This article in Slate suggests that new fonts are coming to the web.

This opens up new territory for web designers and perhaps e-learning designers as well. Many e-learning designers think of web design as the default design for e-learning. Maybe the new web will usher in a new era of e-learning design as well.

One thing to watch out for: Do you or your team have the aesthetic training/empathy to know how to use fonts to set a mood, convey a meaning? Ahhh, something more to build.

In 2006, I reviewed the research on the spacing effect and published a research-to-practice report, Spacing Learning Over Time: What the Research Says...

Since then I have been buoyed by the enthusiastic response to that report and by the changes that it  engendered. More training and e-learning has been built using spacing and more and more learning software has been built that incorporates the spacing effect as an inherent part of its design. If I died today, I would at least know that I'd made a small difference in our field.

Examples Wanted

I am working on an updated version of the report to include the latest research and new examples.

If you know of any examples of the use of spacing effect, please let me know. Send me demo links or disks so that I can see for myself how the spacing effect has been used. Or, just write me an email.

Testimonials Wanted

Also, if you read the original version and want to write a short testimonial about how it changed the way you build learning, that would be awesome. Just write me an email.

One Product Example: A Cameo Appearance

Just to get your juices flowing, check out this YouTube Video produced by a company who built a product with the spacing effect in mind, Yukon Learning. Yukon has built a very nice tool to support learning using the spacing effect. The product name is Cameo and the link below will take you to the Cameo website.

You can check out Cameo at this website.

If you work in the workplace learning-and-performance field, one of your jobs is to ensure that employees are maximizing their cognitive performance, their decision making, and their overall work output. If people's cognitive abilities decreased with age, that would be a problem. More importantly, if we can improve our employee's cognitive abilities, we have a responsibility to do just that. The benefits will accrue to our organizations and to our employees too (and probably then to their families and society at large).

This begs the following questions then:

• "Is there research in refereed scientific journals that provides evidence for cognitive decline as people age?"
• "Is there research in refereed scientific journals that provides evidence that we can help improve people's cognitive abilities as they age?"

I've created a short 4-item quiz for you to test your knowledge in this area. Take the quiz. When you are done it will return you directly to this blog post (is that cool or what)?

Take the Quiz. Test your Knowledge of Aging's Effect on Cognitive Ability.

Click here to take the quiz

The quiz is based on an article by Christopher Hertzog, Arthur F. Kramer, Robert S. Wilson, and Ulman Lindenberger.

HEY, what are you doing? Go take the quiz first. There's research to show that the sort of questions I ask in the quiz will actually help you remember this topic. Doh!

The article by Hertzog, Kramer, Wilson, and Lindenberger is in Volume 9—Number 1 in the refereed scientific journal Psychological Science in the Public Interest that was just published in 2009. The title of the article is: Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced?

HEY, really. Go take the quiz first!!

Both of my parents (75+) are doing everything right according to the article.


Findings:

Cognitive ability does tend to decline with age. See graph from the article:



But notice that though AVERAGE cognitive ability declines there are wide ranges. And since I'm 51 years old as I write this, I'd like you to note that maximum cognitive performance seems highest near 50 years of age.

Can Cognitive Ability be Improved?

Yes, these researchers conclude that it can. Although they admit that more research is needed.

What Can Improve Cognitive Ability?

Well, they didn't look at everything that might impact cognitive ability, so we don't have a clear picture yet.

They highlighted the strongest findings in their conclusion:

"The literature is far from definitive, which is no surprise given the inherent difficulties in empirically testing the enrichment hypothesis. However, we believe there is a strong and sound empirical basis for arguing that a variety of factors, including engaging in intellectually and mentally stimulating activities, both (a) slow rates of cognitive aging and (b) enhance levels of cognitive functioning in later life." p. 41

"What is most impressive to us is the evidence demonstrating benefits of aerobic physical exercise on cognitive functioning in older adults. Such a conclusion would have been controversial in the not-too-distant past, but the evidence that has accumulated since 2000 from both human and animal studies argues overwhelmingly that aerobic exercise enhances cognitive function in older adults. The hypothesis of exercise-induced cognitive-enrichment effects is supported by longitudinal studies of predictors of cognitive decline and incidence of dementia, but also by short-term intervention studies in human and animal populations. The exercise-intervention work suggest relatively general cognitive benefits of aerobic exercise but indicates that cognitive tasks that require executive functioning, working memory, and attentional control are most likely to benefit." p. 41

They also noted some other more-tentative findings:

"...these data support the idea that a higher level of social engagement is related to a reduced risk of cognitive decline and dementia in old age. The basis of the association is not well understood, however." p. 33

"...these data suggest that chronic psychological distress may contribute to late-life loss of cognition by causing neurodeteriorative changes in portions of the limbic system that help regulate affect and cognition, changes that do not leave a pathologic footprint (e.g., dendritic atrophy) or whose pathology is not recognizable with currently available methods. These changes, when extreme, might actually be sufficient to cause dementia, but it is more likely that they contribute to cognitive impairment and thereby increase the likelihood that other common age-related neuropathologies are clinically expressed as dementia" p. 36

"...in observational studies that examine more than one lifestyle factor, cognitive activities appear to be the strongest predictor of cognitive change. However, this could be the result of several factors, including the following: (a) Rarely are physical activities characterized in terms of intensity, frequency, and duration; (b) the period across which activities are assessed has been different for cognitive and physical activities; (c) with one exception, activities have been treated as unidimensional in nature. Clearly, these issues require additional consideration in future studies." p. 39

They also offer a word of caution about software programs that are marketed as ways to improve cognitive ability:

"The majority of software programs marketed as enhancing cognition or brain function lack supporting empirical evidence for training and transfer effects. Clearly, there is a need to introduce standards of good practice in this area. Software developers should be urged to report the reliability and validity of the trained tasks, the magnitude of training effects, the scope and maintenance of transfer to untrained tasks, and the population to which effects are likely to generalize. Arriving at thisinformation requires experiments with random assignment to treatment and control groups, and an adequate sample description. Just as the pharmaceutical industry is required to show benefit and provide evidence regarding potential side effects, companies marketing cognitive-enhancement products should be required to provide empirical evidence of product effectiveness." p.48

So, to answer the quiz questions:

1. What happens to most people's cognitive abilities as they age from 50 years onward? Answer: Declines with age.

2. Is there valid research evidence from scientific refereed journals that suggests that people can improve their cognitive outcomes by engaging in certain activities? Answer: Solid evidence, but still some controversy.

3. Which of the following have been shown to improve cognitive ability as people age. Answer: The article didn't cover all the territory, but the strongest evidence is for (1) mentally and intellectually challenging activities and (2) aerobic physical activity.

4. Imagine that you work for a company that consists of a substantial number of workers over the age of 50. If you had a set budget to spend to improve their cognitive functioning, which of the following investments would garner the greatest results? Answer: Well, the research review does NOT compare the differences between (1) mentally challenging activities, (2) aerobic exercise, and (3) social engagement. However, see their overall conclusion below, which suggests that intellectual engagement and physically activity are key.

Their overall conclusion:

"We conclude that, on balance, the available evidence favors the hypothesis that maintaining an intellectually engaged and physically active lifestyle promotes successful cognitive aging." p.1

More research on benefits of exercise:

"Unlike the literature on an active lifestyle, there is already an impressive array of work with humans and animal populations showing that exercise interventions have substantial benefits
for cognitive function, particularly for aspects of fluid intelligence and executive function. Recent neuroscience research on this topic indicates that exercise has substantial effects on brain morphology and function, representing a plausible brain substrate for the observed effects of aerobic exercise and other activities on cognition." p. 1

They cite the potential for training interventions:

"...cognitive-training studies have demonstrated that older adults can improve cognitive functioning when provided with intensive training in strategies that promote thinking and remembering. The early training literature suggested little transfer of function from specifically trained skills to new cognitive tasks; learning was highly specific to the cognitive processes targeted by training. Recently, however, a new generation of studies suggests that providing structured experience in situations demanding executive coordination of skills—such as complex video games, task-switching paradigms, and divided attention tasks—train strategic control over cognition that does show transfer to different task environments. These studies suggest that there is considerable reserve potential in older adults’ cognition that can be enhanced through training." p. 1

But they offer a warning against one-shot interventions:

"There is no magic pill or no one-shot vaccine that inoculates the individual against the possibility of cognitive decline in old age. As noted earlier, participation in intervention programs is unlikely to affect long-term outcomes unless the relevant behaviors are continued over time." p. 47

What do we have to do?

Well, if we take our job seriously, we ought to heed the research. We can improve our fellow employees cognitive abilities as they age, so we ought to figure out how we might support that.

I certainly haven't got this nailed but if your company is interested, I think it would be fascinating to see what we might do.

Back in the early 1990's I was involved in a project which we ended up calling the Classroom, Inc. project. It was a joint venture between Teachers College, Columbia University (where I was a doctoral student); Morgan Stanley, the Mariposa Foundation led by Morgan Stanley's COO Lewis Bernard, and the New York City Public Schools. The project was designed to help at-risk kids in Brooklyn learn about business and to empower them to think like business leaders. It was a great project and has blossomed into a full not-for-profit organization that continues to do great work---taking it way beyond what we were able to do.

I was the project leader on the learning-development simulation-development side of the project. We built two computer-based simulations and accompanying learning materials. The programming wizard and educational technology guru on the project was Hilary Wilder, who played many other roles as well. It has been a pleasure to see her career unfold over the years since then.

Recently Hilary won a Fulbright scholarship to do educational technology work in Namibia, where she has been involved for years.

WP Perspective, a publication of William Paterson University, where Dr. Wilder is an Associate Professor, published the following article about Hilary's Fulbright. I couldn't be more proud. Congratulations Hilary!!

Hilary Wilder, associate professor in the educational leadership and professional studies department, has been named a Fulbright Scholar for the spring 2010 semester. She will be lecturing and conducting research at the University of Namibia (UNAM). The university, with an enrollment of 10,000 students, is the sparsely populated, African country’s only comprehensive four-year institution of higher education.

Wilder will also be establishing Namibia’s first and only master’s program in educational technology, her area of expertise.

“The people of Namibia are very open to new ideas,” Wilder says. “I’m really excited about the opportunity to develop an educational technology master’s degree program, in a country which so desperately needs it. I’m hoping this program will help create a solid cadre of local expertise in educational technology.”

Her work dovetails with a national development plan established by the Namibian government called Vision 2030, which calls for a shift to a knowledge-based economy by 2030. “Before independence in 1990, Namibia’s education system was based on apartheid practices and the majority of its children were taught through low-level rote-learning, often in rural bush schools with no resources. Today they are eager to move forward and ensure that their children will be successful and productive twenty-first century global citizens. The government, private sector, non-governmental organizations and international organizations such as the World Bank are all committed to making this happen“ she says.

Wilder will be working with teachers who will go on to become educational technology experts in their schools— helping their peers integrate technology literacy into the curriculum and their teaching. “There will be a trickle-down effect,” Wilder says. “My students will learn the technology integration skills, and take that back to their fellow teachers. The idea is that by 2030 the students who are then taught by those teachers will have acquired the technological literacy skills necessary to be a part of the knowledge-based economy.”

It has been my pleasure and privilege to co-teach several learning measurement workshops with Dr. Roy Pollock, and to follow the important work that he and his colleagues have done at The Fort Hill Company over the years. I acknowledged their work by awarding Cal Wick, Fort Hill's Founding Father, the Neon Elephant Award back in 2006. I've also reviewed their ground-breaking book, The Six Disciplines of Breakthrough Learning, and have recently reviewed their new book, Getting Your Money's Worth from Training and Development.

Now, I have captured Roy in a video interview, that I think you'll enjoy and learn from.