Access white papers on transformers for various industries http://www.pacificcresttrans.com/resource-center/white-papers.html en Copyright 2009 - Pacific Crest Transformers 29 Apr 2011 19:44:15 -0700 http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=26 Wind Turbine Step-up Transformers that boost turbine outputs from a few hundred volts to medium voltage distribution levels are failing at an alarming rate. This trend affects both liquid filled and dry type transformers. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the most likely causes of wind turbine step-up transformer failures experienced by developers and operators of utility scale, wind farm projects throughout the industry. Further, this paper will illustrate that wind turbine step-up transformers are unique enough in their requirements that conventional distribution transformers are not optimally suitable for this application. INTRODUCTION Since the earliest of times, mankind has harnessed the power of wind to perform work. Ancient explorers and seafarers were the first to recognize that by capturing the wind they could expand their horizons and extend their known trade routes into heretofore unimaginable and distant places. Those who stayed at home also used this new technology to do difficult, heavy and arduous work. The first known application was in Persia between 500 and 900 AD where vertical axis wind mills were developed to grind grain and pump water. Since this was an adaption of the mariner's sails, the blades for the first mills used a similar construction. This was such a giant leap in technology that it spread throughout the known world and in 1219 AD the first documented wind mill was operating in China . Early agrarian projects in Crete demonstrated that when combined with other mills large irritation projects were possible. By the 14 th century, the Dutch were using wind powered pumps to drain water from the lowlands of the Rhine River delta. In modern times windmills, or turbines, are used primarily for generating electrical energy. The first wind powered generators usually served a local need, often supplying power for isolated equipment. However, today wind generated electrical energy provides a few percent of the United States ' national energy needs with plans to reach 20% in the near future. For this growth to happen, the power output from wind turbines needs to be gathered, stepped up to transmission voltage levels and passed across the nation's interconnected power grid to the end users. Large scale wind farms, with many wind turbines connected together, are becoming a common sight in our 21 st century world. We are bombarded with images of wind turbines in all forms of print, broadcast and electronic media. The present expansion of wind farms is similar to the meteoric growth of Co-Generation plants a few decades ago. Unfortunately, this rush to install wind turbines has outstripped the usual equipment developmental learning curve, one in which new technologies mature by trial and error and equipment is developed over time that is well suited for the job at hand. In this modern day land rush to cash-in on wind energy, developers are often opting for lowest initial equipment cost rather than considering total cost of ownership. The failure of inappropriately specified equipment raises the cost of ownership and this cost is borne by the wind turbine owners and operators rather than the original developers. Nowhere is this more evident than in the wind turbine generator step-up transformers. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=25 The US is gradually realizing that fossil fuel is no longer a viable energy option, not just due to its impact on the environment, but the economy as well. According to the Environmental Law Institute, subsidies for fossil fuel, from 2002 to 2008, totaled a whooping $72 billion. With the US economy deeply dependent on fossil fuel, moving towards cleaner, cost effective and sustainable renewable energy sources can be challenging. Most of the states in the US have set themselves ambitious Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) for the next 10 15 years and headlines like "Colorado Shoots for 30% Renewable Energy by 2020" are heartening. But what does this mean for the industry? Industry needs reliable and affordable energy to stay productive and competitive. At the same time, it needs to balance between its growing demand for energy and the urgent need to protect the environment. Industry accounts for more than a third of total energy consumption in the US, and 70% -80% of this sector's energy demand is for heat production. Given the current concerns of global warming, environmental pollution, energy security and industrial competitiveness, there is increasing pressure on industry to use modern, clean and efficient sources of energy. Till 2007, just 8.5% of the total energy demand in the US was fulfilled from renewable energy sources. However solar, wind and biomass-based technologies have shown considerable potential and are waiting to be tapped not just for domestic use but industrial energy purposes as well. This whitepaper considers the feasibility of three different types of alternate energy sources, namely, solar, wind and geothermal. It then looks at infrastructure requirements that will make large scale use of renewable energy possible, namely, energy storage systems, smart grid, smart meters and energy efficient transformers. The whitepaper also looks at Pacific Crest Transformer's offerings for the renewable energy sector. Besides acknowledging a range of energy efficient transformer products from Pacific Crest Transformers, the whitepaper particularly dwells on offering for the wind energy sector. Introduction Energy is the largest industry in the world. It fuels both the manufacturing and service sector and is estimated to be about $ 7 trillion TWh in size. The US produced and consumed 4274 TWh of energy in 2006 alone. Industry consumed 32.3 trillion Btus of the total US energy use, while the generation of electricity used 40 trillion Btu. Not surprisingly, almost 75% of energy consumed in the US comes from fossil fuel. The fallout of excessive dependence on fossil fuel for energy is having an impact on the environment and people alike. With growing acknowledgement of the negative effects of the use of fossil fuel, research and development in the renewable energy sector is getting some serious attention. According to market studies, investment in renewable energy is growing at 45% a year essentially doubling every two years. It is expected that energy generated from alternate sources will become cost competitive compared to energy generated from fossil fuel, especially with the costs of pollution from fossil fuels factored in. This is increasingly becoming the case with the tax on CO2 production. The cost of alternate energy has been declining, for example the cost of energy from solar photo voltaic cells was about $2 per KWh in 1980 but has come down to about 25 US cents per KWh today. In case of wind energy, costs have dropped from 35 cents per KWh in 1980 to about 8 cents per KWh in 2009. Despite the thrust towards alternative energy, U.S used renewable energy sources such as water, geothermal, wind, sun, and biomass to meet just 8.5% of its total energy needs in 2007. The Energy Information Administration (EIA) however projects that electricity generated from renewable sources will account for as much as 15.8% of total electricity generation in the U.S. by 2030. This growth from 8.5% in 2007 to 15.8% in 2030 is to be propelled by extension of Federal tax credits and new loan guarantee programs in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of 2009. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=24 The United States has a sizable Heavy Industry and it plays an important role in the economy. Unfortunately, the Heavy Industry is highly dependent on the expensive and difficult to procure fossil fuel. The industrial sector in the U.S. consumes about a third of the energy produced in the country. This amounts to a whopping 30 quadrillion BTUs per year and includes losses in transmission. The manufacturing sector accounts for most of the industrial demand, where energy is used as both fuel and feedstock. As energy prices rise world-wide, manufacturers with energy intensive processes are responding by increasing the efficiency of their operations and even shifting a proportion of their energy intensive processes outside the country. Even with growing efficiency in the production process, the U.S. Heavy Industry struggles to remain globally competitive. Relying excessively on natural gas for power generation adds to the energy supply demand imbalance, exacerbates already high volatility in price, and impacts cost of energy intensive manufacturing. This whitepaper takes a look at the energy consumption of the Heavy Industry, especially industries like chemical, iron and steel, paper and pulp, and mining. It tries to find answers in energy efficiency, particularly energy efficient transformers. The whitepaper notes the legislative compulsion for energy efficient transformers and analyzes the cost advantage. The whitepaper then looks at Pacific Crest Transformers offerings in this scenario of raising energy costs and notes how Pacific Crest Transformers with nearly a century of experience is probably one of the few companies with the largest domain expertise in manufacturing customized, environmentally friendly, energy efficient transformers. Introduction 'Heavy Industry' is a rather amorphous term. According to Wikipedia, Heavy Industry signifies the production of goods that are either heavy in weight or in the processes leading to their production. Examples of such industries include steel, chemical, mining, and construction equipment, machinery. The United States is the largest consumer of energy in the world, using 94.9 quadrillion BTUs in 2009 and heavy industry in the United States accounts for about 31% of all energy consumption, significantly more than any other sector of the economy. Seven energy-intensive industries use three-fourths of this power; these are aluminum, chemicals, forest products, glass, metal casting, mining, and steel. All these heavy industries are also under tremendous pressure to reduce their huge dependence on expensive non renewable energy. But does the Heavy Industry have to carry the dubious record of being the highest energy consumer in the country? A recent study by the European Commission thinks not. The study estimates that the United States has the potential to save about 45 TWh energy per year, through use of energy efficient transformers. Even a 0.01 percent gain in the average efficiency of utility transformers installed in the U.S. in a single year, can save as much as 2.9 Twh energy. The environmental benefits of energy-efficient transformers are also significant and the study by the European Commission believes transformers could well emerge as a major focus for energy efficient initiatives in the industry. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=23 The steel industry is undoubtedly an important contributor to the US economy. However this industry has one major drawback, its heavy reliance on energy. The highest geographic concentration of steel mills in the US is in the Great Lakes region, including Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and New York, and it is these states that would benefit the most if the steel industry becomes energy efficient. Though the steel industry consumes close to 1.5 quads/year of energy it has also been technologically improving to become energy efficient. In the last decade alone it has made great strides in this direction. But is the reduction in energy demand adequate? Most would think not, and that's what caused the slew of legislations, including making it mandatory for companies to install energy efficient transformers. Increasing costs of energy, need to stay competitive, and pressure from government to cut down greenhouse gas emissions, has led the steel industry to explore ways to reduce its demand for energy. This Whitepaper focuses on one way which is widely ignored as a cost effective method to reduce energy consumption in the industry, namely, the use of energy efficient transformers. Due to its unique production methodology, the steel industry often requires customized transformers. Companies now have to choose between cheaper, less efficient transformers and expensive, more efficient transformers. This Whitepaper notes that while the initial cost of energy efficient transformers is more, it still has a lower Total Cost of Ownership. In the long run too energy efficient transformers produce annual savings that could run into thousands of dollars. This seems especially relevant with the steep rise in energy prices. Pacific Crest Transformers has been manufacturing all types of customized transformers for the steel industry for nearly a century now. With its extensive domain expertise, Pacific Crest Transformers has the ability to offer its clients the best of breed solutions no matter how complex the need. Introduction The US has the largest steel industry in the world and the highest per capita demand for the metal in the world too. At the very core of steel manufacturing industry is its huge demand for energy. According to the American Iron and Steel Institute energy represents 20% of the total cost of producing steel. The steel industry consumes close to 1.5 quads/year of energy and uses it both, to power plant operations, and as raw material for the production of blast furnace coke. The steel production process employed uses one of two processes, namely, the Basic Oxygen Furnace and the Electric Arc Furnace. Processes in steel making which consume maximum amount of energy include, sintering, coke making, iron making, EAF steel making, casting, boilers, cogeneration, reheating, rolling and finishing. The production of molten steel involves process heating operations that consume large amounts of fossil fuels and electricity. Process heating accounts for more than 80% of the industry's total energy use. Forming processes use mainly electricity to drive casting machines, rolling mills, and other forming and finishing equipment. With the rising cost of energy the steel industry has come under tremendous pressure to stay globally competitive. About one-third of the steel industry's energy is derived from coal, a highly polluting fossil fuel,and is the reason for all the attention the process gets from environmentalist and the Department of Energy (DOE) alike. Amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1990 (CAA90), the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and a range of other legislations have had a major impact on the steel industry. The most costly fallout has been the requirement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. With pressure on the steel industry to cut down on its energy demand, numerous technological changes have been implemented, some of these are Coal-based, onshore, alternate iron making production Non-recovery coke production Direct smelting Thin strip casting Increased efforts to conserve energy in hot cast products Increased efforts to capture chemical energy in waste gases from processes Increased use of sensors in operations, to improve efficiency Implementation of the motor challenge program http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=17 The petrochemicals Industry is a critical part of the US economy. The global recession is definitely looking up for the moment, but it has, without doubt, pushed this industry into major disarray. A key factor here is the increasing fluctuation in fuel prices, tending towards higher than lower as a matter of course. For an industry which is energy intensive, the growing cost of fuel and energy has virtually set it on the back foot, reducing its global competitiveness. The Petrochemicals Industry in the US has already begun to re-look at the way it consumes energy and has begun a new search for higher efficiency. This whitepaper is yet another step among many to address this concern. 'The Role of Energy Efficient Transformers in the Petrochemical Industry' acknowledges the current situation of the industry in the US. It also notes the sector's huge demand for energy and the role of power transformers to offer a possible, partial solution. The later half of this whitepaper notes the need for energy-efficient and better-designed power transformers. This focus on energy-efficient transformers is not an option it is an imperative in the light of recent Government legislation, policy and regulation. The whitepaper also showcases Pacific Crest Transformers' (PCT) long history in the area of transformer design for the petrochemicals Industry. PCT is a true pioneer, with over 90 years of experience in design and manufacture of customized transformers. With a strong focus on innovation and minimizing negative environmental impact, PCT is excellently placed to understand the energy needs of everything from power utilities to entire industry sectors, and offers an extensive suite of product options to cater to diverse needs. Introduction: The U.S. petrochemical industry is the third largest in the world and a significant contributor to the country's GDP. The US Petrochemicals Industry is also an indispensable part of the manufacturing and consumer sectors, churning out products such as fiberglass, tires, paint, plastic, rubber, detergents, dyes, fertilizers, textiles, solvents, and more. In the recent past however, the US Petrochemicals Industry has undergone reasonably predictable lifecycle-path phases; from initial growth and augmentation to slowing down in marginal returns, and thereafter facing possible downturns aided by many factors such as competition and resource constraints. The future of the US petrochemical industry appears to be uncertain at present with the imbalance created in the market by the high feedstock process. According to Business Monitor International's (BMI) 2008 US Petrochemicals Report, the industry is also suffering the effects of a contraction in house building and car production, with output set to further diminish in 2009 and 2010. Besides the ongoing effects of the recession, the US petrochemicals industry is faced with radical changes in the regulatory environment. The US is seeing a new policy climate with greater stress on tackling climate change through reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This move has major implications for the energy-intensive petrochemicals industry. A bill seeking to make a 17% greenhouse gas emission reduction through 2020 has raised objections from the chemicals industry lobby. The industry could find it difficult to maintain both competitiveness in global markets and meet its carbon targets, unless it introduces some drastic changes in the way it demands and uses energy. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=12 The definition of the 'Smart Grid' is still something that is taking shape. Utility professionals concur on some aspects and ideas of what the smart grid should be, but there are still grey areas that, however, promise to become clearer soon. Some groups will tend to focus on the specific technologies that go into creating this 'intelligence' in a power network; others will take a more generalized view and look at the smart grid's operational characteristics and capabilities. Power system intelligence is essentially about taking sensory and analytical capabilities down to the substation or device level, all the way at the bottom of the system hierarchy. Smart grids will produce a steady stream of information about system conditions and operating characteristics that are valuable for managing the commercial side of a given utility or grid operator. More intelligent systems for monitoring combined with the substation and feeder automation in power distribution networks can bring several improvements: Better reliability More availability Enhanced security Energy efficiency This Whitepaper takes an open view of the smart grid. It begins by noting the need for a smart grid and locating its capabilities and operational characteristics. The paper also takes a closer look at the smart grid as a concept and the various energy benefits the economy can reap from its implementation. The smart grid is essentially a highly automated system that will evolve based on adoption of fresh standards industry-wide. With something as large as a power grid, radical change cannot occur ? the existing system will go through a series of gradual transformations. And energy transformers have a crucial role to play in this evolving 'smart' system. The whitepaper goes on to describe the importance of the millions of transformers that play a crucial role in the energy distribution system in the US. It then touches upon the role Pacific Crest Transformers can play in the emerging milieu. Introduction The century-old power grid is the US has often been called 'the largest interconnected machine on Earth'. Little wonder, because it consists of more than 9,200 electricity generating units, with more than 1,000,000 megawatts of generating capacity connected to more than 300,000 miles of transmission lines. However this mammoth power infrastructure is nearly a century old and is understandably running out of steam. The lights may still be on but relying on an often-overtaxed grid is becoming increasingly risky. Since 1982, growth in peak demand for electricity driven by population growth, bigger houses, bigger TVs, more air conditioners and more computers has exceeded transmission growth by almost 25% every year. Yet spending on research and development. the first step toward innovation and renewal is among the lowest when compared to all other industries. Even as the demand for energy has skyrocketed, there has been chronic underinvestment in getting energy where it needs to go through transmission and distribution, further limiting grid efficiency and reliability. While hundreds of thousands of high-voltage transmission lines course throughout the United States, only 668 additional miles of interstate transmission have been built since 2000. As a result, system constraints worsen and power quality issues are estimated to cost American businesses an average of more than $100 billion each year. The grid's centralized structure also leaves the US open to blackouts. In fact, the interdependencies of various grid components can have a cascading series of failures that could bring banking, communications, traffic, and security systems among other things to a complete standstill. National challenges like the aging power grid, increasing energy demands, spiraling cost of generating electricity and its cost on the environment are all pointing in one direction, and one direction only: a grid that is more efficient in energy production and distribution. For years technologists have been toying with the idea of a 'Smart Grid', an electricity distribution system that uses digital technology to eliminate waste and improve reliability. Advocates of the smart grid also say that it would open up new markets for large and small scale alternative energy producers by decentralizing generation. It would allow consumers to have a much more complex relationship with their energy supplier. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=11 The mining industry occupies a significant position in the US economy. With no shortfall in the demand for minerals and ore, one can only expect the industry to keep growing. One worrisome aspect of the mining industry in the US, however, is its excessive demand and dependence on energy. Highly automated, the industry demands trillions of Btu (British Thermal Units) of energy every year; the industry's high demand for energy has also made it easily affected by the fluctuating international prices of fossil fuel. While other sectors of the US economy are searching for greener, more cost-effective energy options, the mining industry has also come under pressure to follow suit. Transformers are a key element in collecting and transporting energy on the national grid and their efficiency has always been a source of debate. This whitepaper seeks to address this crucial question of selecting the right transformer for the mining industry. While the mining industry is critical to the economy, it is, by its very nature, full of hazards for both manpower and machines. The transformers used have to be robust and technologically advanced to function in dust, dirt, chemicals, and in the presence of high levels of moisture both above and below ground. Despite the high levels of automation in this industry, it is also manpower intensive in certain areas, which means that people are often working around all kinds of dangerous machinery; transformers should not have to be included in that category. This whitepaper delivers useful information about the role of transformers in the mining industry, the various types of transformers and some tips on how to select the right one. The whitepaper also takes a look at the need for energy-efficient mining, and Pacific Crest Transformers' offerings to the industry. Introduction The US has one of the largest mining industries in the world - an industry closely linked with the economy. In the past, the discovery of resources such as gold and oil resulted in a major population shift and rapid growth for formerly remote regions of the country, such as California, Texas, and Alaska. Extraction of these resources, and finding new deposits, continues to provide the foundation for local economies in some regions. Some of the minerals mined in the US are coal, uranium, copper, gold, silver, iron, lead, zinc and others. Most of the mines in the US are highly automated and thus energy intensive. To provide an example, even in the last decade of the 20th century, iron ore mining alone consumed 62.3 trillion Btu of energy across a calendar year. Because mining is such a large industry and makes a sizable contribution to the national income, mines must have a dependable source of power - a crucial resource for mining processes. The mining and mineral extraction sector both in the US and worldwide relies heavily on energy to harness natural resources such as aggregates, precious metals, iron ore, oil, gas, and coal. This energy is used to power shovels and drills for excavating these products, loading them into enormous mining trucks or onto conveyer belts, sorting, sifting and crushing ores, heating, and a hundred other functions. Both surface and underground mining operations rely on powered equipment to extract materials and load trucks. Overall, the mining sector could not flourish without the use of vast amounts of energy. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=10 The conversion of wind energy to electrical power is one of the world's fastest growing industries. In the US alone, wind power capacity has grown by a sizable average of 29% a year for last five years; wind power now contributes a little over 1% of the total US energy requirement. Giant sprawling 'wind farms' will soon step off the trade magazine spreads and become a common sight. Like with any other electrical transmission and distribution system, power transformers are at the very heart of power generation using wind energy. The initial design of a transformer can have profound implications on the future profitability of wind farms and thus, design and construction of transformers specifically for use in wind farms - including Wind Turbine Step-Up (WTSU) Transformers - assumes critical significance. Even though wind generation technology has shown marked improvement over the last few years, it continues to present some important system design, control and operation challenges. If these issues are not properly addressed at the right time, they may lead to significant system disturbances especially when interconnected with the existing power grid. Wind Turbine 101 A wind turbine is a prominent symbol of the huge renewable energy generation market. Wind turns the turbine blades, which spin a generator shaft and creates electricity. A local transformer is then used to 'step up' the electrical voltage, so that the electricity can then be delivered through transmission and distribution lines to domestic users. Wind turbines generally produce electricity when winds are at speeds of 8 mph or more. They shut down when wind speeds exceed 55 - 60 mph, for safety reasons. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=7 Harnessing wind energy to perform work is not a new concept. Since the earliest of times, wind power has been captured with sails to allow traders, merchants and explorers to ply their trades and discover the world around them. On land, windmills have been used for irrigation, grinding grains, and performing crude manufacturing for centuries. Even the generation of electricity from wind power is not anew idea; What is new, however, is the scale at which this renewable energy source is being used today. Early wind generation served a local need,often supplying power for isolated equipment. Today, wind energy represents nearly 5% of the US electrical generation and is targeted to reach 20% in the foreseeable future. For this to happen, wind turbine outputs need to be gathered, stepped-up to transmission levels and passed across the nation's interconnected powergrid to the end users. The role of the Wind Turbine Step-Up (WTSU)transformer in this process is critical and, as such, its design needs to be carefully and thoughtfully analyzed and reevaluated in overview. Historically this WTSU transformer function has been handled by conventional, "off the shelf" distribution transformers, but the relatively large numbers of recent failures would strongly suggest that WTSU transformer designs need to be made substantially more robust. WTSU transformers are neither conventional "off the shelf" distribution transformers nor are they conventional "off the shelf" power generator step-up transformers. WTSU transformers fall somewhere in between and as such, we believe, requires unique design standard. Although off-shore windfarms using dry-type transformers are beginning to grow in popularity,for this discussion we will look only at liquid-filled transformers that are normally associated with inland wind farm sites. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=6 TR0902: Report on matched-melt coordination as used for selecting windfarm fuses Dan Gardner, P.E., R&D Manager - Hi-Tech, Thomas & Betts Corporation WHAT IS MATCH-MELTCOORDINATION? Matched-melt coordination as defined in IEEEC37.48 is a variation of time-current curve coordination that is used to ensure that the expulsion fuse melts open during any overload or fault condition. As stated in IEEE C37.48,The principal advantage of the matched-melt method is that the expulsion fuse will melt open even if the current limiting fuse does the actual clearing. Because the expulsion fuse opens, the current-limiting fuse is not likely to have the system's voltage impressed across it after it has operated. The main advantage of this type of coordination is that in most three-phase applications, the voltage rating of the backup current-limiting fuse need only be equal to the system's line-to-neutral voltage as long as the voltage rating of the expulsion fuse is equal to the system's line-to-line voltage. WHAT DOES MATCHED-MELTCOORDINATION HAVE TO DO WITH WINDFARM TRANSFORMER PROTECTION? Windfarm transformers are predominately 34.5kV and are delta-connected (or ungrounded). IEEE C37.48 specifies that fuses used to protect ungrounded systems should have a maximum voltage rating equal to or exceeding the maximum system L-L voltage. The only exception to this rule allowed by the standard is when matched-melt coordination is used. As stated previously, when matched-melt coordination requirements are met, L-N rated backup fuses can often be used. Until recently, no 38kV oil-submersible backup fuses were available. It was therefore not possible to provide a L-L rated backup fuse for a 34.5kV delta-connected transformer. Matched-melt coordination has therefore been used with the L-L rated 34.5kV ABB weak link expulsion fuses to allow the use of 23kV backup fuses. WHY IS IT CRITICAL THATMATCHED-MELT COORDINATION REQUIREMENTS ARE STRICTLY OBSERVED IN DELTA-CONNECTEDWINDFARM APPLICATIONS IF L-N RATED BACKUP FUSES ARE TO BE USED? Due to the nature of a windfarm application,a number of conditions exist that are not explicitly covered in IEEE C37.48 as it focuses on distribution transformer protection. Most importantly, in a windfarm application, both sides of the transformer are 'active', meaning that a fault can be fed from either side, the generator on the low voltage side and the collector system on the high voltage side (this as opposed to a distribution transformer application where the load side of the transformer is 'passive'). When a fault occurs causing the fusing on the34.5kV side of the transformer to operate, a brief period of desynchronization can occur between the phase voltages on the generator side of the transformer and the phase voltages on the collector side of the transformer. The phase voltages can move out of sync until such a time as the generator protection opens, entirely isolating the transformer. During this period of time, the voltage across the open fuses could be on the magnitude of twice system L-L voltage. The long oil gap that results in the open ABB 34.5kV weak link appears to be able to withstand this voltage until the breaker on the low voltage side of the transformer operates, often sharing that duty with the open backup fuse. There is not sufficient testing or experience to show that an L-N rated backup fuse could withstand what could be on the order of three times its rated voltage alone, even if it did initially interrupt. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=5 According to the United States Energy Department, the demand for electricity in the US is growing at the rate of about 1% a year, with that pace likely to increase over the next few years. Other estimates put the increase at 6% or more per year, thanks to the population growth rate and the burgeoning numbers of electric/electronic devices now considered essential to people's lifestyles. Executive Summary: "More than 14,000 residents lose power Tuesday morning..." "The industry has yet to live down the massive summer blackout, when power outages struck from southern New England to Michigan..." Headlines like these were once few and very far between. But the United States' aging power infrastructure, plagued with multiple problems, may soon cause such stories to become commonplace. In desperate need of retrieval, the US power grid is anywhere from half a century to a century old. Power outages are still relatively uncommon, but if the situation is not addressed soon, energy shortages can take a staggering toll on the economy. The Energy Bill introduced in the wake of Hurricane Katrina established provisions to encourage approximately $50 billion of investment into the power grid; but the pundits believe that even this would be inadequate, especially in an economy built on information technology and in perpetual need of reliable energy. According to Red Herring Inc., a media company that covers innovation, technology nancing and entrepreneurial activity, energy demand in the US is likely to surge 32% by 2015 - and 75% of the country's power grid will have to be replaced. This whitepaper begins by taking a deeper look at this issue, and also the reforms being instituted to tackle the impending crisis. Transformers are vital components of any power distribution network, and this paper goes on to discuss the advantages of using energy-efficient designs manufactured in environment-friendly production facilities. The first steps towards a solution are then discussed, laying emphasis on emerging trends such as privatization, venture capitalist investment, high-technology alternatives, and more. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=4 The United States is currently at a critical juncture. On one hand is the growing demand for power; and on the other is the need to drastically cut down on carbon and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While there has been growing interest in promoting the use of renewable energy for a number of years in the United States, the market share of non-hydro renewable energy sources in electricity production has remained an abysmal 2 per cent for over a decade. Thus, what one sees is a vast, untapped potential for the alternate energy market. Executive Summary: The first quarter of 2009 has ushered in a new era for the alternate energy market in the US. This has resulted in a visible increase in interest on alternate energy technologies. Most would think the attention to alternate energy has come just in time, especially with the rise in fossil fuel prices, stringent environmental regulations, and significant changes in preferences among consumers. This whitepaper acknowledges the changing perception of the country towards alternate energy; looks at the advantages of renewable energy, and also discusses the hurdles in the way. It also describes regulations that have been used to promote green energy generation in the United States. Price has always been a compelling determinate of a company's choice of energy. This whitepaper, however, argues that although power generated from fossil fuel may seem cheaper in the short term and the investment in infrastructure related to renewable energy may seem expensive during installation, the total-cost-of-ownership is much lower and the infrastructure soon begins to pay for itself due to the low input costs. This whitepaper presents compelling arguments that energy efficient technology is not just possible and desirable, it will soon be mandatory from a regulatory point of view. The whitepaper then reviews the unique role of Pacific Crest Transformers in the emerging energy markets of solar, wind and alternate energy. http://www.pacificcresttrans.com//resourceCenter/viewWhitepaper.action?id=3 The United States, like many other countries worldwide, is experiencing a growing concern about the environment. Currently more the domain of activists and environmental organizations, it is only a matter of time before these concerns grip consumers as well - maybe even to the point when they get discerning enough to question the source of their electricity. In such a scenario, industries will be faced with some pretty tough questions and it is best that they begin the process of re-looking at their energy infrastructure from an efficiency and environmentally protective point of view, now.This white paper looks at the electricity need of the United States, its aging energy infrastructure, and explores the advantages of introducing 'green' components - something as simple as the humble transformer - into the power distribution network. It also makes a case for the switch over to energy- and cost-efficient technology, and how legislation is pushing ahead those who are resistant. We then take an in-depth look at the contributions of Pacific Crest Transformers (PCT), a company that has paved a path towards energy-efficient transformers with sound, long-term initiative. PCT introduced fundamental changes in the production of transformers and began manufacturing custom, energy efficient and environmentally friendly transforms even before legislative compulsions made it mandatory for its competitors to do so. The whitepaper concludes on a positive note; encouraging industries to switch over to technologically modern and thus efficient transformers - thus realizing economic gains from the process as well. With over 90 years of collective experience, PCT may be one of the few companies with the seasoned vision to advise clients on energy requirements and provide transformers that are custom designed to meet diverse needs for the next three decades or more. Introduction The electric power system in the United States is the largest in the world. It has over 800,000 MWe of installed capacity and growing. According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), electricity generated in America in 2006 came from the following sources: Coal - 49.7% Nuclear - 19.3%Natural Gas - 18.7%Hydroelectric Conventional - 6.6%Petroleum - 3.0% Others - 2.7% The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) claims the demand for electricity in the US will continue to grow, even while long term reliability of supply concerns persist. The EIA predicts the country's electricity demand will continue to grow at the rate of 1.8% to 1.9% percent per year till 2025. To keep pace with this increasing demand the US must therefore add approximately 300,000 MWe of new capacity over the next 16 years. While demand needs to be met, the electricity infrastructure in the country is aging. A significant amount of equipment in the public utility grid is over 40 years old and needs to be replaced in the near future. According to the Department of Energy, distribution transformers which are 30 years old or more, can waste 60-80 billion kWh annually. A better design could yield annual energy savings of up to $1 billion.