*3855# and press green button
*2767*2878# and press green button
*2767*927# and press green button
*2767*7822573738# press button

Phone will be unlocked, but all trims are reseted !!!
Mobile phone must be fully charged

Samsung mobile phone codes: Samsung S500
Unlocking

*2767*MVT# (*2767*688#) E2P MVT Reset
*#SIMLOCK# (*#7465625#)

Cyber Crimes

2010-11-02T03:08:00.000-07:00

The term ‘cyber crime’ is a misnomer. This term has nowhere been defined in any statute /Act passed or enacted by the Indian Parliament. The concept of cyber crime is not radically different from the concept of conventional crime. Both include conduct whether act or omission, which cause breach of rules of law and counterbalanced by the sanction of the state.

Before evaluating the concept of cyber crime it is obvious that the concept of conventional crime be discussed and the points of similarity and deviance between both these forms may be discussed.

CONVENTIONAL CRIME-

Crime is a social and economic phenomenon and is as old as the human society. Crime is a legal concept and has the sanction of the law. Crime or an offence is “a legal wrong that can be followed by criminal proceedings which may result into punishment.”(1) The hallmark of criminality is that, it is breach of the criminal law. Per Lord Atkin “the criminal quality of an act cannot be discovered by reference to any standard but one: is the act prohibited with penal consequences”. (2)

A crime may be said to be any conduct accompanied by act or omission prohibited by law and consequential breach of which is visited by penal consequences.

CYBER CRIME

Cyber crime is the latest and perhaps the most complicated problem in the cyber world. “Cyber crime may be said to be those species, of which, genus is the conventional crime, and where either the computer is an object or subject of the conduct constituting crime” (13). “Any criminal activity that uses a computer either as an instrumentality, target or a means for perpetuating further crimes comes within the ambit of cyber crime”(12)

A generalized definition of cyber crime may be “ unlawful acts wherein the computer is either a tool or target or both”(3) The computer may be used as a tool in the following kinds of activity- financial crimes, sale of illegal articles, pornography, online gambling, intellectual property crime, e-mail spoofing, forgery, cyber defamation, cyber stalking. The computer may however be target for unlawful acts in the following cases- unauthorized access to computer/ computer system/ computer networks, theft of information contained in the electronic form, e-mail bombing, data didling, salami attacks, logic bombs, Trojan attacks, internet time thefts, web jacking, theft of computer system, physically damaging the computer system.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND CYBER CRIME-

There is apparently no distinction between cyber and conventional crime. However on a deep introspection we may say that there exists a fine line of demarcation between the conventional and cyber crime, which is appreciable. The demarcation lies in the involvement of the medium in cases of cyber crime. The sine qua non for cyber crime is that there should be an involvement, at any stage, of the virtual cyber medium.

REASONS FOR CYBER CRIME:
Hart in his work “ The Concept of Law” has said ‘human beings are vulnerable so rule of law is required to protect them’. Applying this to the cyberspace we may say that computers are vulnerable so rule of law is required to protect and safeguard them against cyber crime. The reasons for the vulnerability of computers may be said to be:

Capacity to store data in comparatively small space-

The computer has unique characteristic of storing data in a very small space. This affords to remove or derive information either through physical or virtual medium makes it much more easier.

Easy to access-
The problem encountered in guarding a computer system from unauthorised access is that there is every possibility of breach not due to human error but due to the complex technology. By secretly implanted logic bomb, key loggers that can steal access codes, advanced voice recorders; retina imagers etc. that can fool biometric systems and bypass firewalls can be utilized to get past many a security system.

3.Complex-

The computers work on operating systems and these operating systems in turn are composed of millions of codes. Human mind is fallible and it is not possible that there might not be a lapse at any stage. The cyber criminals take advantage of these lacunas and penetrate into the computer system.

4.Negligence-

Negligence is very closely connected with human conduct. It is therefore very probable that while protecting the computer system there might be any negligence, which in turn provides a cyber criminal to gain access and control over the computer system.

5. Loss of evidence-

Loss of evidence is a very common & obvious problem as all the data are routinely destroyed. Further collection of data outside the territorial extent also paralyses this system of crime investigation.

CYBER CRIMINALS:

The cyber criminals constitute of various groups/ category. This division may be justified on the basis of the object that they have in their mind. The following are the category of cyber criminals-

1. Children and adolescents between the age group of 6 – 18 years –

The simple reason for this type of delinquent behaviour pattern in children is seen mostly due to the inquisitiveness to know and explore the things. Other cognate reason may be to prove themselves to be outstanding amongst other children in their group. Further the reasons may be psychological even. E.g. the Bal Bharati (Delhi) case was the outcome of harassment of the delinquent by his friends.

2. Organised hackers-

These kinds of hackers are mostly organised together to fulfil certain objective. The reason may be to fulfil their political bias, fundamentalism, etc. The Pakistanis are said to be one of the best quality hackers in the world. They mainly target the Indian government sites with the purpose to fulfil their political objectives. Further the NASA as well as the Microsoft sites is always under attack by the hackers.

3. Professional hackers / crackers –

Their work is motivated by the colour of money. These kinds of hackers are mostly employed to hack the site of the rivals and get credible, reliable and valuable information. Further they are ven employed to crack the system of the employer basically as a measure to make it safer by detecting the loopholes.

4. Discontented employees-

This group include those people who have been either sacked by their employer or are dissatisfied with their employer. To avenge they normally hack the system of their employee.

MODE AND MANNER OF COMMITING CYBER CRIME:

Unauthorized access to computer systems or networks / Hacking-
This kind of offence is normally referred as hacking in the generic sense. However the framers of the information technology act 2000 have no where used this term so to avoid any confusion we would not interchangeably use the word hacking for ‘unauthorized access’ as the latter has wide connotation.

Theft of information contained in electronic form-
This includes information stored in computer hard disks, removable storage media etc. Theft may be either by appropriating the data physically or by tampering them through the virtual medium.

Email bombing-
This kind of activity refers to sending large numbers of mail to the victim, which may be an individual or a company or even mail servers there by ultimately resulting into crashing.

Data diddling-
This kind of an attack involves altering raw data just before a computer processes it and then changing it back after the processing is completed. The electricity board faced similar problem of data diddling while the department was being computerised.

Salami attacks-
This kind of crime is normally prevalent in the financial institutions or for the purpose of committing financial crimes. An important feature of this type of offence is that the alteration is so small that it would normally go unnoticed. E.g. the Ziegler case wherein a logic bomb was introduced in the bank’s system, which deducted 10 cents from every account and deposited it in a particular account.

Denial of Service attack-
The computer of the victim is flooded with more requests than it can handle which cause it to crash. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack is also a type of denial of service attack, in which the offenders are wide in number and widespread. E.g. Amazon, Yahoo.

7. Virus / worm attacks-

Viruses are programs that attach themselves to a computer or a file and then circulate themselves to other files and to other computers on a network. They usually affect the data on a computer, either by altering or deleting it. Worms, unlike viruses do not need the host to attach themselves to. They merely make functional copies of themselves and do this repeatedly till they eat up all the available space on a computer's memory. E.g. love bug virus, which affected at least 5 % of the computers of the globe. The losses were accounted to be $ 10 million. The world's most famous worm was the Internet worm let loose on the Internet by Robert Morris sometime in 1988. Almost brought development of Internet to a complete halt.

8. Logic bombs-

These are event dependent programs. This implies that these programs are created to do something only when a certain event (known as a trigger event) occurs. E.g. even some viruses may be termed logic bombs because they lie dormant all through the year and become active only on a particular date (like the Chernobyl virus).

Trojan attacks-
This term has its origin in the word ‘Trojan horse’. In software field this means an unauthorized programme, which passively gains control over another’s system by representing itself as an authorised programme. The most common form of installing a Trojan is through e-mail. E.g. a Trojan was installed in the computer of a lady film director in the U.S. while chatting. The cyber criminal through the web cam installed in the computer obtained her nude photographs. He further harassed this lady.

Internet time thefts-
Normally in these kinds of thefts the Internet surfing hours of the victim are used up by another person. This is done by gaining access to the login ID and the password. E.g. Colonel Bajwa’s case- the Internet hours were used up by any other person. This was perhaps one of the first reported cases related to cyber crime in India. However this case made the police infamous as to their lack of understanding of the nature of cyber crime.

11. Web jacking-

This term is derived from the term hi jacking. In these kinds of offences the hacker gains access and control over the web site of another. He may even mutilate or change the information on the site. This may be done for fulfilling political objectives or for money. E.g. recently the site of MIT (Ministry of Information Technology) was hacked by the Pakistani hackers and some obscene matter was placed therein. Further the site of Bombay crime branch was also web jacked. Another case of web jacking is that of the ‘gold fish’ case. In this case the site was hacked and the information pertaining to gold fish was changed. Further a ransom of US $ 1 million was demanded as ransom. Thus web jacking is a process where by control over the site of another is made backed by some consideration for it.

CLASSIFICATION:
The subject of cyber crime may be broadly classified under the following three groups. They are-

1. Against Individuals

a. their person &
b. their property of an individual

2. Against Organization

a. Government
c. Firm, Company, Group of Individuals.

3. Against Society at large

The following are the crimes, which can be committed against the followings group

Against Individuals: –

i. Harassment via e-mails.
ii. Cyber-stalking.
iii. Dissemination of obscene material.
iv. Defamation.
v. Unauthorized control/access over computer system.
vi. Indecent exposure
vii. Email spoofing
viii. Cheating & Fraud

Against Individual Property: -

i. Computer vandalism.
ii. Transmitting virus.
iii. Netrespass
iv. Unauthorized control/access over computer system.
v. Intellectual Property crimes
vi. Internet time thefts

Against Organization: -

i. Unauthorized control/access over computer system
ii. Possession of unauthorized information.
iii. Cyber terrorism against the government organization.
iv. Distribution of pirated software etc.

Against Society at large: -

i. Pornography (basically child pornography).
ii. Polluting the youth through indecent exposure.
iii. Trafficking
iv. Financial crimes
v.Sale of illegal articles
vi.Online gambling
vii. Forgery

The above mentioned offences may discussed in brief as follows:

1. Harassment via e-mails-

Harassment through e-mails is not a new concept. It is very similar to harassing through letters. Recently I had received a mail from a lady wherein she complained about the same. Her former boy friend was sending her mails constantly sometimes emotionally blackmailing her and also threatening her. This is a very common type of harassment via e-mails.

2. Cyber-stalking-

The Oxford dictionary defines stalking as "pursuing stealthily". Cyber stalking involves following a person's movements across the Internet by posting messages (sometimes threatening) on the bulletin boards frequented by the victim, entering the chat-rooms frequented by the victim, constantly bombarding the victim with emails etc.

3. Dissemination of obscene material/ Indecent exposure/ Pornography (basically child pornography) / Polluting through indecent exposure-

Pornography on the net may take various forms. It may include the hosting of web site containing these prohibited materials. Use of computers for producing these obscene materials. Downloading through the Internet, obscene materials. These obscene matters may cause harm to the mind of the adolescent and tend to deprave or corrupt their mind. Two known cases of pornography are the Delhi Bal Bharati case and the Bombay case wherein two Swiss couple used to force the slum children for obscene photographs. The Mumbai police later arrested them.

4. Defamation

It is an act of imputing any person with intent to lower the person in the estimation of the right-thinking members of society generally or to cause him to be shunned or avoided or to expose him to hatred, contempt or ridicule. Cyber defamation is not different from conventional defamation except the involvement of a virtual medium. E.g. the mail account of Rohit was hacked and some mails were sent from his account to some of his batch mates regarding his affair with a girl with intent to defame him.

4. Unauthorized control/access over computer system-

This activity is commonly referred to as hacking. The Indian law has however given a different connotation to the term hacking, so we will not use the term "unauthorized access" interchangeably with the term "hacking" to prevent confusion as the term used in the Act of 2000 is much wider than hacking.

5. E mail spoofing-

A spoofed e-mail may be said to be one, which misrepresents its origin. It shows it's origin to be different from which actually it originates. Recently spoofed mails were sent on the name of Mr. Na.Vijayashankar (naavi.org), which contained virus.

Rajesh Manyar, a graduate student at Purdue University in Indiana, was arrested for threatening to detonate a nuclear device in the college campus. The alleged e- mail was sent from the account of another student to the vice president for student services. However the mail was traced to be sent from the account of Rajesh Manyar.(15)

6. Computer vandalism-

Vandalism means deliberately destroying or damaging property of another. Thus computer vandalism may include within its purview any kind of physical harm done to the computer of any person. These acts may take the form of the theft of a computer, some part of a computer or a peripheral attached to the computer or by physically damaging a computer or its peripherals.

7. Transmitting virus/worms-

This topic has been adequately dealt herein above.

8. Intellectual Property crimes / Distribution of pirated software-

Intellectual property consists of a bundle of rights. Any unlawful act by which the owner is deprived completely or partially of his rights is an offence. The common form of IPR violation may be said to be software piracy, copyright infringement, trademark and service mark violation, theft of computer source code, etc.

The Hyderabad Court has in a land mark judgement has convicted three people and sentenced them to six months imprisonment and fine of 50,000 each for unauthorized copying and sell of pirated software. (16)

9. Cyber terrorism against the government organization

At this juncture a necessity may be felt that what is the need to distinguish between cyber terrorism and cyber crime. Both are criminal acts. However there is a compelling need to distinguish between both these crimes. A cyber crime is generally a domestic issue, which may have international consequences, however cyber terrorism is a global concern, which has domestic as well as international consequences. The common form of these terrorist attacks on the Internet is by distributed denial of service attacks, hate websites and hate emails, attacks on sensitive computer networks, etc. Technology savvy terrorists are using 512-bit encryption, which is next to impossible to decrypt. The recent example may be cited of – Osama Bin Laden, the LTTE, attack on America’s army deployment system during Iraq war.

Cyber terrorism may be defined to be “ the premeditated use of disruptive activities, or the threat thereof, in cyber space, with the intention to further social, ideological, religious, political or similar objectives, or to intimidate any person in furtherance of such objectives” (4)

Another definition may be attempted to cover within its ambit every act of cyber terrorism.

A terrorist means a person who indulges in wanton killing of persons or in violence or in disruption of services or means of communications essential to the community or in damaging property with the view to –

(1) putting the public or any section of the public in fear; or

(2) affecting adversely the harmony between different religious, racial, language or regional groups or castes or communities; or

(3) coercing or overawing the government established by law; or

(4) endangering the sovereignty and integrity of the nation

and a cyber terrorist is the person who uses the computer system as a means or ends to achieve the above objectives. Every act done in pursuance thereof is an act of cyber terrorism.

10.Trafficking

Trafficking may assume different forms. It may be trafficking in drugs, human beings, arms weapons etc. These forms of trafficking are going unchecked because they are carried on under pseudonyms. A racket was busted in Chennai where drugs were being sold under the pseudonym of honey.

Fraud & Cheating
Online fraud and cheating is one of the most lucrative businesses that are growing today in the cyber space. It may assume different forms. Some of the cases of online fraud and cheating that have come to light are those pertaining to credit card crimes, contractual crimes, offering jobs, etc.

Recently the Court of Metropolitan Magistrate Delhi (17) found guilty a 24-year-old engineer working in a call centre, of fraudulently gaining the details of Campa's credit card and bought a television and a cordless phone from Sony website. Metropolitan magistrate Gulshan Kumar convicted Azim for cheating under IPC, but did not send him to jail. Instead, Azim was asked to furnish a personal bond of Rs 20,000, and was released on a year's probation.

STATUTORY PROVISONS:

The Indian parliament considered it necessary to give effect to the resolution by which the General Assembly adopted Model Law on Electronic Commerce adopted by the United Nations Commission on Trade Law. As a consequence of which the Information Technology Act 2000 was passed and enforced on 17th May 2000.the preamble of this Act states its objective to legalise e-commerce and further amend the Indian Penal Code 1860, the Indian Evidence Act 1872, the Banker’s Book Evidence Act1891 and the Reserve Bank of India Act 1934. The basic purpose to incorporate the changes in these Acts is to make them compatible with the Act of 2000. So that they may regulate and control the affairs of the cyber world in an effective manner.

The Information Technology Act deals with the various cyber crimes in chapters IX & XI. The important sections are Ss. 43,65,66,67. Section 43 in particular deals with the unauthorised access, unauthorised downloading, virus attacks or any contaminant, causes damage, disruption, denial of access, interference with the service availed by a person. This section provide for a fine up to Rs. 1 Crore by way of remedy. Section 65 deals with ‘tampering with computer source documents’ and provides for imprisonment up to 3 years or fine, which may extend up to 2 years or both. Section 66 deals with ‘hacking with computer system’ and provides for imprisonment up to 3 years or fine, which may extend up to 2 years or both. Further section 67 deals with publication of obscene material and provides for imprisonment up to a term of 10 years and also with fine up to Rs. 2 lakhs. (14)

ANALYSIS OF THE STATUTORY PROVISONS:

The Information Technology Act 2000 was undoubtedly a welcome step at a time when there was no legislation on this specialised field. The Act has however during its application has proved to be inadequate to a certain extent. The various loopholes in the Act are-

1. The hurry in which the legislation was passed, without sufficient public debate, did not really serve the desired purpose (6)-

Experts are of the opinion that one of the reasons for the inadequacy of the legislation has been the hurry in which it was passed by the parliament and it is also a fact that sufficient time was not given for public debate.

2. “Cyberlaws, in their very preamble and aim, state that they are targeted at aiding e-commerce, and are not meant to regulate cybercrime”(6) –

Mr. Pavan Duggal holds the opinion that the main intention of the legislators has been to provide for a law to regulate the e-commerce and with that aim the I.T.Act 2000 was passed, which also is one of the reasons for its inadequacy to deal with cases of cyber crime.

At this point I would like to express my respectful dissent with Mr. Duggal. I feel that the above statement by Mr. Duggal is not fundamentally correct. The reason being that the preamble does state that the Act aims at legalising e-commerce. However it does not stop here. It further amends the I.P.C., Evidence Act, Banker’s Book Evidence and RBI Act also. The Act also aims to deal with all matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It is a cardinal rule of interpretation that “text should be read as a whole to gather the meaning”. It seems that the above statement has been made in total disregard of this rule of interpretation. The preamble, if read as a whole, makes it very clear that the Act equally aims at legalising e-commerce and to curb any offences arising there from.

3.Cyber torts-

The recent cases including Cyber stalking cyber harassment, cyber nuisance, and cyber defamation have shown that the I.T.Act 2000 has not dealt with those offences. Further it is also contended that in future new forms of cyber crime will emerge which even need to be taken care of. Therefore India should sign the cyber crime convention. However the I.T.Act 2000 read with the Penal Code is capable of dealing with these felonies.

4.Cyber crime in the Act is neither comprehensive nor exhaustive-

Mr. Duggal believes that we need dedicated legislation on cyber crime that can supplement the Indian Penal Code. The contemporary view is held by Mr. Prathamesh Popat who has stated- "The IT Act, 2000 is not comprehensive enough and doesn't even define the term 'cyber crime". (8) Mr. Duggal has further commented, “India, as a nation, has to cope with an urgent need to regulate and punish those committing cyber crimes, but with no specific provisions to do so. Supporters of the Indian Penal Code School vehemently argue that IPC has stood the test of time and that it is not necessary to incorporate any special laws on cyber crime. This is because it is debated by them that the IPC alone is sufficient for all kinds of crime. However, in practical terms, the argument does not have appropriate backing. It has to be distinctly understood that cyber crime and cyberspace are completely new whelms, where numerous new possibilities and opportunities emerge by the day in the form of new kinds of crimes.”(6)

I feel that a new legislation on cyber crime is totally unwarranted. The reason is that the new legislation not come alone but will bring with it the same confusion, the same dissatisfaction and the same desire to supplant it by further new legislation. Mr. Duggal has stated above the need to supplement IPC by a new legislation. If that is the issue then the present legislation along with the Penal Code when read harmoniously and co- jointly is sufficient to deal with the present problems of cyber crime. Further there are other legislations to deal with the intellectual property crimes on the cyber space such as the Patents Act, Copy Right Act, Trade Marks Act.

5.Ambiguity in the definitions-

The definition of hacking provided in section 66 of the Act is very wide and capable of misapplication. There is every possibility of this section being misapplied and in fact the Delhi court has misapplied it. The infamous go2nextjob has made it very clear that what may be the fate of a person who is booked under section 66 or the constant threat under which the netizens are till s. 66 exists in its present form.

Further section 67 is also vague to certain extent. It is difficult to define the term lascivious information or obscene pornographic information. Further our inability to deal with the cases of cyber pornography has been proved by the Bal Bharati case.

6. Uniform law-

Mr. Vinod Kumar (9) holds the opinion that the need of the hour is a worldwide uniform cyber law to combat cyber crime. Cyber crime is a global phenomenon and therefore the initiative to fight it should come from the same level. E.g. the author of the love bug virus was appreciated by his countrymen.

7.Lack of awareness-

One important reason that the Act of 2000 is not achieving complete success is the lack of awareness among the s about their rights. Further most of the cases are going unreported. If the people are vigilant about their rights the law definitely protects their right. E.g. the Delhi high court in October 2002 prevented a person from selling Microsoft pirated software over an auction site. Achievement was also made in the case before the court of metropolitan magistrate Delhi wherein a person was convicted for online cheating by buying Sony products using a stolen credit card. (17)

8. Jurisdiction issues-

Jurisdiction is also one of the debatable issues in the cases of cyber crime due to the very universal nature of cyber space. With the ever-growing arms of cyber space the territorial concept seems to vanish. New methods of dispute resolution should give way to the conventional methods. The Act of 2000 is very silent on these issues.

9. Extra territorial application-

Though S.75 provides for extra-territorial operations of this law, but they could be meaningful only when backed with provisions recognizing orders and warrants for Information issued by competent authorities outside their jurisdiction and measure for cooperation for exchange of material and evidence of computer crimes between law enforcement agencies.

10. Raising a cyber army-

By using the word ‘cyber army’ by no means I want to convey the idea of virtual army, rather I am laying emphasis on the need for a well equipped task force to deal with the new trends of hi tech crime. The government has taken a leap in this direction by constituting cyber crime cells in all metropolitan and other important cities. Further the establishment of the Cyber Crime Investigation Cell (CCIC) of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) 11) is definitely a welcome step in this direction. There are man cases in which the C.B.I has achieved success. The present position of cases of cyber crime (17) is –

Case 1: When a woman at an MNC started receiving obscene calls, CBI found her colleague had posted her personal details on Mumbaidating.com.

Status: Probe on

Case 2: CBI arrested a man from UP, Mohammed Feroz, who placed ads offering jobs in Germany. He talked to applicants via e-mail and asked them to deposit money in his bank account in Delhi.

Status: Chargesheet not filed

Case 3: The official web-site of the Central Board of Direct Taxes was hacked last year. As Pakistan-based hackers were responsible, authorities there were informed through Interpol.

Status: Pak not cooperating.

11. Cyber savvy bench-

Cyber savvy judges are the need of the day. Judiciary plays a vital role in shaping the enactment according to the order of the day. One such stage, which needs appreciation, is the P.I.L., which the Kerela High Court has accepted through an email. The role of the judges in today’s word may be gathered by the statement- judges carve ‘law is’ to ‘law ought to be’. Mr T.K.Vishwanathan, member secretary, Law Commission , has highlighted the requirements for introducing e-courts in India. In his article published in The Hindu he has stated “if there is one area of Governance where IT can make a huge difference to Indian public is in the Judicial System”.

12. Dynamic form of cyber crime-

Speaking on the dynamic nature of cyber crime FBI Director Louis Freeh has said, "In short, even though we have markedly improved our capabilities to fight cyber intrusions the problem is growing even faster and we are falling further behind.” The (de)creativity of human mind cannot be checked by any law. Thus the only way out is the liberal construction while applying the statutory provisions to cyber crime cases.

13. Hesitation to report offences-

As stated above one of the fatal drawbacks of the Act has been the cases going unreported. One obvious reason is the non-cooperative police force. This was proved by the Delhi time theft case. "The police are a powerful force today which can play an instrumental role in preventing cybercrime. At the same time, it can also end up wielding the rod and harassing innocent s, preventing them from going about their normal cyber business."(10) This attitude of the administration is also revelled by incident that took place at Merrut and Belgam. (for the facts of these incidents refer to naavi.com). For complete realisation of the provisions of this Act a cooperative police force is require.

PREVENTION OF CYBER CRIME:

Prevention is always better than cure. It is always better to take certain precaution while operating the net. A should make them his part of cyber life. Saileshkumar Zarkar, technical advisor and network security consultant to the Mumbai Police Cyber crime Cell, advocates the 5P mantra for online security: Precaution, Prevention, Protection, Preservation and Perseverance. A netizen should keep in mind the following things-

1.to prevent cyber stalking avoid disclosing any information pertaining to oneself. This is as good as disclosing your identity to strangers in public place.

2.always avoid sending any photograph online particularly to strangers and chat friends as there have been incidents of misuse of the photographs.

3.always use latest and up date anti virus software to guard against virus attacks.

4.always keep back up volumes so that one may not suffer data loss in case of virus contamination

5.never send your credit card number to any site that is not secured, to guard against frauds.

6.always keep a watch on the sites that your children are accessing to prevent any kind of harassment or depravation in children.

7.it is better to use a security programme that gives control over the cookies and send information back to the site as leaving the cookies unguarded might prove fatal.

8.web site owners should watch traffic and check any irregularity on the site. Putting host-based intrusion detection devices on servers may do this.

9.use of firewalls may be beneficial.

10. web servers running public sites must be physically separate protected from internal corporate network.

Adjudication of a Cyber Crime - On the directions of the Bombay High Court the Central Government has by a notification dated 25.03.03 has decided that the Secretary to the Information Technology Department in each state by designation would be appointed as the AO for each state.

CONCLUSION:

Capacity of human mind is unfathomable. It is not possible to eliminate cyber crime from the cyber space. It is quite possible to check them. History is the witness that no legislation has succeeded in totally eliminating crime from the globe. The only possible step is to make people aware of their rights and duties (to report crime as a collective duty towards the society) and further making the application of the laws more stringent to check crime. Undoubtedly the Act is a historical step in the cyber world. Further I all together do not deny that there is a need to bring changes in the Information Technology Act to make it more effective to combat cyber crime. I would conclude with a word of caution for the pro-legislation school that it should be kept in mind that the provisions of the cyber law are not made so stringent that it may retard the growth of the industry and prove to be counter-productive.

REFERENCES:

1. Granville Williams

2. Proprietary Articles Trade Association v. A.G.for Canada (1932)

3. Nagpal R. – What is Cyber Crime?

4. Nagpal R- Defining Cyber Terrorism

5. Duggal Pawan – The Internet: Legal Dimensions

6. Duggal Pawan - Is this Treaty a Treat?

7. Duggal Pawan - Cybercrime

8. Kapoor G.V. - Byte by Byte

9. Kumar Vinod – Winning the Battle against Cyber Crime

10. Mehta Dewang- Role of Police In Tackling Internet Crimes

11. For the sake of convenience the readers are requested to read sections 43, 65, 66,67 of the Information Technology Act.

12. Sify News 14.03.03

13. Deccan Herald 16.03.03

14. Hindustan Times 03.03.03

Practical Guide to Alternative Data Streams in NTFS

2010-10-18T22:31:00.000-07:00

Alternative Data Stream support was added to NTFS (Windows NT, Windows 2000 and Windows XP) to help support Macintosh Hierarchical File System (HFS) which uses resource forks to store icons and other information for a file. While this is the intended use (as well as a few Windows internal functions) there or other uses for Alternative Data Streams that should concern system administrators and security professionals. Using Alternative Data Streams a user can easily hide files that can go undetected unless closely inspection. This tutorial will give basic information on how to manipulate and detect Alternative Data Streams.

(Note about conventions: Alternative Data Streams are also sometimes referred to as Alternate Data Streams or ADS. Since Alternative Data Streams is so long, an ADS can be confused with Active Directory Services I will simple call this feature AltDS for short.)

Creating an AltDS

Making an AltDS is fairly simple. I will use command line examples, feel free to follow along. We could hide some data in an AltDS behind an already existing file, but for this example we will create a new base file to hide behind:

C:>echo Just a plan text file>sample.txt

C:>type sample.txt
Just a plan text file

C:>

Next we will use a colon as the operator to tell our commands to create or use an AltDS:

C:>echo You can't see me>sample.txt:secret.txt

Unfortunately, the use of the colon operator is a bit hit or miss in its' implementation and some times does not work as we might expect as seen below:

C:>type sample.txt:secret.txt
The filename, directory name, or volume label syntax is incorrect.

Since the "type" command does not understand the colon operator we will have to use notepad to read the file:

C:>notepad sample.txt:secret.txt

If all worked well, you should not see a notepad window with the text "You can't see me" in it. Also notice that while the amount of total hard drive space free went down the file size of sample.txt did not increase:

C:>dir sample.txt
Volume in drive C has no label.
Volume Serial Number is 40CC-B506

Directory of C:

09/27/2004 01:58 PM 23 sample.txt
1 File(s) 23 bytes
0 Dir(s) 12,658,040,832 bytes free

C:>

You can make an AltDS in not only files, but also directories, here is a quick example:

C:>md stuff

C:>cd stuff

C:stuff>echo Hide stuff in stuff>:hide.txt

C:stuff>dir
Volume in drive C has no label.
Volume Serial Number is 40CC-B506

Directory of C:stuff

09/28/2004 10:19 AM

.
09/28/2004 10:19 AM ..
0 File(s) 0 bytes
2 Dir(s) 12,253,208,576 bytes free

C:stuff>notepad :hide.txt

Hopefully you now see a notepad window with hide.txt's contents. If all one could do with AltDS was hide text files it would not be that impressive, but there's much more that can be done with this useful NTFS feature.

Hiding and running an executable.

As it turns out, using AltDS to hide executables is not much harder than it is to hide text files. AltDS makes for a great way for malware to hide itself on a system. Here's an example of how and executable can be hidden behind another file:

First we make our file to hide behind:

C:WINDOWS>echo Test>test.txt

Next we put an EXE behind is, I'm just using notepad.exe because it's convenient:

C:WINDOWS>type notepad.exe>test.txt:note.exe

Next we confirm the contents of the text file when some one tries to open it.

C:WINDOWS>type test.txt
Test

Now we will confirm the file size, notice that adding notepad.exe as a steam did not increase the size of test.txt.

C:WINDOWS>dir test.txt
Volume in drive C has no label.
Volume Serial Number is 007E-2E3C

Directory of C:WINDOWS

09/19/2004 08:37 AM 6 test.txt
1 File(s) 6 bytes
0 Dir(s) 19,734,708,224 bytes free

Now we will attempt to run our hidden exe. Notice the "." in front of the file name, this is necessary because the "start" command needs to know the correct path to the file (at least if you are using XP).

C:WINDOWS>start .test.txt:note.exe

C:WINDOWS>

If all worked well there should now be a notepad window up on your system. You should be able to hide just about any other EXE file this way if you wish.

Batch Programming Basics

2010-10-18T22:22:00.000-07:00

The Basic's of Batch file programming. Explains you what batch file programming is and hot to create batch files.

The Basics of Batch File Programming

Batch file programming is nothing but a batch of DOS ( Disk Operating System ) commands, hence the name Batch. If you code a lot and know many languages you are sure to notice that Operating System ( OS )specific langauges ( languages that work only on a particular operating system, eg: Visual Basic Scripting works only in Windows ) give you amazing control over the system. This is why Batch is so powerfull, it gives you absolute control over DOS. Batch isnt reccomended at all because it is OS specific, but it is fun and easy to learn. This tutorial will not only teach you Batch file programming but also how to fend for yourself and learn more commands that tutorials dont teach you.

The first command you should know is ECHO. All ECHO does is simply print something onto the screen. It's like "printf" in C or "PRINT" in Basic. Anyway, this is how we use it.

ECHO Hello World!

All right, now save the above line as a .bat file and double click it. This should be the output -

C:WINDOWSDesktop>ECHO Hello World!
Hello World!

Hmmm, notice that it shows the command before executing it. But we're coders right? We dont want our code to look so untidy so just add an @ sign before ECHO and execute it. Woohoo! much better. The @ sign tells DOS to hide from the user whatever commands it is executing. Now, what if I want to write to a file? This is how I do it -

@ECHO Hello World > hello.txt

Simple huh? Remember, ">" to create or overwrite a file and ">>" to append ( write at the end ) of a file that already exists. Guess why this program wont work as desired to -

@ECHO Hello World > hello.txt
@ECHO Hello World Again > hello.txt

Looking at it, you will see that the program is supposed to write two lines one after another but it wont work because in the first line it will create a file called hello.txt and write the words "Hello World" to it, and in the second line it just over-writes the earlier text. So actually what it is doing is that it creates a file and writes to it and then over-writes what it had earlier written, to change this we just add a ">". The additional ">" will make DOS append to the file. So here's the improved form of the program -

@ECHO Hello World > hello.txt
@ECHO Hello World Again >> hello.txt

Save the above code as a .bat file and execute it, it will work without a hitch. The next thing we should learn is the GOTO statement. GOTO is just the same as it is in BASIC or for that fact any programming langauge but the only difference is between the labels.

This is a label in C or BASIC - label:

This is a label in batch - :label

In C or BASIC, the ":" comes after the label and in Batch it comes before the label. Bear this in mind as you proceed. Here's an example of the GOTO statement -

:labelone
@ECHO LoL
GOTO labelone

If you execute this code, you will see that it is an unlimited loop; it will keep printing to the screen till the end of time if you dont interupt it Smile The GOTO statement is very usefull when it comes to building big Batch programs. Now, we will learn the IF and EXIST commands. The IF command is usually used for checking if a file exists, like this -

@IF EXIST C:WINDOWSEXPLORER.EXE ECHO It exists

Observe that I have not used inverted commas ( " ) as I would in BASIC or C. The EXIST command is only found in Batch and not in any other language. The EXIST command can also be used to check if a file does not exist, like this -

@IF NOT EXIST C:WINDOWSEXPLORER.EXE ECHO It does not exist

Remember, Batch is not a language like C or BASIC or Pascal, it cannot do mathematical functions. In Batch, all you can do is control DOS. In the above example notice that there is no THEN command as there would be in most languages.
Sick and tired off using the @ sign before each and every command ? Let's do some research, go to the DOS prompt and type in ECHO /? and press enter. Interesting, in this way, when you hear of a new DOS command you dont know about, just type in "command /?" and you can get help on it. Now back to ECHO. According to the help we received by typing in ECHO /? you must have concluded if you type in ECHO OFF you no longer need to type an @ sign before every command.
Wait! just add an @ before ECHO OFF so that it does not display the message - ECHO is off.

The next command we are going to learn about is the CLS command. It stands for CLear Screen. If you know BASIC, you will have no problem understanding this command. All it does is clear the screen. Here's an example -

@ECHO OFF
CLS
ECHO This is DOS

This command need's no further explanation but type in CLS /? to get more help on the command.

The next command we are going to learn is CD. It stands for Current Directory. It displays the current directory in which you are if you just type in "CD" but if you type in"CD C:WindowsDesktop" it will take you to the Desktop. Here's an example -

@ECHO OFF
CD C:WindowsDesktop
ECHO Testing.. > test.txt
ECHO Testing...>>test.txt

This will change the directory to the Desktop and create a file there called test.txt and write to it. If we had not used the CD command, this is how the program would have looked.

@ECHO OFF
ECHO Testing.. > C:WindowsDesktoptest.txt
ECHO Testing...>> C:WindowsDesktoptest.txt

See the difference? Anyway that's all for the The Basics of Batch File Programming. Remember, each an every DOS command can be used in Batch.

Unthinkable Hacking Techniques !!!

2010-10-18T22:18:00.000-07:00

Hi Guys !
I am writing this article for those who use pirated soft wares. Because this is the time to stop using pirated soft wares. You can't even imagine what your loss can be if you are using your PC for professional purposes.

Usually we download soft wares from various forums/boards which provides cracks or keygens. These keygens are not only keygens but most of the time small server programs (hack tool) which transfers your sensitive data over internet to someone. If you are using Windows Firewall , it is quite easy to bypass the windows firewall. you wont be able to know that your data is being sent over the internet. and Same thing goes for the CRACKS also. Spreading trojans is quite easy by providing game cracks or some full screen applications. Because user won't be able to know what is going on behind the full-screen. So beware of using cracks and keygens. Your anti-virus may or may not detect such malware. Now a days viruses are created more rapidly than detected.

Another MOST DANGEROUS HACKING TECHNIQUE is quite undetectable. You know what are you type in browser's address bar is resolved by your ISP's Domain Name Servers. What if your request goes to a hackers's machine first and then goes to ISP. Yes, this is possible a simple VBSCRIPT or WSH Script can do the trick. you won't be able to know that you are being watched or you are being traced. No firewall or no anti-hacking tool will help you. Usually such scripts might be available as registration scripts for some kind of software s.

Now About Windows XP users, this operating system's services are available through internet which can be very dangerous. Do you that by default you are all drives are ready to share data over network. Another thing is TERMINAL SERVICES which allows multiple users on a single machine. It means if you are working on your machine, if someone can log in to your machine remotely and you won't be alerted.

If you are downloading Operating Systems from Internet. Then take care that you download from trusted sources only. Cause it is very easy to embed some tracking code into your OS Images which can not be detected later on by any security software.

If you are using LINUX Operating Systems, it is highly recommended that you use the soft-wares from trusted sources only otherwise you can be hacked or can cause damage to your machine.

Another good hacking tool is sniffer which is used by network administrator. It scans the network traffic and can filter sensitive information like passwords, credit card numbers etc. So if you are using credit cards at cafes so beware. you can be victim.

How to hide your hard drive?

2010-10-18T22:01:00.000-07:00

Here is an easy manual method on how to lock and hide hard-drives.

Follow these steps below:

1. Open Registry[Administrator Account only] (go to run command, type "regedit" and press enter)

2. Then go to this key

Code:

HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Policies\Explorer

3. Now click right button and create DWORD Value (blue color)

4. Rename it as "NoViewOnDrive" (for locking drive)

Rename it as "NoDrives" (for Hiding drive)

5. Double click it and put some numbers to lock ur desired Drive and click ok.

6. Here is Drive No.

A: 1

C: 4

D: 8

E: 16

F: 32

G: 64

H: 128

7. Finally restart or log-off the computer to take effect.

Human Right Act 1993

2010-05-07T10:55:00.000-07:00

An Act to provide for the constitution of a National Human Rights Commission. State Human Rights Commission in States and Human Rights Courts for better protection of Human Rights and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

Be it enacted by the parliament in the forty-fourth year of the Republic of India as follows-

Chapter I	PRELIMINARY
Chapter II	THE NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION
Chapter III	FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF THE COMMISSION
Chapter IV	PROCEDURE
Chapter V	STATE HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSIONS
Chapter VI	HUMAN RIGHTS COURTS
Chapter VII	FINANCE, ACCOUNTS AND AUDIT
Chapter VIII	MISCELLANEOUS

Chapter I

PRELIMINARY

1. Short title, extent and commencement

(1 ) This Act may be called the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.

(2) It extends to the whole of India.
Provided that it shall apply to the State of Jammu and Kashmir only in so far as it pertains to the matters relatable to any of the entries enumerated in List I or List lll in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution as applicable to that State.

(3) It shall be deemed to have come into force on the 28th day of September, 1993.

2. Definitions

(1) In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires-

(a) "armed forces" means the naval, military and air forces and includes any other armed forces of the Union;
(b) "Chairperson" means the Chairperson of the Commission or of the State Commission, as the case may be;
(c) "Commission" means the National Human Rights Commission under section 3;
(d) "human rights" means the rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the International Covenants and enforceable by courts in India.
(e) "Human Rights Court" means the Human Rights Court specified under section 30;
(f) "International Covenants" means the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on the 16th December, 1966;
(g) "Member" means a Member of the Commission or of the State Commission, as the case may be, and includes the Chairperson;
(h) "National Commission for Minorities" means the National Commission for Minorities constituted under section 3 of the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992;
(i) "National Commission for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes" means the National Commission for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes referred to in article 338 of the Constitution;
(j) "National Commission for Women" means the National Commission for Women constituted under section 3 of the National Commission for Women Act, 1990;
(k) "Notification" means a notification published in the official Gazette;
(I) "Prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act;
(m) "Public servant" shall have the meaning assigned to it in section 21 of the Indian Penal Code;
(n) "State Commission" means a State Human Rights Commission constituted under section 21.

(2) Any reference in this Act to a law, which is not in force in the State of Jammu and Kashmir, shall, in relation to that State, be construed as a reference to a corresponding law, if any, in force in that State.

Chapter II

THE NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION

3. Constitution of a National Human Rights Commission

(1) The Central Government shall constitute a body to be known as the National Human Rights Commission to exercise the powers conferred upon, and to perform the functions assigned to it, under this Act.

(2) The Commission shall consist of:

(a) a Chairperson who has been a Chief Justice of the Supreme Court;
(b) one Member who is or has been, a Judge of the Supreme Court;
(c) one Member who is, or has been, the Chief Justice of a High Court;
(d) two Members to be appointed from amongst persons having knowledge of, or practical experience in, matters relating to human rights.

(3) The Chairpersons of the National Commission for Minorities, the National Commission for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and the National Commission for Women shall be deemed to be Members of the Commission for the discharge of functions specified in clauses (b) to (j) of section 12.

(4) There shall be a Secretary-General who shall be the Chief Executive Officer of the Commission and shall exercise such powers and discharge such functions of the Commission as it may delegate to him.

(5) The headquarters of the Commission shall be at Delhi and the Commission may, with the previous approval of the Central Government, establish offices at other places in India.

4. Appointment of Chairperson and other Members

(1) The Chairperson and other Members shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal.

Provided that every appointment under this sub-section shall be made after obtaining the recommendations of a Committee consisting of

(a) The Prime Minister —Chairperson
(b) Speaker of the House of the People — Member
(c) Minister in-charge of the Ministry of Home Affairs in the Government of India — Member
(d) Leader of the Opposition in the House of the People — Member
(e) Leader of the Opposition in the Council of States — Member
(f) Deputy Chairman of the Council of States — Member

Provided further that no sitting Judge of the Supreme Court or sitting Chief Justice of a High Court shall be appointed except after consultation with the Chief Justice of India.

(2) No appointment of a Chairperson or a Member shall be invalid merely by reason of any vacancy in the Committee.

5. Removal of a Member of the Commission

(1) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (2), the Chairperson or any other Member of the Commission shall only be removed from his office by order of the President on the ground of proved misbehavior or incapacity after the Supreme Court, on reference being made to it by the President, has, on inquiry held in accordance with the procedure prescribed in that behalf by the Supreme Court, reported that the Chairperson or such other Member, as the case may be, ought on any such ground to be removed.

(2) Notwithstanding anything in sub-section (1), the President may by order remove from office the Chairperson or any other Member if the Chairperson or such other Member, as the case may be

(a) is adjudged an insolvent; or
(b) engages during his term of office in any paid employment out side the duties of his office: or
(c) is unfit to continue in office by reason of infirmity of mind or body; or
(d) is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court; or
(e) is convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for an offence which in the opinion of the President involves moral turpitude.

6. Term of office of Members

(1 ) A person appointed as Chairperson shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office or until he attains the age of seventy years, whichever is earlier.

(2) A person appointed as a Member shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office and shall be eligible for re-appointment for another term of five years. Provided that no Member shall hold office after he has attained the age of seventy years.

(3) On ceasing to hold office, a Chairperson or a Member shall be ineligible for further employment under the Government of India or under the Government of any State.

7. Member to act as Chairperson or to discharge his functions in certain circumstances

(1 ) In the event of the occurrence of any vacancy in the office of the Chairperson by reason of his death, resignation or otherwise, the President may, by notification, authorise one of the Members to act as the Chairperson until the appointment of a new Chairperson to fill such vacancy.

(2) When the Chairperson is unable to discharge his functions owing to absence on leave or otherwise, such one of the Members as the President may, by notification, authorise in this behalf, shall discharge the functions of the Chairperson until the date on which the Chairperson resumes his duties.

8. Terms and conditions of service of Members

The salaries and allowances payable to, and other terms and conditions of service of, the Members shall be such as may be prescribed. Provided that neither the salary and allowances nor the other terms and conditions of service of a Member shall be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.

9. Vacancies, etc., not to invalidate the proceedings of the Commission.

No act or proceedings of the Commission shall be questioned or shall be invalidated merely on the ground of existence of any vacancy or defect in the constitution of the Commission.

10. Procedure to be regulated by the Commission

(1) The Commission shall meet at such time and place as the Chairperson may think fit.

(2) The Commission shall regulate its own procedure.

(3) All orders and decisions of the Commission shall be audited by the Secretary-General or any other officer of the Commission duly authorised by the Chairperson in this behalf.

11. Officers and other staff of the Commission

(1 ) The Central Government shall make available to the Commission :

(a) an officer of the rank of the Secretary to the Government of India who shall be the Secretary-General of the Commission; and
(b) such police and investigative staff under an officer not below the rank of a Director General of Police and such other officers and staff as may be necessary for the efficient performance of the functions of the Commission.

(2) Subject to such rules as may be made by the Central Government in this behalf, the Commission may appoint such other administrative, technical and scientific staff as it may consider necessary.

(3) The salaries, allowances and conditions of service of the officers and other staff appointed under sub-section (2) shall be such as may be prescribed.

Chapter III

FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF THE COMMISSION

12. Functions of the Commission

The Commission shall perform all or any of the following functions, namely :
(a) inquire, suo motu or on a petition presented to it by a victim or any person on his behalf, into complaint of

(i) violation of human rights or abetment thereof or
(ii) negligence in the prevention of such violation,

by a public servant;

(b) intervene in any proceeding involving any allegation of violation of human rights pending before a court with the approval of such court;
(c) visit, under intimation to the State Government, any jail or any other institution under the control of the State Government, where persons are detained or lodged for purposes of treatment, reformation or protection to study the living conditions of the inmates and make recommendations thereon;
(d) review the safeguards provided by or under the Constitution or any law for the time being in force for the protection of human rights and recommend measures for their effective implementation;
(e) review the factors, including acts of terrorism that inhibit the enjoyment of human rights and recommend appropriate remedial measures;
(f) study treaties and other international instruments on human rights and make recommendations for their effective implementation;
(g) undertake and promote research in the field of human rights;
(h) spread human rights literacy among various sections of society and promote awareness of the safeguards available for the protection of these rights through publications, the media, seminars and other available means;
(i) encourage the efforts of non-governmental organisations and institutions working in the field of human rights;
(j) such other functions as it may consider necessary for the protection of human rights.

13. Powers relating to inquiries

(1 ) The Commission shall, while inquiring into complaints under this Act, have all the powers of a civil court trying a suit under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, and in particular in respect of the following matters, namely :

(a) summoning and enforcing the attendance of witnesses and examine them on oath;
(b) discovery and production of any document;
(c) receiving evidence on affidavits;
(d) requisitioning any public record or copy thereof from any court or office;
(e) issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents;
(f) any other matter which may be prescribed.

(2) The Commission shall have power to require any person, subject to any privilege which may be claimed by that person under any law for the time being in force, to furnish information on such points or matters as, in the opinion of the Commission, may be useful for, or relevant to, the subject matter of the inquiry and any person so required shall be deemed to be legally bound to furnish such information within the meaning of section 176 and section 177 of the Indian Penal Code.

(3) The Commission or any other officer, not below the rank of a Gazetted Officer, specially authorised in this behalf by the Commission may enter any building or place where the Commission has reason to believe that any document relating to the subject matter of the inquiry may be found, and may seize any such document or take extracts or copies therefrom subject to the provisions of section 100 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, in so far as it may be applicable.

(4) The Commission shall be deemed to be a civil court and when any offence as is described in section 175, section 178, section 179, section 180 or section 228 of the Indian Penal Code is committed in the view or presence of the Commission, the Commission may, after recording the facts constituting the offence and the statement of the accused as provided for in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, forward the case to a Magistrate having jurisdiction to try the same and the Magistrate to whom any such case is forwarded shall proceed to hear the complaint against the accused as if the case has been forwarded to him under section 346 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.

(5) Every proceeding before the Commission shall be deemed to be a judicial proceeding within the meaning of sections 193 and 228, and for the purposes of section 196, of the Indian Penal Code, and the Commission shall be deemed to be a civil court for all the purposes of section 195 and Chapter XXVI of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.

14. Investigation

(1) The Commission may, for the purpose of conducting any investigation pertaining to the inquiry, utilise the services of any officer or investigation agency of the Central Government or any State Government with the concurrence of the Central Government or the State Government, as the case may be.

(2) For the purpose of investigating into any matter pertaining to the inquiry, any officer or agency whose services are utilised under sub-section (1 ) may, subject to the direction and control of the Commission.

(a) summon and enforce the attendance of any person and examine him;
(b) require the discovery and production of any document; and
(c) requisition any public record or copy thereof from any office.

(3) The provisions of section 15 shall apply in relation to any statement made by a person before any officer or agency whose services are utilised under sub-section (1 ) as they apply in relation to any statement made by a person in the course of giving evidence before the Commission.

(4) The officer or agency whose services are utilised under sub-section (1 ) shall investigate into any matter pertaining to the inquiry and submit a report thereon to the Commission within such period as may be specified by the Commission in this behalf.

(5) The Commission shall satisfy itself about the correctness of the facts stated and the conclusion, if any, arrived at in the report subbed to it under sub-section (4) and for this purpose the Commission may make such inquiry (including the examination of the person or persons who conducted or assisted in the investigation) as it thinks fit.

15. Statement made by persons to the Commission

No statement made by a person in the course of giving evidence before the Commission shall subject him to, or be used against him in, any civil or criminal proceeding except a prosecution for giving false evidence by such statement:

Provided that the statement —
(a) is made in reply to the question which he is required by the Commission to answer; or
(b) is relevant to the subject matter of the inquiry.

16. Persons likely to be prejudicially affected to be heard

If, at any stage of the inquiry, the Commission-
(a) considers it necessary to inquire into the conduct of any person; or
(b) is of the opinion that the reputation of any person is likely to be prejudicially affected by the inquiry;

it shall give to that person a reasonable opportunity of being heard in the inquiry and to produce evidence in his defence:
Provided that nothing in this section shall apply where the credit of a witness is being impeached.

Chapter IV

PROCEDURE

17. Inquiry into complaints

The Commission while inquiring into the complaints of violations of human rights may-
(i) call for information or report from the Central Government or any State Government or any other authority or organisation subordinate thereto within such time as may be specified by it;

Provided that-
(a) if the information or report is not received within the time stipulated by the Commission, it may proceed to inquire into the complaint on its own;
(b) if, on receipt of information or report, the Commission is satisfied either that no further inquiry is required or that the required action has been initiated or taken by the concerned Government or authority, it may not proceed with the complaint and inform the complainant accordingly;

(ii) without prejudice to anything contained in clause (i), if it considers necessary, having regard to the nature of the complaint, initiate an inquiry.

18. Steps after inquiry

The Commission may take any of the following steps upon the completion of an inquiry held under this Act namely :

(1) where the inquiry discloses, the commission of violation of human rights or negligence in the prevention of violation of human rights by a public servant, it may recommend to the concerned Government or authority the initiation of proceedings for prosecution or such other action as the Commission may deem fit against the concerned person or persons;

(2) approach the Supreme Court or the High Court concerned for such directions, orders or writs as that Court may deem necessary;

(3) recommend to the concerned Government or authority for the grant of such immediate interim relief to the victim or the members of his family as the Commission may consider necessary;

(4) subject to the provisions of clause (5), provide a copy of the inquiry report to the petitioner or his representative;

(5) the Commission shall send a copy of its inquiry report together with its recommendations to the concerned Government or authority and the concerned Government or authority shall, within a period of one month, or such further time as the Commission may allow, forward its comments on the report, including the action taken or proposed to be taken thereon, to the Commission;

(6) the Commission shall publish its inquiry report together with the comments of the concerned Government or authority, if any, and the action taken or proposed to be taken by the concerned Government or authority on the recommendations of the Commission.

19. Procedure with respect to armed forces

(1 ) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, while dealing with complaints of violation of human rights by members of the armed forces, the Commission shall adopt the following procedure, namely :

(a) it may, either on its own motion or on receipt of a petition, seek a report from the Central Government;
(b) after the receipt of the report, it may, either not proceed with the complaint or, as the case may be, make its recommendations to that Government.

(2) The Central Government shall inform the Commission of the action taken on the recommendations within three months or such further time as the Commission may allow.

(3) The Commission shall publish its report together with its recommendations made to the Central Government and the action taken by that Government on such recommendations.

(4) The Commission shall provide a copy of the report published under sub-section (3) to the petitioner or his representative.

20. Annual and special reports of the Commission

(1) The Commission shall submit an annual report to the Central Government and to the State Government concerned and may at any time submit special reports on any matter which, in its opinion, is of such urgency or importance that it should not be deferred till submission of the annual report.

(2) The Central Government and the State Government, as the case may be, shall cause the annual and special reports of the Commission to be laid before each House of Parliament or the State Legislature respectively, as the case may be, along with a memorandum of action taken or proposed to be taken on the recommendations of the Commission and the reasons for non-acceptance of the recommendations, if any.

Chapter V

STATE HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSIONS

21. Constitution of State Human Rights Commissions

(1) A State Government may constitute a body to be known as the ....................... (name of the State) Human Rights Commission to exercise the powers conferred upon, and to perform the functions assigned to, a State Commission under this chapter.

(2) The State Commission shall consist of

(a) a Chairperson who has been a Chief Justice of a High Court;
(b) one Member who is, or has been, a Judge of a High Court;
(c) one Member who is, or has been, a district judge in that State;
(d) two Members to be appointed from amongst persons having knowledge of, or practical experience in, matters relating to human rights.

(3) There shall be a Secretary who shall be the Chief Executive Officer of the State Commission and shall exercise such powers and discharge such functions of the State Commission as it may delegate to him.

(4) The headquarters of the State Commission shall be at such place as the State Government may, by notification, specify.

(5) A State Commission may inquire into violation of human rights only in respect of matters relatable to any of the entries enumerated in List II and List lll in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution:

Provided that if any such matter is already being inquired into by the Commission or any other Commission duly constituted under any law for the time being in force, the State Commission shall not inquire into the said matter:

Provided further that in relation to the Jammu and Kashmir Human Rights Commission, this sub-section shall have effect as if for the words and figures "List ll and List lll in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution", the words and figures "List lll in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution as applicable to the State of Jammu and Kashmir and in respect of matters in relation to which the Legislature of that State has power to make laws" had been substituted.

22. Appointment of Chairperson and other Members of State Commission

(1) The Chairperson and other Members shall be appointed by the Governor by warrant under his hand and seal:

Provided that every appointment under this sub-section shall be made after obtaining the recommendation of a Committee consisting of

(a) the Chief Minister — Chairperson
(b) Speaker of the Legislative Assembly — Member
(c) Minister in-charge of the Department of Home, in that State — Member
(d) Leader of the Opposition in the Legislative Assembly — Member

Provided further that where there is a Legislative Council in a State, the Chairman of that Council and the Leader of the Opposition in that Council shall also be members of the Committee.

Provided also that no sitting Judge of a High Court or a sitting District Judge shall be appointed except after consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court of the concerned State.

(2) No appointment of a Chairperson or a Member of the State Commission shall be invalid merely by reason of any vacancy in the Committee.

23. Removal of a Member of the State Commission

(1) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (2), the Chairperson or any other member of the State Commission shall only be removed from his office by order of the President on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity after the Supreme Court, on a reference being made to it by the President, has, on inquiry held in accordance with the procedure prescribed in that behalf by the Supreme Court, reported that the Chairperson or such other Member, as the case may be, ought on any such ground to be removed.

(2) Notwithstanding anything in sub-section (1), the President may by order remove from office the Chairperson or any other Member if the Chairperson or such other Member, as the case may be –

(a) is adjudged an insolvent; OR
(b) engages during his term of office in any paid employment outside the duties of his office; OR
(c) is unfit to continue in office by reason of infirmity of mind or body; OR
(d) is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court; OR
(e) is convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for an offence which in the opinion of the President involves moral turpitude.

24. Term of office of Members of the State Commission

(1 ) A person appointed as Chairperson shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office or until he attains the age of seventy years, whichever is earlier;

(2) A person appointed as a Member shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office and shall be eligible for re-appointment for another term of five years;

Provided that no Member shall hold office after he has attained the age of seventy years.

(3) On ceasing to hold office, a Chairperson or a Member shall be ineligible for further employment under the Government of a State or under the Government of India.

25. Member to act as Chairperson or to discharge his func tions in certain circumstances

(1) In the event of the occurrence of any vacancy in the office of the Chairperson by reason of his death, resignation or otherwise, the Governor may, by notification, authorise one of the Members to act as the Chairperson until the appointment of a new Chairperson to fill such vacancy.

(2) When the Chairperson is unable to discharge his functions owing to absence on leave or otherwise, such one of the Members as the Governor may, by notification, authorise in this behalf, shall discharge the functions of the Chairperson until the date on which the Chairperson resumes his duties.

26. Terms and conditions of service of Members of the State Commission

The salaries and allowances payable to, and other terms and conditions of service of, the Members shall be such as may be prescribed by the State Government.

Provided that neither the salary and allowances nor the other terms and conditions of service of a Member shall be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.

27. Officers and other staff of the State Commission

(1) The State Government shall make available to the Commission

(a) an officer not below the rank of a Secretary to the State Government who shall be the Secretary of the State Commission; and
(b) such police and investigative staff under an officer not below the rank of an Inspector General of Police and such other officers and staff as may be necessary for the efficient performance of the functions of the State Commission.

(2) subject to such rules as may be made by the State Government in this behalf, the State Commission may appoint such other addministrative, technical and scientific staff as it may consider necessary.

(3) The salaries, allowances and conditions of service of the officers and other staff appointed under sub-section (2) shall be such as may be prescribed by the State Government.

28. Annual and special reports of State Commission

(1 ) The State Commission shall submit an annual report to the State Government and may at any time submit special reports on any matter which, in its opinion, is of such urgency or importance that it should not be deferred till submission of the annual report.

(2) The State Government shall cause the annual and special reports of the State Commission to be laid before each House of State Legislature where it consists of two Houses, or where such Legislature consists of one House, before that House along with a memorandum of action taken or proposed to be taken on the recommendations of the State Commission and the reasons for non-acceptance of the rections, if any.

29. Application of certain provisions relating to National Hu man Rights Commission to State Commissions

The provisions of sections 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 shall apply to a State Commission and shall have effect, subject to the following modifications, namely :-

(a) references to "Commission" shall be construed as refer ences to "State Commission";
(b) in section 10, in sub-section (3), for the word "Secretary General", the word "Secretary" shall be substituted;
(c) in section 12, clause (f) shall be omitted;
(d) in section 17, in clause (i), the words "Central Government or any" shall be omitted;

Chapter VI

HUMAN RIGHTS COURTS

30. For the purpose of providing speedy trial of offences arising out of violation of human rights, the State

Government may, with the concurrence of the Chief Justice of the High Court, by notification, specify for each district a Court of Session to be a Human Rights Court to try the said offences.

Provided that nothing in this section shall apply if
(a) a Court of Session is already specified as a special court; or
(b) a special court is already constituted, for such offences under any other law for the time being in force.

31. Special Public Prosecutor

For every Human Rights Court, the State Government shall, by notification, specify a Public Prosecutor or appoint an advocate who has been in practice as an advocate for not less than seven years, as a Special Public Prosecutor for the purpose of conducting cases in that Court.

Chapter VII

FINANCE, ACCOUNTS AND AUDIT

32. Grants by the Central Government

(1) The Central Government shall after due appropriation made by Parliament by law in this behalf, pay to the Commission by way of grants such sums of money as the Central Government may think fit for being utilised for the purposes of this Act.

(2) The Commission may spend such sums as it thinks fit for performing the functions under this Act, and such sums shall be treated as expenditure payable out of the grants referred to in sub-section (1).

33. Grants by the State Government

(1) The State Government shall, after due appropriation made by Legislature by law in this behalf, pay to the State Commission by way of grants such sums of money as the State Government may think fit for being utilised for the purposes of this Act.

(2) The State Commission may spend such sums as it thinks fit for performing the functions under Chapter V, and such sums shall be treated as expenditure payable out of the grants referred to in sub-section (1).

34. Accounts and Audit

(1 ) The Commission shall maintain proper accounts and other relevant records and prepare an annual statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed by the Central Government in consultation with the Comptrollerand Auditor-General of India.

(2) The Accounts of the Commission shall be audited by the Comptroller and Auditor-General at such intervals as may be specified by him and any expenditure incurred in connection with such audit shall be payable by the Commission to the Comptroller and Auditor-General.

(3) The Comptroller and Auditor-General or any person appointed by him in connection with the audit of the accounts of the Commision under this Act shall have the same rights and privileges and the authority in connection with such audit as the Comptroller and Auditor-General generally has in connection with the audit of Government ac counts and, in particular, shall have the right to demand the production of books, accounts, connected vouchers and other documents and papers and to inspect any of the offices of the Commission.

(4) The accounts of the Commission as certified by the Comptroller and Auditor-General or any other person appointed by him in this behalf, together with the audit report thereon shall be forwarded only to the Central Government by the Commission and the Central Government shall cause the audit report to be laid as soon as may be after it is received before each House of Parliament.

35. Accounts and Audit of State Commission

(1) The State Commission shall maintain proper accounts and other relevant records and prepare an annual statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed by the State Government in consultation with the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

(2) The accounts of the State Commission shall be audited by the Comptroller and Auditor-General at such intervals as may be specified by him and any expenditure incurred in connection with such audit shall be payable by the State Commission to the Comptroller and Auditor-General.

(3) The Comptroller and Auditor-General or any person appointed by him in connection with the audit of the accounts of the State Commission under this Act shall have the same rights and privileges and the authority in connection with such audit as the Comptroller and Auditor-General generally has in connection with the audit of Government accounts and, in particular, shall have the right to demand the production of books, accounts, connected vouchers and other documents and papers and to inspect any of the offices of the State Commission.

(4) The accounts of the State Commission, as certified by the Comptroller and Auditor-General or any other person appointed by him in this behalf, together with the audit report thereon, shall be forwarded annually to the State Government by the State Commission and the State Government shall cause the audit report to be laid, as soon as may be after it is received, before the State Legislature.

Chapter VIII

MISCELLANEOUS

36. Matters not subject to jurisdiction of the Commission

(1 ) The Commission shall not inquire into any matter which is pending before a State Commission or any other Commission duly constituted under any law for the time being in force.

(2) The Commission or the State Commission shall not inquire into any matter after the expiry of one year from the date on which the act constituting violation of human rights is alleged to have been commited.

37. Constitution of special investigation teams

Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, where the Government considers it necessary so to do, it may constitute one or more special investigation teams, consisting of such police officers as it thinks necessary for purposes of investigation and prosecution of offences arising out of violations of human rights.

38. Protection of action taken in good faith

No suit or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Central Government, State Government, Commission, the State Commission or any Member thereof or any person acting under the direction either of the Central Government, State Government, Commission or the State Commission in respect of anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done in pursuance of this Act or of any rules or any order made thereunder or in respect of the publication by or under the authority of the Central Government, State Government, Commission or the State Commission of any report paper or proceedings.

39. Members and officers to be public servants

Every Member of the Commission, State Commission and every officer appointed or authorised by the Commission or the State Commission to exercise functions under this Act shall be deemed to be a public servant within the meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code.

40. Power of Central Government to make rules

(1 ) The Central Government may, by notification, make rules to carry out the provisions of this Act.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters namely :

(a) the salaries and allowances and other terms and conditions of service of the Members under section 8;
(b) the conditions subject to which other administrative, technical and scientific staff may be appointed by the Commission and the salaries and allowances of officers and other staff under sub-section (3) of section 11;
(c) any other power of a civil court required to be prescribed under clause (f) of sub-section (1) of section 13;
(d) the form in which the annual statement of accounts is to be pre pared by the Commission under sub-section (1 ) of section 34; and
(e) any other matter which has to be, or may be, prescribed.

(3) Every rule made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made, before each House of Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if, before the expiry of the session immediately following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or both Houses agree that the rule should not be made, the rule shall thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything previously done under that rule.

41. Power of State Government to make rules

(1 ) The State Government may, by notification, make rules to carry out the provisions of this Act.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the fore ing power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely :

(a) the salaries and allowances and other terms and conditions of service of the members under section 26;
(b) the conditions subject to which other administrative, technical and scientific staff may be appointed by the State Commission and the salaries and allowances of officers and other staff under sub-section (3) of section 27;
(c) the form in which the annual statement of accounts is to be prepared under sub-section (1 ) of section 35.

(3) Every rule made by the State Government under this section shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made, before each House of the State Legislature where it consists of two Houses, or where such Legislature consists of one House, before that House.

42. Power to remove difficulties

(1 ) If any difficulty arises in giving effect to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government, may by order published in the Official Gazette, make such provisions, not inconsistent with the provisions of this Act as appear to it to be necessary or expedient for removing the difficulty.
Provided that no such order shall be made after the ex ry of the period of two years from the date of commencement of this Act.

(2) Every order made under this section shall, as soon as may be after it is made, be laid before each house of Parliament.

43. Repeal and Savings

(1) The Protection of Human Rights Ordinance, 1993 is hereby repealed.

(2) Notwithstanding such repeal, anything done or any action taken under the said Ordinance, shall be deemed to have been done or taken under the corresponding provisions of this Act.

LOVE ACROSS THE SALT DESERT

2010-04-30T08:50:00.000-07:00

Friends I would like to share this story to all lovers on this globe, this story will be an encouragement for all lovers to cross all the barriers, that they met in their love. So Trust your love, you are going to success.

I would like to present this story to my beloved sweet heart. This story will be an answer for her all questions and confusions.

K. N. Daruwalla

The Rann of Kutch is a vast, lonely desert, almost impossible to cross.

Yet, some people do cross it for reasons of their own. Najab Hussain also

crossed the vast desert for a very special reason. What was it?

1. THE DROUGHT in Kutch had lasted for three successive years. Even

when clouds were sighted they passed by, ignoring the stricken country. The

monsoons had, so to speak, forgotten to land. The Rann lay like a paralysed

monster, its back covered with scab and scar-tissue and dried blister-skin.

The earth had cracked and it looked as if chunks of it had been baked in

a kiln and then embedded in the soil-crust. The cattle became thin and

emaciated. The oxen died. The camel alone survived comfortably, feeding

on the bawal, camel thorn. Then one day the clouds rolled in like wineskins

and the lightning crackled and the wineskins burst. Though two years have

passed since the drought ended, everyone remembers that it first rained on

the day when Fatimah entered the village. This is how she came.

* * * * *

What would he not do for her, the daughter of the spice-seller; she who

smelt of cloves and cinnamon, whose laughter had the timbre of ankle-bells,

whose eyebrows were like black wisps of the night and whose hair was the

night itself? For her he would cross the salt desert!

He had stayed the day at Kala Doongar, a black hill capped with basalt,

the highest in Kutch. He had set his camel, Allahrakha, free to crop on

the bawal trees. At dusk he paid homage to the footprints of the Panchmai

Pir on the hilltop. He left some food there and started beating on his thali,

according to the custom here. In a few minutes jackals materialised and

gobbled up the food. This was auspicious. If they had not turned up he

would have cancelled the journey. A lamp was lighted in the Pir’s honour

every night on the hilltop and the flame could be seen on all the way from

Khavda. Over a hundred years earlier the Panchmai Pir had trudged these

salt wastes serving the people accompanied, as legend had it, by a jackal.

Reclusive by habit he used to retire to thorn jungles, where apart from his

vulpine companions none else dared to disturb his nocturnal trysts. The

custom of feeding the jackals had lingered since then.

Najab bowed before the flame and set out. He left behind the camel thorn

shrubs and the area once famous for its savannahs of stunted grass, but now

sere and brown as the desert. He had left behind all human habitation, Kuran being the last village. For the next three days he would not be seeing any bhungas, those one-room mud-houses, circular at the base, but tapering into conical thatch-roofs at the top. Now only the sand-scapes stretched out before him, mile upon mile. Water splashed in the chagals. With the name

of the Pir on his lips Najab Hussain set forth.

Najab’s diffidence was notorious among his friends. He was known to

have blushed at the mere mention of a girl. A strangely introverted lad with

dreamy eyes, no one had ever associated him with any act of bravado. His

father, Aftab, would say, “All that my ancestors and I have acquired during

a hundred years, this lad will squander away, not because he is a spendthrift

but because he will be too shy to charge money for what he sells!”

He had crossed the Rann on four occasions earlier, though he had turned

twenty only a month ago. But each time he had either accompanied his father

or that wily old smuggler, Zaman, the veteran of a hundred illegal trips to

Sind. Each time they had taken tendu leaf worth about five hundred, and

sold it across the border for twelve hundred. But between the pay-off to

officials and to the intermediaries who arranged the sale of the biri leaf, to

the man who took the camel out to graze and to the friend or relative who

harboured them, there was precious little left. It was just enough to buy

some used terylene garments or cloves and then it was time to make the

long trek across the desert. It was during one of these trips that they had

stayed with Kaley Shah, the clove-seller. “He is a distant relative of your

mother,” his father told Najab. Kaley Shah was tall, and well-fleshed and

his thick-jowled face had a purple tinge about it as if somewhere along the

way it had got stuck with a discoloured patch. He always wore a tahmat of

black and white checks. Within a day Najab discovered that the fellow was

an absolute rogue who drove such a cussed bargain that for the first time in

his hearing his father started mouthing obscenities.

But his daughter Fatimah was a hoor with eyes so bright that they would

have lit up the darkness of the underworld. She was taken by this quiet,

pleasant young man so ready with his smiles. But she could hardly elicit

a word out of him. Fatimah had been under pressure to get engaged to

someone in the village known for his slurred speech and grotesque stammer.

“Just my luck to run into mutes,” she thought. But then, as she caught him

staring at her, she laughed back. And in the evening when Fatimah repeated

the performance and her face flooded with excitement as if she dared him

to take the next step, he had flung his arms around her in a reckless, dizzy

moment. Yes, he would come again, he told her, and saw her start with

disbelief for he seemed to have answered her inarticulated question: Would

he come again? This time he would come alone with no father to cramp his

style. And as he left he looked behind to find her gaze following him, her eyes like a pair of storm lanterns in the dark.

Ever since his return Khavda, Najab had been straining to get away.

What was there about the Rann that he did not know? He could cross the

Rann in the daylight, leave alone starlight, a thing none of his elders had

dared to do! And one morning Aftab was woken up by a shout from Zaman.

What does that old rogue want, he muttered, rubbing his sleepy eyes. Zaman

asked about Najab’s whereabouts.

2. “The boy has been sulking of late but he should be around. Anyway,

what business is it of yours?” The old man did not hide his irritation.

“Who are you trying to fool, Aftab Mian?” asked the smuggler. “Don’t

you know that Allahrakha is also missing?”

In these border villages the pattern of life was such that if a man was

absent long with his camel, it was taken for granted that he had made a

foray across the desert into Pakistan. Aftab went into the mud enclosure

where his camel was kept and found it empty. His heart sank. He ran into

the house to see if the bundles of tendu leaf he had bought by him had been

taken by the boy. “Oh, the fool! That son of a fool!” exclaimed Aftab,

almost shaking with fury. “He has forgotten to take the leaf with him!”

“Who are you trying to fool with all this drama?” called out Zaman who

was still standing at the door. “This son of yours is not as innocent as the

world believes. He is a pig and the son of a pig.”

There was no limit to his chagrin. Zaman was a ‘chief’, the man who kept

the Rangers across happy. Any one crossing the Rann without his support

was running the gauntlet with the law. And here this fledgling had blundered

in without as much as a word to him, or a salaam, or a hundred rupee note!

“May Allah bring him safely out of this!” said the old rogue piously. He

means just the opposite, thought Aftab. Nothing would please him more

than to see Najab turned into carrion with vultures hovering around.

“Don’t worry, Zaman, Allah will see him through!” he said testily and

banged the door in the smuggler’s face.

As Zaman walked off, Aftab went in to break the news of their son’s

escapade to his wife. She would faint, he thought. He found her crouching

with her back against the mud wall. She did not even blink in surprise, once.

She just sat there cowering as if he had just slapped her and was about to do

so again. Allah! She knew it! She knew it all the time! She was waist-deep

in this conspiracy along with her son and never breathed a word about it.

His eye fell on her bare arm.

“Where is the gold bangle my father gave you, woman.”

“You need not worry. Najab will return with cloves.”

The long-striding Allahrakha kept a brisk pace. A strong south wind

drove the tang of the Kori creek back into Najab’s nostrils. He followed the stars, the Milky Way flaked with mica, the Great Bear shambling towards

the north. Before dawn he had reached his destination, for a sandy elevation

palisaded with the bones of dead animals told him he had arrived at Sarbela,

over twenty miles from Kala Doongar. He was already beyond the international

boundary. Here he rested. During daylight, movement was impossible.

The Indus Rangers would be looking from their bamboo watch-towers. And

in the heat everything became a mirage. A depression in the sand looked like

a splash of water, a freak, stunted cactus gave the appearance of a grove, and

a camel looked like a huge prehistoric animal on the move. Any movement

was sure to be noticed through binoculars.

When the sun came up Najab took his first drink of water from his chagal.

At noon he had his first meal – dry, stale bread with onion. By now

thoughts about Fatimah took a vice-like grip over him. An entire night lay

between them, he thought. And the distance was less than ten miles. The

thought of it made him writhe even as the sun started beating its anvil on

the desert. A whiff of the tangy south wind caught his nostrils again. But

this time it brought with it a thin, dappled veil of cloud, patches of which lay

overlapping like fish scales. Within an hour this corrugated cloud had covered

a substantial portion of the sky, looking for all the world like a stretch

of wind-rippled sand. Yes, this was the time! He got up and shook the sand

from his turban. Even as he harnessed his camel he thought that Allahrakha

was looking at him quizzically as if asking what the hell he was up to. At

one level of consciousness he knew that this was madness. He knew of overworked

camels dying of fatigue, of the patrolling parties of the B.S.F. and

the Indus Rangers and the mirage-chequered, trackless wastes of the desert.

But he succumbed to a rush of blood and the face of Fatimah beckoned him

like a mirage.

Najab crossed the International Boundary Pillar Number 1066. He knew

the track he had to take, bisecting the two posts of the Indus Rangers at Jagatrai

and Vingoor. But he strayed ever so slightly, and from their watch-tower

they saw through their binoculars this sleek camel, wrapped and distorted

by the heat-shimmer into a lumbering leviathan. An Indian slipping into

their territory with tendu leaf right under their noses, and that too without

paying any hush money! They were not going to stand for it. Najab was in a

trance now, events flashing past him like figures on a screen. The mile-long

chase, the firing from behind, the spent bullets flopping in the sand and then

the rising wind which churned the dust into his eyes and then rose between

the hunter and the hunted. When the dust settled half an hour later he was

alone in the Rann.

The next few hours passed in a daze. He was mortally scared that Allahrakha may die of fatigue. To ease him of his burden he now started

walking beside him. Within an hour the salt had scraped the callus from his

feet and scarred them with agonising cracks. Under a hot tin sky, the Rann

was blazing now, throwing up white needles which hurt the eyes. And as the

Rann palpitated, it haunted him with its mirages, pools of shadow, scooped

half-moons of water. Hours of wandering as if in a trance, attempting to lick

the receding edges of the mirage. Then light thinning away, and an hour or

two later, dusk, and a thin plume of smoke rising from a dung-fire. Allah be

praised! He was now within range.

He waited for the night to descend and then struck out hobbling on his

toes, for his desert odyssey had cost him his heels. Within an hour he was

at the clove-seller’s door.

Fatimah rose from her bed like a panic-stricken doe as he called out her

name softly through the window bars. It took some anxious moments for it

to sink in that it was Najab. Her lustrous eyes lit up the dark of the room

as she opened the door.

3. Two hours before dawn, Kaley Shah was woken up by the beat constable

banging on the door. “A smuggler has come across the Rann, Kaley Shah.

You wouldn’t know anything about him, would you?”

“Kasam tumhari, not a sparrow has entered the house, or the village.

Even the dogs have not been barking tonight.” Then he added with a knowing

wink, “Why should a smuggler come to me?”

But the law was not amused. “Kaley Shah,” he said sardonically, “your

belly is stuffed full with silver. It would outweigh even the dirt in your heart!”

The constable’s words rattled like a sack of empty cans in his head and

prevented him from sleeping.

“You have a guest,” said Fatimah as she brought him his tumbler of hot,

steaming milk next morning. “It is Najab. He stayed the night in the cattle

shed.” For a moment he was terrified. A smuggler in the house, the police

prowling all around and he did not even know of it! His meeting with Najab

had been brief. The wretched fellow had brought no tendu leaf.

“First you come unannounced, dragging the police behind you, and then

I find you have come with nothing. Trading with you is going to be a dead

loss, son, with the cops on your back and your hands empty.”

Najab thought that Kaley Shah’s waist-cloth, with its black and white

checks looked like a chess board. He would have to make his moves carefully.

He showed the gold bracelet. “I have come for cloves, Chacha jan. And I

shall pay in gold.”

The next two days Kaley Shah was busy buying cloves and arranging

to get Allahrakha grazed a few miles away, by a cowherd. Otherwise the

presence of a strange camel would have let loose a babble of tongues. Najab

slept in the cattle-shed in the evening and slipped into Fatimah’s room late at night.

“They want me to marry Mahfuz Ali,” she told him. “He is related to

us from my mother’s family. The way he stammers! You should hear him!

Urchins start mimicking him the moment they set eyes on him. It is just a

step removed from being hounded like a madman and pelted with stones.”

“Has it never occurred to you to take a ride on Allahrakha across the

Rann?” She had kept silent and silence was assent. It was as simple as that.

4. The first lurch of the camel next evening and they were off. He had waited

with his camel at the outskirts of the village and she had slipped out after

her father had started snoring. The moment was too big for them and they

did not speak. It was only in passing that she thought of the village she was

leaving for good. As for quitting one and entering another, she never gave it

a thought. Where did one have the time for Pakistan and Hindustan when

one was eloping with one’s love and crossing the desert which divided, both

physically and symbolically, the two countries? For her it meant just a shift

in dialect, a smear of Kutchi added and a little of Sindhi sandpapered away.

And the camel lurched and bumped onwards and Najab drove him hard.

By the time they reached Sarbela she was exhausted and fell asleep.

She woke up in the afternoon to find the sky overcast. It turned ominous

in the evening with depth upon depth of dark-edged nimbus gathering at

the summons of a storm-god. Another night they journeyed facing the wind

which hurled the sand in their faces. As they neared Khavda, the thunder

started rolling and reverberating across the skies.

Three times during the night Aftab opened the door, thinking his son had

come. But it was only the wind knocking against the door. This time the

banging was persistent. When he unlatched the door he found Allahrakhashying away from a streak of lightening. Huge, isolated drops of rain were

falling, kicking up the dust. Aftab steeled himself. He would not allow any

relief, any expression of joy to show on his face.

“Son, have you brought anything?” he asked, an edge of iron deliberately

introduced in his voice.

“Yes,” replied Najab, as he ushered Fatimah in.

The rain stormed down and swept away three years of drought.

Love is THE Fact of Life

2010-04-30T08:18:00.000-07:00

Love is THE Fact of Life

Section 1:

Love is a fact of life. For all human beings ,and especially for teenagers, it could be said that love is THE fact of life. It is one thing that is central to all human existence. You might have come to this realization already. Simply by looking into your own mind and noticing how much of your time it spends thinking about people of the opposite sex, fantasizing about people of the opposite sex, dreaming about people of the opposite sex, wondering about people of the opposite sex, feeling depressed about people of the opposite sex and so on, you get a good idea of how important this topic is in the human realm.

Because it is so important and so central to human existence, love is something that can be extremely confusing and frustrating. I know that as a teenager love was extremely confusing and frustrating to me. I had a huge number of questions about the whole space, including (If you are a girl, please replace "girl" with "boy" in the following questions):

Why do girls hate me?
Why do I feel so awkward around girls?
Why is it that I think about girls all the time, despite the fact that I would rather not?
Why does it hurt so much?
Why does it seem like a lot of people don’t have these problems? Why does it seem like they are able to walk up to girls, talk to them and the next minute they are going out together and having a really great time? Why are a lot of those people athletes?
Why are pretty girls like they are?
- Why do a lot of girls seem attracted to guys who are obviously idiots and who treat them badly? I would treat a girl great, but that seems to make no difference. Why?
- What is jealousy, and why do I get so angry about it?
- Will I ever find someone who I can marry?
- When?
- Why can’t it be now?
- How will I know when I have found the girl I should marry?
- Now that I think about it, what is marriage again? Why do we have marriage? Why don’t we all just go around having sex with whoever we feel like all the time?
- For that matter, what is love? I mean, what the heck is going on here to begin with?
- Why does it seem like adults don’t have these problems?
- Why do my parents say they are "in love," but it looks so different from what I mean when I say I am "in love"? In other words, why does their love seem so boring, why do they have fights and why do they never hold hands?
- And so on.

You might have asked one or two of these questions yourself. Obviously, this is a pretty big and complicated space.

One way to begin to get a handle on love and to begin to understand it better is to try to tackle it one piece at a time. We will start with the fundamental facts of life concerning love. Once you understand these facts you have a foundation. Then you can move on to other areas.

THE FACTS OF LIFE CONCERNING LOVE

The first and most fundamental fact of life about love is: love is something that is fundamentally wired into the human brain. There is nothing that you can do about it. You cannot turn it on and off. It is there, it is active and that’s the end of it. In fact, it is nearly impossible to separate love from human existence. Especially as a teenager, they are one and the same.

The second fact of life is that there are different kinds of love, and we need to agree on what we are talking about when we say the word "love." Here are some of the different kinds of love that you might be familiar with:

Parental love—Parents love their children, and this sort of love, devotion and caring is different from all other types of love. When done well, parental love could be called perfect.
Christian love—Jesus said, "Love your neighbor as yourself," and many people are able to do that. They love and care about those around them because they are fellow human beings.
Friendship love—A deep friendship between two people often involves a level of trust, devotion, commitment and caring that is love. So two women or two men or a man and a woman who have known each other for 20 years and have been through a lot together can say they love one another. There is not a bit of romantic or sexual attraction involved.
Material love—You might hear someone say, "I love that car!" or "I love that movie!" It is love applied to an object. In this case the word "love" can mean a range of things from "I really like it" to "I must have it" all the way up to, in extreme cases, "I will (literally) kill myself if I don’t get it." Another word for this is infatuation.
Lustful love—To some extent lustful love is a form of material love, but it is applied to another person and tied almost completely to a sexual infatuation. So a girl might say, "I love Tom Cruise!" Or a guy might say, strictly on the basis of a girl’s looks, "I love that girl!" This is lust.
Romantic love—When most teenagers think of "love", this is what they are talking about. It is the combination of friendship, sexual attraction and the search for someone to marry. It is the search for the one person with whom you can raise your family and spend the rest of your life.

This chapter is about "Love," and you understood it to mean "romantic love." That was a correct assumption, and in the rest of this chapter the word "love" implies the romantic meaning. However, it is good to recognize that there are all these other forms as well. Sometimes people get confused between them, and that can cause problems.

Love is tied to sexual attraction, especially at the teenage level. That is the third fact of life about love. The link between love and sexual attraction is strong and important. Many people will tell you that love and sexual attraction can be separated. And that is true. But when you separate them you have friendship love, not romantic love. Or you get lust—the sexual attraction without the friendship.

Which leads you to a fourth fact of life; sexual attraction is a fact of life. There are four important facts about sex that are easy to miss:

Both men and women have entire sections of their anatomy devoted to sex and reproduction. This should come as no surprise to you. You have feet. Feet are a part of your anatomy devoted to walking. You have ears. Ears are a part of your anatomy devoted to hearing. You have a part of your anatomy devoted to sex and reproduction as well. Just to get it out in the open here so there is no confusion: In males it is the penis and testicles, and in females it is the vagina and female reproductive system, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, etc. In men the sexual organs produce sperm and provide a delivery mechanism, and in women the sexual organs accept sperm, produce eggs and provide an environment in which a baby can develop. When sperm and egg meet in a woman, a child is formed. Simple as that. Miraculous and totally mystifying, but simple.
The sex organs produce sex hormones, which flow through the blood stream and affect certain parts of the brain as well as the sex organs themselves. In women the hormonal part is quite complicated because the female reproductive system is quite complicated and amazing. You can learn a lot by looking all of this up in a good book or encyclopedia.
The brain has physical structures and systems specifically devoted to sex. Certain components in this system respond to the sex hormones flowing in the blood stream. Other parts respond to visual or tactile stimulation.
There is a biological desire to reproduce that, if you feel like thinking about it this way, can be considered to be the core of human existence. You could say, "Humans exist in order to give birth to other humans," and that is true in a biological sense. You can get a better handle on this by thinking along these lines. Why do bacteria exist and do the things they do? To create other bacteria. No one would argue with you on that. Why do fruit flies exist and do the things they do? To produce other fruit flies. Plants? Fish? Mice? Dogs? Chimps? Same thing. And thus humans. Humans exist to produce other humans. Of course humans are wildly complicated and interesting, especially when compared to a simple bacteria. We do lots of other things besides reproducing. But we are still living things and living things live, fundamentally, to reproduce.

When you take all four of these things together—the sex organs, the hormonal system, the brain structures and the biological imperative to reproduce—you can see why sex is so important to people. You can also see another thing: Sex is not like anything else. Let me say that again because it is an important fact of life:

SEX IS NOT LIKE ANYTHING ELSE

When you find yourself asking things like, "Why do I think about Christina all the time?" this is the reason why. Sex simply is not like anything else. It is absolutely fundamental to human existence.

A lot of people simply do not understand that sex is different from everything else. They will say things like, "Eating is completely natural and you do it every day without thinking about it. Sex is the same way! It’s just like every thing else! Do it and have fun and don’t worry about it!" That is an approach to life, but it is not true. Sex is not like everything else. Eating, for example, cannot create a new human life. Sex can. When someone tries to equate sex and eating, it is impossible to take them seriously.

Having said all of that, there is a fifth fact of life that people often completely ignore. It is funny that people ignore it, because it is so simple and obvious. It is this: The purpose of sex is to create a baby. That is another thing that needs emphasis:

THE PURPOSE OF SEX IS TO CREATE A BABY

You cannot separate sex from babies. The reason our bodies are equipped with sexual apparatus is to have babies and reproduce. If you try to separate sex from babies you are ignoring the obvious, because they cannot be separated. A lot of the "problems in today’s society" are caused by the fact that people forget this linkage.

It is the baby part of sex that leads to love and marriage. Babies link sex, love and marriage together.

The sixth fact of life is fairly simple: Love is a mechanism in our brains that encourages coupling. We "fall in love" to form a strong couple. "Falling in love" is another thing that is wired into our brains. It is a mechanism that ensures the survival of the species. You can now see that we have made a full circle, back to the first fact of love at the beginning of this section.

One of the more frustrating things about love is that it is a fairly messy emotion that has a number of rather strong psychological side effects. In order to form a strong coupling, the love mechanism seems to disconnect a variety of normal mental functions. "Falling in love" often means a loss of perspective and a focusing of attention that can drive those around you crazy. Everyone has heard the expression "Love is blind." It is also true that love is irrational at times. You cannot afford to be irrational, and yet a part of your brain is hooked up to make you that way. You need to take that into account in your own life.

The seventh fact of life is marriage. Our society (you can think of the word "society" to mean "the group of people we live in") has taken our natural coupling tendency and formalized it into a thing called marriage. A man and woman marry with the intention of staying together for life. Within that bond they have children and raise them.

Finally, here is the eighth fact of life. Sex feels good. You may be aware of this fact already. Part of the wiring between the sex organs and the sexual parts of the brain is a direct connection to the brain’s "pleasure center" (time to pull out the psychology book). This connection is no doubt designed to further encourage the reproductive urge by providing direct positive stimulation for reproductive behavior. Many people (both teenagers and adults) seem to miss three important facts about the pleasure of sex:

Much of the pleasure of sex is psychological.
It is possible for sex to feel bad.
The fact that sex is pleasurable doesn’t mean that it is always appropriate.

All three of these facts are important. Inside a loving relationship between a husband and wife who care deeply about one another, for example, the pleasure of sex is highly magnified. By the same token, having sex with a prostitute is degrading and can actually feel bad. Ask anyone who has tried it. "Cheap sex" and "one-night stands" and "sex on the first date" all tend to fall into that same category. It often feels bad. It is inappropriate. It is also dangerous because of the disease problem [AIDS, herpes, syphilis, gonorrhea, clamydia and so on (all good things to look up in an encyclopedia)]. Teenagers today know all about these diseases.

The fact that something is pleasurable does not necessarily make it good. Many people live many years before they realize this simple fact.

So, here you were looking for an answer to questions like, "What is love?" and you get a six-page answer. That is why love is complicated, by the way. Love is important as far as our bodies, our brains, our biology and our evolution is concerned. There is a lot more to it than meets the eye. Look at all of the different topics discussed in this chapter:

Reproduction
The definition of love
Sexual attraction
Sex organs
Hormones
Babies
Brain structures, like the pleasure center
Marriage
Sexually transmitted diseases

These are all facts of life. The thing you will notice is that they are all intertwined, and that makes everything complicated. Love and marriage and sex and babies all go together. As a teenager it is at first difficult to see all the interconnections. Teenagers get into problems in the love/marriage/sex/babies arena because they do not understand the interconnections. Or they happen because teenagers (and adults, for that matter) purposefully ignore them. For example, why does society frown, in general, on premarital sex? Because the purpose of sex is to have a baby, and a baby needs a stable family to raise it. Teenagers, because they have never had a baby, miss the connection between sex and babies. Your parents are saying, "Wait! Wait! Wait!" because they understand the baby part (they had you, for example). They understand the need for a strong, life-long couple to take care of the baby and to provide it with a stable family. Marriage is the mechanism to provide that coupling and stability. Your parents also understand that babies represent a huge financial commitment. The hospital bill alone for a normal childbirth is 2,50,000 Rupees to 5,00,000 Rupees. Do you have that money (along with the money to cover all the other expenses associated with a new child) in the bank? If not, then you are not ready to have a baby.

Can you separate sex and babies? Can you separate sex and love? Can you separate sex and marriage? These are good questions. The answer is "Yes." But consider the following:

When you separate sex from love, babies and marriage, you get prostitution. Sex without love is meaningless.
When you separate sex and babies from love and marriage, you get unwed, teenage mothers. This creates problems for the mother, the child and the people who end up supporting the mother because she cannot support herself.
When you separate sex and love from babies and marriage, you get premarital sex, recreational sex and people living together. None of this seems bad on the surface, and many teenagers you ask will say, "Go for it!" Find a person, fall in love and have sex. Adults would say there are reasons to wait, and we will talk about them in Section 2 and Section 3

It is only when you put love, marriage, sex and babies together that you have something complete and whole and beautiful. It is pretty deep, I know. Think about it for awhile and then come back and read through this section again.

Marriage is Forever

Section 2:

In our society marriage is the structure people use to create a stable family unit. A man and woman marry with the intention of staying together for life. Within that bond they usually have children and raise them. This arrangement is good for the children. It guarantees that the two parents are totally committed to the children and to each other.
I can remember thinking as a teenager that marriage would be natural and easy. You fall in love and then you get married and you live happily ever after. Right? It turns out that that view of the world is a little naïve because it leaves out the most important part. To my teenage mind marriage was about love. To an adult, marriage is about commitment. It is about staying in love and staying together for a lifetime despite the fact that both partners are individuals who change over time. Marriage itself is easy. Two people can get married any time they want. The challenge of marriage is making it work for a lifetime.
The question you might have as a teenager is, "What could possibly be hard about being married? What could possibly be ‘challenging’ about it? Once I find a person who I am madly in love with and who is madly in love with me, marriage will be easy. Our love will keep us together no matter what happens." What I would like to do in this chapter is suggest to you several reasons why marriage can be challenging, and show you why marriage is a big step that should not be taken lightly.
Understanding the Challenge of Marriage
The first few months of most marriages is easy. This phase is called the "honeymoon phase" and may last up to a year. The honeymoon phase exists because the couple is enjoying the significant advantages of being married: living together, being together constantly, looking toward the future as a team, planning a family, sexual intimacy, trust, closeness and so on. The honeymoon phase is also aided by the effects of romantic love, which tend to mask problems and differences. The honeymoon period starts to end as the couple comes to the realization that marriage lasts a lifetime. Let’s look at some of the things that make a life-long marriage interesting:
Marriage is a lifetime commitment. This commitment can have a tremendous number of advantages: stability, financial strength and unity, infinite trust, etc. However, it can have a paralyzing disadvantage if one or both parties decides to abuse the commitment. Imagine a person who is told, "We are giving you your job for life—you can never be fired." Most people will continue to do a good job, but a few people would take that message as a cue to become extremely lazy. Marriage can cause the same effect. Both partners have to work hard to avoid complacency.
Marriage means that everything is shared. Sharing means that every major decision involves a team decision. If both parties do not agree, then conflict arises. Most people enjoy having a certain amount of freedom in their lives. Marriage instead forces a great deal of compromise. If two people have different spending habits (i.e., one likes saving money and the other likes spending it), it can cause immense strain.
Marriage involves being with the same person for long periods of time. While the couple is still "in love," this is easy. Once romantic love’s effects wear off and the relationship is driven more by friendship than sexual attraction, however, little habits can become irritating. Imagine living in an RV with your best friend for 10 years. After awhile even your best friend can become annoying. Countering this natural effect requires skill and creativity.
Marriage is something like a big amplifier. When things are going well, the team effect of marriage makes them go very well. When a marriage works it is a source of infinite peace and joy. However, when things are not working marriage tends to amplify things in a negative direction. It can make bad things worse because it can create a trap.
Have you ever noticed that many married couples spend a lot of time fighting? Have you ever wondered why that happens? It happens because at any given moment the two people in the marriage may want to do two different things that are mutually exclusive. For example:
You want to go to your best friend’s wedding while your spouse wants to go to "the big game" on the same day.
You want to go to church but your spouse wants to stay home on Sunday morning.
You want the house to be neat but your spouse does not care.
You want to buy a new car but your spouse wants to save the money and continue fixing the old one.
You want to live close to your family but so does your spouse, and the families live 1,000 miles apart.
You want to buy a new riding lawn mower but your spouse wants a new sofa.
You want to paint the house blue but your spouse prefers yellow.
You want to spend extra time at work but your spouse wants you to be home for dinner.
Imagine facing one or two situations like this every day, day in and day out, for 50 years. That is what makes marriage challenging. That is why you want to pick a good marriage partner. If you can find someone who will work with you daily and love you enough to solve all of the "little problems" that arise naturally in a marriage, then you will have a successful marriage that brings you joy throughout your life.
Finding a Good Partner
Because marriage is so strongly tied to family, because it is so permanent, because it is such a big step and because the cost of entry and exit is so high, adults put a lot of emphasis on it. So does the community. When you and your spouse get married, you are both proclaiming to the community your lifetime commitment together. You also are declaring, to some extent, your adulthood, your independence and the start of your household. The community understands how big this step is and responds with wedding gifts intended to make it easier to start the new household. You can imagine a young couple getting married in a small town 100 years ago. The couple starts its household and its family, and the community of adults chips in with wedding gifts to make the startup easier. Wedding presents help you get over the hump.
You can now see that marriage is a big deal. It is not a party one weekend—it is a lifetime commitment to your spouse. Your parents want you to choose the "right" person:
A person who will help you to make the marriage work
A person who is stable and kind
A person who is slow to anger
A person who is a good worker and who has a good job
A person who will be a good mother or father
These qualities are universal. Here are some of the attributes of a good marriage partner:
Trust—When both partners trust each other implicitly, they are able to go through life with a tremendous amount of confidence and freedom.
Loyalty and commitment—Trust is built on a foundation of loyalty and commitment between the two partners. Many people get married with the concept that, "If I don’t like it, I’ll sleep around or get divorced." This is a recipe for disaster in any marriage. Marriage is about total commitment to your partner.
Helpfulness—Partners in a good marriage help each other constantly and accelerate their lives that way. Married life can be much easier than single life if both partners work together.
Friendship—Partners in a good marriage are good friends and gather strength and joy from that friendship.
Kindness—Partners in a good marriage are kind to one another out of love and friendship.
Patience and understanding—Partners in a good marriage understand and forgive each other for the mistakes that come from being human.
Acceptance and support—Partners in a good marriage accept one another and support each other constantly.
If a couple can maintain these qualities within the marriage, then success is much easier. Maintaining those qualities, it turns out, takes quite a bit of discipline. If one or more of these fundamental qualities is missing, then you can say with some certainly that the marriage will fail.
There are quite a few things that can cause a marriage to fail:
Disagreements over money—If one person is frugal and the other is free-spending, the conflict that arises can be extremely difficult to manage.
Laziness—If one partner is not willing to put in the effort required to make a marriage work or keep the household functioning (financially or operationally), then the conflict that arises can cause a lot of stress.
Stubbornness—If one or both spouses refuse to compromise, then the marriage likely will not survive. Marriage depends on compromise.
Infidelity—The fundamental contract in marriage is "lifetime commitment to a single partner." If one partner breaks this contract, the marriage is over.
Disagreements over children—If one spouse wants children and the other does not, you simply should not be married. It is impossible to reconcile this difference because one partner is guaranteed to be dissatisfied.
Physical or mental abuse—The partner being abused should leave to maintain his or her own health and safety.
Addiction—Alcohol or drug addiction will destroy any marriage.
As a teenager thinking about marriage you probably do not have all of this complexity in mind. How could you? However, it is important that you come to this level of understanding and take marriage seriously. When you get married you are committing to your chosen spouse for the rest of your life. You are making that commitment, generally, in order to start a family. Keep that in mind and you can understand why your parents see dating and marriage as such a big deal.
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Marriage
Having discussed all of this, you can see that there are advantages and disadvantages to being married. The advantages include:
Unconditional love, stability and consistency—You don’t have to worry about dating, breaking up, etc. There is one person you love and will love you for the rest of your life.
Lower cost of living—A married couple tends to have more free time and/or more money because the cost and work of a household are shared by two.
Confidence—It is very reassuring to know that there is a person who loves you and only you no matter what and who lives to be with you. That sort of commitment can give you a tremendous comfort and confidence.
The potential for children—Inside a stable marriage it is possible and extremely easy to have and raise children.
There are also disadvantages:
You are locked in with a single person—If you like to be with a different person every week, marriage is not for you.
You give up a great deal of freedom—Every decision will now be a compromise between two people.
You are going to have to work to maintain and build your human qualities—Trust, loyalty, commitment, kindness, patience, etc. are not easy. You have to work at these skills every day in a marriage to become better at them. If you are not willing to put in the effort, you will fail in the marriage.
If you find that you cannot deal with one or more or the disadvantages, then that tells you that you should not get married.
Teenage Sex is an Option
Section 3:
Should you pursue or have sex as a teenager? This is an option, and you get to make the decision. Like any other decision, however, there are things you should keep in mind. Here are three of the more important:
Fact #1: If two people have unprotected sex long enough, they will get pregnant.
Fact #2: This comes from the October 1996 issue of Scientific American magazine: "Six out of 10 women having abortions used protection." What that says is two people who have protected sex have a pretty good chance of pregnancy as well.
Fact #3: If two people have sex and one of them is carrying a sexually transmitted disease, then the other person has some probability of getting the disease, even when the couple uses protection.
Think of these three facts as "disadvantages." They tend to be good reasons not to have sex as a teenager. None have them have ever stopped anyone from having sex, however. You can look at the rate of infection for STDs, the number of abortions performed every year and the number of unwed teenage mothers to see that.
To any adult the three disadvantages make it "obvious" that teenagers should not have sex. What adults generally forget is that for many teens the brain and body are sending signals that indicate otherwise. The question for you as a teenager is, "Should logic win this one?" Your body has a desire to reproduce. To your body sex is important. Can you discipline yourself enough to live with the urges and wait until you get married? That is the question.
Here are two things to keep in mind as you are making that decision:
By having sex you are making a hidden commitment to the child that results. The purpose of sex is to create a baby. Therefore, by having sex you are saying, "I am willing to care for the baby."
Babies carry with them a lot of baggage. They need constant attention, they cost a lot and they require two people. Therefore, once you and your friend create a baby you will need to get married, and then the two of you will need to care for the child for the next 20 years. That means you will give up a tremendous amount of personal and financial freedom. Spend some time with someone who has a baby and see how much work is involved before you underestimate the amount of care a baby requires.
If you decide to have pre-marital sex, do it with the understanding that once a child is conceived you are responsible for the care and well-being of your mate and the child for the next 20 years. The hospital bill alone for a normal childbirth is 2,50,000 Rupees to 5,00,000 Rupees. Do you have that money? If not, then why would you have sex? Never mind the cost of housing, feeding, clothing your spouse and the child .
The correct path is to find someone you are madly in love with and want to spend the rest of your life with, then decide that the two of you want to have a child, then get married, then save up enough money to provide a stable environment for a baby and then conceive a baby. Have a baby within a strong marriage that is ready to support the child: It is best for the baby and best for the parents.
As an unmarried teenager there is one other fact that you should keep in mind. You generally don’t hear much about this fact, but it is important. You are doing your thing right now. You are meeting people, going out, having fun. That is all fine. You have this vague notion in your head that one day you will get married. That is also fine. But eventually you will find someone who you want to marry, and it will become much less vague. You are going to be deeply in love with this person. You are going to be with this person for the rest of your life. That is a fact.
On the night of your wedding you are going to be with that person in bed. There are two options on that first night you are together. Either it will be the first time for you, and therefore it is going to be special. Or it will not. If both of you are able to come to bed and learn about sex with each other and share that throughout your lives, it is a good thing. It is an incredible gift to give to someone. Maybe your partner cannot give it to you. That is OK. You can still give it to him or her.
In general, teenage sex is like drugs . It seems like it should feel good when you do it, but longer term it often feels bad. It is a "cheap thrill" that has little or no value. It also tries to separate sex from babies, which is impossible. Keep in mind that the purpose of sex is to create a baby, and that a baby is an incredible long-term commitment. You should not be attempting to create a baby unless you are willing to make that commitment. If you want to make that commitment, you should be getting married first for the sake of the baby. That is a fact of life.

My techniques to manage people, who were in angry

2010-04-27T08:29:00.000-07:00

Friends, this section will be very helpful to you all to control your anger, I would like to present this article to all, who can't able to control their anger.
Here I introduce 5 Steps or 5 simple methods to control our HUFF
1 Give Yourself Permission to Express Anger.
Our society does not allow us to express strong emotions. We are taught to hold in our emotions from the earliest age. This can have a profoundly negative effect on our overall health. It’s not wrong to express anger, fear, sadness, rage. In fact, it is healthy to release these emotions regularly. What’s wrong is when we hurt someone in the process. It is preferable to find safe ways to dump the negative feelings.
2 Combine Mental and Physical Effort for Anger Control.
Mental therapy alone may be extremely helpful for anger release, but it can only take you so far. Similarly, the physical act of doing exercise can help many people let off steam, but it may not remove deep-seated anger.
The most effective process is when you can combine both the mental and physical effort. This is when you do a particular physical activity along with the mental intention of releasing the anger. Please see the next step for specific examples of how to combine the mental and physical effort to help release your anger. In each example, don’t just pound pillows, or rip paper, but REALLY FEEL the heavy anger emotion with it’s full intensity WHILE you do the physical activity. This is so important and will assist you to finally RELEASE the anger energy so that it won’t come back. You may have to do the process repeatedly because it releases layer by layer and it is doubtful that you will get to all of it in one session. There are many studies recently showing that doing this type of activity could possibly MAKE someone more aggressive. This is a complicated issue. Let’s say that the type of people who hold in their anger their whole life NEED to learn to become more aggressive in order to become balanced. It is important to learn how to not be a doormat and have people walk all over you. It is important to speak up for what you believe and not take garbage from everyone. So, indeed, if this behavior makes a person RELATIVELY more aggressive, it is in the vein of becoming whole, and that is a good thing! However, please realize if you are already an explosive person who throws temper tantrums and becomes violent, then this approach is NOT appropriate! This recommendation is more appropriate for the “quiet anger” that a person keeps inside for many years. This is the anger that causes physical illnesses, sleep disturbances and other stress-related conditions. Getting the anger out in these cases is extremely therapeutic.
3 Never Hurt Others in the Process.
Give yourself the opportunity to express anger in a safe way, without hurting anyone else. Most people will benefit by having a private room to pound pillows with their fists or legs, or with a plastic bat. Some people may prefer ripping pages of paper, screaming, throwing plates (old ones). Many people find it helpful to use anger-release music as a stimulus or catalyst for this process. Remember, NEVER hurt yourself in the process and never aim your anger literally at another person. What is important here is your expression of the negative emotion, NOT who receives it. If the anger (or other emotion) is traced to a specific individual, some people have found it helpful to have a symbol of this person at which they can direct the anger. This could be an enlarged photocopy of a photo on a piece of paper which you then scribble-over, tear, burn, or otherwise destroy. Be open to discovering your own dynamic anger-release method.
4 Totally Let Go, Without Hesitation.
It is also important to suggest that if you feel the need to express yourself in any of these ways, that you either are totally alone so that you don’t feel inhibited, or that you are in the surroundings of a group of people who are supportive of this type of activity. If you don’t have a private room in your house, maybe you can find a secluded area, where no one will hear or see you — even the inside of your car may work. (Don’t do any of this while actually driving!)
5 Strive to Forgive.
The final step in maintaining anger-release is to truly forgive the person who wronged you as well as to truly forgive yourself.

Chinese Mobile Secret Codes

2010-04-06T07:29:00.001-07:00

Secret codes for Chinese Mobiles:

After a lots of request of users, now I publish the secret codes for most type of china brands mobile phone. Nokia N-Series: N95, N93, N73, N93I, N83, N8800, and more available in Chinese models. They have features like touchscreen, two camera, 2 SIM slot, two battery, two charger, and some of other features. Most Chinese phones have same software and features, but have different in looks. These phone have a range of under 2k-8k (INR). Sony Ericsson phones also avaliable in Chinese models and soon will here.

China Mobile Secret Codes and Pinout:

default user code: 1122, 3344, 1234, 5678
Engineer mode: *#110*01#
Factory mode: *#987#
Enable COM port: *#110*01# -> Device -> Set UART -> PS Config -> UART1/115200
Restore factory settings: *#987*99#
LCD contrast: *#369#
software version: *#800#
software version: *#900#
set default language: *#0000# Send
set English language: *#0044# Send
set English language (new firmware): *#001# Send

*#0086#, *#0886# set to China
*#0084#, *#0966# set to Vietnamese
*#77218114#
*#19992006#
*#881188#
#*94267357#
*#0084#call

*******************************************
N95Pda and N95S Pinout

2×5
4:Rx
5:TX
6:GND
---------------------
K1 Moto Pinout
4:Rx
5:Tx
6:Gnd
---------------------
PDA ZT6618
1..8 pin mini Conector
3:Rx
4:TX
5:Gnd
--------------------
Cect 8380
1..8 pin mini Conector
1:Gnd
2:Rx
3:Tx
---------------------
KG-200
4:Gnd
3:Tx
2:Rx
----------------------
N91I
1...12 pin Connector
.
5:Gnd . 12:Tx
6:Tx . 13:Rx
7:Rx .

GSM Secret Codes

2010-04-06T07:26:00.001-07:00

Type *#61# and press call - Check redirection status.
Cancel all redirections: ##002#
*43# to activate call waiting, to deactivate #43#.
If your phone doesn't have incoming call barring and outgoing call barring, you can try this.
For outgoing call barring dial *33*barcode*# and pres OK. To deactivate it dial #33#barcode*#.
On any phone on any network type in **43# to enable conference calls. You can make up to 7 calls at once
If you need to block SMS reception (if you are spammed by someone) just press this code:
*35*xxxx*16#
xxxx is your Call Barring code (default is 0000).
To remove this barring type: #35*xxxx#
If you want to hide/show your phone number when calling, put one of these codes below in front of the number that you are going to call.
(*#30# / *#31# or *31# / #31# ) Works on some networks.
Typing *0# or *nm# on the beginning of a txt message gives you detailed delivery report on some networks.. But turn off reports in message settings before.
When the sim card-pin blocked type **042*pin2 old*newpin2*newpin2*
Airtel Secret Codes
Dial *123# to see your credit balance. Dial *110# and follow the options.
Dial *109*9898631902# to display the call cost after each call.
If you are in Indiausing IDEA Pre or Postpaid connection then dial *101# you will get a secret menu that will let you to activate or deactivate any supported Idea package for your mobile.

Software version: *#9999#
IMEI number: *#06#
Serial number: *#0001#
Battery status- Memory capacity : *#9998*246#
Debug screen: *#9998*324# - *#8999*324#
LCD kontrast: *#9998*523#
Vibration test: *#9998*842# - *#8999*842#
Alarm beeper - Ringtone test : *#9998*289# - *#8999*289#
Smiley: *#9125#
Software version: *#0837#
Display contrast: *#0523# - *#8999*523#
Battery info: *#0228# or *#8999*228#
Display storage capacity: *#8999*636#
Display SIM card information: *#8999*778#
Show date and alarm clock: *#8999*782#
The display during warning: *#8999*786#
Samsung hardware version: *#8999*837#
Show network information: *#8999*638#
Display received channel number and received intensity: *#8999*9266#

*#1111# S/W Version
*#1234# Firmware Version
*#2222# H/W Version
*#8999*8376263# All Versions Together
*#8999*8378# Test Menu
*#4777*8665# GPSR Tool
*#8999*523# LCD Brightness
*#8999*377# Error LOG Menu
*#8999*327# EEP Menu
*#8999*667# Debug Mode
*#92782# PhoneModel (Wap)
#*5737425# JAVA Mode
*#2255# Call List
*#232337# Bluetooth MAC Adress
*#5282837# Java Version

Type in *#0000# on a Samsung A300 to reset the language
Master reset(unlock) #*7337# (for the new samsungs E700 x600 but not E710)
Samsung E700 type *#2255# to show secret call log (not tested)
Samsung A300, A800 phone unlock enter this *2767*637#
Samsung V200, S100, S300 phone unlock : *2767*782257378#

2010-04-06T07:16:00.000-07:00

Friends I would like to share Nokia Secret Codes with you, It'll be helpful to select a right mobile handset to you, the main reason to write this on our blog is: Last day my sweet heart told me, she is going to buy a new mobile handset. Unfortunately she had no idea about the handset selection. So I present his section to her.

Nokia Secret Codes

On the main screen type in:
*#06# for checking the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity).
*#7780# reset to factory settings.
*#67705646# This will clear the LCD display(operator logo).
*#0000# To view software version.
*#2820# Bluetooth device address.
*#746025625# Sim clock allowed status.
#pw+1234567890+1# Shows if sim have restrictions.
*#92702689# - takes you to a secret menu where you may find some of the information below:
1. Displays Serial Number.
2. Displays the Month and Year of Manufacture
3. Displays (if there) the date where the phone was purchased (MMYY)
4. Displays the date of the last repair - if found (0000)
5. Shows life timer of phone (time passes since last start)
*#3370# - Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR) activation. Increase signal strength, better signal reception. It also help if u want to use GPRS and the service is not responding or too slow. Phone battery will drain faster though.
*#3370* - (EFR) deactivation. Phone will automatically restart. Increase battery life by 30% because phone receives less signal from network.
*#4720# - Half Rate Codec activation.
*#4720* - Half Rate Codec deactivation. The phone will automatically restart
If you forgot wallet code for Nokia S60 phone, use this code reset: *#7370925538#
Note, your data in the wallet will be erased. Phone will ask you the lock code. Default lock code is: 12345
Press *#3925538# to delete the contents and code of wallet.
Unlock service provider: Insert sim, turn phone on and press vol up(arrow keys) for 3 seconds, should say pin code. Press C,then press * message should flash, press * again and 04*pin*pin*pin# \
*#7328748263373738# resets security code.
Default security code is 12345
Change closed caller group (settings >security settings>user groups) to 00000 and ure phone will sound the message tone when you are near a radar speed trap. Setting it to 500 will cause your phone 2 set off security alarms at shop exits, gr8 for practical jokes! (works with some of the Nokia phones.) Press and hold "0" on the main screen to open wap browser.

(Thank You)

POVERTY IN INDIA

2010-04-06T02:42:00.000-07:00

Poverty in India - Facts India Poverty Indian Economic Development Poverty Eradication Information - An Online India. Facts and information about India and role of Indian science, mathematics, technology and medicine in development of human civilization. An Online India is an information portal to facts about Indian culture, customs, art, science, technology, caste, diversity, terrorism, heritage and contribution to the world. Get info on state of Poverty in India

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POVERTY IN INDIA

Even more than 50 years after independence from almost two centuries of British rule, large scale poverty remains the most shameful blot on the face of India. Of its nearly 1 billion inhabitants, an estimated 350-400 million are below the poverty line, 75 per cent of them in the rural areas.

More than 40 per cent of the population is illiterate, with women, tribal and scheduled castes particularly affected.

It would be incorrect to say that all poverty reduction programmes have failed. The growth of the middle class (which was virtually non-existent when India became a free nation in August 1947) indicates that economic prosperity has indeed been very impressive in India, but the distribution of wealth has been very uneven.

The main causes of poverty are illiteracy, a population growth rate by far exceeding the economic growth rate for the better part of the past 50 years, protectionist policies pursued since 1947 to 1991 which prevented large amounts of foreign investment in the country. Poverty alleviation is expected to make better progress in the next 50 years than in the past, as a trickle-down effect of the growing middle class. Increasing stress on education, reservation of seats in government jobs and the increasing empowerment of women and the economically weaker sections of society, are also expected to contribute to the alleviation of poverty. Eradication of poverty can only be a very long-term goal in India.

Poverty in India
Though the middle class has gained from recent positive economic developments, India suffers from substantial poverty. According to the new World Bank's estimates on poverty based on 2005 data, India has 456 million people, 41.6% of its population, living below the new international poverty line of $1.25 (PPP) per day. The World Bank further estimates that 33% of the global poor now reside in India. Moreover, India also has 828 million people, or 75.6% of the population living below $2 a day, compared to 72.2% for Sub-Saharan Africa.
On the other hand, the Planning Commission of India uses its own criteria and has estimated that 27.5% of the population was living below the poverty line in 2004–2005, down from 51.3% in 1977–1978, and 36% in 1993-1994. The source for this was the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (NSS) and the criterion used was monthly per capita consumption expenditure below Rs. 356.35 for rural areas and Rs. 538.60 for urban areas. 75% of the poor are in rural areas, most of them are daily wagers, self-employed householders and landless labourers. Although Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades, its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.
Wealth distribution in India is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of the income. Despite significant economic progress, 1/4 of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of $0.40/day. Official figures estimate that 27.5% of Indians lived below the national poverty line in 2004-2005. A 2007 report found that 77% of Indians, or 836 million people, lived on less than 20 rupees per day, with most working in informal labour sector with no job or social security, living in abject poverty. Income inequality in India is increasing. In addition, India has a higher rate of malnutrition among children under the age of three (46% in year 2007) than any other country in the world.

Causes of poverty in India
There are at least two main schools of thought regarding the causes of poverty in India.
The Developmental View
Colonial Economic Restructuring
Jawaharlal Nehru noted, "A significant fact which stands out is that those parts of India which have been longest under British rule are the poorest today." The Indian economy was purposely and severely deindustrialized (especially in the areas of textiles and metal-working) through colonial privatizations, regulations, tariffs on manufactured or refined Indian goods, taxes, and direct seizures. In 1830, India accounted for 17.6% of global industrial production against Britain's 9.5%, but by 1900 India's share was down to 1.7% against Britain's 18.5%. (The change in industrial production per capita is even more extreme due to Indian population growth).
Not only was Indian industry losing out, but consumers were forced to rely on expensive (open monopoly produced) British manufactured goods, especially as barter, local crafts and subsistence agriculture was discouraged by law. The agricultural raw materials exported by Indians were subject to massive price swings and declining terms of trade.
British policies in India exacerbated weather conditions to lead to mass famines which, when taken together, led to between 30 to 60 million deaths from starvation in the Indian colonies. Community grain banks were forcibly disabled, land was converted from food crops for local consumption to cotton, opium, tea, and grain for export, largely for animal feed. In summary, deindustrialization, declining terms of trade, and the periodic mass misery of man-made famines are the major ways in which colonial government destroyed development in India and held it back for centuries.

The Neo-Liberal View
Unemployment and underemployment, arising in part from protectionist policies pursued till 1991 that prevented high foreign investment. Poverty also decreased from the early 80s to 1990 significantly however.
Lack of property rights. The right to property is not a fundamental right in India.
Over-reliance on agriculture. There is a surplus of labour in agriculture. Farmers are a large vote bank and use their votes to resist reallocation of land for higher-income industrial projects. While services and industry have grown at double digit figures, agriculture growth rate has dropped from 4.8% to 2%. Neo-liberals tend to view food security as an unnecessary goal compared to purely financial economic growth.
There are also a variety of more direct technical factors:
About 60% of the population depends on agriculture whereas the contribution of agriculture to the GDP is about 18%.
High population growth rate, although demographers generally agree that this is a symptom rather than cause of poverty.
And a few cultural ones have been proposed:
The caste system, under which hundreds of millions of Indians were kept away from educational, ownership, and employment opportunities, and subjected to violence for "getting out of line." British rulers encouraged caste privileges and customs, at least before the 20th century.
Despite this, India currently adds 40 million people to its middle class every year. An estimated 300 million Indians now belong to the middle class; one-third of them have emerged from poverty in the last ten years. At the current rate of growth, a majority of Indians will be middle-class by 2025. Literacy rates have risen from 52 percent to 65 percent in the same period.

Historical trends in poverty statistics
The proportion of India's population below the poverty line has fluctuated widely in the past, but the overall trend has been downward. However, there have been roughly three periods of trends in income poverty.
1950 to mid-1970s: Income poverty reduction shows no discernible trend. In 1951, 47% of India's rural population was below the poverty line. The proportion went up to 64% in 1954-55; it came down to 45% in 1960-61 but in 1977-78, it went up again to 51%.
Mid-1970s to 1990: Income poverty declined significantly between the mid-1970s and the end of the 1980s. The decline was more pronounced between 1977-78 and 1986-87, with rural income poverty declining from 51% to 39%. It went down further to 34% by 1989-90. Urban income poverty went down from 41% in 1977-78 to 34% in 1986-87, and further to 33% in 1989-90.
After 1991: This post-economic reform period evidenced both setbacks and progress. Rural income poverty increased from 34% in 1989-90 to 43% in 1992 and then fell to 37% in 1993-94. Urban income poverty went up from 33.4% in 1989-90 to 33.7% in 1992 and declined to 32% in 1993-94 Also, NSS data for 1994-95 to 1998 show little or no poverty reduction, so that the evidence till 1999-2000 was that poverty, particularly rural poverty, had increased post-reform. However, the official estimate of poverty for 1999-2000 was 26.1%, a dramatic decline that led to much debate and analysis. This was because for this year the NSS had adopted a new survey methodology that led to both higher estimated mean consumption and also an estimated distribution that was more equal than in past NSS surveys. The latest NSS survey for 2004-05 is fully comparable to the surveys before 1999-2000 and shows poverty at 28.3% in rural areas, 25.7% in urban areas and 27.5% for the country as a whole, using Uniform Recall Period Consumption. The corresponding figures using the Mixed Recall Period Consumption method was 21.8%, 21.7% and 21.8% respectively. Thus, poverty has declined after 1998, although it is still being debated whether there was any significant poverty reduction between 1989-90 and 1999-00. The latest NSS survey was so designed as to also give estimates roughly, but not fully, comparable to the 1999-2000 survey. These suggest that most of the decline in rural poverty over the period during 1993-94 to 2004-05 actually occurred after 1999-2000.

Outlook for Poverty Alleviation
Since the early 1950s, government has initiated, sustained, and refined various planning schemes to help the poor attain self sufficiency in food production. Probably the most important initiative has been the supply of basic commodities, particularly food at controlled prices, available throughout the country as poor spend about 80 percent of their income on food.
Eradication of poverty in India can only be a long-term goal. Poverty alleviation is expected to make better progress in the next 50 years than in the past, as a trickle-down effect of the growing middle class. Increasing stress on education, reservation of seats in government jobs and the increasing empowerment of women and the economically weaker sections of society, are also expected to contribute to the alleviation of poverty. It is incorrect to say that all poverty reduction programmes have failed. The growth of the middle class (which was virtually non-existent when India became a free nation in August 1947) indicates that economic prosperity has indeed been very impressive in India, but the distribution of wealth is not at all even.
After the liberalization process and moving away from the socialist model, India is adding 60-70 million people to its middle class every year. Analysts write that an estimated 390 million Indians now belong to the middle class; one-third of them have emerged from poverty in the last ten years. At the current rate of growth, a majority of Indians will be middle-class by 2025. Literacy rates have risen from 52 percent to 65 percent during the initial decade of liberalization (1991-2001).
While total overall poverty in India has declined, the extent of poverty reduction is often debated. While there is a consensus that there has not been increase in poverty between 1993-94 and 2004-05, the picture is not so clear if one considers other non-pecuniary dimensions (such as health, education, crime and access to infrastructure). With the rapid economic growth that India is experiencing, it is likely that a significant fraction of the rural population will continue to migrate toward cities, making the issue of urban poverty more significant in the long run. More than 103 million people have moved out of desperate poverty in the course of one generation in urban and rural areas as well. If India can achieve 7.3% annual growth over the next 20 years, 465 million more people will be spared a life of extreme deprivation. Contrary to popular perceptions, rural India has benefited from this growth: extreme rural poverty has declined from 94% in 1985 to 61% in 2005, and they project that it will drop to 26% by 2025. India's economic reforms and the increased growth that has resulted have been the most successful anti-poverty programmes in the country.

2010-04-05T02:19:00.001-07:00

The Dangers of Air-conditioning

Friend, nowadays we can see various types of air-conditioning systems in almost every sector like: shopping malls, restaurants, beauty parlor, bar, automobiles, etc. Then I had done a study on this, but the result was really shocking, not only for the reasons but also on it's after effects.

About two-thirds of the world's population is expected to live in cities by the year 2020 and, according to the United Nations, approximately 3.7 billion people will inhabit urban areas some ten years later. As cities grow, so do the number of buildings that characterize them: office towers, factories, shopping malls and high-rise apartment buildings.

Percentage of population living or work in air-conditioned enviornments, 1990 and 2030

These structures depend on artificial ventilation system to keep clean and cool air flowing to the people inside. We know these systems by the term 'air-conditioning'.

Although many of us may feel air-conditioners bring relief from hot, humid or polluted outside air, they pose many potential health hazards. Much researches has looked at how the circulation of air inside a closed environment- such as an office building- can spread disease or expose occupants to harmful chemicals.

One of the more widely publicized dangers is that of Legionnaire's disease, which was first recognized in the 1970s. This was found to have affected people in buildings with air-conditioning systems in which warm air pumped out of the system's cooling towers was somehow sucked back into the air intake, in most cases owing to poor design. This warm air was, needless to say, the perfect environment for the rapid growth of disease-carrying bacteria originating from outside the building, where it existed in harmless quantities. The warm, bacteria-laden air was combined with cooled, conditioned air and was then circulated around various parts of the building. Studies showed that even people outside such buildings were at risk if they walked past air exhaust ducts. Cases of Legionnaire's disease are becoming fewer with newer system designs and modifications to older systems, but many older buildings, particularly in developing countries, require constant monitoring.

Cigarette smoking is also carried from room to room by some air-conditioning systems, bringing with it the attendant risks of passive smoking. The past few years have seen a lot of studies into passive smoking – the smoke breathed in by non-smokers living or working near smokers. In Japan, a survey of medical records showed that women whose husbands do not smoke are half as likely to acquire lung cancer as those who are married to smokers. Research into passive smoking in an office setting demonstrated similar risks for non-smokers working for many years next to smokers. Smoky air circulated by the air-conditioning system of the average office, according to an Australian study, causes non-smokers to breath in equivalent of three cigarettes in one day of work.

The ways in which air-conditioners work to 'clean' the air can inadvertently cause health problems, too. One such way is with the use of an electrostatic precipitator, which removes the dust and smoke particles from the air. What precipitators also do, however, is emit large quantities of positive air ions into the ventilation system. A growing number of studies show that overexposure to positive air ions can result in headaches, fatigue and feeling irritation.

Large air-conditioning systems add water to the air they circulate by means of humidifiers. In older systems, the water used for this process is kept in special reservoirs, the bottom of which provide breeding grounds for bacteria and fungi that can find their way into the ventilation systems. The risk to human health from this situation has been highlighted by the fact that the immune systems of approximately half of workers in air-conditioned office buildings have developed antibodies to fight off the organisms found at the bottom of system reservoirs. Chemical disinfectants, called 'biocides', which are added to reservoirs to make them-germ-free, are dangerous in their own right in sufficient quantities, as they often contain compounds such as pentachlorophenol, which is strongly linked to abdominal cancers.

Finally, it should be pointed out that the artificial climatic environment created by air-conditioners can also adversely affect us. In a natural environment, whether indoor or outdoor, there are small variations in temperature and humidity. Indeed, the human body has long been accustomed to these normal changes. In the air-conditioned living or work environment, however, body temperatures remain well under 37^oC, our normal temperature. This leads to a weakened immune system and thus greater susceptibility to diseases such as colds and flu.

An Article By,

Arun Kesavan Kolath

Twelve ways to know you are in LOVE with someone:

2010-04-03T22:44:00.000-07:00

Twelve:

You talk with him/her late at night and when you go to bed you still think of him/her.

Eleven:

You walk really slowly when you are with him/her.

Ten:

You don't feel OK when he/she is far away.

Nine:

You smile when you hear his/her voice.

Eight:

When you look at him/her, you do not see other people around you. you see only him/her.

Six:

He/She is everything you want to think.

Five:

You realize that you smile every time you look at him/her.

Four:

You would do any thing to see him/her.

Three:

While you have been reading this, there was a person in your mind all the time.

Two:

You have been so busy thinking of that person that you didn't notice that number SEVEN is missing.

One:

You are going to check above if that's true and now you are silently laughing to yourself.

Honey, 101 Reasons Why I LOVE U

2010-03-27T09:01:00.001-07:00

1. I love the way we finish each other's sentences.
2. I love the way I know you'll never give up on me.
3. I love the fact that I wouldn't ever give up on you.
4. I love the way you look at me.
5. I love how beautiful your eyes are.
6. I love the way I can't imagine a day without you in my life.
7. I love the way if we were ever separated I wouldn't know how to go on.
8. I love the way we cuddle and watch sunsets together.
9. I love the way we sometimes stay up all night and just talk, then watch the sunrise together.
10. I love how I know you'll always be there when I need you to be.
11. I love the fact that I will always be there for you too.
12. I love how when I dream of my life partner, the only person that I can see is you.
13. I love how complete I feel when I am with you.
14. I love how our bodies just fit together.
15. I love the way you make me laugh.
16. I love the way you laugh.
17. I love the way you won't compromise yourself when we are together.
18. I love the way you won't let me compromise myself.
19. I love your thoughtfulness.
20. I love your tenderness.
21. I love your ability to speak without saying a single word.
22. I love the way we glance at each other across the room and know what each other is thinking.
23. I love the way, how even though we may be miles apart I still feel like you're right here with me.
24. I love the way you surprise me with the perfect gifts that show you pay attention to me.
25. I love the way you'll watch a sporting game with me even though you may not be interested in it.
26. I love the way you treat my friends.
27. I love your love for the things that interest me.
28. I love the way you let me live my life freely without jealousy.
29. I love how you demand respect but are not controlling.
30. I love how I would do anything in this world to make you happy.
31. I love how you would do anything in this world to make me happy.
32. I love the way your voice sounds over the phone.
33. I love the way your voice sounds when you whisper sweet nothings in my ear.
34. I love the completeness and oneness I feel when we make love.
35. I love your sensuality.
36. I love how our romance feels like the perfect romance movie.
37. I love how you are my soul mate.
38. I love the way you handle troubled times.
39. I love the way you respect me.
40. I love the way you protect and defend me.
41. I love how you feel when we cuddle.
42. I love the softness of your lips against mine.
43. I love the softness of you lips against my body.
44. I love the feeling of your hair brushing against me when we make love.
45. I love laying in bed at night talking about nothing.
46. I love waking up to find we've been cuddling together all night.
47. I love the surprises you leave for me.
48. I love your intelligence.
49. I love your ingenuity.
50. I love your ability to make friends where ever we go.
51. I love your love for life.
52. I love your passion for your hobbies and interests.
53. I love how every time I look at you, you take my breath away.
54. I love how I thank God everyday for bringing someone as wonderful as you into my life.
55. I love the fact you gave me the gift of our children.
56. I love the special moments that we shared that will remain my fondest memories of you and I.
57. I love spending the holidays with the one person I love the most.
58. I love how my heart skips a beat whenever you walk into the room.
59. I love how you love me.
60. I love how I love you.
61. I love the ways you choose to show your affection for me.
62. I love the way you inspire me to be more than I am.
63. I love the way you spark my creativity and imagination.
64. I love the way you make me feel like anything is possible as long as I'm with you.
65. I love your sense of humor.
66. I love the way you make me feel like royalty.
67. I love the way you dress.
68. I love your understated elegance.
69. I love you just the way you are.
70. I love your spontaneity.
71. I love our life together.
72. I love how if I died right now I would be the happiest person alive knowing I found my one true love.
73. I love the fact that we will grow old together.
74. I love your way with words.
75. I love the way you look when your sleeping.
76. I love the way you think you look awful when you first wake up when it is actually then I find you the most beautiful.
77. I love your willingness to share everything and most especially your heart with me.
78. I love your strength of character.
79. I love taking showers together.
80. I love the way you leave me love notes to find whenever you're gone.
81. I love the way you treat me.
82. I love the way you take care of us.
83. I love your cooking.
84. I love the way you take the time to thank me for doing every day things.
85. I love the way you show your affection when we are around friends and/or family.
86. I love the way you are not scared to show your affection when we are in public.
87. I love your confidence.
88. I love your ability to make me feel better when times are tough.
89. I love the way we make up after a fight.
90. I love how you treat our children.
91. I love the way you support me when I'm off track.
92. I love the way you take the time to show me how much you love me.
93. I love your beautiful hair.
94. I love your body.
95. I love your openness to try new things.
96. I love your ability to talk things through.
97. I love your courage to be you.
98. I love your greatness.
99. I love the fact that you want to be with me and only me.
100. I love how I am and feel when I am with you!
101. I love you for you!

MYTHS ABOUT PUBLIC SPEAKING

2010-03-23T22:46:00.000-07:00

Hello Friends,

I would like to discuss about the Myths about Public Speaking. I got the inspiration to write this article, from my dear RENUKA. Last night she had told to me that, this day (24^th, March) she has to conduct a Quiz program, I got one thing from her, she was not confident to present to that program in front of the public. I don't like to blame her, because this is the failure of our primary educational setup. Now it’s the high time to leave all our fears, to speak in-front of the public.

Our fears of public speaking result not only from what we do not know or understand about public communication, but also from misconceptions and myths about public encounters. These misconceptions and myths persist among professional people as well as the general public. Let's examine these persistent myths about public communication, which, like our ignorance and misunderstandings of the fundamental assumptions and requirements of public speaking, exacerbate our fears and prevent our development as competent public persons.

Perhaps the most dogged and persistent myth about public communication is that it is a "special" activity reserved for unusual occasions. After all, how often do you make a public speech? There are only a few special occasions during the year when even an outgoing professional person will step behind a podium to give a public speech, and many professional people can count on one hand the number of public speeches given in a career. Surely, then, public communication is a rare activity reserved for especially important occasions.

This argument, of course, ignores the true nature of public communication and the nature of the occasions in which it occurs. When we engage with people we do not know well to solve problems, share understanding and perspectives, advocate points of view, or seek stimulation, we are engaged in the public speaking. Public communication is a familiar, daily activity that occurs in the streets, in restaurants, in boardrooms, courtrooms, parks, offices, factories and meetings.

Is public speaking an unusual activity reserved for special occasions and restricted to the lectern or the platform? Hardly. Rather it is, and should be developed as, an everyday activity occurring in any location where the people were come together.

A related misconception about public communication is the belief that the public speaker is a specially gifted individual with innate abilities and God-given propensities. While most professional people would reject the idea that public speakers are born, not made, they nevertheless often feel that the effective public communicator has developed unusual personal talents to a remarkable degree. At the heart of this misconception- like the myth of public speaking as a "special" activity- is an overly narrow view of what a public person is and does.

Development as an effective public communicator begins with the understanding that you need not be a nationally- know, speak-for-pay, professional platform speaker to be a competent public person. The public speaker is an ordinary person who controls the necessity of being a public person and uses common abilities to meet the fundamental assumptions and requirements of daily public encounters.

A less widespread but serious misconception of public speaking is reflected in the belief that public speeches are "made for the ages". A public speech is something viewed as an historical event which will be part of continuing and a generally available public record. Some public speeches are faithfully recorded, transcribe, reproduced, and made part of broadly available historical records. Those instances are rare compared to the thousands of unrecorded public speeches made every day.

Public communication is usually situation-specific and ephemeral. Most audiences do well if they remember as much as 40% of what a speaker says immediately after the speaker concludes; even less is retained as time goes by. This fact is both reassuring and challenging to the public communicator. On the other hand, it suggests that there is room for human error in making public pronouncements; on the other hand, it challenges the public speaker to be as informed as possible and to strive to defeat the poor listening habits of most public audiences.

Finally, professional people perhaps more than other groups often subscribe to the misconception that public communication must be an exact science, that if it is done properly it will succeed. The troublesome corollary to this reasoning is that if public communication fails, it is because it was improperly prepared or executed. This argument blithely ignores the vagaries of human interaction. Public speakers achieve their goals through their listeners, and the truly predictable aspect of human listener is their unpredictability. Further, public messages may succeed despite inadequate preparation and dreadful delivery.

Professional people often mismanage their fears of public communication. Once we understand what public encounters assume and demand, once we unburden ourselves of the myths that handicap our growth as public person, we can properly begin to develop as competent public communicators.

By,

Arun Kesavan Kottilukkal, Kolath

To My Honey, Renuka

2010-03-23T07:28:00.000-07:00

1.What is the first English language use of the word "computer"?

Answer: The first known English language use of the word "computer" is found in writings of Sir Thomas Browne in 1646. Browne defined "computers" as persons who reckoned the passage of time through the making up of calendars.

2.What is the name of the ancient counting device used thousands of years ago, that is still used in some parts of the world today?

Answer: The Abacus.

3.What is the probable origin of the decimal numbering system?

Answer: The ten fingers of the hands. Our numbering system was used by the Arabs as early as 800 A.D. and was probably borrowed from India.

4.Arabic numerals were introduced into Europe by Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci in what century?

Answer: The thirteenth century (approximately 1202)

5.In 1614, what Scottish mathematician, invented the use of logarithms and developed a process of using rods for mathematical calculations?

Answer: John Napier

6.In 1623, this German mathematician and clergyman designed and built a mechanism which could add, subtract, multiply and divide. His machine was similar in operation to the slide rule but also incorporated a set of metal wheels that performed the arithmetical operations. He called his device a "calculator-clock."

Answer: Wilhelm Schickard

7.Who developed an early slide rule and circular rule in 1632?

Answer: William Oughtred

8.In 1642, what French mathematician and philosopher, developed a calculator called the "Arithmatique" or "Pascaline."

Answer: Blaise Pascal

9.In 1671, he invented a machine that performed multiplication, division and extraction of square roots. This device was called the "___________ Wheel."

Answer: Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz; the "Leibnitz Wheel"

10.In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard built the first of these devices for which he later became well known. -

Answer: first punch-card controlled machine

11.In 1820, what Frenchman developed a complete hand-operated mechanical calculator?

Answer: Charles Xavier Thomas of Colmar, Alsace, France

12.Who developed the "Difference Engine" concept in 1822?

Answer: Charles Babbage

13.In 1833, this same individual designed a machine which relied on punched cards to perform automatic calculations. Although he did not build a working model, his machine design was called the "____________ __________."

Answer: Analytical Engine

14.This person developed a punched-card driven tabulating machine in 1880, that was later used in calculating the totals for the U.S. Census Bureau. He later started his own company.

Answer: Herman Hollerith

15. This person (the answer to question 14), started his own company in 1886 which he called the "Tabulating Machine Company." In 1911, he sold this company to a group of investors and it became part of a new company called the "Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company" or "CTR." In 1924, CTR became what now famous company?

Answer: IBM (International Business Machines Corporation)

16.In 1939, Harvard University and IBM enter into an agreement to build a large mechanical calculating machine called the ASCC. What does ASCC stand for?

Answer. Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator

17.In 1939, what German scientist and inventor created the first automatic, program-controlled, fully functional, general purpose digital computer?

Answer: Dr. Konrad Zuse

18.What was his computer called?

Answer: the Z-3 computer

19.This same individual (in question 17) developed the first high-level programming language. What was the language called?

Answer: "Plankalkul."

20.From 1939 to 1945, the Allies were hard at work attempting to break the coded messages sent by the Germans and Japanese during World War II. What now famous English estate was the location of one of the secret code-breaking efforts?

Answer: Bletchley Park, U.K.

21.What was the name of the German cypher machine used in World War II?

Answer: The Enigma

22.What electronic, vacuum-tube based code breaking machine was developed at the Dollis Hill Research Station in 1943?

Answer: The Colossus

23.Both the Americans and the British built electromechanical code-breaking machines during the 1939 to 1945 period. What was the odd name of these machines?

Answer: Bombes

24.In 1939, George Stibitz designed and built an electromechanical calculator using about 450 relays. It was probably the first computing device capable of being operated remotely over a telephone line. What was this machine called?

Answer: The Bell Labs Model 1

25.George Stibitz also designed a general purpose computer that utilized paper tape for programming (around 1943). What was this computer called?

Answer: The Bell Labs Model II

26.J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly designed and built the famous ENIAC machine in 1946. What does ENIAC stand for?

Answer: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

27.Eckert and Mauchly later went on to start the first computer company in the United States. It was originally called the "Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company" but was later purchased by what large company?

Answer: Remington-Rand purchased it in 1950

28.What computer was produced by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly and marketed by Remington-Rand?

Answer: The UNIVAC

29.What famous woman was highly instrumental in the development of many early programming languages and compilers, and who worked for the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company?

Answer: Rear Admiral Grace Hopper

30.Who constructed the "ABC," an early vacuum tube-based computer in 1939-41, at Iowa State University?

Answer: John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry

31.Who founded the Harvard Computational Laboratory and co-authored a paper on the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator" (ASCC)" in 1946?

Answer: Howard Aiken

32.What was the other name for the ASCC?

Answer: The Harvard Mark I

33.Built in 1949, the BINAC was made by the Eckert-Mauchly division of Remington-Rand, and had 700 tubes. What did BINAC stand for?

Answer: Binary Automatic Computer

34.The digital computer that had more vacuum tubes than any other computer ever made was the__________?

Answer: ENIAC (it had 18,000 vacuum tubes)

35.What does IBM stand for?

Answer: International Business Machines Corporation

36.What pre-1940 computer was nicknamed "The Baby?"

Answer: George Stibitz's Bell Labs Model 3 computer It was nicknamed "the baby"since its trouble alarm often went off during the night and woke people up.

37.This project is a multi-million dollar project designed to study artificial intelligence. The Cyc computer contains a massive database of facts and learning programs. It was started in 1984 at Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), an Austin based research consortium of high-tech companies. In 1994, MCC spun off this project on its own. Today, it is one of the largest, continuously running artificial intelligence research projects in existence.

Answer: The Cyc Project

38.The Internet grew out of a project originally funded by this U.S. Government agency.

Answer: ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) -- -- (also known as DARPA)

39.Who invented the CP/M operating system?

Answer: Dr. Gary Kildall

40.MS DOS came mostly from an earlier program called "QDOS." What did QDOS stand for?

Answer: "Quick and Dirty Operating System"

41.Who founded Lotus Development Corporation?

Answer: Mitch Kapor in 1982

42.Who founded Digital Equipment Corporation?

Answer: Kenneth Olsen, along with Stan Olsen and Harland Anderson, left M.I.T.'s Lincoln Labs and founded Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) with $70,000 in capital (1957)

43.Who founded Intel Corporation?

Answer: Robert N. Noyce and Gordon E. Moore, were two of the original 8 founders of Fairchild Semiconductor. In 1968, they became dissatisfied with the direction Fairchild was taking and they decided to start their own company, N M Electronics. Andrew S. Grove, Ph.D., also from Fairchild, soon joined them. It was later changed to INTEL.

44.In January 1977, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and a former marketing manager at Intel and Fairchild Semiconductor incorporated Apple Computer. Who was this third person?

Answer: Armas C. "Mark" Markkula

45.Who founded Atari in 1971?

Answer: Nolan Bushnell

46.This man designed the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine.

Answer: Charles Babbage

47.In 1952, IBM was selected to work with MIT on a proposed government air defense system. It was known as the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment system. In July 1958 it became operational at McGuire Air Force Base. What was this project called for short?

Answer: Project SAGE

48.In 1968, SRI International produced the first complete robot system, -- called__________?

Answer: Shakey

49.This company produced the 816, the first digital microcomputer available for personal use, and the first successful microcomputer kit, the Altair.

Answer: MITS (Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems)

50.The first commercially available microprocessor was the____?

Answer: Intel 4004 (1971)

51.In 1959, Digital Equipment Corporation produced its first minicomputer. What was it called?

Answer: PDP-1 (Programmed Data Processor)

52.What was the first large scale, fully functional, stored-program, electronic digital computer (1949) at Cambridge, England?

Answer: EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer)

53.What was the first real-time processing computer (1946-53) at MIT?

Answer: Whirlwind, built by J. Forrester and others at MIT

54.Who was head of IBM during its big expansion in the computer manufacturing business?

Answer: Thomas Watson, Jr.

55.What was IBM's first electronic computer? (Hint: It was made in 1953.)

Answer: The IBM 701

56.The first U.K. Computer company produced the LEO computer in 1953. The Company was J. Lyons. What was the company's primary line of business?

Answer: J. Lyons was a maker of tea and pastries

57.What does EBCDIC stand for?

Answer: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

58.What does ASCII stand for?

Answer: American Standard Code for Information Interchange

59.Who founded Microsoft Corporation?

Answer: Bill Gates and Paul Allen

60.Who invented the "mouse?" in the early 1960's?

Answer: Dr. Douglas Engelbart

61.What does BASIC stand for?

Answer: Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

62.What does FORTRAN stand for?

Answer: Formula Translator

63.What does COBOL stand for?

Answer: Common Business Oriented Language

64.What personal computer was originally called the "Acorn?"

Answer: The IBM PC

65.Some very early computers (before 1959) used acoustic delay line storage devices, with a specific type of liquid used in acoustic tanks. The liquid was very dense and was used to store vibrations. What liquid was most often used?

Answer: Mercury

66.What was the first commercially available computer that businesses could purchase?

Answer: UNIVAC, 1951

67.Who made the first hand-held, scientific, pocket-calculator?

Answer: Hewlett-Packard, in 1972

68.Who produced the PET microcomputer?

Answer: Commodore Business Machines, in 1977

69.What company was founded by these three men: Edward Roberts, William Yates and Jim Bybee?

Answer: MITS, maker of the Altair

70.IBM introduced removable magnetic disc units for data storage in 1960. These units were called:

Answer: magazines

71.Who developed the first "floppy disks" in 1971?

Answer: Alan Shugart led a team at IBM that developed the 8 inch floppy diskette for data and program storage

72.IBM marketed its first microcomputer in what year?

Answer: in 1975 they marketed the IBM 5100 microcomputer IBM's first marketed personal computer, but it was not successful (in 1981, IBM introduced the IBM PC, which was successful)

73.This company produced the VAX series of processors.

Answer: Digital Equipment Corporation

74.Some early computers (pre-1960) used CRT type devices for memory storage. These devices were named after their inventor. What were they called?

Answer: "Williams Tubes" after F. C. Williams

75.What do ROM and RAM stand for?

Answer: -- ROM = Read-only Memory -- -- RAM = Random Access Memory

76.Tapes and diskettes are magnetic media. CD-ROMs are referred to as ___________ media.

Answer: optical media

77.A digital computer works with data in the form of bits (Binary Digits), which have either an "on" or an "off" condition. An ______________ computer is a device that performs computations using continuous physical variables which are analogs of the actual items being computed. Such computers might, for example, use the continuous rotation of gears or the angular movements of mechanical or electromechanical parts to perform computations. What are these types of computers called?

Answer: Analog computers

78.In a computer, what does CPU stand for?

Answer: Central Processing Unit

79.Computer chips are often made of this common substance, which is a semiconductor material.

Answer: silicon

80.Who founded Apple Computer?

Answer: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniac

81. Who designed the Osborne computer?

Answer: Adam Osborne

82.Who founded Oracle Corporation?

Answer: Larry Ellison

83.Who developed the JAVA language?

Answer: James Gosling

84.Microsoft's Internet Explorer and Netscape's Navigator are two examples of what kind of software?

Answer: Web Browsers

85.The term NOS, in computer terminology, stands for _________ __________ _________.

Answer: Network Operating System

86.This function on the Internet allows one to send or receive files to or from remote computing systems.

Answer: FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

87.At one time, this company was the largest computer company in the world. It was formed from five companies, including Rand Kardex and others.

Answer: Remington Rand Corporation was formed in 1927 from five companies: 1. Remington Standard Typewriter Company 2. Rand Kardex 3. Powers Accounting Machine Company 4. Safe Cabinet Company, and 5. The Dalton Adding Machine Company It later merged with Sperry Corporation to form Sperry-Rand. Prior to 1954, Sperry-Rand was the largest computer company in the world. By the mid-1950's, they lost their lead to IBM and never regained it.

88.John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley are credited with what revolutionary invention in 1947?

Answer: the Transistor

89.Advances in microprocessor technology and computer ship manufacturing processes made possible VLSI. What is VLSI?

Answer: Very Large Scale Integration

90.The SEAC, SWAC, DYSEAC, Pilot Data Processor, FLAC and MIDAC were all computers developed by or with the aid of what U.S. Government Bureau?

Answer: National Bureau of Standards (NBS) (now called NIST)

91.During the 1960's, much research was done into the process of enabling more than one person to use a computer system at one time. Early research in this area was done at MIT, Dartmouth, at the Cambridge office of Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BB&N), and other areas. What was this concept called?

Answer: Time sharing

92.In 1986, Burroughs Corporation merged with Sperry Rand Corporation to form UNISYS, the second largest computer company in the world at that time. What does UNISYS stand for?

Answer: United Systems

93.The HP-35 was the world's first pocket electronic scientific calculator. It was introduced in January 1972 and had the equivalent of 30,000 transistors. It originally sold for _______.

(a) -- Under $99.00 (b) -- $199.95 (c) -- $250.49 (d) -- Over $390.00

Answer: (d) Over $390.00

94.Memphis is the code name for what Microsoft product?

Answer: Windows 98

95.This family of protocols is used on the Internet and is becoming more widely used by businesses and organizations in the design of their internal networks and Intranets. It is known by its five letter acronym. What is it?

Answer: TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

96.Which of these items have been used at one time or another for computer data and program storage: Punched Cards; Punched Paper Tape; Punched Film; Magnetic Cards; Magnetic Tape Magnetic Disk; Magnetic Drum

Answer: All of Them

97.Who made the original 80386, 80486, Pentium and the P6 chips?

Answer: Intel

98. Who makes the 100 Mb Zip disk drive?

Answer: Iomega

99.Who was Bill Gate's partner in forming Microsoft Corporation?

Answer: Paul Allen

100. Who made the first general purpose, program-controlled electronic digital computer?

Answer: Dr. Konrad Zuse's Z3 COMPUTER, designed and built from 1938 to 1941, was the first automatic, program-controlled, fully functional, general purpose digital computer.

101. Decimal is base 10. Binary is base 2. What is base 16?

Answer: Hexadecimal

Please Stop Cruelty against Women

2010-03-23T03:02:00.000-07:00

STOP RAPE NOW !!!

- India has lot many victims of Rape.

- In recent days the Rape cases / incidents have increased.

- The case of Teachers raping their students and taking pictures thru mobile in Patan is still fresh in our minds. What will happen to all such victims who still have not opened their mouths in India??

- The recent case in Surat where a school girl was raped in a moving car, is very shocking and disgusting.

- The girls and women in India are not safe. Who is to provide them the needed safety??

- No one knows how many rape cases are pending in the form of FIRs and Court Cases?

- A question "can a girl / women complain a normal sex/ sex with consent as a case of rape?" Well, the answer is upto the girl / women to have conscience (anthar atma ki awaaj) to tell the truth and not tell lies/ untruth.

- Are the girls and women aware of their rights?

- The girls and women be taught martial arts and self protection techniques my NGOs / women agencies / government since childhood days.

- The girls and women be taught the various laws that govern their human rights by NGOs / women agencies/ government.

- The question asked is "why the girls and women do not take pre-caution by way having some security guard or some trusted male member with them when they go out?" there is no answer to this question.

- The question asked "why the girls and women behave/ dress / present themselves in a manner/ way, that the male boy / man get the thought of rape?" The answer is, every human has a fundamental right to dress the way he or she wants to. Its for the men / boys to have control on their actions, if not, then be prepared/ ready to take the severe punishments.

- There is law to punish the rapists and give justice to rape victims.

- We all have morals and principles in us, we must make the girls/ women/ females aware of the society and the ulterior/ animal/ desirous minds of the boys/ men/ males.

- Like all the men, The Women have Right to Live.

A REQUEST TO THE GOVERNMENT / PEOPLE OF GUJARAT:

"I REQUEST THE GOVERNMENT/ PEOPLE TO PUT A BAN/ STOP ON THE USE OF TWO WHEELERS/ THREE WHEELERS/ FOUR WHEELERS BY THE GIRLS/ BOYS WHO ARE STILL IN SCHOOLS/ UPTO THE SECOND YEAR COLLEGE! THE COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS TO CO-OPERATE IN ASKING THE PARENTS NOT TO SEND THEIR CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS/ COLLEGES IN VEHICLES! EVEN THESE CHILDREN BE NOT ALLOWED TO GO TO TUITIONS IN VEHICLES. THERE MUST BE A ELDER FROM THE FAMILY TO SPECIALLY WITH THE GIRLS. I REQUEST THE PARENTS NOT TO FALL IN FOR THE FOREIGN/ WESTERN CULTURE BY GIVING TO MUCH LIBERTY/ FREEDOM TO THE YOUNGSTERS IN THE NAME OF PARTIES/ OUTINGS/ GET TOGETHERS/ CINEMAS/ PUBS/ CLUBS AT AN AGE WHERE YOU CANNOT CONTROL THEM NOR THEY CAN CONTROL THEM. ' THIS IS A REQUEST."

Can you Forget her face, Now-a-days people don't have any moral values , they makes shy to evil himself. So beware of evil hands, try to keep distance from it.

2010-03-22T00:04:00.000-07:00

Blaise Pascal
Born: 19 June 1623
Birthplace:Clermont-Ferrand, France
Died: 19 August 1662
Best Known As: 17th century mathematical genius
A prodigy in math, Blaise Pascal was a contemporary and rival of René Descartes. In spite of years of ill health and a short life, Pascal accomplished quite a bit: he published a significant work on the geometry of conical sections when he was only sixteen; he invented a calculating machine by the time he was nineteen; he and Pierre de Fermat founded the modern theory of probability; he described the principle that is the basis for the hydraulic press (called Pascal's Law); and he proved that there was a vacuum above the atmosphere. Pascal had a religious conversion in the 1650s and devoted himself to religion instead of science. He is famous for the philosophical theorem known as Pascal's Wager, and for the remark that history would have been different had Cleopatra's nose been differently shaped.
Charles Babbage

(born Dec. 26, 1791, London, Eng. — died Oct. 18, 1871, London) British mathematician and inventor. Educated at Cambridge University, he devoted himself from about 1812 to devising machines capable of calculating mathematical tables. His first small calculator could perform certain computations to eight decimals. In 1823 he obtained government support for the design of a projected machine with a 20-decimal capacity. In the 1830s he developed plans for the so-called Analytical Engine, capable of performing any arithmetical operation on the basis of instructions from punched cards, a memory unit in which to store numbers, sequential control, and most of the other basic elements of the present-day computer. The forerunner of the modern digital computer, the Analytical Engine was never completed. In 1991 British scientists built Difference Engine No. 2 (accurate to 31 digits) to Babbage's specifications. His other contributions included establishing the modern postal system in England, compiling the first reliable actuarial tables, and inventing the locomotive cowcatcher.
Born: 26 December 1792
Birthplace: Teignmouth, Devonshire, England
Died: 18 October 1871
Best Known As: Inventor of the Difference Engine
Charles Babbage was a 19th century mathematician and inventor whose calculating machines earned him a top spot in the history of mechanical computing. Babbage's early career was devoted to practical applied science, particularly in manufacturing. But he is most famous for his work on what he called the Difference Engine and, later, the Analytical Engine. As early as 1822 he speculated that a machine could be used to compute complex mathematical problems and calculate and correct errors in logarithm tables and astronomical charts. He obtained government grants and began work on the Difference Engine, only to decide later that it would be easier to scrap the work and start fresh on a new idea, the Analytical Engine. The British government withdrew funding in 1842 and stuck the incomplete Difference Engine in the Science Museum, where it still sits. Babbage, using his own money, spent the rest of his life working on the Analytical Engine, but never finished it. He was assisted by Lord Byron's daughter, Ada Augusta, the countess of Lovelace and an amateur mathematician. In spite of his failure to completely develop a working machine, Babbage (and Lady Lovelace) are legendary heroes in the prehistory of the computing age; he is sometimes called "the grandfather of modern computing."

Ada King countess of Lovelace
(born Dec. 10, 1815, London, Eng. — died Nov. 29, 1852, London) English mathematician. Her father was the poet Lord Byron. In 1835 she married William King, 8th Baron King; when he was created an earl in 1838, she became countess of Lovelace. Having studied with the famous mathematician-logician Augustus De Morgan, she was introduced to Charles Babbage's Difference Engine (calculator) and studied plans for his Analytical Engine (computer) as early as 1833. In 1843 she translated and annotated an article about the Analytical Engine by Italian mathematician Luigi Federico Menabrea. In correspondence with Babbage, she also described how the Analytical Engine could be "programmed" to calculate certain numbers; this work has been called the first computer program, and in consequence she has been called the first computer programmer. Ada, a computer programming language, is named for her.
Lovelace was fascinated by Charles Babbage's idea for a new mechanical calculating machine, the Difference Engine. In 1842 Luigi F. Menabrea [b. Chambéry, Savoy, France, September 4, 1809, d. St Cassin, France, May 24, 1896] summarized the concept behind Babbage's more advanced calculating machine, the Analytical Engine. Lovelace translated Menabrea's article into English and added her own notes as well as diagrams and other information. She predicted that such a machine, which Babbage never built, would have many applications beyond arithmetic calculations, from scientific research to composing music and producing graphics. She explained how the machine might be instructed to perform a series of calculations. The programming language ADA is named for her, although the countess has only a slender claim to the frequently used label of "first programmer." But she really did write a program, one for calculating Bernoulli numbers--not a mean feat.

Herman Hollerith

(born Feb. 29, 1860, Buffalo, N.Y., U.S. — died Nov. 17, 1929, Washington, D.C.) U.S. inventor. He attended Columbia University's School of Mines and later assisted in the 1880 U.S. census. By the time of the 1890 census, he had invented machines to record statistics by electrically reading and sorting punched cards, and the census results were consequently obtained in one-third the time required in 1880. In 1896 he founded the Tabulating Machine Co., which later became IBM Corp.Hollerith's electromechanical sensing and punching devices were forerunners of the input/output units of later computers.

He was a German-American statistician who developed a mechanical tabulator based on punched cards to rapidly tabulate statistics from millions of pieces of data. He was the founder of the company that became IBM.
Hollerith punched card
Personal life

Hollerith was born in Buffalo, New York, where he spent his early childhood. He entered the City College of New York in 1875 and graduated from the Columbia University School of Mines with an "Engineer of Mines" degree in 1879. In 1880 he listed himself as a mining engineer while living in Manhattan, and completed his Ph.D. in 1890 at Columbia University. Despite his time in New York City, Herman Hollerith lived most of his life in Buffalo.

John Vincent Atanasoff

(born Oct. 4, 1903, Hamilton, N.Y., U.S. — died June 15, 1995, Frederick, Md.) U.S. physicist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. With Clifford Berry, he developed the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1937 – 42), a machine capable of solving differential equations using binary arithmetic. In 1941 he joined the Naval Ordnance Laboratory; he participated in the atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll (1946). In 1952 he established the Ordnance Engineering Co., which he later sold to Aerojet Engineering Corp. In 1973, after a judge voided a patent owned by Sperry Rand Corp. on ENIAC, the Atanasoff-Berry Computer was credited as the first electronic digital computer

1997 replica of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer at Durham Center, Iowa State University

George Robert Stibitz
(April 20, 1904 – January 31, 1995) is internationally recognized as one of the fathers of the modern digital computer. He was a Bell Labs researcher known for his 1930s and 1940s work on the realization ofBoolean logic digital circuits using electromechanical relays as the switching element.
Born in York, Pennsylvania, he received his bachelor's degreefrom Denison University in Granville, Ohio, his master's degree from Union College in 1927, and his Ph.D. in mathematical physics in 1930 from Cornell University.
In 1940 he and Samuel Williams, a colleague at Bell Labs, built the Complex Number Calculator, considered a forerunner of the digital computer. He accomplished the first remote computer operation by inputting problems via a teleprinter, and he pioneered computer applications in biomedical areas, such as the movement of oxygen in the lungs, brain cell structure, diffusion of nutrients and drugs in the body, and capillary transport. The holder of 38 patents, he was inducted into the Inventors Hall of Fame in 1983.

Richard Wesley Hamming

(Chicago, February 11, 1915 –Monterey, California, January 7, 1998) was an Americanmathematician whose work had many implications for computer science and telecommunications. His contributions include the Hamming code (which makes use of a Hamming matrix), the Hamming window (described in Section 5.8 of his book Digital Filters), Hamming numbers, Sphere-packing (orhamming bound) and the Hamming distance.
He received his bachelor's degree from the University of Chicago in 1937, a master's degree from theUniversity of Nebraska in 1939, and finally a Ph.D. from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1942. He was a professor at theUniversity of Louisville during World War II, and left to work on theManhattan Project in 1945, programming one of the earliest electronic digital computers to calculate the solution to equations provided by the project's physicists. The objective of the program was to discover if the detonation of anatomic bomb would ignite theatmosphere. The result of the computation was that this would not occur, and so the United Statesused the bomb, first in a test inNew Mexico, and then twice againstJapan.
Later, from 1946 to 1976, he worked at the Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he collaborated with Claude E. Shannon. During this period, he was an Adjunct Professor at the City College of New York, School of Engineering. On July 23, 1976 he moved to the Naval Postgraduate School, where he worked as an Adjunct Professor until 1997, when he became Professor Emeritus.
He was a founder and president of the Association for Computing Machinery. His philosophy on scientific computing appears as preface to his 1962 book on numerical methods:

Dr. Douglas C. Engelbart
(born January 30, 1925) is an American inventor and early computer pioneer.
He invented hypertext, the multiwindow display, the mouse, and groupware. His demonstration of these capabilities in San Francisco in 1968 started the process of development that led to the MicrosoftWindows operating system. Engelbart's group at SRI was one of the original four members of the ARPANET, precursor of the Internet. After his retirement, he led the Bootstrap Institute, researching ways to support cooperative work by computers. In 1997 he received the Turing Award.

He is best known for inventing the computer mouse, as a pioneer of human-computer interaction whose team developed hypertext, networked computers, and precursors to GUIs; and as a committed and vocal proponent of the development and use of computers and networks to help cope with the world’s increasingly urgent and complex problems.

His lab at SRI was responsible for more breakthrough innovation than possibly any other lab before or since. Engelbart had embedded in his lab a set of organizing principles, which he termed his "bootstrapping strategy", which he specifically designed to bootstrap and accelerate the rate of innovation achievable.

John McCarthy

(born September 4, 1927, in Boston,Massachusetts), is an American computer scientist and cognitive scientist who received the Turing Award in 1971 for his major contributions to the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI). He was responsible for the coining of the term "Artificial Intelligence" in his 1955 proposal for the 1956 Dartmouth Conference and is the inventor of the Lisp programming language. He also developed ideas about the processing characteristics of trees (as used in computing), as distinct from nets. He is a recipient of the Kyoto Prize (1988), and the National Medal of Science (1990).

Seymour Roger Cray

(September 28, 1925 – October 5, 1996) was an U.S. electrical engineer and supercomputer architect who designed a series of computers that were the fastest in the world for decades, and founded the company Cray Research which would build many of these machines. Called "the father of supercomputing," Cray has been credited with creating the supercomputer industry. Joel Birnbaum, then CTO of HP, said of him:
“ It seems impossible to exaggerate the effect he had on the industry; many of the things that high performance computers now do routinely were at the farthest edge of credibility when Seymour envisioned them.

”
He worked in the 1950s on the UNIVAC I, a landmark first-generation digital computer, and he led the design of the world's first transistor-based computer (the CDC 1604). In 1972 he founded Cray Research, Inc., and there built the fastest and most powerful supercomputers in the world, using his innovative multiprocessing design. The Cray-2 (1985) could perform 1.2 billion calculations per second, an incredible pace in its day.

Charles Bachman
was born in Manhattan, Kansas in 1924, while his father, Charlie Bachman, was the head football coach at Kansas State College. Bachman attended high school in East Lansing, Michigan before joining the U.S. Army Anti-Aircraft Artillery Corps during World War II. During the war, he spent two years in the Southwest Pacific Theater, March 1944 through February 1946 in New Guinea, Australia and the Philippine Islands. Here he was first exposed to and used fire control computers for aiming 90 mm guns. After his discharge from the military, he attendedMichigan State College and graduated in 1948 with a bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering (Tau Beta Phi). In 1950 he graduated with a master's degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Pennsylvania. At the same time he had attended Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania and completed three quarters of the requirements for an MBA.^[1]
Bachman spent his entire career as practising software engineer rather than in academia. Initially starting work in 1950 at Dow Chemical in Midland, Michigan, he rose to the position of Data Processing manager before leaving in 1960 to join General Electric, where he developed theIntegrated Data Store (IDS), one of the first database management systems. Working in conjunction with Weyerhaeuser Lumber, he developed the first multiprogramming access to the IDS database. Later at GE he developed the "dataBasic" product that offered database support to the Basic Language timesharing users. Later in his career, he joined a smaller firm, Cullinane Information Systems (later called Cullinet), which offered a version of IDS that was called IDMSand supported the IBM mainframes.
He received the ACM Turing Award in 1973 for "his outstanding contributions to database technology". He was elected as a Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society in 1977 for his pioneering work in database systems. He is listed in the Database Hall of Fame.
Bachman papers^[2] from 1951 to 2007 are collected at the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. This collection contains detailed archival material describing database software development. Includes documentation on Dow Chemical (1951-1960), General Electric (1960-1970), Honeywell Information Systems (1970-1981), Cullinane Database Systems/Cullinet (1972-1986), Bachman Information Systems, Inc. (1982-1996) as well as several professional organizations.

Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie

Dennis Ritchie (right)
Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie
(born September 9, 1941) is an American computer scientist notable for his influence on C and otherprogramming languages, and on operating systemssuch as Multics and Unix. He received the Turing Award in 1983 and the National Medal of Technology in 1998. Ritchie was the head of Lucent Technologies System Software Research Department when he retired in 2007

Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie was Born in Bronxville, New York, Ritchie graduated fromHarvard University with degrees in physics andapplied mathematics. In 1967, he began working at the Bell Labs Computing Sciences Research Center.

Ivan Edward Sutherland
(born 1938 in Hastings,Nebraska) is an American computer scientist andInternet pioneer. He received the Turing Award from the Association for Computing Machinery in 1988 for the invention of Sketchpad, an early predecessor to the sort of graphical user interface that has become ubiquitous in personal computers.

From 1968 to 1974, Sutherland was a professor at the University of Utah. Among his students there were Alan Kay, inventor of the Smalltalk language, Henri Gouraud who devised theGouraud shading technique, and Frank Crow, who went on to develop antialiasing methods.
In 1968 he co-founded Evans and Sutherland with his friend and colleague David Evans. The company has done pioneering work in the field of real-time hardware, accelerated 3D computer graphics, and printer languages. Former employees of Evans and Sutherland included the future founders of Adobe (John Warnock) and Silicon Graphics (Jim Clark).
From 1974 to 1978 he was the Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science at California Institute of Technology, where he was the founding head of that school's Computer Science department. He then founded a consulting firm, Sutherland, Sproull and Associates, which was purchased by Sun Microsystems to form the seed of its research division, Sun Labs.
Dr. Sutherland is currently a Fellow and Vice President emeritus at Sun Microsystems and is a visiting scholar in the Computer Science Division at University of California, Berkeley (Fall 2005 - Spring 2008). Currently, Dr. Sutherland is also leading the research in Asynchronous Systems atPortland State University and has founded Asynchronous Research Center (ARC) at Portland State University.
Edward Albert Feigenbaum
(born January 20, 1936; Weehawken, New Jersey) is a computer scientist working in the field of artificial intelligence. He is often called the "father of expert systems."
Feigenbaum completed his undergraduate degree, and a Ph.D., at Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University). In his PhD thesis, carried out under the supervision of Herbert Simon, he developed EPAM, one of the first computer models of how people learn.
He received the ACM Turing Award, the most prestigious award in computer science, jointly withRaj Reddy in 1994 "For pioneering the design and construction of large scale artificial intelligence systems, demonstrating the practical importance and potential commercial impact of artificial intelligence technology". A former chief scientist of the Air Force, he received the U.S. Air Force Exceptional Civilian Service Award in 1997. In 2007 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.
He founded the Knowledge Systems Laboratory at Stanford University. He is currently a Professor Emeritus of Computer Science at Stanford University.
He was co-founder of several start-ups, such as IntelliCorp and Teknowledge.

Edgar Frank "Ted" Codd
(August 23, 1923 – April 18, 2003) was a British computer scientist who, while working for IBM, invented the relational modelfor database management, the theoretical basis forrelational databases. He made other valuable contributions to computer science, but the relational model, a very influential general theory of data management, remains his most mentioned achievement.

Edgar Frank Codd was born on the Isle of Portlandin England. After attending Poole Grammar School, he studied mathematics and chemistry at Exeter College, Oxford, before serving as a pilot in theRoyal Air Force during the Second World War. In 1948, he moved to New York to work for IBM as a mathematical programmer. In 1953, angered by Senator Joseph McCarthy, Codd moved to Ottawa, Canada. A decade later he returned to theU.S. and received his doctorate in computer science from the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Two years later he moved to San Jose, California, to work at IBM's San Jose Research Laboratory, where he continued to work until the 1980s. During the 1990s, his health deteriorated and he ceased work.
Codd received the Turing Award in 1981, and in 1994 he was inducted as a Fellow of theAssociation for Computing Machinery.
Codd died of heart failure at his home in Williams Island, Florida, at the age of 79 on April 18, 2003.
^{Marc Andreessen}
Born: 9 July 1971
Birthplace: Cedar Falls, Iowa
Best Known As: Creator of the Netscape web browser
Marc Andreessen was the co-founder and chief technical mind behind the Internet company Netscape. Andreessen was still a student researcher at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1993 when he helped conceive and create the first popular Internet browser, known as Mosaic. After graduation he moved to California and soon teamed with former Silicon Graphics founder James Clark to found Netscape. Andreessen was just 22 years old. The company released its first browser, Netscape Navigator, in December of 1994. Netscape held its intial public offering on 9 August 1995, and the stock jumped from an opening price of $28 to an astounding closing price of $58 on the first day. (Netscape's IPO effectively kicked off the dot-com stock boom of the late 1990s.) By the end of 1995, Andreessen was worth over $170 million and had become the very model of the ascendant techno-geek; Business Week magazine later called him a "hamburger-chomping pop icon for the cyber generation." Andreessen continued at Netscape as Chief Technical Officer (CTO) and then served as their executive vice president of products until America Online (AOL) acquired the company in 1999. Andreessen was briefly the CTO of AOL, but left later in 1999 to create Loudcloud, a web services firm. The company name was changed to Opsware in 2002, with Andreessen continuing as its chairman.
Andreessen grew up in New Lisbon, Wisconsin, where his mother worked for the clothing company Land's End.
Jon Postel

Jonathan Bruce Postel
(August 6, 1943 – October 16, 1998) made many significant contributions to the development of the Internet, particularly with respect to standards. He is known principally for being the Editor of the Request for Comment (RFC) document series, and for administering the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority until his death. The Internet Society's Postel Award is named in his honor, as is the Postel Center at Information Sciences Institute. His obituary was written by Vint Cerfand published as RFC 2468 in remembrance of Postel and his work.

Postel attended UCLA where he earned his B.S. (1966) as well as his M.A (1968) in Engineering. Attending UCLA, he completed his Ph.D. in Computer Science in 1974.
While at UCLA, he was involved in early work on the ARPANET; he later moved to the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California, where he spent the rest of his career.
Postel was the RFC Editor from 1969 until his death, and wrote and edited many important RFCs, including RFCs 791-793, which define the basic protocols of the Internet protocol suite, and RFC 2223, Instructions to RFC Authors. He wrote or co-authored more than 200 RFCs.
Postel served on the Internet Architecture Board and its predecessors for many years. He was the Director of the names and number assignment clearinghouse, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), from its inception. He was the first member of the Internet Society, and was on the Board of Trustees of the Internet Society. He was the original and long-time .us Top-Level Domain administrator. He also managed the Los Nettos Network.
All of the above were part-time activities he assumed in conjunction with his primary position as Director of the Computer Networks Division ("Division 7") of the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California.
On January 28, 1998, Postel, on his own authority, emailed eight of the twelve operators of Internet's regional root nameservers and instructed them to change the root zone server from then SAIC subsidiary Network Solutions (NSI)'s A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. (198.41.0.4) to DNSROOT.IANA.ORG (198.32.1.98). The operators complied with Postel's instructions, thus dividing control of Internet naming between IANA and the four remaining U.S. Government roots at NASA, the .mil server, BRL and NSI. He soon received a telephone call from a furious Ira Magaziner, President Clinton's senior science advisor, who instructed him to undo this change - which he did. Within a week, the US NTIA issued its "Green Paper" asserting the US government's definitive authority over the Internet DNS root zone.
Postel died of complications after heart valve replacement surgery in Los Angeles, on October 16, 1998, 9 months after the DNS Root Authority incident.

Steve Jobs
Born: 24 February 1955
Birthplace: San Francisco, California
Best Known As: The co-founder of Apple computers
Steve Jobs was a college dropout when he teamed up with Steve Wozniak in 1976 to sell personal computers assembled in Jobs' garage. That was the beginning of Apple Computers, which revolutionized the computing industry and made Jobs a multimillionaire before he was 30 years old. He was forced out of the company in 1985 and started the NeXT Corporation, but returned to his old company in 1996 when Apple bought NeXT. Jobs soon became Apple's chief executive officer and sparked a resurgence in the company with products like the colorful iMac computer and the iPod music player. Jobs is also the CEO of Pixar, the animation company responsible for movies like Toy Story and Monsters, Inc. Pixar was purchased by the Walt Disney Company in 2006 for $7.4 billion in stock; the deal made Jobs the largest individual shareholder of Disney stock. Jobs was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in 2003 and had surgery in July of 2004, and was criticized by some for not disclosing his illness to stockholders until after the fact. His health was in the news again in 2008, when his extreme weight loss sparked rumors that his cancer had recurred. Jobs refused to speak publicly about his health, but in January of 2009 he took a formal six-month leave of absence from Apple, saying that his health problems were "more complex than I originally thought." He had a liver transplant later that year and returned to work at Apple on a part-time basis in June of 2009.
Some sources list Los Altos, California as Jobs's place of birth. However, in a 1995 oral history interview with The Smithsonian, Jobs said, "I was born in San Francisco, California, USA, planet Earth, February 24, 1955." Jobs was given up for adoption after birth and raised by his adoptive parents in Silicon Valley.

Tim Berners-Lee
Born: 8 June 1955
Birthplace: London, England
Best Known As: Inventor of the World Wide Web
British physicist. The son of computer scientists, he graduated from Oxford University and in 1980 accepted a fellowship at CERN in Geneva. In 1989 he suggested a global hypertext project. He and his CERN colleagues created a communications protocol called HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) that standardized communication between computer servers and clients. Their text-based Web browser was released to the public in 1991, marking the beginnings of the World Wide Web and general public use of the Internet. Berners-Lee declined all opportunities to profit from his immensely valuable innovation. In 1994 he joined MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science as director of the World Wide Web Consortium. His numerous honours include the inaugural Millennium Technology Prize (2004) and the Charles Stark Draper Prize (2007). He was knighted in 2004.
Tim Berners-Lee is the primary inventor of the World Wide Web, the system of text links and multimedia capabilities that made the Internet accessible to mass audiences. Lee wrote the original Web software himself in 1990 and made it available on the Internet in 1991. He joined MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science in 1994 and remains a leading authority on Internet issues. His 1999 book Weaving the Web described the Web's birth and growth. In 2003, Queen Elizabeth II announced that Berners-Lee would be made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) for his work on the Web.
In 2004, Berners-Lee was awarded the first Millennium Technology Prize, a Finland-based award for excellence which carries a cash prize of one million Euros.

Linus Torvalds
Born: 28 December 1969
Birthplace: Helsinki, Finland
Best Known As: The guy who wrote the kernel for the Linux Operating System
1969-, Finnish computer software engineer. A member of Finland's Swedish-speaking minority, he attended the Univ. of Helsinki (M.S., 1996), where he also taught. In the early 1990s he began working on a Unix-like operating system for personal computers built with Intel microprocessors, leading to the release of version 1.0 of the Linux kernel in 1994. Together with other free software developed under the GNU public license, Linux has become the core of a stable, graphical operating system that has been freely installed and improved by millions of computer users looking for an alternative to systems developed by Microsoft, Apple, and other companies. From 1997 to 2003 Torvalds worked at Transmeta Corp. in California as a software developer while continuing to supervise the development of the Linux kernel. In 2003 he became a fellow at Open Source Development Labs (OSDL), a Linux-development consortium in Beaverton, Oreg.; OSDL was merged in 2007 into the Linux Foundation (est. 2007), which now sponsors his work.
In 1991 Linus Torvalds was a college student at the University of Helsinki. Starting with the basics of a Unix system, he wrote the kernel -- original code -- for a new system for his x86 PC that was later dubbed Linux (pronounced linn-ucks). Torvalds revealed the original source code for free -- making him a folk hero among programmers -- and users around the world began making additions and now continue to tweak it. Linux is considered the leader in the practice of allowing users to re-program their own operating systems.

Richard Matthew Stallman
(born March 16, 1953), often abbreviated "rms",is an American softwarefreedom activist, and computer programmer. In September 1983, he launched the GNU Project to create a free Unix-like operating system, and has been the project's lead architect and organizer. With the launch of the GNU Project, he initiated the free software movement and, in October 1985, set up theFree Software Foundation.
Stallman pioneered the concept of copyleft and he is the main author of several copyleft licenses including the GNU General Public License, the most widely used free software license. Since the mid-1990s, Stallman has spent most of his time advocating for free software, as well as campaigning against bothsoftware patents and what he sees as excessive extension of copyright laws. Stallman has also developed a number of pieces of widely-used software, including the original Emacs, the GNU Compiler Collection, and the GNU Debugger. He co-founded the League for Programming Freedom in 1989.

Bill Gates

Born: 28 October 1955
Birthplace: Seattle, Washington
Best Known As: Founder of the Microsoft Corporation
Name at birth: William Gates III
Bill Gates is the head of the software company Microsoft and is one of the world's wealthiest men. Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft in the 1970s, though Allen left the company in 1983. Gates oversaw the invention and marketing of the MS-DOS operating system, the Windows operating interface, the Internet Explorer browser, and a multitude of other popular computer products. Along the way he gained a reputation for fierce competitiveness and aggressive business savvy. During the 1990s rising Microsoft stock prices made Gates the world's wealthiest man; his wealth has at times exceeded $75 billion, making Gates a popular symbol of the ascendant computer geek of the late 20th century. In June of 2006, Gates announced that he would step down from day-to-day involvement in Microsoft by July of 2008. He said he would then remain chairman of the Microsoft board while focusing on his charitable foundation, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
Gates married Melinda French, a Microsoft employee, on 1 January 1994. The couple have three children: daughters Jennifer Katharine (b. 1996) and Phoebe Adele (b. 2002) and son Rory John (b. 1999)... Gates's personal charitable initiative, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, has focused on global health issues, especially on preventing malaria and AIDS in poor countries... For their philanthropic activities, Time magazine named Bill and Melinda Gates (along with rock star and activist Bono) its Persons of the Year for 2005.

Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie
Dennis Ritchie (right)

Google Buzz to compete with Facebook, Twitter supremacy

2010-03-20T08:37:00.000-07:00

Google Inc, the search giant has introduced a new social feature on February 9, called Google Buzz, which is integrated with the company’s web-based email services, Gmail. With the new feature, users can share links and messages show up in the user's inbox. It integrates pictures, videos, and links as the part of the "conversations" aspects of Gmail like conversation threading.

However, Google is presenting the app as an enterprise tool and will challenge Facebook and Twitter. But, there are lots of security and privacy concerns related to social networking and also with ‘Buzz’. According to various analysts, Buzz is the combination of good ideas and bad implementation and therefore requires refining before it can be a serious competitor in the world of Twitter and Facebook.

Here, the feature discusses about the features of the app and criticize for its loopholes.

Google Buzz: Features

If you log into Gmail, you will be welcomed with a splash page introducing Google Buzz. The new app comes with auto-following, rich & fast sharing experience, public & private sharing, inbox integration and offers links to websites and their contents like Picasa and Flickr.

Google Buzz presents thumbnails of pictures from sites like Picasa and Flickr. Users can easily browse and watch the images and other messages. Further, the app uses similar keyboard shortcuts as Gmail. Users can mark public and private settings for different posts or can even post updates to specific contact groups.

Picasa, Flickr, Google Reader, YouTube, Blogger, and Twitter are presently integrated in the Buzz.

Mobile versions

Users can access buzz on their mobile through three ways, which include Google Mobile’s website directly, Buzz.Google.com (iPhone and Android) and Google Mobile Maps. Users can also report the present location of the user. However, unlike Google latitude, it does not permit users to manually specify an arbitrary location. In the app, users can posts text messages as well as upload pictures through their mobile, which should have support of Android 2.0+, iPhone/iPod Touch, Windows Mobile, and S60 platform.

Recent criticism: Privacy issues

Google Buzz has created a buzz in the market with its commanding social features. The company has already running a social website, called Orkut, which is quite successful in Brazil and India. But, the Buzz has invited a lot of complains from the users who did not like the idea of sharing contacts with other users.

Initially, the app discloses all the Gmail contacts by default and also showed how frequently a person emailed someone else or chatted with. Through the feature, users could reveal their sensitive information to others unknowingly. Further, it is suggested that people would know the user's exact location when they post a message to the service via their mobile.

Google addresses the issues

It is reported that Google is planning to offer the stand-alone version for Buzz. Now users would be able to make use of Buzz without integrating it into the mailing solution, Gmail. Now onwards, the company added that there would be no auto-following, but it will merely suggest people you could follow, what it calls auto-suggest. The move comes as a breather for those who were fighting for the privacy concerns.

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