World War II Zone

Wehrmacht Secret Weapons.

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Fri, 11 Mar 2011 00:13:00 +0000

Messerschmitt Me P 1070

Development of the Messerschmitt Me 262 presented to the involved design engineers/technicians difficult tasks in various areas (e.g. the usage of a nose-wheel instead of the traditional tail-wheel). In order to facilitate the development/production of the new airplane, some alternative solutions to the Me 262 were devised by Messerschmitt. The Messerschmitt Me P.65 can be seen as a pre-development study, but Me P.1065 and Me. P.1070 were real alternative developments. Me. P.1065 would incorporate substancial features of Me 262 as fuselage, major parts of the empennage and construction would be facilitated by the usage of a tail-wheel. The turbo-jet engines were not to be placed beneath the wings, but were to be integrated within the wing-structure. This alternative airplane proposal didn't find approval by the German Air Ministry (Reichsluftfahrtministerium, RLM) and therefore didn't proceed beyond the drawing boards.

Messerschmitt's Projekt 1070 was designed parallel to the famous Me 262 and was quite similar in appearance. However, the Me 262 proved to be superior and the Me P 1070 never left the drawing board.
This machine features in John Baxter's latest book "The Alternate Luftwaffe 2" as the fictional Me 260 A-1/R1 of the Romanian Royal Air Force, battling Soviet bombers over Ploiesti.

Messerschmitt Me P 1091

In 1942 the RLM announced the need for a new Special High Altitude Fighter. This fighter should be ready for operations late in 1944. In order to provide a quick solution to the problem, Messerschmitt offered a design based on the 109, the P-1091. This was in fact a stretched 109 in which the wings and the rear fuselage were enlarged. This aircraft was to have been powered by the DB 605 engine and armed with three MG 151 machine guns.

During the first half of 1943, Messerschmitt's design engineers had evolved basic parameters of an (extreme high altitude fighter) design study under the company designation Me P1091.

By the summer of 1943 it became clear that a higher operational altitude would be necessary. This led to the P-1091a which was similar to the P-1091 but powered by the DB 603U or DB 632. This last engine was an adaptation of the DB 603, designed for the use of two 4-bladed contra-rotating propellers.

As it became clear that the P-1091 could not be realized within a reasonable period of time, a new design was proposed. This was based on the Me-109H using a DB 628 engine. Contrary to the orders of the RLM, Messerschmitt continued the work on the P-1091, developing it into the P-1091b OR Me209H however.

To test the DB 628 engined design a mock-up of the engine installation was made in the Me-109 V-49, based on a G-5 airframe. The DB 628 was flight tested in the Me-109 V-50 and V-54. After the tests with the V-54, Messerschmitt abandonned all projects with the DB 628. The DB 628 program was cancelled in 1944.

Messerschmitt Me P.1101

Messerschmitt P.1101 was the name attached to a single-seat, single-jet fighter developed in response to the July 1944 Emergency Fighter Program, which sought the second generation of jet fighters for the Third Reich. A characteristic feature of the P.1101 prototype was that the sweep of the wings could be changed before flight, a feature perfected by the later Variable-sweep aircraft such as the Panavia Tornado, MiG-23, Bell X-5, F-111 Aardvark and the F-14 Tomcat.

Within nine days of the 15 July 1944 issuance of the design specifications for the Emergency Fighter, the Messerschmitt design bureau under Woldemar Voigt had formed a preliminary paper design for the P.1101. The aircraft which was developed initially had a short and wide fuselage, tricycle landing gear, and mid-mounted wings with an inner sweep of 40 degrees near the fuselage, and a shallower 26 degree angle outboard. The single He S 011 jet engine was to be mounted internally within the fuselage, being aspirated by two rounded intakes located on either side of the cockpit. The tail was of a V configuration, and mounted on a tapered boom which extended over and past the jet exhaust, while the cockpit was forward mounted, with the canopy integrated into the fuselage and forming part of the rounded nose of the aircraft.

By late August 1944, the design still in paper form had evolved into a sleeker incarnation, with the previously stout fuselage lengthened and narrowed with a conical nose section added in front of the cockpit. The double angled wing was also abandoned, with the outer wing of the Me 262 instead being adapted for the design. The design was further developed, and after the wind tunnel testing of a number of wing and fuselage profiles, the design was further modified and finalized, with the decision made to undertake the construction of a full-scale test aircraft. This finalized design and associated test data were submitted to the Construction Bureau on 10 November 1944 and the selection of production materials was begun on 4 December 1944.

On 28 February 1945, the RLM settled on a competing design, the Focke-Wulf Ta 183, as the winner of the Emergency Fighter program. This decision was based in part on the considerable design difficulties being encountered by the Messerschmitt P.1101 design team. For example, the cannon installation was proving too crowded, the mainwheel retraction and door mechanisms were too complex, the fuselage needed a great number of "strong points" to deal with loads, and the anticipated performance had fallen below the RLM specifications due to increased weight.

Me 163 Komet

The Me 163 Komet was perhaps the most unique aircraft design of the World War II.

Designed by Alexander Martin Lippisch, was a German rocket-powered fighter aircraft. As of 2011, it remains the only rocket-powered fighter aircraft to have ever been operational. Its design was revolutionary, and the Me 163 was capable of performance unrivaled at the time. Messerschmitt test pilot Rudy Opitz in 1944 reached 1,123 km/h (698 mph). Over 300 aircraft were built, however the Komet proved ineffective as a fighter, having been responsible for the destruction of only about nine Allied aircraft (16 air victories for 10 losses, according to other sources).

The most famous Komet must surely be the red Komet in which EK16 commander Wolfgang Späte flew the first operational mission with a Komet. Without his knowledge, the ground crew painted his aircraft bright red, similar to Von Richthofen's red aircraft in WW1. Apparently confidence in the Komet's invulnerability was high! According to his own accounts, Späte was not amused, and ordered the paint to be removed after the flight.

Späte writes that V41 still had MG 151/20 armament. This means the gun barrels project from the wing's leading edge, but also the ammunition hatch on the spine is different compared to the later MK 108 armed Komets. See 'White 54' for a Komet with this type of hatch. This aspect is often overlooked by both kit manufacturers and modellers. Another aspect of early Komets are the smaller span trim surfaces (the inboard surfaces). This is shown clearly on this Komet. It's a small modification, but again it is often overlooked. It was overlooked by the artist of the above drawings. The cooling air inlet on the extreme rear fuselage exists in many variations, but my guess would be that it was the same type as seen on PK+QP ('White 05') and 'White 54'. For the tail wheel, I would expect a faired tail wheel.

Work on the design started under the aegis of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug (DFS) - the German Institute for the Study of sailplane flight. Their first design was a conversion of the earlier Lippisch Delta IV known as the DFS 39 and used purely as a glider testbed of the airframe.

A larger follow-on version with a small propeller engine started as the DFS 194. This version used wingtip-mounted rudders, which Lippisch felt would cause problems at high speed. He later redesigned them to be mounted on a conventional vertical stabilizer at the rear of the aircraft. The design included a number of features from its glider heritage, notably a skid used for landings, which could be retracted into the aircraft's keel in flight. For takeoff, a pair of wheels, each mounted onto the ends of a specially designed cross-axle, together comprising a takeoff "dolly" mounted under the landing skid, were needed due to the weight of the fuel, but these were released shortly after takeoff. It was planned to move to the Walter R-1-203 cold engine of 400 kg (880 lb) thrust when available.

Heinkel had also been working with Hellmuth Walter on his rocket engines, mounting them in the He 112 for testing, and later in the first purpose-designed rocket aircraft, the He 176. Heinkel had also been selected to produce the fuselage for the DFS 194 when it entered production, as it was felt that the highly volatile fuel would be too dangerous in a wooden fuselage, with which it could react.
Work continued under the code name Projekt X.

However the division of work between DFS and Heinkel led to problems, notably that DFS seemed incapable of building even a prototype fuselage. Lippisch eventually requested to leave DFS and join Messerschmitt instead. On 2 January 1939, he moved along with his team and the partially completed DFS 194 to the Messerschmitt works at Augsburg.

The delays caused by this move allowed the engine development to "catch up". Once at Messerschmitt, the decision was made to skip over the propeller-powered version and move directly to rocket power. The airframe was completed in Augsburg and shipped to Peenemünde West in early 1940 to receive its engine. Although the engine proved to be extremely unreliable, the aircraft had excellent performance, reaching a speed of 342 mph (550 km/h) in one test.

Production of a prototype series started in early 1941, known as the Me 163. Secrecy was such that the number, 163, was actually that of the earlier, pre-July 1938 Messerschmitt Bf 163 project to produce a small two-passenger light plane, which had competed against the Fieseler Fi 156 Storch for a production contract. It was thought that intelligence services would conclude any reference to the number "163" would be for that earlier design. The Me 163 A V4 was shipped to Peenemünde to receive the HWK RII-203 engine on May 1941. By 2 October 1941, the Me 163 A V4, bearing the radio call sign letters, or Stammkennzeichen, "KE+SW", set a new world speed record of 1,004.5 km/h (624.2 mph), piloted by Heini Dittmar.

This would not be officially approached until the postwar period by the new jet fighters of the British and U.S., and was not surpassed until the American Douglas Skystreak turbojet-powered research aircraft did so on 20 August 1947. Five prototype Me 163 Anton A-series experimental V-aircraft were built, adding to the original DFS 194 (V1), followed by eight pre-production examples designated as "Me 163 A-0".

During testing, the jettisonable main landing gear arrangement was a serious problem. The landing gear caused many aircraft to be damaged at takeoff, when the wheels rebounded and crashed into the aircraft. Malfunctioning hydraulic dampers in the skid could cause back injuries to the pilot when landing, as the aircraft lacked steering or braking control during landing, and was unable to avoid obstacles. Once on the ground, the aircraft had to be retrieved by a tractor-like vehicle, towing a special retrieval trailer that rolled on a pair of short continuous-track setups (one per side), with twin trailing lifting arms, that lifted the stationary aircraft off the ground, from under each wing. The tractor was originally meant for agricultural use, the three-wheeled Scheuch-Schlepper, as the Komet was unpowered and lacked wheels at this point.

During flight testing, the superior gliding capability of the Komet proved detrimental to safe landing. The aircraft would rise back into the air with the slightest updraft. Since the approach was unpowered, there was no opportunity to make another landing pass. For production models, a set of landing flaps allowed somewhat more-controlled landings. This issue remained a problem throughout the program.
Nevertheless, the overall performance was tremendous, and plans were made to put Me 163 squadrons all over Germany in 40-kilometre rings (25 mi). Development of an operational version was given the highest priority.

Meanwhile, Walter had started work on the newer HWK 109-509 hot engine, which added a true fuel of hydrazine hydrate and methanol, designated C-Stoff, that burned with the oxygen-rich exhaust from the T-Stoff, used as the oxidizer, for added thrust. This resulted in the significantly modified Me 163 B of late 1941. Due to the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) requirement that it should be possible to throttle the engine, the original power plant grew complicated and lost reliability. The new fuel proved an unfortunate choice as well, since hydrazine hydrate was also used in the launcher of the V-1 "Doodlebug" flying bomb and was in short supply throughout the 1943-45 period.

The fuel system was particularly troublesome, as leaks experienced during hard landings easily caused fires and explosions. Metal fuel lines and fittings, which failed in unpredictable ways, were used as this was the best technology available. Both fuel and oxidizer were toxic and required extreme care when loading in the aircraft, yet there were occasions when Komets exploded on the tarmac. The corrosive nature of the liquids required special protective gear for the pilots.

Two prototypes were followed by 30 Me 163B-0 aircraft armed with two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon and some 400 Me 163B-1 planes armed with two 30 mm (1.18-inch) MK 108 cannons, but which were otherwise similar to the B-0. Occasional references to B-1a or Ba-1 subtypes are found in the literature on the aircraft, but the meanings of these designations are somewhat unclear. Early in the war, when German aircraft firms created versions of their aircraft for export purposes, the a was added to export (ausland) variants (B-1a) or to foreign-built variants (Ba-1) but for the Me 163, there were neither export nor a foreign-built version. Later in the war, the "a" and successive letters were used for aircraft using different engine types: as Me 262A-1a with Jumo engines, A-1b with BMW engines. As the Me 163 was planned with an alternative BMW P3330A rocket engine, it is quite safe to assume the "a" was used for this purpose on early examples. Only one Me 163, the V10, was tested with the BMW engine, so this designation suffix was soon dropped. The Me 163 B-1a didn't have any wingtip "washout" built into it, and as a result, it had a much higher critical Mach number than the Me 163 B-1.

The Me 163B had very docile landing characteristics, mostly due to its integrated leading edge slots, located directly forward, along the wing's leading edge, of the elevon control surfaces. It would neither stall nor spin. One could fly the Komet with the stick full back, and have it in a turn and then use the rudder to take it out of the turn, and not fear it snapping into a spin. It would also slip well. Because it was derived from a glider, it had excellent gliding qualities, and had tendency to continue flying above the ground due to ground effect. On the other hand, making a too close turn from base onto final, the sink rate would increase, and one could quickly lose altitude and come in short. Another main difference from a propeller-driven aircraft is that there was no slipstream over the rudder. On takeoff, one had to attain the speed at which the aerodynamic controls become effective - about 129 km/h (80 mph) - and that was always a critical factor. Pilots used to flying propeller driven aircraft had to be careful the control stick wasn't somewhere in the corner when the control surfaces began working. These, like many other specific Me 163 problems, would be resolved by specific training.

The performance of the Me 163 far exceeded that of contemporary piston engine fighters. At a speed of over 320 km/h (200 mph) the aircraft would take off, in a so-called "sharp start" from the ground, from its two-wheeled dolly. The aircraft would be kept at low altitude until the best climbing speed of around 676 km/h (420 mph) was reached, at which point it would jettison the dolly, pull up into a 70° angle of climb, and rapidly climb to a bomber's altitude. It could go higher if required, reaching 12,000 m (39,000 ft) in an unheard-of three minutes. Once there, it would level off and quickly accelerate to speeds around 880 km/h (550 mph) or faster, which no Allied fighter could match. The usable Mach Number was similar to the Me-262, but because of the high thrust to drag ratio, it was much easier for the pilot to lose track of the onset of severe compressibility and loss of control. A Mach warning system was installed as a result. The aircraft was remarkably agile and docile to fly at high speed. According to Rudolf Opitz, chief test pilot of the Me 163, it could "fly circles around any other fighter of its time".

By this point, Messerschmitt was completely overloaded with production of the Bf 109 and attempts to bring the Me 210 into service. Production in a dispersed network was handed over to Klemm, but quality control problems were such that the work was later given to Junkers, who was, at that time, underworked. As with many German designs of World War II, parts of the airframe (especially wings) were made of wood by furniture manufacturers.

The older Me 163A and first Me 163B prototypes were used for training. It was planned to introduce the Me 163 S, which removed the rocket engine and tank capacity and placed a second seat for the instructor above and behind the pilot, with its own canopy. The 163 S would be used for glider landing training, which as explained above, was essential to operate the Me 163. It appears the 163 Ss were converted from the earlier Me 163B series prototypes.
In service, the Me 163 turned out to be difficult to use against enemy aircraft. Its tremendous speed and climb rate meant a target was reached and passed in a matter of seconds. Although the Me 163 was a stable gun platform, it required excellent marksmanship to bring down an enemy bomber. The Komet was equipped with two 30 mm (1.18 inch) MK 108 cannons which had a relatively low muzzle velocity, with the characteristic ballistic drop of such a weapon. The drop meant they were only accurate at short distance, and that it was almost impossible to hit a slow-moving bomber when the Komet was traveling very fast. Plus, four or five hits were typically needed to take down a B-17.

A number of innovative solutions were implemented to ensure kills by less experienced pilots. The most promising was a unique weapon called the Sondergerät 500 Jägerfaust. This consisted of a series of single-shot, short-barreled 50 mm (2-inch) guns pointing upwards. Five were mounted in the wing roots on each side of the aircraft. The trigger was tied to a photocell in the upper surface of the aircraft, and when the Komet flew under the bomber, the resulting change in brightness caused by the underside of the aircraft could cause the rounds to be fired. As each shell shot upwards, the disposable gun barrel that fired it was ejected downwards, thus making the weapon recoilless. It appears that this weapon was used in combat only once, resulting in the destruction of a Halifax bomber, though other sources say it was a Boeing B-17.

The biggest concern about the design was the short flight time, which never met the projections made by Walter. With only seven and a half minutes of powered flight, the fighter truly was a dedicated point defense interceptor. To improve this, the Walter firm began developing two more advanced versions of the 509A rocket engine, the 509B and C, each with two separate combustion chambers of differing sizes, oriented one above the other, with greater efficiency. The upper chamber, intended as the motor's primary power output, was larger, and supported by the "thrust tube" exactly as the 509A motor's single chamber had been. It was tuned for "high power" for takeoff and climb. The smaller-volume, lower chamber, with approximately 400 kg (880 lb) of thrust at its top performance level, was intended for more efficient, lower-power cruise flight.

This HWK 109-509 C would improve endurance by as much as 50%. Two 163 Bs, models V6 and V18, were experimentally fitted with the new engine, a retractable tailskid, and tested in spring 1944. On 6 July 1944, the Me 163 B V18 (VA+SP) set a new world speed record of 1,130 km/h (702 mph), piloted by Heini Dittmar, and landed with almost all of the vertical rudder surface broken away from flutter. This record was not broken in terms of absolute speed until 6 November 1947 by Chuck Yeager in a flight that was part of the Bell X-1 test program, with a 1,434 km/h (891 mph), or Mach 1.35 supersonic speed, recorded at an altitude of nearly 14,820 m (48,620 ft) altitude.

However, the X-1 never exceeded Dittmar's speed from a normal runway liftoff. Heini Dittmar had reached the 1,130 km/h (702 mph) performance, after a normal "sharp start" ground takeoff, without an air drop from a mother ship. Neville Duke exceeded Heini Dittmars record mark in 31 August 1953, with the Hawker Hunter F Mk3 at a speed of 1,171 km/h (728 mph), after a normal ground start. Aircraft of the configuration the Me 163 used were found to have serious stability problems when entering transonic flight, like the similarly configured, and turbojet powered, Northrop X-4 Bantam and de Havilland DH 108, which made the V18's record with the Walter 509C "cruiser" rocket more remarkable.

Waldemar Voigt (aerospace engineer) of Messerschmitt's Oberammergau project and development offices started a redesign of the 163 to incorporate the new engine, as well as fix other problems. The resulting Me 163 C design featured a larger wing through the addition of an insert at the wing root, an extended fuselage with extra tank capacity through the addition of a "plug" insert behind the wing, and a new pressurized cockpit topped with a bubble canopy for improved visibility. The additional tank capacity and cockpit pressurization allowed the maximum altitude to increase to 15,850 m (52,000 ft), as well as improving powered time to about twelve minutes, almost doubling combat time (from about five minutes to nine). Three Me 163C-1a prototypes were planned, but it appears only one was flown, without its intended engine.

By this time the project was moved to Junkers. There, a new design effort under the direction of Heinrich Hertel at Dessau attempted to improve the Komet. The Hertel team had to compete with the Lippisch team and their Me 163C. Hertel investigated the Me 163 and found it was not well suited for mass production and not optimized as a fighter aircraft, with the most glaring deficiency being the lack of retractable landing gear. For this, the Me 163V-18 was equipped with a non-retractable tricycle landing gear. (This prototype is often called the "Me 163D", but it is now clear that there never was a 163 D.) The resulting Junkers Ju 248 used a three-section fuselage to ease construction.

The V1 prototype was completed for testing in August 1944, and was glider tested behind a Junkers Ju 188. Some sources state that the Walter 109-509 C engine was fitted in September, but it was probably never tested under this power. At this point the RLM re-assigned the project to Messerschmitt, where it became the Me 263. This appears to have been a formality only, with Junkers continuing the work and planning production.
By the time the design was ready to go into production, the plant where it was to be built was overrun by Soviet forces. While it did not reach operational status, the work was briefly continued by the Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich (MiG) design bureau as the Mikoyan-Gurevich I-270.

Active combat operations began in May 1944, although on a small scale. As expected, the aircraft was extremely fast; and for a time, the Allied fighters were at a complete loss as what to do about it. Singly or in pairs, the Komets attacked, often faster than the opposing fighters could dive in an attempt to intercept them. A typical Me 163 tactic was to zoom through the bomber formations at 9,000 m (30,000 ft), rise up to an altitude of 10,700–12,000 m (35,100–39,000 ft), then dive through the formation again. This approach afforded the pilot two brief chances to fire a few rounds from his cannons before gliding back to his airfield. The pilots reported that it was possible to make four passes on a bomber, but only if it was flying alone.

As the cockpit was unpressurized, the operational ceiling was limited by what the pilot could endure for several minutes while breathing oxygen from a mask, without losing consciousness. Pilots underwent altitude-chamber training to harden them against the rigors of operating in the thin air of the stratosphere without a pressure suit. Special low-fiber diets were prepared for pilots, as gas in the gastrointestinal tract would expand rapidly during ascent.

More than three years passed before Major Wolfgang Späte could form the first Me 163 combat wing, (Jagdgeschwader 400 (JG 400) ), in Brandis near Leipzig, which followed the establishment of the Erprobungskommando 16 Me 163B-dedicated test and evaluation unit at Peenemunde-West eleven months earlier. JG 400's purpose was to provide additional protection for the Leuna synthetic gasoline works which were raided particularly heavily and frequently at the end of 1944. A further group was stationed at Stargard near Stettin to protect the large synthetic plant at Pölitz (today Police, Poland). Further defensive units of rocket fighters were planned for Berlin, the Ruhr and the German Bight.

The first actions involving the Me 163 occurred at the end of July, when two USAAF B-17 Flying Fortress were attacked without confirmed kills. Combat operations continued from May 1944 to spring 1945. During this time, there were nine confirmed kills with 14 Me 163s lost. Feldwebel Siegfried Schubert was the most successful pilot, with three bombers to his credit.

Allied fighter pilots soon noted the short duration of the powered flight. They would wait, and when the engine died they would pounce on the unpowered Komet. However, the Komet was extremely manoeuvrable and could pull out of a turn much later than any Allied fighter. Another Allied method was to attack the fields the Komets operated from, and strafed them after the Me 163s landed. Establishing a defensive perimeter with anti-aircraft guns ensured that Allied fighters avoided these bases.

At the end of 1944, 91 aircraft had been delivered to JG 400 but a continuous lack of fuel had kept most of them grounded. It was clear that the original plan for a huge network of Me 163 bases was never going to happen. Up to that point, JG 400 had lost merely six aircraft due to the enemy actions. Nine were lost to other causes, remarkably low for such a revolutionary and technically advanced aircraft. In those last days of the Third Reich the Me 163 was given up in favour of the more successful and threatening Me 262. In May 1945, Me 163 operations were stopped, the JG 400 disbanded, and many of their pilots sent to fly Me 262s.

In any operational sense, the Komet was a failure. Although they shot down 16 aircraft, mainly expensive four-engined bombers, that did not warrant the efforts put into the project. With the projected Me 263, things could have turned out differently, but the Komet was an ineffective fighter aircraft. Due to fuel shortages late in the war, few went into combat, and it took an experienced pilot with excellent shooting skills to achieve "kills" with the Me 163.
The Komet was a remarkable design that pointed the way to the future. It was one more piece of evidence that the day of the propeller fighter was over, and it also spawned later weapons like the Bachem Ba 349 Natter and Convair XF-92. Ultimately, the point defense role that the Me 163 played would be taken over by the surface-to-air missile (SAM), Messerschmitt's own example being the Enzian. The airframe designer, Alexander Martin Lippisch went on to design delta-winged supersonic aircraft for the Convair Corporation.

Source: Wikipedia

War and Social Upheaval: NAZI Rearmament/Aufrüstung.

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Tue, 08 Mar 2011 06:10:00 +0000

Hitler and the Nazi's planned from the beginning for a massive rearmament program - Aufrüstung. Nazi propaganda promoted the idea that Germany must rearm. The Nazi objectives could in fact only be achieved by war. The Nazi's did not, however, begin a massive rearmament program immediately upon seizing power in 1933. Hitler's first objective was to secure control of Germany and he did not want to precipitate foreign intervention before he was ready. The German military itself has already sponsored secret armament programs during the Weimar era in violation of the Versailles Treaty.

The Nazi's thus had a solid foundation upon which to base a revived military. The Nazi's sharply expand weapon research. The German military expanded in secret during 1933 - 1934. Hitler by March 1935, felt sufficiently secure to publicize his military. The Nazi's announced that they expansion - which broke the terms of the Versailles Treaty. Europe learned that the Nazi's had a modern 2,500 plane Luftwaffe and a Wehrmacht with 300,000 men.

Hitler publicly announced that he was instituting a compulsory military conscription and planned to expand the Wehrmacht to 550,000 men. Actual armaments production began in earnest in 1936. The Nazi's in 1936 doubled armaments spending over 1935 levels. It was in 1936 that Nazi arms spending first exceeded the combined total for transportation and construction spending. The nature of arms spending also increased. Nazi arms spending initially focused on research, development, and capital investment. The Nazi's in 1936 began concentrating on producing actual military equipment. This is one of the least economically beneficial types of government spending.

Evasion of the Versailles Treaty (1919-33)

The German military had been the most powerful in Europe. The Prrussian officer class which had been the backbone of German military leadership was extremely resentful of the limitations imposed by the Treaty. As a result, the German from the breginning set out to evade the limitations. Some of these were authorized by the civilian Weimar Government. Others were conducted by the military in secret, both from the Allies and from the Government. Some of these efforts were suptergfuges to like non-military names to desguise the purposes of groups and keeping military connections secret. Another ploy was to conduct activities and programs in foreign countries. The German military itself has already sponsored secret armanents programs during the Weimar era in violation of the Versailles Treaty. The Nazi's thus had a solid foundation upon which to base a revived military.

NAZI Seizure of Power (1933)

The Nazi's after the July 1932 election were the largest German political party, but did not have a majority in the Reichstag. President Hindenburg refused to appoint Hitler Chancellor and instead turned to Papen. The political situatation remain unstable. The newly elected Reichstag in eptember voted no confidence in the Papen government. The November 1932 Reichstag election results were: Nazi Party 196 seats, Social Democrats 121 seats, The Communist Party 100 seats, and the Centre Party 70 seats. The Nazi's lost a few seats, but continued to be the biggest party in the Reichstag. Hitler continued to demand to be appointed Chancellor, Hindenburg refused saying that he said he did not trust Hitler to rule democratically. Hindenburg preferred Papen, but the Army objected. Hindenburg turned to General Kurt von Schleicher who lasted 57 days. Finally Hidenberg, running out of options, turned to Hitler whom he appointed January 30, 1933. Hidenberg attempted to control Hitler by placing Papen as vice-chancellor and surrounding Hitler with moderate ministers who supported Papen.

Hitler bycarefully selecting his cabinent posts was within days gaining control. To be sure of success, however, he needed a mahority in the Reichstag. He insisted on a new election. In the middle of the elections the Reichstag went up in flames on Februarry 27, 1933. A Dutch Communist was blamed. Historins still debate who was responsible. Many blamed the Nazi's, but it appears that neither they or the Communist Party was responsible. Hitler took full advantage of the situation and claimed that the fire was a Communist plot, and persuaded Hindenburg to sign an emergency Law for the Protection of the People and State. The law suspended people's rights and allowed the Nazis to arrest many Communists and others.

Fear of Communism gained the Nazi's additional support at the polls. The March 1933 election results were: Nazi Party 288 seats, Social Democrats 120 seats, Communist Party 81 seats, Centre Party 73 seats, and Others 85 seats. The Nazi's still did not have a majority. Over half of the voters chose other parties. The Nationalist Party, however, decided to support the Nazi's. Their 53 deputies added to the 288 Nazi deputies provided the slim majority Hitler needed. Hitler immediately put an Enabling Act before the Reichstag and asked the members to vote for it. The Enabling Law (the Nazi's called it the Law for the Removal of Distress frommPeople and Reich) gave Hitler as Chancellor the power to make laws by decree for the next 4 years without Reichstag approval. Nazi SA storm troopers lined the entrance to the Reichstag to intimidate the opposition delegated. Only 94 members Social Democrat deputies (the Communists had been arrested) voted against the Enabling Law. Hitler now had the legal authority to reshape Germany.

Importance of the Military

Hitler and the Nazi's planned from the beginning for a massive rearmament program. Nazi propaganda promoted the idea that Germany must rearm. Military power was a strong component of the ethos that Hitler and other Nazi's desired for Germany.

The Versilles limitations on the German military was one of the Versailles Treaty provisions to which the Nazi's objected. Equally important was the simple fact that the Nazi objectives could in fact only be achieved by military force and war. One of Hitler's most impassioned targets in his speeches and in Mein Kampf was the hated Versailles Treaty. " that he would break the "unjust" terms of the Treaty of Versailles. He made no secret of the fact that would undo the Versailles Treaty and rearm Germany. The true were related in that undoing Versailles meant regainng territory from neighboring states, especially Czechoslovakia and Poland, but also Lithuania, Belgium, and France. Even more importantly were the racial aspects of Mein Kampf targetting Jews and Slavs. The Jews were a soft target, but the Slavs were another matter. Hitler spoles of Lebensraum. Here he meant vast tracts of land in Eastern Europe where Germans could persue the idealic rural life so admired by the Nazi's.

Hitler writes in Mein Kampf that the British naval blockade was an important factor in Germany's defeat in WW I. He saw the Ukraine and other lands in the East as providing the agricultural base and raw materials that would make a naval blockade meaningless. This meant, however, war and not just war with neighboring Poland, but war with the Soviet Union. The Soviets were not like Poland a weak military power, but had a huge military establishment. Hitler did not talk of war after he seized power, but there could be no question among those who assessed his goals that Nazi Germany would wage war.

NAZI Strategy

The Nazi's did not, however, begin a massive rearmament program immediately upon seizing power in 1933. Hitler's first objective was to secure control of Germany abd he did not want to preciptate foreign intervention before he was ready.

The primary objective was to gain control over state police power and set up concentration camps where Communists and other political opponents could be dealt with. The burning of the Reichstag (February 27) provided the excused needed for Hitler to seize control of Germany. President von Hindenburg signed am emergency decree (February 28). This suspend articles in the Weimar constitution which guaranteed personal liberty, freedom of expression of opinion, freedom of the press, freedom from domiciliary visits, right to hold meetings and form associations, and the privacy, of postal, telegraph, and telephone service.

The Nazi's proceeded to arrest all the Communist deputies in the Reichstag and Landtag as well as all Communist civil servants in the Prussian state. This gave Hitler control of te Reichstag and the the ability to imposed dictatorial rule in Germany. The Reichstag passed the Enabling Act gave dictatorial authority to the Nazi Government for 4 years (March 24).He then systemactically moved against political opponents.

Luftwaffe Creation (1933-35)

The new Chancellor, Adolf Hitler, soon after taking office appointed one of his cloest associates, Herman Göring, as National Commissar for Aviation and former Lufthansa employee, Erhard Milch, to be his deputy. This enabeled Göring and Milch not only to coordinate the programs alread secretly in place by the German military, but to use the vast new sums approved by Hitler for aew German airforce. Soon afterwards, Hitler created the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM - Reich Air Ministry) (March 1933).

The RLM was created to developm and produce new aircraft. Its cover was that it was working on civilian aviation. A test site was opened at Rechlin. Hitler looked on Göring with his Worlkd War I experience for expertise in aviation. As a result, Göring had absolute control over all aspects of aviation in the Reich. The Nazi's next seized control of the Deutschen Luftsportverband (DVLA--German Air Sport Association) March 23, 1933). It proceeded to absorb all private and national organizations, while retaining its 'sports' title. The RLM scretly took control of all military aviation organizations (May 15, 1933). While not announced at the time, this was in fact the creatioin of the Luftwaffe. At this time members of the Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps (NSFK--National Socialist Flyers Corps) transferred to the Luftwaffe.

As these men were Nazi Party members, this gave the Luftwaffe from its very creation, a Nazi core. While the there was considerable support for the Nazi's in the Heer, the other services did not have a Nazi core. Luftwaffe a strong Nazi ideological base in contrast to the other branches of the German military. Göring despite his leadership post, left the development of the new service to Milch and other subordinates with actual expertise. Führer Adolf Hiter ordered Reichmarshal Herman Göring to formally establish the Luftwaffe (February 26, 1935). The Versailles Treaty was still theoretically in force. Göring announced the existence of the until then secret Luftwaffe (March 10). This must have been carefully coergraphed with Hitler in advance. It is unclear why it was Göring who made the announcement. Of course he was the head of the new Luftwaffe, but an announcement of such significane you would think would be made by Hitler.

As a violation of the Versailles Treaty, it could have meant Allied intervention. Presumably because Göring made the announcement, Hitler had some room for maneuver if the Allies threatened to intervene, but they did not. This left Hitler free to make an event more important announcement. Shortly after Göring's announcenent and following the celevbation marking the return of the Saarland to Germany, Hitler announced his the new Luftwaffe to the German public.

Sureptitious steps taken by the German military before and after the Nazi takeover made this a less daunting proposition than it might seem. The personnel was lrgely drawn from the Heer. This had the consequence of creating a tctical support mentality in the new Lutwaffe which bwould have significant consequences for World War II. (The American and British sairforces had a more strastehic vission.) Hitler also announced a new military conscription program. Both were flagrant violations of the Versailles Treaty. This would have justified the Allied reoocupation of Germany. Britain and France took no action beyond purfunctoary diplomatic protests. Allied kleaders as erll as the general public had no stomache for it. In fact Britain, bent on appeasing Hitler, proceeded to reward him with a naval treaty.

Military Research

The Nazi's sharply expand weapon research.

Cabinet Meeting (June 1933)

Even the most superficial reading of Mein Kampf will reveal that Hitler from the very beginning saw war as the central to achieving Nazi goals. Nazi opponents pointed this out, but Hitler denied it. But it was obvious this was what he planned. So within months of seizing power, the cabinent made the fateful decesion to massively rearm and expand the German military-Aufrüstung. There is some difference of opinion as to just when this occurred.

The most likely point was a cabinent meeting (June 8, 1933). This was the same day that the Government announced the moritorium on debt repayment. The meeing was attended by Chancelloe Hitler, Finance Minister Schacht (a Nuremberg defendent), Defense Minister Blomberg. Göring, and Air Ministry Secretary of State Milch. It was here that the financial package to pay for the expansion was decided. Schacht was thus the key participant because he had to approve the financial packet and arrange the financing. It was a serious decesion as German finances at the time were weak and the spending package was enormous 35 billion Reichmarks over 8 years. This was 4.4 billion Reichmarks annually.

The scale of the expamnsin can be seen in the simple fact that durung the Weimar Republic, military spending never even approachedf 1.0 billion Reichmarks. German GNP had declined to 43 billion Reichmarks (1933). This meant Hitler was planning to devote 10 percent of national income to a rearmamemt program. (The percentage burden would decline somewhat as the German economy declined from Depression levels.) [Tooze, pp. 33-34.] It was spending three to four times that of the British and French in proportinal ters and even more than that of the United states.

Only Japan and the Soviet Union comparasble levels of military spending. The decesion reached of course was not announced as it was a flagarant violation of the Versailles Treaty. The only surviving record of the meeting is a 1938 Wehrmacht memorandum. Only Göring and Schacht surrvived the War and neither was anxious to describe their participation in the metting that could lead directly to Second WW.

Financing Rearmament

Finance Minister Hjalmar Schacht continued some of the programs of the previous government as well as introduced a variety of novel schemes to address both rhe Depression and to finance the massive rearmament program. A key part of Schacht's financing program was MEFO. The large amount of funds needed were obained through MEFO which issued bills--essentially IOUs. The MEFO nills were credit notes issued by the Government. As MEFO bills were not pubically annoubced as government borroeing, the level od government indebtedness was not widely understood by the financial community.

Geneva Disarmament Conference (October 1933)

Hitler employed a clever tactic at the Geneva Disarmament Conference. He offered a plan which could be justified within Gernany as quite reasonable. He proposed that the French should disarm to the level allowed Germny by the Versailles Treaty or that Grmany should be allowed to rearm to the level of the Fremch Army. When the French rejected the oroposal, Hitler withdrew from the conference (October 14). Of course Hitler knew that the French would reject the proposal, but Nazi propaganda could paint the French as responsible for breaking up the conference.

Secret Expansion (1933-34)

The German military expanded in secret during 1933-34. Hitler ordered the Reichwehr to begin planning to treble the size of the army permitted by the Versailles Treaty. This would nomimlly bring the army to 300,000 men. He then ordered the Air Ministry to plan to for a 1,000 plane airforce. Other steps were taken to lay the foundation for an expanded military like buildings barracks.

Night of the Long Knives (1934)

With the death of Hindenburg, the only force left in Germany threatening Hitler and the Nazi's was the Reichwehr. Army officers were split on Hitler. Officers were highly nationalistic and this aspect of the Nazi's appealed to many. Others were lienated by the brutality and excesses of the Nazi's.

The aristocratic Prussian officer corps also looked down on the working-class origins of mich of the SA. The key issue was the Nazi para-military Sturmarbeitelung (SA - Storm Troopers). This was a direct threat to the Reichwehr. And SA leader Ernst Röhm did actually intend to turn the SA into a real army. The SA had played a major role in the rise of the Nazi's and Röhm was among Hitler's cloesest associates. He was also as commander of the SA a threat to Hitler's control of the Nazi Party. It was a diffcult decession for Hitler and apparently forged documents by Himmler and Heydrich finally convinced Hitler that eliminating Röhm and the independence of the SA was necessary.

The SS under Himmler and Heydrich struck (June 30, 1934). The action became kniwn as the “Night of Long Knives,” The SS arrested Röhm and other key SA leaders were summoned to a villa outside Berlin, where they were arrested. Röhm was taken to prison, where he was beaten and ordered to confess. He refused both to confess or commit suicide. He was then shot. The SS used the opportunity to eliminate several other political opponents. The elimination of Röhm and the removal of the SA as a serious competitor was enough to gain the support of the Army which became the new German Wehrmacht. The officers and men of the Wehrmacht then swore personal loyalty to Adolf Hitler as Führer of the German Reich.

Saarland Plebecite (January 1935)

The Saar was a small territory in southwestern Germany with a population of about 800,000 people in 1933. It is located in southwestern Germany and is bounded by France on the south, Luxembourg in the west, and the German Rhineland-Palatinate on the north and east. The capital is Saarbrücken, a city on the Saar River. The Saarland was not a region that had any notable cohesion or historical role before WW I. The population was largely German-speaking Catholics.

The region is named after the Saar River which rises in the French Vosges Mountains and is located west of the Rhine. Important coal mines are located in the Saarland and is heavily industrialized. After WW I, the Treaty of Versailles made the Saarland an autonomous territory to be administered by France until 1935 when a plebecite would determine its final status. This reflected the general principle of national self-determination employed by the Allies after the War. The Versailles and other treaties which ended the War did not determine the final disposition of several territories. This was left to a series of plebecites.

The population in the Saarland voted in a plebiscite to rejoin Germany which at the time meant Nazi Germany (January 1935). The vote probably reflected a the population's desire to rejoin Germany and not a referendum on the Nazi's. It is likely that the vote would have gone to rejoin Germany regardless of the government in Berlin. One author describes it as a choice for "ethno-unification". The Saarlanders were the first German speakers to rejoin Reich under Nazi rule. The whole process was totally legal under the terms of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler who at the time was attempting to establish an image as a moderate leader, took the opportunity to renounce any further claims on France (January 1934).

Decesion to Go Public (March 1935)

It was in March 1935 when Hitler decided to make public his rearmament program. Hitler since seizing power had worked closely with the the military to rearm in violation of the Versailles Peace Treaty. Suddenly Hitler decided to announce the rearmament program to both the domestic population and the international community. We are not sure why he picked this time. There are several factors that probably played into his decision. By 1935 the dimensions of the program were becoming more difficult to keep secret. Stalin knew about it and the Allies (Britain and France) were becoming increasing aware.

In addition the domestic oposition had been defeated and the military placated. The Nazi police state well established. Hitler was elated with his success in the Saarland and had just spoken at Saarbrücken (March 1). Thus he felt secure enough to take this important step. His exultation seems to have been a factor in public announcement concerning the until then secreat rearmament program. He decided to made two major announcements, both fundamental violations of the Versailles Treaty. We do not know to what extent he discussed this decision with his intimates. He must have dicussed it with Göring because the Reich Marshal made the first public announcement.

The Luftwaffe (March 10, 1935)

Reich Mashal Göring announced the existence of the until then secret Luftwaffe (March 10). This must have been discussed with Hitler in advance. It is unclear why it was Göring who made the announcement. Of course he was the head of the Luftwaffe, but an announcement of such significane you would think would be made by Hitler. As a violation of the Versailles Treaty, it could have meant Allied intervention. Presumably because Göring made the announcement, Hitler had some room for maneuver if the Allies threatened to intervene, but they did not. This left Hitler free to make an event more important announcement.

Reintroducing Conscription (March 15-16, 1935)

German Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler announced the existence of the German Air Force--the Luftwaffe (March 15, 1935). The Luftwaffe already had 2,500 planes--a major force. This was a direct violation of one of the basic restrictions in the the Versailles Treaty. He also announced the reintroduction of military conscription for all able bodied men who had reached 19 years of age. . This was an even more serious violation than the creation of the Luftwaffe. Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick drafted the conscription law.

The Wehrmacht was to be expanded to 0.5 million men--five times that allowed by the Versailles Treaty. This meant that Hitler was scrapping the Versailles Peace Treaty. That of course was only the beginning. Germany was preparing to build a 36-division Army. Germany’s national defence force during the Weimar Era was the Reichswehr. The military was in the Conscription Law renamed the Wehrmacht. The new Wehrmacht consisted of the Heer (army), the Kriegsmarine (navy) and the Luftwaffe (air force).

The Nazi's after the announcement staged a large military parade the following day in Berlin. Defense Minister General Werner von Blomberg announced that Germany would now be able to take its rightful place among nations again. Hitler followed his consistent approach of speaking about how committed Germany was to peace. In addition to laying the foundation for a massive military firce, conscription also created jobs, helping to solve the seious unemployment problem in Germany at the time Hitler seized power. This along with expanded orders for arms and equipment, various jobs programs like the RAD, dismisals of women and Jews (not counted in the unemoloyment statistics) was ending the Depression era unemployment problem in Germany.

Diplomatic Protests

The Allies limited themselves to verbal protests. No sanctions were imposed against the Reich.

Stresa Front (April 11, 1935)

The Allies (England, France, Italy) declared a Stresa Front to defend the boundary agreements of the 1925 Locarno Pact (April 11).

Franco-Soviet Alliance (May 2, 1935)

France and the Soviet Union signed an alliance (May 2). The target was a rearming Germany.

Hitler Projects Moderation

Hitler after taking the major steps leading to war (the Luftwaffe and Conscription) next took steps to project a moderate image. He knew that this was just what peace groups in Britain and France wanted to hear. He addressed the Reichstag in Berlin and projected both moderation and conciliation. He declared, "Germany wants peace. .... None of us means to threaten anybody," He then presented a 13 point peace program with a seies of promises. He got what he wanted--the ability to build a powerful modern military.

These promises cost him nothing. Not only were they well received in Germany where most people had no desire for war, but also among the peace groups in the West and politicans who were terified with the possibility of another war. He even assured Brirain and France that Germany will respect all other provisions of the Treaty of Versailles including the demilitarization of the Rhineland. He assured the Allies, "Germany is ready to cooperate in a collective system for safeguarding European peace; and the German government is ready in principle to conclude pacts of non-aggression."

Turning Point

The reinstitution of conscription in 1935 was a basic turning point in the move toward World War II. Many after the War would ask if Hitler could have been stopped and if so when. Historians after the War debated at what point should the democracies have intervened and stopped Hitler. Surely the time would have been the reintroduction of conscription, the obvious scrapping of the Versailles Treaty. Had they done so, millions of lives would have been saved. Yet at the time, an Allied resonse would have been labeled by many as war mongering and aggression. Many at the time had begun to argue that the Versailles Treaty was unjust and Hitler's was just exerting Germany's just rights. This included many pacifists and peace advocates. Certainly he could have been stopped had the international community had the will to do so. Conscription was the turning point. Germany could not launch aggressive war with a small army.

Conscription gave Hitler the ability to build the large army he so desired. Hitler's move to reinstiture conscription was necessary if he was to wage war. Before this the Allies could have intervened. After conscription and the expansion of the Wehrmact, intervention would mean another major war. This was the turning point in German rearmament and Hitler's plan to build the vehicle for his military aggressions. Up until this point the Allies had the military capability of stopping Hitler without a major war.

Conscription was a clear viloation of the Versailles Treaty giving the Allies the legal right to intervene. Even a cursory read of Mein Kampf clearly indicated that Hitler meant war. Lebensraurm in the East could only be achieved through war. Both Britain and France chose to accept Hitler's moderate posturing and ignore both his writings and many beligerant statements during his rise to power. The only country with an army capable of intervening was France. Here the public's distaste for military action was a powerful fsctor. The French reaction was to continue its defensive defensive military policy based oin the Maginot Line. This was a vast and hugely expensive series of forts and strongpoints running along the French-German border, but ominously ending at the Belgian frontier.

Anglo-German Naval Treaty (June 1935)

Rather than standing up to Hitler, the British were intent on appeasing him. The British even rewarded him for scrapping the Versailles Treaty by signing a naval which allowed him to expand the German Navy. The new British government led by recently-elected Primeminister Stanly Baldwin and Foreign Minister Samuel Hoare decided to neogitate with Hitler rather than confront him.

One wonders why the British thought that having violated one treaty, he could be relied to respect another. Presumably the process was thought his government had not signed the Versailles Treaty and at least the treatybimposed limits on naval construction. The Versailles Treaty had placed narrow limits on the Germany Navy (no submarines and only six warships over 10,000 tons). British and German negotiators signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (June 18, 1935).

The Treaty permitted Germany to have one third of the tonnage of the Royal Navy’s surface fleet (the largest in the world at this time) and an equal tonnage of submarines. The Royal Navy at the time assummed thsat submarines were no longer a threat because of the invention of SONAR (ASDEC). This was a almost fatal mistake. It was Admiral Donitz's U-boats that almost knocked Britain out of the War before British, Canadiab, and American couter measures were developed and deployed. The principle reason the Germans failed, however, was Germany's limited industrial capacity and the decesion of Hitler and the Navy High Command to devote the limited resources allotacted to the Navy for large, impressive surface ships.

Nuremberg Party Rally (September 1935)

Hitler used the annual Nazi party rally as a platform for major announcements. The 1935 Ralley was one of the most important. Hitler used the event for the first public display of the Wehrmacht. He also announced the Flag Law which replaced Weimar's black-red-yellow horizontal striped flag with the swastika flag as Germany's national banner. And he announced anti-Semitic Nuremberg Race Laws.

Production

Actual araments production began in earnest in 1936. The Nazi's in 1936 doubled armamets spending over 1935 levels. It was in 1936 that Nazi arms spending first exceeeded the combined total for transportation and construction spending. The nature of arms spending also increased. Nazi arms spending initially focused on research, development, and capital investment. The Nazi's in 1936 began concentrating on producing actual military equipment. This is one of the least economically beneficial types of government spending.

Remilitarization of the Rhineland (March 1936)

Hitler announced to the Reichstag that as he spoke, the first German troops were crossing the Hohenzollern Bridge in Cologne March 7. This was the beginning of the remilitarization of Rhineland. The Rhineland had been permanently demilitarized under the terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty ending WW I. This was one of the restictions that Hitler railed against in his speeches. The situation in the Rhineland was different than in Saarland. German authorities were in control of the Saarland, Germany was simply not allowed to militarize it.

Hitler's developing relationship with Mussolini by 1936 had ensured that Italy would not object. By 1936 the question was what France would do. The French agreement wth the Soviets in 1936 gave Hitler a pretext for action. This allowed Hitler the ability to appeal to the anti-Communist forces in Britain and France to dnounce the Locarno Pact. Hitler had reason to believe that the French would not react. The Whermacht was ordered to march into the Rhineland March 7, 1936). The Whermacht force sent uinto the Rhineland was aeak one. They were under orders to withdraw if the British and French responded militarily.

A military response from Britain and France could have dramatically changed 20th century history. German at the time did not have the capability of wageing a major war. And there was Poland and Czechoslovakia in the east if the Allies struck in the west. Hitler had gambled and was proven right. Neither France or Britain reacted with force. Many in both countries, especially pacifist spokespersons, charged that the Versailles Treaty was unfair to Germany. They meerly submitted diplomatic protests. This was Hitler's second flagrant violation of the Versailles Treaty. The first was the reintroiduction of conscription. Of course he had already begun the secret rearmanent program which was a violation of the Treaty and details on the rearmament program became apparent in 1936. Perhaps the major outcome of Hitler's gamble was the imense prestige it brought him domestically. This was just one of many pledges Hitler made to the Allies that he subsequently broke.

Military Building Program

Hitler began a military expansion program upon becoming Chancellor (January 1933). At first it was fairly limited and had to be to some extent concealed because of the Versailles Treaty limitations. The reintroductuion of conscription and the creation of the Luftwaffe changed this and large-scale military spending and industrial production rapidy created a massive military. After 1935 the only constraints on military expansion was the capacity of German industry and the foreign exchange needed to import strategic materials. The Wehrmact was given the bulk of the resources necesitatecto build artillery and Panzers as well as other arms and equipment. Important resources wee also devoted to the new Luftwaffe, enough to create the most powerfulair force in the world. Only limited resources wee made available to the German Navy which did not particularly interest Hitler. Although the Anglo-German Naval Treaty (935) opeed the way for Germany to have U-boats, most of the limited resources went to the surface fleet.

Sources

Davidson, Eugene. The Unmaking of Adolf Hitler (Univesity of Missouri: Columbia, 1996), 519p.

Evans, Richard J. The Third Reich in Power (Penguin: New York, 2005), 941p.

Riegler, Hans, Heer, Flotte und Luftwaffe. Wehrpolitisches Taschenbuch (Berlin: Verlag für vaterländische Literatur, 1935).

Tooze, Adam. The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the NAZI Economy (Penguin Books: Mew York, 2007), 800p.

Heer. (army)

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Tue, 08 Mar 2011 03:55:00 +0000

Heer.

During the period of its rebuilding by Hitler the German Army continued to develop concepts pioneered during the First World War, combining ground (Heer) and air (Luftwaffe) assets into combined arms teams. Coupled with operational and tactical methods such as encirclements and the "battle of annihilation", the German military managed several quick victories in the two initial years of the World War II, prompting foreign journalists to create a new word for what they witnessed, Blitzkrieg.

The Wehrmacht entered the war with a majority of its Army infantry formations relying on the horse for transportation while the infantry remained foot soldiers throughout the war, artillery also remaining primarily horse-drawn. The motorized formations received much attention in the World press in the opening years of the war, and were cited as the reason for the success of the German invasions of Poland (September 1939), Norway and Denmark (April 1940), Belgium, France and Netherlands (May 1940), Yugoslavia (April 1941) and the early campaigns in the Soviet Union (June 1941). However their motorized and tank formations accounted for only 20% of the Heer's capacity at their peak strength.

The German Heer, or army, was formed in May of 1935. It was formed after the passing of the "Law for the Reconstruction of the National DefenseForces". This law brough back into existance a free standing German army, navy and airforce, something that had been essentially banned after the end of WW I.

           With the end of World War I and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, the Weimar Republic - the successor to Imperial Germany - was allowed only a small defensive military force known as the Reichswehr. The Reichswehr's size and composition was strictly controlled by the Allies in the hope that by restricting its constitution they could prevent future German military aggression. The Reichswehr consisted of 100,000 men divided between a small standing army, the Reichsheer, and a small defensive navy, the Reichsmarine.

           In 1933 the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) came to power and the infamous Third Reich was born. Two years later in 1935 the Treaty of Versailles was renounced and the Reichswehr became the Wehrmacht. The newly formed Wehrmacht would still consist of an army and a navy - the renamed Heer and Kriegsmarine, but a new airforce was born as well - the Luftwaffe.

           The Heer initially consisted of 21 Divisional sized units and 3 Army Groups to control them, as well as numerous smaller formations. Between 1935 and 1945 this force grew to consist of hundreds of Divisions, dozens of Army Groups and thousands of smaller supporting units. Between 1939 and 1945 close to 13 million served in the Heer. Over 1.6 million were killed and over 4.1 million were wounded. Of the 7361 men awarded the initial grade of the highest German combat honor of Second World War, the Knights Cross, 4777 were from the Heer making up 65% of the total awarded.

           The German Army was mainly structured in Army groups (Heeresgruppen) consisting of several armies that were relocated, restructured or renamed in the course of the war. Forces or allied states as well as units made up of non-Germans were also assigned to German units.

For Operation Barbarossa in 1941, the Army forces were assigned to three strategic campaign groupings:

Army High Command Norway (Armee-Oberkommando Norwegen)
Army Group North (Heeresgruppe Nord) with Leningrad as its campaign objective
Army Group Centre (Heeresgruppe Mitte) with Smolensk as its campaign objective
Army Group South (Heeresgruppe Süd) with Kiev as its campaign objective

Later in the campaign Army Group South was divided into

· Army Group A (Heeresgruppe A) with Caucasus as its campaign objective

· Army Group B (Heeresgruppe B) with Stalingrad as its campaign objective

The troops sent to North Africa to support Italian forces were designated the Afrika Korps.

Among the foreign volunteers who served in the Wehrmacht during WW II were ethnic Germans, Dutch, Spanish and Scandinavians along with people from the Baltic states and the Balkans who were either volunteers or later conscripted for service. Russians recruited from prisoner of war camps fought in the Russian Liberation Army or as Hilfswilliger. Non-Russians from the Soviet Union formed the Ostlegionen. These units were all commanded by General Ernst August Köstring and represented about five percent of the Wehrmacht.

German operational doctrine emphasized sweeping pincer and lateral movements meant to obliterate the enemy as quickly as possible. This "strategy", referred to as Blitzkrieg, was an operational doctrine instrumental in the success of the offensives in Poland and France.

The Wehrmacht's military strength was managed through mission-based tactics (Auftragstaktik) (rather than order-based tactics) and an almost proverbial discipline. In public opinion, the Wehrmacht was and is sometimes seen as a high-tech army, since new technologies that were introduced before and during Second WW influenced its development of tactical doctrine. These technologies were featured by propaganda, but were often only available in small numbers or late in the war, as overall supplies of raw materials and armaments became low. For example only 40% percent of all units were fully motorized, supply columns mainly relied on horses, and most soldiers moved by foot or used bicycles.

German use of fortifications included the Siegfried Line which was intended for defence of the western borders, and the Atlantic Wall erected under command of General Rommel stretching from Denmark to France's border with Spain. The Germans also made great use of fortified cities (termed Festungen) such as Metz, Warsaw, and Poznań during the latter part of the war.

When building temporary field defenses the Heer relied on the defensive tactics developed during the First WW. Infantry would occupy up to five lines of defence with the first being only lightly held advance posts. Further back would be pre-sited anti-tank and artillery positions preferably not registered by the enemy field artillery counter-battery fires. The armoured formations would stage behind these prepared positions to counter-attack any enemy breakthroughs. The armoured reserves would employ a range of counter-offensive tactics depending on the size of the breach and enemy strength. The most important consideration for the defenders would be to hold the flanks of any breach no matter how wide, and then attempt to close the breach.

Max Hastings, British author, historian and ex-newspaper editor, said in a radio interview on WGN Chicago "...there's no doubt that man for man, the German army was the greatest fighting force of the second world war". This view was also explained in his book "Overlord: D-Day and the battle for Normandy". In the book World War II : An Illustrated Miscellany, Anthony Evans writes: 'The German soldier was very professional and well trained, aggressive in attack and stubborn in defence. He was always adaptable, particularly in the later years when shortages of equipment were being felt'.

An often-overlooked characteristic of the late-war German Army was the liberal use of machine-guns with high rates of fire and medium- and heavy-caliber mortars. Although German battalions were often smaller than those of their opponents by 1944, they were still capable, in terms of organic weapons, of bringing substantially higher weights of fire to bear than those of their opponents. This discrepancy in relative weights of fire made the dislodgement of defending German units difficult, and often resulted in Western Allied and Soviet tendencies to 'even the odds' through the use of artillery and air support.

Between 1939 and 1945 the Heer bore the majority of six years worth of fierce combat, some of which was so fierce - as on the Eastern Front - humankind will likely never again see such fighting. Although not immune to the overtones of politics and the occasional brush with questionable actions, the vast majority of German Heer units served with great distinction across many thousands of miles of battlefields.

The Heer was defeated with the German capitulation on May 8th 1945, although some units continued to fight for a few days longer in fits of sporadic resistance, mainly against the Soviets in the East. The Allied Control Council passed a law formally dissolving the Wehrmach on the 20th of August 1946, the official "death" date of the German Heer.

Organisation of the High Command and Government.

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Tue, 08 Mar 2011 01:59:00 +0000

Military Organization of the Third Reich Oberkommando der Wehrmacht The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht or OKW (Wehrmacht High Command, Armed Forces High Command) was part of the command structure of the German armed forces during World War II. In theory, it served as the military general staff for Adolf Hitler's Third Reich, coordinating the efforts of the German Army (Heer), Navy (Kriegsmarine), and Air Force (Luftwaffe). In theory, the OKW was only Hitler's military office, was charged with translating Hitler's ideas into military orders, and had little real control over the Army, Navy and the Air Force High Commands. However, as the war progressed the OKW found itself exercising increasing amounts of direct command authority over military units, particularly in the West. This created a situation such that by 1942 the OKW was the de facto command of Western forces while the OKH (the Army High Command) exercised de facto command of the Russian front. The OKW had been formed in 1938 following the Blomberg-Fritsch Affair which led to the dismissal of Werner von Blomberg and the dissolution of the Reichswehrministerium (Reichs Ministry of War). There was a rivalry between OKW and the OKH (Army High Command, Oberkommando des Heeres): Because most German operations during World War 2 were army operations (with air support), the Army High Command demanded the control over the German military forces. Hitler decided against the OKH and in favour of the OKW. During the war, more and more influence moved from the OKH to the OKW. Norway was the first “OKW war theater.” More and more theaters came under complete control of the OKW. Finally only the Russian Front stayed under control of the Army High Command. The OKW ran military operations on the Western front, Africa and in Italy. In the west operations were further split between the OKW and the Oberbefehlshaber West (OBW, Commander in Chief West), who was Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt (later Field Marshal Günther von Kluge). There was even more fragmentation as naval and air operations had their own commands (Oberkommando der Marine (OKM) and Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL, Hermann Göring) which, while theoretically subordinate, were largely independent from OKW or the OBW. The OKW was headed for the entire war by Wilhelm Keitel and reported directly to Hitler, from whom most operational orders actually originated as he had made himself Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces) and Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres (head of the OKH). Alfred Jodl was Keitel's Chef des Wehrmachtführungsstabes (Chief of Operation Staff), while Walter Warlimont was Deputy Chief. The OKW was indicted but acquitted of charges during the Nuremberg trials of being a criminal organization. Keitel and Jodl however were convicted and sentenced to death by hanging. Oberkommando des Heeres The Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH) was Germany's Army High Command. In theory the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) commanded the OKH. However, the de facto situation after 1941 was that the OKW directly commanded operations on the Western front while the OKH commanded the Russian front. The German Heer, or army, was formed in May of 1935. It was formed after the passing of the "Law for the Reconstruction of the National Defense Forces". This law brough back into existance a free standing German army, navy and airforce, something that had been essentially banned after the end of World War I. With the end of World War I and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, the Weimar Republic - the successor to Imperial Germany - was allowed only a small defensive military force known as the Reichswehr. The Reichswehr's size and composition was strictly controlled by the Allies in the hope that by restricting its constitution they could prevent future German military aggression. The Reichswehr consisted of 100,000 men divided between a small standing army, the Reichsheer, and a small defensive navy, the Reichsmarine. In 1933 the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) came to power and the infamous Third Reich was born. Two years later in 1935 the Treaty of Versailles was renounced and the Reichswehr became the Wehrmacht. The newly formed Wehrmacht would still consist of an army and a navy - the renamed Heer and Kriegsmarine, but a new airforce was born as well - the Luftwaffe. The Heer initially consisted of 21 Divisional sized units and 3 Army Groups to control them, as well as numerous smaller formations. Between 1935 and 1945 this force grew to consist of hundreds of Divisions, dozens of Army Groups and thousands of smaller supporting units. Between 1939 and 1945 close to 13 million served in the Heer. Over 1.6 million were killed and over 4.1 million were wounded. Of the 7361 men awarded the initial grade of the highest German combat honor of World War 2, the Knights Cross, 4777 were from the Heer making up 65% of the total awarded. Between 1939 and 1945 the Heer bore the majority of six years worth of fierce combat, some of which was so fierce - as on the Eastern Front - humankind will likely never again see such fighting. Although not immune to the overtones of politics and the occasional brush with questionable actions, the vast majority of German Heer units served with great distinction across many thousands of miles of battlefields. The Heer was defeated with the German capitulation on May 8th 1945, although some units continued to fight for a few days longer in fits of sporadic resistance, mainly against the Soviets in the East. The Allied Control Council passed a law formally dissolving the Wehrmach on the 20th of August 1946, the official "death" date of the German Heer. There also existed the Oberkommando der Marine (OKM) and the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL) for the navy and the air force respectively. These were theoretically subordinate to the OKW, but in actuality acted quite independently. The Army commanders (Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres, or OBdH for short) of the Wehrmacht were: - from 1935 to 1938, Generaloberst Werner von Fritsch; - from 1938 to 19 December 1941, Generalfeldmarschall Walther von Brauchitsch; - from 19 December 1941 to 30 April 1945, Führer and Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler; and from 30 April 1945 to 8 May 1945, Generalfeldmarschall Ferdinand Schörner. Following German tradition the OBdH did not plan operations. This task was left to the General Staff, so actually the most important man in the Army (and the Navy, but less so in the Luftwaffe, which was commanded by Hermann Göring) was the chief of the general staff. It should be noted that the Heer (army) always has been the leading factor in planning campaigns. Thus there was no such thing as combined planning of the different services. The position of Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, which was by definition superior to the OKH, was not intended for that, nor did it have the resources to do so. Later in the war, the OKH became responsible for fewer and fewer tasks. For example, the invasion of Norway was entirely planned outside the OKH. During WW II, the Chiefs of General Staff were: - from 1 Sep 1938 to 24 Sep 1942, Generaloberst Franz Halder; - from 24 Sep 1942 to 10 June 1944, Generaloberst Kurt Zeitzler; - from 10 June 1944 to 21 July 1944, Generalleutnant Adolf Heusinger; - from 21 July 1944 to 28 Mar 1945, Generaloberst Heinz Guderian; - and from 1 Apr 1945 to 30 Apr 1945, General der Infanterie Hans Krebs. When Hitler took command of the army on 19 Dec 1941, the importance of the GenStdH decreased, and Hitler continued to become more and more responsible for operational planning. Oberkommando der Marine The commanders (Oberbefehlshaber des Marine, or OBdM for short) of the Kriegsmarine were: September 24, 1928- January 30, 1943 Grossadmiral Erich Raeder January 30, 1943 - May 1, 1945 Grossadmiral Karl Dönitz May 1, 1945 - May 8, 1945 Generaladmiral Hans-Georg von Friedeburg (after Dönitz becomes Head of State when Hitler commits suicide) The Luftwaffe Hitler made the Luftwaffe a ministerial level organization. He appointed Herman Göring Reichsminister der Luftfahrt (RLM). The Luftwaffe high command was the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL). The RLM and OKL were were responsible for the direction of research, production and overall maintenance of aircraft. Hitler ordered that the Luftwaffe be established soon after seizing power (1933), although bthis was not made public until 2 years later (1935). The initial organization of the Luftwaffe was similar to the other services. Within a few years, however, as the pace of rearmament quickened, Luftwaffe comanders decided on a geographic organization. OKL oversaw the operational units of the RLM. The operational units were Luftflotten (air fleets). Each Luftflotten was assigned responsible for a specific geographic region. Each was a self-contained operational units equipped with the types of aircraft required for the military operations required in its assigned geographic area. Each Luftflotten had administrative sections including supply elements, maintenance staff, administration and legal departments. Germany began the War with four Luftflotten which was responsible for about a quarter of the Reich. Luftdlotten 1-4 covered northeast, nortwest, southeast, and southwest Germany. As military success expanded the area of German control, new Luftflotten were established. Luftflotte 5 was created conduct operations in the north (Norway and Denmark). Luftflotte 6 carried out the campaign in the East. Luftflotte 7 based vin Berlin assumed resoponsibikity for home defense. Each Luftflotte in turn was divided into varying numbers of air districts (Luftgaue) and air corps (Fliegerkorps). The composition of each Luftflotte varied as to fighter, ground support, bomber, recomisance, and other aitcraft. There were also Luftwaffe infantry divisions, including parachutte and glider units. Anti-aircraft (Flak) units were a major part of the Luftwaffe force component. As the War progressed the Luftwaffe began to using a range of other individuals (Hitler Youth members, oldermen, POWs, and others to man the FLAK gins. Parachute units were formed (1938). After the battle of Crete (1941), they were never again used for actual parachutte operations, but were highly disciplined infantry units. The Luftwaffe also began forming infantry units in the East (1942). These units did not have any sunstantive infantry trainings and were norrmally used in defensive roles. The SA The Sturmabteilung (SA, German for “Storm Division” and is usually translated as stormtroops or stormtroopers) functioned as a paramilitary organization of the NSDAP – the German Nazi party. It played a key role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in the 1930s. SA men were often known as brownshirts from the colour of their uniform and to distinguish them from the SS who were known as blackshirts. The SA was also the first Nazi paramilitary group to develop pseudo-military titles for bestowal upon its members. The SA ranks would be adopted by several other Nazi Party groups, chief among them the SS. The SS The Schutzstaffel (Protective Squadron), or SS, was a large paramilitary organization that belonged to the Nazi party. The SS was led by Heinrich Himmler from 1929 until it was disbanded in 1945 with the defeat of Germany in Second World War. The Nazis regarded the SS as an elite unit, a Party's “praetorian guard,” with all SS personnel selected on racial and ideological grounds. The SS was distinguished from the German military, Nazi Party, and German state officials by their own SS ranks, SS unit insignia, and SS uniforms. The most recognizable branches of the SS, later charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity, were the departments that comprised the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA, Reich Security Head Office), Sicherheitsdienst (SD, Security Service), Einsatzgruppen (Special Mission Groups), the concentration camp service known as the SS-Totenkopfverbände (SS-TV, Death's Head Formations), and the Gestapo (Secret State Police). The SS fighting units, called the Waffen-SS, were to evolve into highly skilled and effective soldiers, in many cases superior in these respects to the German army, the Heer. Of all the German military organizations of WW II the Waffen SS is one of the most widely studied. This is in part because of the combat record of the Waffen-SS and the elite status of many of its units, and in part because of the brutality attributed to some of its formations and the war crimes some of its members were responsible for. By the end of WWII over 1,000,000 soldiers in 38 divisions would serve in the Waffen-SS, including over 200,000 conscripts. The Waffen-SS was a part of the German Schutzstaffel or SS, which saw its rise during the late 1920s and early 1930s. The SS was the single most powerful political organization within the Third Reich and consisted of the Allgemeine-SS, Totenkopfverbande, and the Waffen-SS. The Waffen-SS was born in 1933 after Hitler came to power when Politisches Bereitschaften or Political Readiness Detachments were formed under the control of the SS. These units were organized along military lines and were intended to help counter Communist strikes. On October 1st, 1934 these units became the SS-Verfügungstruppen or SS Special Use Troops. Initially the Verfügungstruppen consisted of small detachments located in larger German cities but by 1935 they were organized into battalions and in 1936 into Standarten or regiments. In 1936 two main SS-V Standarten existed, Deutschland and Germania. The Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler also existed at this time and although related it was considered somewhat outside the purview of the SS-V. In 1938 the SS-Verfügungstruppen took part in the occupation of Austria and Czechoslovakia along side the Wehrmacht. After the occupation of Austria a third Standart was formed known as Der Führer. In 1939 the SS-Verfügungstruppen consisted of three Standarden, the LAH, and a number of smaller service and support units. For the Campaign in Poland in 1939 all SS-V units were organized into the SS-Verfügungstruppe-Division and placed under the operational command of the Wehrmacht. The SS-Verfügungstruppe-Division also fought in the Western Campaign 1940. After the conclusion of the Western Campaign the SS-Verfügungstruppen was renamed and became the Waffen-SS. Although the Waffen-SS is frequently considered an elite organization not all of its units were actually elite. Some Waffen-SS units formed after 1943 had less than ideal combat records. This was in part due to the fact that the number of volunteers eligible for service in the Waffen-SS shrank as the war continued while the need for replacements increased. The number of conscripts taken into the Waffen-SS of lesser quality or questionable ability had a direct impact on combat effectiveness. After Second World War ended the Waffen-SS was condemned at the Nurnberg Trials as a criminal organization. This was in part due to a series of high profile atrocities and because of their connection to the SS and NSDAP. Only those who were conscripted into the Waffen-SS were exempt from the Nurnberg declaration. As a result Waffen-SS veterans were generally denied the rights and benefits granted to other WW II German veterans. Waffen-SS prisoners of war were often held in strict confinement and were treated harshly by the Soviets. Many foreign volunteers that served in the Waffen-SS were also treated severely by their national governments. In the years since Worl War II there have been attempts to rehabilitate the image and legality of Waffen-SS veterans, both through legislation and in published works by former officers like Paul Hausser (Soldaten wie andere auch - Soldiers Like Any Other). To this day the stigma on veterans from the Waffen-SS remains. After the war, the judges of Nuremberg Trials declared the entirety of the SS as a criminal organization, among others because of its implementation of racial policies of genocide. The Volkssturm The Volkssturm, literally translated as People's Storm in the meaning of National Storm, was a German national militia of the last months of the Nazi regime. It was founded on Adolf Hitler's orders on October 18, 1944 and effectively conscripted all males between the ages of 16 to 60 years of age (who did not already serve in some military unit) as part of the German Home Guard. National Socialist Motor Corps The National Socialist Motor Corps (German: Nationalsozialistisches Kraftfahrerkorps; NSKK), also known as the National Socialist Drivers Corps, was a paramilitary organization of the Nazi Party that existed from 1931 to 1945. The group was a successor organization to the older National Socialist Automobile Corps, which had existed since the beginning of 1930. The National Socialist Motor Corps was the smallest of the Nazi Party organizations and had originally been formed as a motorized corps of the Sturmabteilung (SA). In 1934, the group had a membership of approximately ten thousand and was separated from the SA to become an independent organization. This action may have saved the NSKK from extinction, as shortly thereafter the SA suffered a major purge during the Night of the Long Knives. The primary aim of the NSKK was to educate its members in motoring skills. They were mainly trained in the operation and maintenance of high performance motorcycles and automobiles. In the mid 1930s, the NSKK also served as a roadside assistance group, comparable to the modern-day American Automobile Association or the British Automobile Association. Membership in the NSKK did not require any knowledge of automobiles and the group was known to accept persons for membership without drivers' licenses. It was thought that training in the NSKK would make up for any previous lack of knowledge. The NSKK did, however, adhere to racial doctrine and screened its members for Aryan qualities. The NSKK was also a paramilitary organization with its own system of paramilitary ranks. With the outbreak of WW II in 1939, the National Socialist Motor Corps became a target of the Wehrmacht for recruitment, since NSKK members possessed knowledge of motorized transport, whereas the bulk of the Wehrmacht relied on horses. Most NSKK members thereafter joined the regular military, serving in the transport corps of the various service branches. In 1945, the NSKK was disbanded and the group was declared a “condemned organization” at the Nuremberg Trials (although not a criminal one). This was due in part to the NSKK’s origins in the SA and its doctrine of racial superiority required from its members. National Socialist Flyers Corps The National Socialist Flyers Corps was a paramilitary organization of the Nazi Party that was founded in the early 1930s during the years when a German Air Force was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. The organization was based closely on the organization of the Sturmabteilung (SA) and maintained a system of paramilitary ranks closely associated with the SA. During the early years of its existence, the NSFK conducted military aviation training in gliders and private airplanes. When Nazi Germany formed the Luftwaffe, many NSFK members transferred. As all such prior NSFK members were also Nazi Party members; this gave the new Luftwaffe a strong Nazi ideological base in constrast to the other branches of the German military, who were comprised of “Old Guard” officers from the German aristocracy. The National Socialist Flyers Corps continued to exist after the Luftwaffe was founded, but to a much smaller degree. During Second World War, the NSFK mainly performed air defense duties such as reserve anti-aircraft service. Organisation of the High Command and Government. Fuhrer (Reich Chancellor, President and Minister of War): Adolf Hitler
OKW (Armed Forces, Wehrmacht) : Adolf Hitler Chief of Staff: Keitel Chief of Operation Staff: Jodl Chief of Plans: Warlimont Chief of Foreign and Counter-Intelligence: Canaris (to February 1944)
OKH (Army, Heer): von Brauchitsch to December 1941, Hitler Chief of Staff: Halder to September 1942, Zeitzler to July 1944, Guderian to March 1945, Krebs	OKL (Air Force, Luftwaffe): Goring to April 1945, von Greim Chief of Staff: Jeschonnek to August 1943, Korten to July 1944, Kreipe to October 1944, Koller	OKM (Navy, Kriegsmarine): Raeder to January 1943, Donitz to May 1945, von Friedeburg

Reich Ministries:	State Functionaries:	Party Offices:
Foreign: von Ribbentrop to May 1945, von Krosigk Interior: Frick to August 1943, *Himmler* (also chief of Waffen SS) Munitions: Todt to February 1942, Transport: Dorpmüller Propaganda: Goebbels to May 1945, Naumann Eastern Occupied Territories: Rosenberg	Inspectorate Road System: Todt DAF (German workers organisation): Ley Labour Mobilisation (including slave workers):Sauckel Four-Year-Plans: Goring	Chancellery: Hess to May 1941, Bormann Treasurer: Schwarz Organisation: Ley Youth: von Schirach to August 1940, Axmann Press: Dietrich to March 1945 Foreign: Rosenberg SS: Himmler RSHA with Gestapo, SD and Police: Heydrich to June 1942, Kaltenbrunner

The Axis Alliance

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Tue, 08 Mar 2011 00:21:00 +0000

The Axis Alliance

Germany, Italy, and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact September 27, 1940. The agreement allied Germany and Italy (which were at war with Britain) and Japan (which was at war with China). Germany and Italy has since 1939-40 been at war with Britain. Japan since 1937 had been at war with China. The alliance did not require the partners to join these wars, but it did require them to come to each other's aid if attacked by any country. The alliance became known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis alliance, or commonly the Axis. The three Axis partners recognized German hegemony over most of Europe; Italian hegemony in the Mediterranean, and Japanese hegemony in East Asia. After the Axis agreement was signed, several German allies joined the Axis, notably Vichy France and Fascist Spain refused to do so. Japan had no Asian allies, except for the puppet state of Manchukuo.

Background

Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in the 1920s provided a model for Hitler. Mussolini was at first dimissive of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi’s. After Hitler seized power he was concened about the independence of Austria anbd possible German clains to the Italian held South Tyrol. After Allied criticism of his seixzure of Ethiopia, Mussolini began to warm to Hitler.

It was Mussolini in 1936 that proposed a Rome-Berlin AXIS. By 1937 it was Hitler that was increasingly calling the tune. Mussolini made no effort to interfere with Hitler at the Munichgh Conference. And he convinced Mussolini, after facing down the British at Munich, to sign the anti-Commitern Pact in November 1937.

Dazzeled by the success of the Germans, Mussolini after France was near collapse, entered the War. Japan, the other major partner, was of mixed minds about Nazi Germany. The Nazi-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 1939) damaged the reputation of many seeking to build a closer relsationship with Germany against the Soviet Union. American diplomacy supporting China, however, gradually convinced the Japanese that they would have to confront America and they saw an alliance with Germany as a way of counter-ballancing the vast industrial strength of the United States.

Totalitarian Political Parties

World War II was in many ways a continuation of World War I. It was also a result of the emergence of political parties, primarily Fascist parties, which idealized war. Despite the experience of World War I, the Fascists idealized war. The Fascists were willing to employ coercion in international affairs much as they employed as part of their policies domestically. This commitment to war was normally disguised in part propganda. While not as committed ideologically to war, the Communist were quite willingto employ coercion both domestically and iternationally. Fascism and Communism are often seen as opposite ends of the political spectrum. In fact there are many similarities. It was not accident that until June 1941, Hitler and Stalin were partners.

Chronological Development (1936 - 1941)

The Axis was a military alliance which slowly evolved (1936-40). Although conceived as a defensive pact, the Axis countries turned it into a war-time coalition (1941). The Axis partners, however, never committed to the level of military cooperation achieved by the Allies. This proved to be a fatal flaw of the Axis which managed by 1940-41 to achieve a substantial military advantage over the Allies.

Rome-Berlin Axis (October 1936)

Mussolini did not take Hitler seriously until, much to his surprise, he seized power (1933). There were at first, no quick move to establish an alliance despite their similsar Fascist ideologies. Mussolini at first feared German territorial expansion south. Mussolini moved troops tithe Austrian border when it seemed that Hitler was attempting to seize Austria (1934). Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia (October 1935) impaired relations with the democracies (Britain and France). This fundamentally changed the European geopolitical framework.

The democracies criticism was a major factor in Mussolini's rapprochement with Hitler. Mussolini was outraged with the democracies. This was an important step in freeing Germany's ability to to end the Versailles restrictiins and the Anglo-French strategic encirclement. This was followed by Italy and Germany supporting Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936). Hitler and Mussolini agreed to cooperate diplomatically and signed a treaty of frienship (October 25, 1936).

Initially Mussolini had been concerned with the rise of the Nazi’s and backed Austrian independence. Allied (British and French) opposition to his invasion of Ethiopia apparently had a major impact on reorienting his stratehic thinking. Mussolini first used the term "axis" (November 1). Speaking at Milan's cathedral. he referred to the evolving relationship as an "axis". This appears to be a strange term for an alliance. Apparently the concept was that Europe would revolve around their regimes. The actual agreement was formulated by Italy’s foreign minister Count Galeazzo Ciano, Mussolini's son in law. (He would eventually be shot in a Nazi concentration camp.) The agreement was an informal one. It did not become a formal military alliance until the Pact of Steel (1939).

Anti - Comitern Pact (November 1936)

The fondation for the Axis agreement was laid with the signing of the Anti-Comitern Pact. Relations with the Soviets which had been damaged with the seizure of Manchuria worsened when Japan and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact (1936). The Japanese and Germans signed a protocol in Berlin aimed directly at the Soviet Union (November 25, 1936). The purpose was to "guard" against the Communistic International.

The agreement was very simple. It read, " The Imperial Government of Japan and the Government of Germany, In cognizance of the fact that the object of the Communistic International (the so-called Komintern) is the disintegration of, and the commission of violence against, existing States by the exercise of all means at its command, Believing that the toleration of interference by the Communistic International in the internal affairs of nations not only endangers their internal peace and social welfare, but threatens the general peace of the world, Desiring to co-operate for defense against communistic disintegration, have agreed as follows.

Article I The High Contracting States agree that they will mutually keep each other informed concerning the activities of the Communistic International, will confer upon the necessary measure of defense, and will carry out such measures in close co-operation. Article II The High Contracting States will jointly invite third States whose internal peace is menaced by the disintegrating work of the Communistic International, to adopt defensive measures in the spirit of the present Agreement or to participate in the present Agreement. Article III The Japanese and German texts are each valid as the original text of this Agreement. The Agreement shall come into force on the day of its signature and shall remain in force for the term of five years.

The High Contracting States will, in a reasonable time before the expiration of the said term, come to an understanding upon the further manner of their co-operation." It was signed by Viscount Kintomo Mushakoji Imperial Japanese Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary and Joachim von Ribbentrop German Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. The agreement was clearly aimed at the Soviet Union. Japan and Germany agreed if attacked by the Soviets to consult on what measures were needed. The two countries also agreed that neither would conclude political treaties with the Soviet Union. Germany agreed to recognize the Japanese puppet regime of Manchuko. Italy subsequently joined the Anti-Comintern Pact (1937). Hitler subsequently violated the terms of the pact when he negotiated Nazi-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 1939).

Pact of Steel (May 1939)

Germany and Italy signed a treaty turning the Rome-Berlin Axis into a military alliance. Galeazzo Ciano and Joachim von Ribbentrop signed the agreement (May 22). The agreement which became known as the Pact of Steel, was in effect a defensive military alliance in the event of attack by a third country. In such a case the partners would offer immediate assistance including military support. In event of war the two countries agreed that neither would make peace without the consent of the other. They also agreed to collaborate in military and wartime production.

The pact was initially made for a 10 year period. At the time the agreement was signed, the German economy was on a war footing, the Italian economy was not. Hitler had just seized the parts of Czechoslovakia that was left over after Munich (March 1939). He was begining to focus on Poland. He thought that it might be possible to seize Poland without igniting a general European war. There is no evidence that he shared these thoughts with Mussolini nor that Mussolini was aware of how close the War was.

War Partners (June 1940)

At the outbreak of Second World War in 1939, Mussolini fearing war was unwilling to follow Hitler. Mussolini was, however, dazzeled by Nazi successes in Poland, Denmark, and Norway. The successes in the West beginning with the assault on the Lowlands and France (May 10, 1940) apparently determined the issue.

The Axis Alliance was a essentially a defensive alliance. It did not require Italy to join Germany in the War. Finally Mussolini simply could not resist the potential territorial gains. Mussolini once the French Arny had been essentially defeated, declared war on Britain and France (June 10). Four days later the Nazi’s entered Paris (June 14). President Roosevelt commented in a sppech, "The hand that held the dagger, plunged it into the back of a neighbor". Italy was unprepared for war and as a penunsular nation was far more exposed to the British Royal Navy than Germany was. The War would destroy Mussolini's Fascist regime. Hitler by the end of the War concluded that Italy was more of a hinference than an asset.

Tripartite Pact (September 1940)

The Japanese were initially reluctant to accept Hitler's 1939 offer to formally join the German-Italian Axis alliance. The German defeat of the Netherlands and epecially France apparently caused the Japanese to reverse their position. The defeat of the French and the occupation of the Netherlands meant that the colonies of these countries in Southeast Asia were vulnerable.

The Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia) were particularly important because of their oil resources. Rubber was another important resource available in the region. Japan had been importing oil from the United States, but America was increasing pressure on Japan to end the war in China. Japan signed the Tripartite Pact, making the country a member of the Axis military alliance (September 27). The Pact allied Germany, Italy, and Japan and became known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis, or more commonly Axis alliance.

Japan enters the War (December 1941)

Hitler invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941). Hitler engaged in no advance consultations with his Axis partner over war with the Siviet Union. Expectging a victorious Summer campaign, he did not press the Japanese to join the campaign. Japanese diplomats, however, suggested to him that Japan would join the assault on the Soviet Union. As the campaihn began to bog down, Hitler became increasingly interested in Japanese involvement.

The Japanese without any consultation, however, struck south at American and Britain rather than north at the Soviet Union (December 7). The attack on Pearl Harbor brought America into the War, but only a war in the Pacific. The day before the Soviets launched a major Winter offensive before Moscow. Hitler in a still not fully understood decession, declared war on the United States (December 11). Not only was this not required by the Axis Alliance, but he made this decession unilaterally without any requirement that Japan reciprocate by declaring war on the Soviet Union.

Axis Members

The agreement allied Germany and Italy (which were at war with Britain) and Japan (which was at war with China). Germany and Italy has since 1939-40 been at war with Britain. Japan since 1937 had been at war with China. The alliance became known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis alliance, or commonly the Axis. After the Axis agreement was signed, several German allies joined the Axis, notably Vichy France and Fascist Spain refused to do so.

Several German allies did join the Axis: one major partner like Kingdom of Romania, which has the largest reserves of oil from Europe (3 November 1940) and other minor: Slovakia (November 1940), Hungary (November 1940), and Bulgaria (March 1941). Finland fought with Germany against the Soviet Union in an effort to regain territory lost to Stalin in 1940, but never signed the Tripartite Pact and thus was not technically a member of the Axis alliance.

The Yugoslavian Royal Government, under intense German presure, joined the Axis alliance on March 25, 1941, but withdrew 2days later after an anti-German coup overthrew the government. After Germany and its allies invaded and partitioned Yugoslavia, the new Fascist puppet state of Croatia joined the Axis on June 15, 1941. Although Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany had played a key role in the Nationlist (Fascist) victory over the Spanish Republic, Fascist Spain refused to join the Axis alliance or to enter the war with Bfritain in 1940 and Russia in 1941. Japan had no Asian allies, except or the puppet state of Manchukuo.

Other countries

Several other countries attempted to join the Axis in WW II or were associated in various ways with Axis countries. This included an interesting mix of countries and groups. Some but not all were Fascist. As Britain was a large colonial power, anti-colonialism was an important factor. The Germans played with these groups, but never took full advantage of this--especiall Arab anti-British sentiment. A factor here was Italy which while opposed to Britain, wanted to replace them as the colonial power rather than liberate the Arabs. There seems to have been little appreciation among the Arabs as to the consequences of an Axis victory.

Argentina: The Argentine Government was sympathetic toward the Axis, but Allied naval power and public opinion prevented any formal relationship.

Iraq: Iraq attemted to join the Axis after the successful German operation in the Balkans and seizure of Crete (April-March 1941). Vichy officials in Syria assisted the Germans, but a British military expedition managed to keep Iraq out of Axis hands. This was an operation of considerable importance because the British naval operations in the eastern Meditterean and the military operations in the Western Desert were dependent on Iraqi oil.

Finland: Finland signed the Anti-Cominturn Pact, but never joined the Axis because of fundamental differences with Fascism. The Finns did join Germany in Operation Barbarossa. The Finns refer to this as "co-beligerence" and there war aims were to regain the territory seized by Stalin in the Winter War.

France (Vichy): Vichy was dominated by Fascist elements. While Vichy never joined the Axis, they did privide military and economic support to the German war effort. Vichy refused, however, to participate in Barbarossa and kept the French fleet out of German hands.

Spain: Spain signed the Anti-Cominturn Pact, but never joined the Axis. Unlike the Finns, Franco's Fascist regime was sympathetic to the Axis. Spain did not enter the War only because Hitler offered insufficent inducements and the fact that Spain would have been exposed to Allied naval power. The Spanish committed a division to Barbarossa, but remained neutral in the War.

Non-ruling groups: There were also non-ruling groups such, especially Eguptians, Indians, and Palestinians that were sympathetic to the Axis.

The Soviet Union

Stalin and the Soviets are seen today as the great foe of Hitler and the Nazi’s. In fact Stalin was for the first years of the War essentially allied to the Axis. The Nazi’s an Soviets had in August 1940 signed a Non-Agression Pact making Stalin and Hitler virtually allies. This left Hitler free to invade Poland and in effect launch World War 2. After the War began the world's attention was primarily focussed on Germany and Hitler.

Stalin proceeded to conduct his own series of agressions. The Soviets attacked or occupied Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Kingdom of Romania. Raw material, especially oil, that the Soviets shipped to Gemany made a major contibution to the German war effort. The Japanese tried to convince the Germans to accept the Soviets into the Axis alliance. The Japanese in 19?? signed a non-agression pact with the Soviets. After the German launched Operation Barbarossa and invaded in 1941, but failed to defeat the Soviets, German diplomats attempted to draw the Japanese into their war with the Soviets. The Japanese declined. In fact they wanted to Hitler to form a grand alliance with the Soviets.

NAZI - Soviet Cooperation (1939-1941)

The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (August 1939) essentially made the Nazi’s and Soviets allies. The Soviets never joined the Axis, although Japanese diplomats argued that they should be allowed to join. Even so, the Soviets were a very important Nazi ally. Second World War histories generally mention the Pact in terms of making possible the Nazi invasion of Poland and then generally provide littleadditional information on the Pact and the Nazi-Soviet alliance. This is in part because after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, the Soviets became a key element of the Allied struggle against the Axis. And this Soviet aggressions were inconvenient in depicging the struggle with the Axis as one between good and evil.

Unfortunaltely, subsequent historians have focused on Nazi campaigns and occupation policies and generally left untouched the 2 years in which the Nazi’s and Soviets cooperated. There was extensive cooperation between the two powers as they proceeded to divide Europe between themselves. The relation was troubled over differences between how Eastern Europe was to be divided, espcially disagreements over Finland, Lithuania, and Romania. With the Royal Navy blockade in place, the Soviet Union became Germany's most important sypplier of strategic materials. TheSoviets also facilitated contacts between Germany and Japan.

Axis Alliance Provisions

The alliance did not require the partners to join these wars, but it did require them to come to each other's aid if attacked. The three Axis partners agreed to recognize German hegemony over most of Europe; Italian hegemony in the Mediterranean, and Japanese hegemony in East Asia. The alliance committed the members to come to each others assistance if attacked. It did not commit them to military assistance against countries attacked. Thus when Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Japan remained neutral. When Japan attacked America, however, Hitler declared war on Americ even though he was not obligated to do so. The interesting aspect of the Axis alliance was that Hitler saw of it as a way to weakn the British and distract America. As it worked out, the principal impact was to bring America into the War, an action Hitler had been trying to delay.

Axis Strategic Cooperation

Hitler appears to have conceived an alliance with the Japanese as a way of dividing the world in what he called Operation Orient. While the Japanese ageeed to the Anti-Comitern Pactb (1936) and the Axis (1940), Hitler never suceeded in convincing the Japanese in commiting to his campaihn against the Siviet Union, even after he declared war on the United States when Japan attacked Peal Harbor (1941). Germany launched World War 2 when it invaded Poland on September 1, 1939 causing Britain and France declared war on September 3.

Britain and France had pledged to defend Poland in case of German invasion. Germany defeated the Polish Army in October 1939, the Polish Government never agreed to an armistace. The Germans then defeated the French Army and forced the country to sign an armistace in June 1940. Italy on June 10, *just before the armistace, entred the war. Japan after signing the Axis agreement did not join the war with Britain in Europe.

After signing the Axis agreement, Japan did not join the war against Britain. Japan did seize the French colony of Indo-China (Vietnam) which brought about American sanctions. Japan had been at war with China since 1937. Japanese planners in 1941 pondered their course of action, especially after Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. Some expected them to attack north at Soviet Siberia. Had they done so, almost surely the Soviet Union reeling unde German attack, would have been defeated. Instead they attacked south at American Pacific Fleet in Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. There was vitually no coordintion among Axis partners in military strategy, in contrast to the closely coordinate Allied operations. There was especially close cooperation between Ameica and Britain, but there was also some coordination with the Soviets.

Technical Cooperation

While there was no real strategic coordination, there was considerable technological copperation among Axis countries.

Early German-Japanese cooperation

There was a tradition of military cooperation between Gernany and Japan. The modern Japanesec Army was toa substantial extent organized by German officers. Japanese school children still wear Prussian cadet uniforms, a legacy of that early cooperation. Even so, Japan joined the Allies during World War I and was rewarded with German concessions in China and island colonies in the Pacific.

Early NAZI-Japanese cooperation

The Treaty of Versailles prohibited the Germans from building an airforce or U-boats. Even before the rise of the Nazi’s, German companies operated in Japan, the Netherlands and other countries developing new techologies. Japanese submaries and air planes were thus developed with German technology. This cooperation intensified after the Nazi’s seized power (1933). Heinkel played a major role in debeloping the Val dive bomber so effectively employed at Paerl Harbor. It was based on the Heinkel 70 bomber. The Germans help Kawasaki build submarines for the Imperial Navy.

World War II

We do not yet have a full assessment of the level of cooperaion in scientific reserch in weapons development among the Axis. Such cooperation was clearly not as close as the very intense Anglo-American cooperation. The transfer of technology was a one way flow, from Germany to Japan. The Japane defeat by the Soviets in the Machrian border war (1939) should have convinced military planners that Japan was not in a position to wage a war with a modern European army.

The Japanese do not appear to have drawn this conclusion. Japan joined the Axis (September 1940). At this time I do not have any details concerning immediate Japanese steps to obtain German technology. Most Japanese senior commanders were convinced that the country's warrior spirit and code of Bushido would bring victory. Some officers saw the need to acquire modern technology. One of these was Tomoyuki Yamashita. Yamashita was familiar with Germany having served as a military attaché there after World War I (1919-1922).

Yamashita rose in the military hierarchy. He participated in the unsuccessful military coup (1936), but was not punished. He fought in the Manchrian border war against the Soviets (1939). After Primemister Fumimaro Kondoye appointed Hideki Tojo Minister of War, Yamashita was dipatched to Europe. He arrived in Germany with a shopping list for modern military technology. When he returned to Japan, he strongly advised against going to war with the United States or the Soviet Union until Japan had modernized its military. We have few details on German provision of military technology to Japan at this stage of the War. We do know that the Germans helped the Japanese build the Hind fighter which was based on the ME-109.

The Germans insisted on substantial payments on the basis of commercial exchanges. It is unclear to us how aggressively the Japanes pushed or the Germans offerred their technology. We do know that despite very effective German naval radar such as the equipment on the Bismarck, Japan entered the War in the Pcific without naval radar. We do not fully understand if this was because the Japanese did not appreciate the importance or the Germans were unwilling to share the technology. Radar was of course a critical technology for carrier warfare. This did not change until late in the War. Germany in 1945 began sending the Japanese information on some of their weapons such a jet aircraft. The full extent of the provision of high technology weapons to the Japanese is not known. . The Nazi’s insisted on lisensing agreements. The transfers were mase by U-boat. There were shipments of uranium, but the weapons blanned are not fully understood.

Strategic Differences

Hitler made no effort to coordinate his invasion of the Soviet Union with his Axis partner, the Japanese. When Barbarossa stalled with the onset of Winter (November 1941), the Nazi’s began to give more attention to Japanese intervention. Japanese diplomats in Germany suggested that Japan would ebter the war against the Soviets. Instead the Japanese of course struck the United States at Pearl Harbor (December 1941).

The Japanese were anti-Communist, but they were uncertain about Nazi success. Japanese diplomats were at first optimistic, but Tokyo officials were more skeptical. When in fact it became clear that the Nazi’s were not going to be able to prevail, they urged Hitler to make peace. There concern here was with their own military position. If the Allies were to defeat the Nazi's than they would face the Americans and British alone.

The Japanese were increasingly frusrrated with Hitler's refusal to reach a true with Stalin. The Nazi demnands for both territory and demilitarization were clearly unacceotable to Stalin, especially as the military ballance turned increasingly against Germany. Japanese diplomats in Berlin correctly accesse Hitler's unwillingness to make peace and were hard pressed to deal with Tokyo's urging of a settlement between the Nazi’s and Soviets. Tokyo was also uneasy with the reports of the barbarous Nazi actions in the East.
This is interestng given Japanese actions in China. Magic intercepts provided the Americans a detailed view of Japanese assessments of the fighting on the Eatrern Front (which were quite detailed and accurate) and increasing Japanese unease as the military ballance shifted.

Youth Groups

The Axis alliance joined Nazi Germany, Fascit Italy, and Imperial Japan. There were also the junior parners in Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Slovakia). There were also junior partners in Asia (Manchuko and Thialand). We note no contacts between the HJ and Japanese youth. Here the distance and cost of such exchanges were probably the main factor. The Axis Alliance was formed during the War (although before Japan entered the War).

Thus there was even less ability tooganize events. Racial differences might have caused a problem if exchanges had been possible. Nazi Germany's principal ally was Italy and after the Anchluss, the two countries shared a common border. Thus here exchanges were feasible and could be conducted at reasonable cost. We know that there were some such exchanges. We are not sure, however, about the extent of the contacts between the Hitler Youth and the Italian Balilla. We note HJ and Baliall leaders attending a celebrtion together, but have no details on an actual meting together. We have no information at this time as to the extent to which joint activities were planned. We also note photographs of HJ and Balilla boys.

We are unsure to what extent there were actual joint activities conducted by the two groups. Many of the images of HJ boys with foreign boys are with Balilla boys. "The Italian fascist youth and the BDM didn't have very much in common. Another observer writes, "The BDM vistors were pretty shocked when they saw that the Italian girls were being trained to shoot rifles and drive trucks, and prior to their going to Italy, they were warned not too closely associate with the Italian youth." We note contacts between HJ and Japanese youth leaders, but not events with German and Japanese youth. The distances involved would have made this very expensive.

Defeat and Occupation

The three Axis partners were all defeated all defeated in the Second World War. Italy after arresting Musosolini signed an armistice with the Allies in September 1943. Germany surrendered unconditionally after the Soviet Union and Western Allies had occupied much of the country in May 1945. Japan surrendered unconditionally before an American invasion in September 1945.

Sources

Boyd, Carl. Hitler's Japanese Confidant: General Oshima Hiroshi and Magic Intelligence (University of Kansas: Lawrence, 1993), 271p.
Gibert, Martin. A History of the 20th Century.
Goebbels, Joseph. ed, Louis B. Lochner, The Goebbels Diaries, 1942-1943 (Doubleday: New York, 1948), 566p.
Schom, Alan. The Eagle and the Rising Sun: The Japanese-American War 1941-1943 (Norton, 2003).

Kriegsmarine.

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Tue, 08 Mar 2011 00:21:00 +0000

Kriegsmarine.

The Kriegsmarine (War Navy) was founded in 1935 from the Reichsmarine, the same year of the signing of Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 18 June, 1935. The Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches of the Wehrmacht, the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany.

It was formed after the passing of the "Law for the Reconstruction of the National Defense Forces". This law brough back into existance a free standing German army, navy and airforce, something that had been essentially banned after the end of World War I.

The Kriegsmarine grew rapidly during German naval rearmaments under Plan Z, a large-scale plan calling for the construction of multiple naval vessels. The ships of the Kriegsmarine, some of which (mostly battlecruisers) were made under Plan Z, fought during the Spanish Civil War and World War II. The commander-in-chief of the Kriegsmarine was Adolf Hitler, who exercised his authority through the Oberkommando der Marine.

The Kriegsmarine's most famous ships were the U-boat wolf packs, constructed after Plan Z was abandoned on the eve of World War. They were submarine groups which seriously harassed Allied convoys during the Battle of the Atlantic. Both the U-boats and pocket battleships were used to disrupt Allied shipping in the earlier years of the war. However, the adoption of convoy escorts later in the war greatly reduced the effectiveness of naval strikes on convoys. At the end of the Second World War, the Kriegsmarine's remaining ships were divided up amongst the Allied powers and were used for minesweeping.

The Kriegsmarine was involved in World War II from its outset and participated in the Battle of Westerplatte and the Battle of the Danzig Bay during the Invasion of Poland. In 1939, major events for the Kriegsmarine were the loss of the Graf Spee at the Battle of the River Plate, the sinking of the British battleship HMS Royal Oak and the aircraft carrier HMS Courageous. Submarine attacks on Britain's vital maritime supply routes (Battle of the Atlantic) started immediately at the outbreak of war, although hampered by the lack of well placed ports from which to operate.

In April 1940, the German Navy was heavily involved in the invasion of Norway, where it suffered significant losses, including the heavy cruiser Blücher sunk by torpedoes from Oscarsborg Fortress in Oslofjord, ten destroyers lost in the Battles of Narvik (half of German destroyer strength at the time) and two light cruisers lost elsewhere during the campaign. The Kriegsmarine did however sink some British warships during this campaign, including the aircraft carrier HMS Glorious.

The losses in the Norwegian Campaign left only a handful of undamaged heavy ships available for the planned, but never executed, invasion of Britain (Operation Sealion) in the summer of 1940. There were serious doubts that the invasion sea routes could have been protected against British naval interference. The fall of France and the conquest of Norway gave German submarines greatly improved access to British shipping routes in the Atlantic. At first, British convoys lacked escorts that were adequate either in numbers or equipment and, as a result, the submarines had much success for few losses (this period was dubbed the "First Happy Time").

Italy entered the war in June 1940, and the Battle of the Mediterranean began: from September 1941 to May 1944 some 62 German submarines were transferred there, sneaking past the British naval base at Gibraltar. The Mediterranean submarines sunk 24 major Allied warships (including 12 destroyers, 4 cruisers, 2 aircraft carriers and 1 battleship) and 94 merchant ships (449,206 tons of shipping). None of the Mediterranean submarines made it back to their home bases as they were all either sunk in battle or scuttled by their crews at the end of the war.

In 1941 one of the four modern German battleships, the Bismarck sank HMS Hood while breaking out into the Atlantic for commerce raiding. The Bismarck was in turn hunted down by much superior British forces after being crippled by an airborne torpedo. She was subsequently scuttled after being rendered defenceless by two British battleships.

Throughout the war the Kriegsmarine was responsible for coastal artillery protecting major ports and important coastal areas. It also operated anti-aircraft batteries to protect major port.

During 1941, the Kriegsmarine and the United States Navy became de facto belligerents, although war was not formally declared, leading to the sinking of the USS Reuben James. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent German declaration of war against the United States in December 1941 led to another phase of the Battle of the Atlantic. In Operation Drumbeat and subsequent operations until August 1942, a large number of Allied merchant ships were sunk by submarines off the American coast as the Americans had not prepared for submarine warfare, despite clear warnings (this was the so-called Second happy time for the German navy). The situation became so serious that military leaders feared for the whole allied strategy.The vast American ship building capabilities and naval forces were however now brought into the war and soon more than offset any losses inflicted by the German submariners. In 1942, the submarine warfare continued on all fronts, and when German forces in the Soviet Union reached the Black Sea, a few submarines were eventually transferred there.

The Battle of the Barents Sea was an attempt by a German naval force to attack an Allied Arctic convoy. However, the advantage was not pressed home and they returned to base. There were serious implications: this failure infuriated Hitler, who nearly enforced a decision to scrap the surface fleet. Instead, resources were diverted to new U-boats, and the surface fleet became a lesser threat to the Allies.

After 1943 when the Scharnhorst had been sunk in the Battle of North Cape by HMS Duke of York, most German surface ships were blockaded in, or close to, their ports as a fleet in being, for fear of losing them in action and to tie up British naval forces. The largest ship of these ships, the battleship Tirpitz, was stationed in Norway as a threat to Allied shipping and also as a defence against a potential Allied invasion. When she was sunk, after several attempts, by British bombers in late 1944 (Operation Catechism), several British capital ships could be moved to the Far East.

From late 1944 until the end of the war, the surface fleet of Kriegsmarine was heavily engaged in providing artillery support to the retreating German land forces along the Baltic coast and in ferrying civilian refugees to the western parts of Germany (Lübeck, Hamburg) in large rescue operations. Large parts of the population of eastern Germany fled the approaching Red Army out of fear for Soviet retaliation and mass rapes and killings. The Kriegsmarine evacuated large numbers of civilians in the evacuation of East Prussia and Danzig in January 1945. It was during this activity that the catastrophic sinking of several large passenger ships occurred: the Wilhelm Gustloff and the Goya was sunk by Soviet submarines, while the SS Cap Arcona was sunk by British bombers, each sinking claiming thousands of civilian lives. The Kriegsmarine also provided important assistance in the evacuation of the fleeing German civilians of Pomerania and Stettin in March and April 1945. In the last stage of the war, the Kriegsmarine also organized a number of divisions of infantry from its personnel (submarine crews and so on).

During 1943 and 1944, due to Allied anti-submarine tactics and better equipment the U-boat fleet started to suffer heavy losses. Radar, longer range air cover, Sonar, improved tactics and new weapons all contributed. German technical developments, such as the Schnorchel, attempted to counter these. New U-boat types, the Elektroboote, were in development and, had these become operational in sufficient numbers, the Allied advantage would have been eroded. Between 1943 and 1945, a group of U-boats known as the "Monsun Boats" (Monsun Gruppe) operated in the Indian Ocean from Japanese bases in the occupied Dutch East Indies and Malaya. Allied convoys had not yet been organized in those waters, so the initial sinkings were plentiful. However, this situation was soon remedied. During the later war years, the "Monsun Boats" were also used as a means of exchanging vital war supplies with Japan.

           The Kriegsmarine can be said to have consisted of three main components between 1935 and 1945, individual naval vessels, naval formations consisting of specific types of ships and a wide variety of ground based units. From these three main components the Kriegsmarine fielded thousands of ships and hundreds of naval formations and ground units. Between 1939 and 1945 over 1.5 million served in the Kriegsmarine. Over 65,000 were killed, over 105,000 went missing and over 21,000 were wounded. Of the 7361 men awarded the initial grade of the highest German combat honor of Second World War, the Knights Cross, 318 were from the Kriegsmarine making up 4% of the total awarded.

           Of all the branches of the Wehrmacht, the Kriegsmarine was the most under-appreciated. It fought against superior numbers on almost every front with a force greatly limited by a lack of effective coordination and a harsh misunderstanding from within the German High Comand (OKW). Although Allied air and naval power largely destroyed the entire German High Seas Fleet and Uboot force, the smaller and auxiliary vessels of the Kriegsmarine continued to serve effectively until the last hours of WWII. These vessels saw service along thousands of miles of coast in every theater of war and provided an important link in the backbone of the Wehrmacht.

           German naval ground units also provided a critical service during World War II, manning massive guns along the Atlantic Wall in the west and naval flak and artillery units all across Western and Eastern Europe. There were also countless naval infantry, engineer and communications units as well. In the last months of Second World War most all of the naval ground units were involved directly in fighting of some form or another, some naval units even took part in the Battle for Berlin in 1945.

           The Kriegsmarine was offically disbanded in August of 1946 by the Allied Control Commission, although many smaller Kriegsmarine ships survived on active service, now under Allied control, as a part of the German contingent to clear the oceans and seas of mines sown by Axis and Allies alike.

The Luftwaffe.

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Fri, 04 Mar 2011 14:08:00 +0000

The Luftwaffe.

The German Luftwaffe, or airforce, was formed in May of 1935. It was formed after the passing of the "Law for the Reconstruction of the National Defense Forces". This law brough back into existance a free standing German army, navy and airforce, something that had been essentially banned after the end of World War I.

      With the end of World War I and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, the Weimar Republic - the successor to Imperial Germany - was allowed only a small defensive military force known as the Reichswehr. The Reichswehr's size and composition was strictly controlled by the Allies in the hope that by restricting its constitution they could prevent future German military aggression. The Reichswehr consisted of 100,000 men divided between a small standing army, the Reichsheer, and a small defensive navy, the Reichsmarine. There was no provision for an airforce of any sort.

      In 1933 the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) came to power and the infamous Third Reich was born. Two years later in 1935 the Treaty of Versailles was renounced and the Reichswehr became the Wehrmacht. The newly formed Wehrmacht would still consist of an army and a navy - the renamed Heer and Kriegsmarine, but a new airforce was born as well - the Luftwaffe.

      On February 26, 1935, Adolf Hitler ordered Hermann Goring to re-instate the Luftwaffe, although the treaty was still in power. Initially there were Freikorps air units, then later glider and sail plane formations tasked with finding ways around the rigid restrictions of Versailles, a secret training base in the Soviet Union, and various cover organizations for the initial forming of the new German airforce.

     By 1939, on the eve of the outbreak of World War II, the Luftwaffe had become the most powerful and experienced air forces in the world, and dominated the skies over much of continental Europe with aircraft much more advanced than their foreign counterparts. As such it played a major role in Germany's early successes in the war, and formed a key part of the Blitzkrieg concept, much thanks to the use of the innovative Junkers Ju-87 dive bomber plane (Sturzkampfflugzeug -- "Stuka").

     The Messerschmitt Bf 109 was the most versatile and widely-produced fighter aircraft operated by the Luftwaffe and was designed when biplanes were still standard. Many versions of this aircraft were made. The engine, a liquid cooled Mercedes-Benz DB 601, initially generated up to almost 1,000 hp (750 kW). This power increased as direct fuel injection was introduced to the engine, and it was upgraded to the DB 605. This fighter had relatively short wings and was powered originally by a radial BMW 801 engine, and later by an inline Junkers Jumo (Fw 190D), and held its own against new, improved Allied aircraft such as the P-51 Mustang. The Junkers Ju 87 Stuka was a main asset for Blitzkrieg, able to place bombs with deadly accuracy.

      The Luftwaffe consisted of air units that made up the majority of the German airforce, as well as Fallschrimjäger units, Luftwaffe Field Divisions, the elite Herman Göring ground formations, thousands of smaller anti-aircraft, engineer, communications and security units, and a fair number of Luftwaffe naval vessels and formations as well. Between 1939 and 1945 over 3.4 million served in the Luftwaffe. Over 165,000 were killed, over 155,000 went missing and over 192,000 were wounded. Of the 7361 men awarded the inital grade of the highest German combat honor of Second World War, the Knights Cross, 1785 were from the Luftwaffe making up 24% of the total awaded.

      Initially the Luftwaffe ruled the skies but thereafter fought an increasingly futile war of attrition which when combined with vital mistakes in aircraft production and utilization, was its death knoll. In the face of this the Luftwaffe produced the most successful air aces of all time. As well, the feats of the Fallschirmjäger in the first airborne operations in history are as heroic as they are tragic. German paratroops suffered appaling losses on Crete and essentially never saw large scale airborne operations again. Some Luftwaffe ground units fought well during World War II, such as certain Luftwaffe field divisions and the elite Hermann Göring formations, while other units simply served.

      Ultimately the structure of the Luftwaffe was a grand relfection of its commander, Hermann Göring. He strove more so than any other branch to create a personal army with responsibilities as far reaching as possible. It was partly due to this that the Wehrmacht was ultimately defeated. The strain on resources and man power such political manuvering had was far reaching.

     Following the military failures on the Eastern Front, from 1942 onwards, the Luftwaffe went into a steady, gradual decline that saw it outnumbered and overwhelmed by the sheer number of Allied aircraft being deployed against it. Towards the end of the war, the Luftwaffe was no longer a major factor, and despite fielding advanced aircraft like the Messerschmitt Me 262, Heinkel He 162, Arado Ar 234, and Me 163 it was crippled by fuel shortages and a lack of trained pilots. There was also very little time to develop the new aircraft, and they could not be produced fast enough by the Germans.

    The inability of the Luftwaffe to control the skies in the Battle of Britain after the tactical mistake of bombing industrial targets in cities instead of British airfields formed a key point in the war, and German air power diminished further with the arrival of the Americans, though it remained strong, especially on the Soviet front. The Luftwaffe were the first air force to fly jet fighters, with for example the Heinkel He-178 (1939), the Messerschmitt Me 163 (1941) and the Messerschmitt Me 262 (1942).

      The Luftwaffe was offically disbanded in August of 1946 by the Allied Control Commission.

The Abwehr — German Intelligence Organization

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Thu, 03 Mar 2011 13:32:00 +0000

The Abwehr.

The Abwehr was a German intelligence organization from 1921 to 1944. The term Abwehr (German for defense) was used as a concession to Allied demands that Germany’s post-World War I intelligence activities be for “defensive” purposes only. After February 4, 1938, its name in title was Foreign Affairs/Defense Office of the Armed Forces High Command (Amt Ausland/Abwehr im Oberkommando der Wehrmacht in German).

Despite its name implying counterespionage, the Abwehr was an intelligence-gathering agency and dealt exclusively with human intelligence, especially raw intelligence reports from field agents and other sources. The Chief of the Abwehr reported directly to the German High Command. Intelligence summaries and intelligence dissemination were the prerogative of the Operations Branch, (as distinct from the Intelligence Branch), of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), and through it to the intelligence-evaluation sections of the Army, Navy, and Airforce (Heer, Kriegsmarine, and Luftwaffe respectively in German). The Abwehr’s Headquarters (HQ) were located at 76/78 Tirpitzufer, Berlin, adjacent to the offices of the OKW.

The Abwehr before Canaris

The Abwehr was created in 1921 as part of the Ministry of Defence when Germany was allowed to form the Reichswehr, the military organization of the Weimar Republic. The first head was Major Friedrich Gempp, a former deputy to Col. Walther Nicolai, the head of German intelligence during World War I. At that time it was composed of only three officers and seven former officers plus a clerical staff. By the 1920s it was organized into three sections:

I. Reconnaissance
II. Cipher and Radio Monitoring
III. Counterespionage
The Reichsmarine intelligence staff merged with the Abwehr in 1928.

In the 1930s, with the rise of the Nazi movement, the Ministry of Defense was reorganized; surprisingly, on June 7, 1932, a naval officer, Capt. Konrad Patzig, was named chief of the Abwehr, despite the fact that it was staffed largely by Army officers. But perhaps not surprisingly, due to the small size of the organization and its limited importance at that time, it was unsuitable for a more ambitious Army officer. Another possible factor was that naval officers had more foreign experience than their Army counterparts and understood more of foreign affairs. However, all three services eventually developed their own intelligence staff.

Because of Abwehr-sponsored reconnaissance flights across the border with Poland, Patzig soon had confrontations with Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS. Army leaders feared that the flights would endanger the secret plans for an attack on Poland. Patzig was fired in January 1935 as a result, and was sent to command the new pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee; he later became Chief of Naval Personnel. His replacement was another Reichsmarine captain, Wilhelm Canaris.

The Abwehr under Canaris Before the War

Before he took over the Abwehr on 1 January 1935, the soon-to-be Admiral Canaris was warned by Patzig of attempts by Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich to take over all German intelligence organizations. Canaris, a master of backroom dealings which were so much a part of life, thought he knew how to deal with them. But even while he tried to maintain an at-least cordial relationship with them, the antagonism between the Abwehr and the SS did not stop with Canaris at the helm.

It came to a head in 1937 when Adolf Hitler decided to help Joseph Stalin in the latter’s purge against the Soviet military. Hitler ordered that the German Army staff should be kept in the dark about Stalin’s intentions, for fear that they would warn their Soviet counterparts. Accordingly, special SS teams, accompanied by burglary experts from the criminal police, broke into the secret files of the General Staff and the Abwehr and removed documents related to German-Soviet collaboration. To conceal the thefts, fires were started at the break-ins, which included Abwehr headquarters.

1938 reorganization

Canaris reorganized the agency in 1938, with the Abwehr being subdivided into three main sections:

The Central Division, (also called Department Z - Abteilung Z or die Zentrale in German), acted as the controlling brain for the other two sections, as well as handling personnel and financial matters, including the payment of agents. Throughout Canaris’s tenure it was headed by Generalmajor Hans Oster.

The Foreign Branch, (Amtsgruppe Ausland in German) (later known as Foreign Intelligence Group) was the second subdivision of the Abwehr and had several functions:

liaison with the OKW and the general staffs of the services,
coordination with the German Foreign Ministry on military matters, and
evaluation of captured documents and evaluation of foreign press and radio broadcasts. This liaison with the OKW meant that the Foreign Branch was the appropriate channel to request Abwehr support for a particular mission.

Abwehr constituted the third division and was labeled “counter-intelligence branches” but in reality focused on intelligence gathering. It was subdivided into the following areas and responsibilities:

· I. Foreign Intelligence Collection (further subdivided by letter eg. I-Ht)

G - false documents, photos, inks, passports, chemicals
H West - army west (Anglo-American Army intelligence)
H Ost - army east (Soviet Army intelligence)
Ht - technical army intelligence
I - communications - design of wireless sets, wireless operators
L - air intelligence
M - naval intelligence
T/lw - technical air intelligence
Wi - economic intelligence
Attached to Abwehr I. was Gruppe I-T for technical intelligence.

· II. Sabotage - tasked with directing covert contact / exploitation of discontented minority groups in foreign countries for intelligence purposes.

Attached to Abwehr II. was the Brandenburg Regiment, an offshoot of Gruppe II-T (Technical Intelligence), and unconnected to any other branch outside of Abwehr II. Gruppe II-T.

· III. Counter-intelligence division- responsible for counter-intelligence operations in German industry, planting false information, penetration of foreign intelligence services and investigating acts of sabotage on German soil. Attached to Abwehr III. were:

IIIC - Civilian Authority bureau
IIIC-2 - Espionage cases bureau
IIID - Disinformation bureau
IIIF - Counter espionage agents bureau
IIIN - Postal bureau

Abwehr liaisons were also established with the Army, Navy and Luftwaffe High Commands, and these liaisons would pass on specific intelligence requests to the operational sections of the Abwehr.

Abwehr I was commanded by Colonel Hans Pieckenbrock, Abwehr II was commanded by Colonel Erwin von Lahousen and Abwehr III was commanded by Colonel Egbert Bentivegni.

Ast/Abwehrstelle

Under the structure outlined above, Abwehr placed a local station in each military district in Germany, (Wehrkreis), called ‘Abwehrstelle’ or ‘Ast’. Following the German Table of Organization and Equipment model of Abwehr headquarters, each Ast was usually subdivided into sections for:

espionage ( I ),
sabotage ( II ), and
counter-intelligence ( III ).

Typically each Ast would be commanded by a senior Army or Naval officer and would be answerable to Abwehr HQ in Berlin. Operations carried out by each Ast would be in tandem with the overall strategic plan formulated by Admiral Canaris. Canaris in turn would receive instructions on what intelligence gathering should take priority from the OKW or, increasingly after 1941, the Führer Adolf Hitler, directly. In practice however, each Ast was given considerable latitude in mission planning; execution - a facet of the organization which ultimately damaged its intelligence gathering capability.

Each local Ast could recruit potential agents for missions and the Abwehr also employed freelance recruiters to groom and vet potential agents. In most cases, the agents who formed the Abwehr were recruited civilians, not officers/soldiers from the military. The recruitment emphasis seems to have been very much on quantity not quality. The poor quality of recruits often lead to the failure of Abwehr missions.

Abwehr operational structure in neutral countries

In neutral countries the Abwehr frequently disguised its organization by attaching its personnel to the German Embassy or to trade missions. Such postings were referred to as “War Organizations” (Kriegsorganisationen or KO’s in German). In neutral but friendly Spain for example, the Abwehr had both an Ast and a KO while Ireland had neither. In friendly countries of interest, occupied countries, or in Germany itself, the intelligence service would normally organize“Abwehr sub-stations” (Abwehrleitstellen in German or Alsts in German), or “Abwehr adjoining posts” (Abwehrnebenstellen in German). The Alsts would fall under the jurisdiction of the geographically appropriate Ast, which in turn would be supervised by the Central division in Berlin.

Canaris and Die Schwarze Kapelle

During his reorganizaton, Canaris took care to surround himself with a hand-picked staff, notably his second-in-command, Hans Oster and Erwin von Lahousen, Section II Chief. All but one were not members of the Nazi party. The exception was Rudolf Bamler, who was appointed as chief of Section III by Canaris to gain the trust of Himmler. Canaris did make sure to keep Bamler on a short leash however, and restricted his access to operational information. Canaris had good reason to do this because unknown to the High Command and Hitler, during his reorganization Canaris had peppered the chief operational and administrative staff of the Abwehr with men more loyal to him than to the Nazi Government. While outwardly Canaris appeared to be the model of intelligence-gathering efficiency, evidence exists that he secretly opposed, and actively worked against the wishes of his Commander in Chief. Canaris, Oster and the Chiefs of Abwehr sections I., II., and III. were all heavily involved in what the Security Police Sicherheitsdienst were to later dub “The Black Orchestra” (Die Schwarze Kapelle in German), a plot to overthrow the Nazi regime from the inside. Canaris’s operational decisions, his choice of appointments and their decisions, and crucially for the Third Reich - the input each plotter had into Abwehr operations, are all tainted by these secret dealings.

The Abwehr during World War II

Under Canaris the Abwehr expanded and proved relatively efficient during the early years of the war. Its most notable success was Operation Nordpol, which was an operation against the Dutch underground network, which at the time was supported by the British Special Operations Executive. In March 1941, the Germans forced a captured SOE radio operator to transmit messages to Britain in a code that the Germans had obtained. Even though the operator gave every indication that he was compromised, the receiver in Britain did not notice this. Thus the Germans had been able to penetrate the Dutch operation and maintained this state of affairs for two years, capturing agents that were sent and sending false intelligence and sabotage reports until the British caught on.

But it was ineffective overall for several reasons. Much of its intelligence was deemed politically unacceptable to the German leadership. Moreover, it was in direct competition/conflict with SS intelligence activities under Reinhard Heydrich and Walter Schellenberg. The animosity between the SS and Abwehr did not stop there. Many of the Abwehr’s operatives — including Canaris himself — were in fact anti-Nazi and were involved in many assassination attempts against Hitler, including the most serious one on July 20, 1944. Canaris even employed Jews in the Abwehr and used the agency to help a small number of Jews to escape from Germany into Switzerland. But perhaps the biggest reason was that Canaris himself sought to undermine the Nazi cause, although not Germany’s war effort itself.

Despite the Abwehr’s many intelligence coups, its effectiveness was more than negated by agents who — with Canaris’s blessing — aided the Allies in whatever covert means were necessary. He personally gave false information which discouraged Hitler from invading Switzerland (Operation Tannenbaum). He also persuaded Francisco Franco not to allow German forces to pass through Spain to invade Gibraltar (Operation Felix). He even provided intelligence to the Allies on German intentions as well.

The SS continually undermined the Abwehr by putting several Abwehr officers under investigation, believing them (correctly) to be involved in anti-Hitler plots. The SS also accused Canaris of being defeatist in his intelligence assessments, especially on the Russian campaign. One such briefing reportedly resulting in Hitler seizing Canaris by the lapels, and demanding to know whether the intelligence chief was insinuating that Germany would lose the war.

The Frau Solf Tea Party and the end of the Abwehr

The incident which eventually resulted in the dissolution of the Abwehr came to be known as the “Frau Solf Tea Party,” which took place on September 10, 1943.

Frau Johanna (or Hanna) Solf, the widow of Dr. Wilhelm Solf, a former Colonial Minister under Kaiser Wilhelm II and ex-Ambassador to Japan, had long been involved in the anti-Nazi intellectual movement in Berlin. At a tea party hosted by her, a new member was included in the circle, an attractive young Swiss doctor named Reckse. It turned out that Dr. Reckse was an agent of the Gestapo, to which he reported on the tea party and turned over several incriminating documents.

The Solf circle was tipped off and had to flee for their lives, but they were all rounded up on January 12, 1944. Eventually everyone who was involved in the Solf Circle except Frau Solf and her daughter, the Countess Lagi Gräfin von Ballestrem, were executed.

One of those executed was Otto Kiep, an official in the Foreign Office, who had friends in the Abwehr, among whom were Erich Vermehren and his wife, the former Countess Elizabeth von Plettenberg, who were stationed as agents in Istanbul. Both were summoned to Berlin by the Gestapo in connection with the Kiep case. Fearing for their lives, they contacted the British and defected.

It was mistakenly believed in Berlin that the Vermehrens absconded with the Abwehr’s secret codes and turned them over to the British. That proved to be the last straw for Hitler. Despite the efforts of the Abwehr to shift the blame to the SS or even to the Foreign Ministry, Hitler had had enough of Canaris and he told Himmler so twice. He summoned the chief of the Abwehr for a final interview and accused him of allowing the Abwehr to “fall into bits.” Canaris quietly agreed that it was “not surprising,” as Germany was already losing the war.

Hitler fired Canaris on the spot, and on February 18, 1944, Hitler signed a decree that abolished the Abwehr. Its functions were taken over by the RSHA. This action deprived the armed forces (and the anti-Nazi conspirators) of an intelligence service of its own and strengthened Himmler’s control over the generals.

Canaris, by this time a vice admiral, was cashiered and given the empty position of chief of the Office of Commercial and Economic Warfare. He was arrested on July 23, 1944 in the aftermath of the July 20 Plot against Hitler and executed shortly before the end of the war, along with Oster his deputy. The functions of the Abwehr were then totally absorbed by the Sicherheitsdienst, a sub-office of the Schutzstaffel (SS) security command, the RSHA.

Chiefs of the Abwehr

Col. Friedrich Gempp (1921–1927)
Major Günther Schwantes (1927–1929)
Lt. Col. Ferdinand von Bredow (1929–1932)
Rear Adm. Konrad Patzig (1932–1935)

Adm. Wilhelm Canaris (1935–1944)

Source: Wikipedia

World War II Wehrmacht Slideshow.

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Mon, 28 Feb 2011 21:42:00 +0000

The Wehrmacht.

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Thu, 15 Oct 2009 04:43:00 +0000

The German word Wehrmacht (literally defence force) predates the 1930s and originally meant the entirety of the armed forces of a given country (or another entity). For instance, "Englische Wehrmacht" meant all English forces. Since World War II, the term is almost as closely associated with the armed forces of the Third Reich in German as it is in English.

On 16 March 1935 Adolf Hitler re-introduced conscription and announced to the world the formation of a German air force. Needless to say this brought the restrictions imposed on the size and the strength of the German armed forces to an abrupt end. The next four years saw the rapid expansion of the German Army, a transformation from General Seeckt's Reichswehr into Hitler's Wehrmacht.

In March 1939 the operational control of the Armed Forces was unified under the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) whose chief was Generaloberst (Colonel-General) Keitel. The management of the Army was the responsibility of the Army High Command, the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH), which included the General Staflf although it was the Supreme Commander, Adolf Hitler, who was increasingly to take over the day-to-day running of the war. During the crisis of the Battle of Moscow in December 1941 he took over the command of the Army from CinC von Brauchitsch.

The Wehrmacht's military strength was managed through assignment-based tactics (rather than order-based tactics) and an almost proverbial discipline. The number of soldiers who served in the Wehrmacht during its existence from 1934 until 1945 is believed to approach 18.2 million (a number put forward by historian Rüdiger Overmans), but these were not simultaneous enlistments. About 5.3 million died on battlefields and approximately 11 million were captured by enemy forces (it is not known how many died in captivity).

The Wehrmacht (German Army) had a simple and easy to understand command structure. At the top of the German Army was Hitler who had appointed himself Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. Though Hitler paid a keen interest in what the Wehrmacht did, at this stage in the war, he did not interfere in decision making once a campaign had started (though he had been the main force behind an attack on Western Europe). The commander-in-chief of the Army High Command was Field Marshall von Brauchitsch and under him, there were three generals commanding various army groups; Rundstedt (Army Group A), Bock (Army Group B) and Leeb (Army Group C).

The high command of the army was the Oberkammando des Heeres (OKH). The Luftwaffe (air force) was similarly organised with the Oberkammando der Luftwaffe (OKL) and the navy had the Oberkammando der Kriegsmarine (OKM).One of the reasons for Germany’s success in May 1940 was that it had a unified command structure with each unit of the military acting to support the other – hence the importance of the Luftwaffe to the success of blitzkrieg.

The Gestapo.

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Wed, 14 Oct 2009 03:49:00 +0000

The secret police force of Nazi Germany was called the Gestapo. The term "Gestapo" is an abbreviation of Geheime Staats Polizei, which means "state secret police." The Gestapo was a driving force within Germany's Nazi regime and was infamous for its brutality. The Gestapo was instrumental in conquering areas of Europe during World War II.

After the Nazi party came into power, Herman Goering became the Minister of the Interior for German's largest state, Prussia. The Geheime Staats Polizei was created in Prussia. This became the Gestapo, which Goering turned over to Heinrich Himmler in 1934. Gaining control of the Gestapo was Himmler's reward for helping to eliminate one of the Nazi's rivals. Himmler joined the Bavarian Political Police with the Gestapo and the Schutzstaffel, known as the SS. The SS was an elite force to serve and protect Hitler.

The Gestapo was the political police for Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Gestapo membership was voluntary, with many of the members coming from previous political police forces within Germany. Initially formed as a police force in Prussia, its primary purpose was the elimination of the Nazi Regime's enemies. The Gestapo was infamous in arresting anyone it believed were enemies (most notably the Jews) and confining them to concentration camps. Those persecuted had no legal recourse, and millions died.

In 1920, Adolf Hitler changed the name of the German Worker's Party to the National Socialist German Worker's Party. The term "Nazi" is the German name for the first word of the party. The Gestapo was created in 1933. In 1936 it was combined with Germany's regular police force. That same year, a law passed giving the Gestapo the ability to operate without judicial oversight. After the start of the war, in 1939, the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA) was created. It contained seven main branches, with the Gestapo being the fourth branch. World War II was from 1939 to 1945.

By 1943, the Gestapo was divided into five segments, with each focusing on specific objectives. One segment focused on sabotage, opponents and the protective service. The second dealt with political churches, including handling of the Jews. The third segment dealt with press and party matters and protective custody. The fourth segment focused on German influence in expanded regions, and the last segment handled alien police and passport issues.

Contrary to popular belief, the Gestapo was not an omnipotent agency that had its agents in every nook and cranny of German society. So-called “V-men” as undercover Gestapo agents were known were used only to infiltrate Social Democratic and Communist opposition groups, but these cases were the exception, not the rule.

As the analysis of the Gestapostellen done by the historian Robert Gellately has established, for the most part the Gestapo was made of bureaucrats and clerical workers who depended upon denunciations by ordinary Germans for their information. Indeed, the Gestapo was overwhelmed with denunciations and spent most of its time sorting out the credible denunciations from less credible ones. Far from being an all-powerful agency that knew everything about what was happening in German society, the local Gestapostellen were under-staffed, over-worked offices that struggled with the paper-load caused by so many denunciations.

The ratio of Gestapo officers to the general public was extremely lop-sided; for a example, in the region of Lower Franconia, which had about one million people in the 1930s, there was only one Gestapo office for the entire region, which had 28 people attached to it, of whom half were clerical workers.

Furthermore, for information about what was happening in German society, the Gestapostellen were most part dependent upon these denunciations. Thus, it was ordinary Germans by their willingness to denounce one another who supplied the Gestapo with the information that determined who the Gestapo arrested. The popular picture of the Gestapo with its spies everywhere terrorizing German society has been firmly rejected by most historians.

Waffen SS

noreply@blogger.com (World War II General) — Tue, 13 Oct 2009 19:23:00 +0000

Of all the German organizations during World War II, the SS is by far the most infamous - and the least understood amongst average historians. This is in part because of the combat record of the Waffen-SS and the elite status of many of its units.

The Waffen-SS was a part of the German Schutzstaffel or SS, which saw its rise during the late 1920s and early 1930s.

   The SS was the single most powerful political organization within the Third Reich and consisted of the Allgemeine SS, Totenkopfverbande, and the Waffen SS.

   The Waffen-SS was born in 1933 after Hitler came to power when Politisches Bereitschaften or Political Readiness Detachments were formed under the control of the SS. These units were organized along military lines and were intended to help counter Communist strikes. On October 1st, 1934 these units became the SS-Verfugungstruppen or SS Special Use Troops. Initially the Verfugungstruppen consisted of small detachments located in larger German cities but by 1935 they were organized into battalions and in 1936 into Standarten or regiments. In 1936 two main SS-V Standarten existed, Deutschland and Germania. The Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler also existed at this time and although related it was considered somewhat outside the purview of the SS-V.

   In 1938 the SS-Verfugungstruppen took part in the occupation of Austria and Czechoslovakia along side the Wehrmacht. After the occupation of Austria a third Standart was formed known as Der Fuhrer. In 1939 the SS-Verfugungstruppen consisted of three Standarden, the LAH, and a number of smaller service and support units. For the Campaign in Poland in 1939 all SS-V units were organized into the SS-Verfugungstruppe-Division and placed under the operational command of the Wehrmacht. The SS-Verfugungstruppe-Division also fought in the Western Campaign 1940. After the conclusion of the Western Campaign the SS-Verfugungstruppen was renamed and became the Waffen-SS.

   The SS was in fact not a monolithic "Black Corps" of goose stepping Gestapo men, as is often depicted in popular media and in many third rate historical works. The SS was in reality a complex political and military organization made up of three separate and distinct branches, all related but equally unique in their functions and goals. The Allgemeine-SS (General SS) was the main branch of this overwhelmingly complex organization, and it served a politicial and administrative role. The SS-Totenkopfverbande (SS Deaths Head Organization) and later, the Waffen-SS (Armed SS), were the other two branches that made up the structure of the SS. The Waffen-SS, formed in 1940, was the true military formation of the larger SS, and as such, it is the main focus of this section. Formed from the SS-Verfungstruppe after the Campaign in France in 1940, the Waffen SS would become an elite military formation of nearly 600,000 men by the time World War II was over. Its units would spearhead some of the most crucial battles of Second World War while its men would shoulder some of the most difficult and daunting combat opertations of all the units in the German military.

   The Waffen SS is sometimes thought of as the 4th branch of the German Wehrmacht (Heer, Luftwaffe, Kriegsmarine) as in the field it came under the direct tactical control of the OKW, although this notion is technically incorrect as strategic control remained within the hands of the SS. To this day the actions of the Waffen-SS and its former members are vilified for ultimately being a part of the larger structure of the political Allgemeine SS, regardless of the fact that the Waffen-SS was a front line combat organization.