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Alexa Echo Dot (4th generation) | #1 smart speaker brand in India | aurayne

2021-07-19T12:07:00.004+05:30

Meet the brand new Echo Dot

Our most popular smart speaker now comes in a fresh, compact design that fits perfectly in any room. It delivers sharp, crisp sound with superior bass that you can enjoy anywhere in your home.

Meet Alexa, the brains behind the Echo Dot

Alexa, the brains behind the Alexa Echo Dot, is built in the cloud, so it's always getting smarter. The more you use the Dot, the more Alexa adapts to your speech patterns and vocabulary. Using Alexa is as simple as asking a question - just ask and Alexa will respond immediately.

Voice control your music

Echo Dot streams music from Amazon Prime Music, JioSaavn, Gaana, Hungama Music and Spotify - just ask for your favorite artist or song, or request a specific genre or mood. Access songs in Hindi, English, Telugu, Tamil, Punjabi, Marathi, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Kannada and more. With Amazon Prime Music and Spotify, you can also create and manage your personal playlists.

Voice control your home

Use the Echo Dot to turn on the AC from the bed or dim the lights from the couch—completely hands-free. Or, set a schedule to turn on the geyser every morning at 7 a.m. or turn off the mosquito repellent at sunrise. You can also use the Echo Dot to control the Fire TV - just say "Alexa, find comedy movies on Fire TV."

Make everyday easy

Make your life at home easier. Set alarms, set timers, ask questions, add items to lists, and create calendar events and reminders. You can also use Alexa to pay your utility bills - electricity, mobile phone, gas, internet and more. Just ask, "Alexa, pay my bills."

Designed to protect your privacy

Alexa and Echo devices are built with multiple layers of privacy protection. The Echo smart speaker has a microphone off button that electronically disconnects the microphone. You also have control over your voice recordings and you can view, listen or delete them at any time.

Alexa has skills

Alexa has over 30,000 skills and counting. These skills add capabilities to help you do more with your Echo device. They can help you stay updated with the latest news, listen to music, listen to radio and podcasts, or access stories, recipes, movie reviews, and more from your favorite brands. You can also create your own personalized skills and responses with the Alexa Skills Blueprint.

Shop with alexa

Alexa makes it easy and convenient for you to shop on Amazon. Build your shopping list with Alexa, get product information and prices, check the latest deals, reorder your previous purchases, add items to your cart, check your order status, receive delivery notifications and more Do it. Alexa is always ready to help you save time and money for your shopping needs.

Easy to install and use

Step 1: Plug in the Echo Dot.

Step 2: Download the Alexa app and connect to WiFi using the app.

Step 3: Ask Alexa for music, weather, news, and more.

Every day is an earth day

You don't have to be an environmental scientist to make sustainable choices. We have integrated sustainability into the design of this device. like this:

Material

50% of the plastics used are post-consumer recycled plastics. 100% of the fabric used is post-consumer recycled fabric. 100% of the aluminum used is recycled die-cast aluminum. Includes devices, cables, and adapters.

Clean energy

Amazon is building new wind and solar farms to produce clean energy equivalent to the electricity used by this device.

Device packaging

98% of this equipment's packaging is made from wood fiber-based materials from responsibly managed forests or recycled sources.

Work energy mode

To reduce its energy consumption, this device will enter low power mode when idle. Low power mode is not available for some user configurations.

Atom | Chemistry, Definition, History, Structure, Types & Example |

2021-07-05T13:44:00.001+05:30

The structure of an atom, theoretically consisting of a positively charged nucleus surrounded and neutralised by negatively charged electrons revolving in orbits at varying distances from the nucleus, the formation of the nucleus and the arrangement of different electrons with different chemical elements.

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Atomic Theory

The first definite theory about the structure of matter was put forward by John Dalton in 1890.

Main Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory

All matter is made up of very small particles known as atoms.

Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed, they are the smallest particles that take part in a chemical reaction.

All the atoms of an element are the same and different elements have different ones.

Atoms combine with each other in the ratio of smaller whole numbers.

Drawbacks of Dalton Atomic Theory

It does not explain why atoms of different elements differs in their mass, valencies etc.

It does not explain the existence of isotopes and isobars.

It does not explain the reason for difference in atoms of different elements.

Discovery of electron, proton and neutron discarded the individual nature of atom proposed by Dalton.

Electron (-1e⁰)

Electron was discovered by JJ Thomson in 1897.

Magnitude of charge on electron = 1.6 × 10-¹⁹ coulomb.

Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10-²⁸ g or 9.1 × 10-³¹ kg.

Which 1/1837 so of the mass of H-atom. It is represented by e- or -1e⁰

When an electrical discharge at high voltage is passed through a gas at low pressure, a stream of rays emerge from the cathode surface. These are called cathode rays.

Proton (1P¹or 1H¹)

The existence of positively charged particles in an atom was shown by E Goldstein in 1886.

The magnitude of charge on proton is 1.6 × 10-¹⁹ coulomb.

Mass of proton = 1.6 x 10-²⁷ kg.

Which is equal to the mass of H atom.

It is represented by 'P' or 1P¹.

Neutron (0n¹)

The neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick.

These particles are neutral having charge 0.

Their mass is nearly same as that of a hydrogen atom.

So, its mass = 1.675 x 10-²⁷ kg.

It is represented by 'n' or 0n¹.

Atomic Number

The concept of atomic number was given by Moseley. He also observed that when a metal is bombarded with high-speed electrons, X-rays are emitted.

Atomic number = Number of protons in the nucleus

= Number of electrons

Mass Number

The sum of number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus is called mass number and is a whole number.

Mass number (A)

= Number of protons + Number of neutrons

= Number of electrons + Number of neutrons

= Atomic number + Number of neutrons

Isotopes

Isotopes were discovered by F Soddy.

Isotopes have the same atomic number but differ in their mass number.

Isotopes have similar chemical properties but differ in physical properties, Example, 1H¹ (Protium), 1H² (Deuterium) and 1H³ (Tritium), 8O¹⁶, 8O¹⁷, and 8O¹⁸.

Isobars

Isobars are atoms with the same mass number but different atomic numbers.

Isobars are the atoms of different elements and they possess different physical and chemical properties, e.g., 1H¹ and 2H³, 180Ar⁴⁰, 19K⁴⁰ and 20Ca⁴⁰, 52Te¹³⁰ and 56Ba¹³⁰.

Isotones

Isotones are the atoms of different elements possessing the same number of neutrons and have different mass numbers, e.g., 1H³ and 2He⁴, 15P³¹ and 16S³², 19K³⁹ and 20Ca⁴⁰.

Arrangements of Electron and Protons in an Atom

Thomson's Atomic Model

The first simple model of the atom was proposed by JJ Thomson. According to this model, an atom has a uniform region (radius approximately 10-¹⁰ m) of positive charge with electrons embedded in such a way as to give the most stable electronic arrangement. This model had failed.

Rutherford's Atomic Model (1912)

The α-particle scattering experiments conducted by Rutherford are related to the discovery of nuclei.

The following conclusions were drawn from these experiments

A major portion of atom is empty space because most ot α-particles passed straight through the atom.

An atom has a very small, rigid, positively charged body called a nucleus. Due to this positively charged part α-particles are repelled from the metal foil.

The entire mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, so it is very heavy and hard.

Main Postulates

An atom mainly or largely consists of free space. Each atom contain a heavy positively charged body at its centre called the nucleus.

The negatively charged electrons are revolving around the nucleus and are called planetary electrons.

Rutherford atomic model failed because he could not explain the existence ot revolving electrons.

Bohr's Atomic Model (1913)

Niels Bohr proposed this atomic model which is based upon the Planck's quantum theory of radiations.

The electrons in an atom move around the nucleus in only selected circular paths called orbits. Each orbit has a certain amount of energy.

Electron in the particular orbit, does not lose or gain energy.

Only those orbits are permitted in which the angular momentum ot the electron is a whole number multiple of h/2π ⇒ ('h' is Planck's constant).

Energy is emitted when an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level and energy is absorbed when an electron jumps from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.

Failures of Bohr's Atomic Theory

He could not explain the effect of magnetic fields in the spectrum of atoms or ions.

He could not explain the line spectra of atoms with more than one electron, called a multi-electron atom.

He could not explain the effect of electric field on the spectra of atoms.

Bohr's theory failed due to the dual nature of matter and uncertainly principle.

Electronic Configuration of Elements

The arrangement of electrons in different shells of an atom is known as electronic configuration of the element.

Following rules are used to write the electronic configuration

Aufbau's Principle

According to this principle, "the sub-shells are filled with electrons in increasing order of their energy." That is, the lower energy subshells will be filled with electrons first.

The order of increasing energies is summed as 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5d, 6d, 7p

Note that Cr²⁴ and Cu²⁹ do not obey this law

Cr = 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 3d⁵, 4s¹

Cu = 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 3d¹⁰, 4s¹

Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

According to this rule, "Pairing of electrons in a sub-shell starts after all the available atomic orbitals or the sub-shell are singly filled (half filled)"

Pauli's Exclusion Principle

It states that, "No two electrons can have the same value of the four quantum numbers".

Knowledge Update
Exactly half filled subshells have less energy and thus assume greater stability than any other arrangement. Thus, p³ is more stable arrangement than p², p⁴ or p⁵.

Iso Electronic Species

Species having same number of electrons are known as iso-electronic, e.g, NH3 or H3O^+ are iso-electronic.

Radioactivity

Radioactivity can be defined as the spontaneous emission of suitable particle and electromagnetic radiations by unstable nuclei.

It was discovered by Prof. Henre Becquerel in 1896.

The three rays emitted from radioactive substance are

Alpha Rays (α-rays)

They are deflected towards negative plate in electric field.

Each particle carry two units positive charge and four unit, mass i.e., it is doubly ionised Helium atom.

They produce maximum ionisation in gases because of maximum kinetic energy.
Their penetration power of very small because of large mass.

Velocity of these rays is 1/10 of the velocity of light.

Beta Rays (β-rays)

They are deflected towards positive plate in electric field.

β-particles carry one unit negative charge and negligible mass that is electron.

They produce lesser ionisation in gases than α-particle.

Emission of one β-particle, from unstable nucleus results in the increase in the number of protons by one unit.

Gamma Rays (γ-rays)

γ-rays are electromagnetic radiations of very high frequencies even more than X-rays. Thus, the γ-rays have no charge and no mass.

They are not deflected from their path in electric or magnetic field.

They produce minimum ionisation in gases.

They possess maximum penetration power.

Nuclear Stability

Due to the very small size of the nucleus, there are very high repulsive forces between protons. The presence of neutrons in the nucleus reduces these forces. Therefore, the stability of the nucleus depends on the ratio of n and p, i.e., n/p. For stable nucleus, n/p should be 1.0 - 1.6.

Theory of Radioactive Disintegration

During disintegration of an atom, either an α-particle or a β-particle is emitted.

α-Emission During α-emission from a nucleus, its mass number decreases by 4 and charge number by 2, i.e.,

β-Emission During β-Emission from a nucleus, its mass number remains same while atomic number increases by 1, e.g.,

γ-Emission During γ--emission, mass number and atomic number remain same.

Half-Life Period (t1/2) The time during which half the number of atoms present initially in the element decay is known as half life period.

N = N0 × (1/2)^n and T = t1/2 × n

Where, N0 = Initial amount

N = Remaining amount

T = Total time

n = Number of half lives

t1/2 = 0.693/k

Where, k = decay constant

Average Life Period = T = 1/k = t1/2/0.693 = 1.44 t1/2

Artificial Transmutation

The transformation of a stable nucleus into another nucleus by pre-bombing it with suitable high energy particles is called artificial transformation, e.g., -------

Methods of Obtaining Nuclear Energy

Nuclear Fission

It is the phenomenon of the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei with the evolution of a large amount of energy, for example,

92U²³⁵ + 0n¹ → 56Ba¹³⁹ + 36Kr⁹⁴ + 30n¹ + E

Two types of chain reactions occur in nuclear fission.

Un-controlled Chain Reaction Atom bomb is based on it.
Controlled Chain Reaction These reactions occur in nuclear reactors.

In nuclear reactors

U-235 and Pu²³⁹, are used as fuels.

D2O or graphite is used as moderator.

Cd or B rods absorb neutrons. These are control rods.

Liquid sodium is used as coolant.

Nuclear Fusion

It is the phenomenon of fusion of two or more lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus that contains a large amount of energy, Example, the energy of the hydrogen bomb and sum.

1H² + 1H² → 2He⁴ + 17.6 MeV

Uses of Radio Isotopes

CO⁶⁰ is used to cure brain tumours and cancer.
C¹⁴ is used in carbon dating.
I¹³¹ is used in the treatment of thyroid gland.
Na²⁴ is used to measure the speed of blood circulation.

Important TIPS
Isotopes have same number of protons but different number of neutrons

Isotones have same number of neutrons.

Radioactivity does not change with temperature, pressure, etc.

Extranuclear part of atom contains electrons.
Half life period, t1/2 = 0.693/k (k = decay constant)
Average life = 1/k 1.44 × t1/2

Nuclear fusion is source of sun's energy.

The principle of the atomic bomb is based on nuclear fission and the hydrogen bomb is nuclear fusion.

β-particle is strongest reducing agent.

Cu and Cr are exceptions to Aufbau's principle.
Energy of an electron in
nth orbit (En) = -13.6Z²/n² eV/atom
Radius of nth orbit (rn) = 5.53n²/Z Å
Velocity of e- in nth orbit = 2.18 × 108Z cm/s
Z = Atomic number

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Gravitation | Physics, Definition, Types, laws, facts, formulas, |

2021-07-02T20:15:00.004+05:30

Gravitation is one of four classes found in nature. These are, The Gravitational Force, The Electromagnetic Force, The Strong Nuclear Force and The Weak Nuclear Force. It is gravity that holds the universe together. In this, we shall learn the basic laws that govern gravitational interactions.

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Universal Law of Gravitation

Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force is along the line joining the centers of two objects. This whole phenomenon is gravitation. It is also known as Newton's law of gravitation.

Thus, F ∝ 1/d²

and F ∝ M × m

⇒ F = G M×m / d²

Here G is the proportional constant and is called the universal gravitational constant. Its SI unit is Nm² kg-² and value is 6.673 × 10-¹¹

The value of G was found out by Henry Cavendish.

Free Fall

When an object falls towards the earth under the force of gravity alone, that object falls freely.

In a free fall, we observe that the direction of the motion doesn't change but there is a change in magnitude of the velocity

Acceleration Due to Gravity

When a body falls freely, then the increase in its velocity per second is called acceleration due to gravity. It is represented by g.

g = GMe/R²e

Where, Me = mass of Earth

Re = radius of Earth.

Change In Value of 'g'

1. The value of 'g' is minimum at equator and maximum at poles (It happens due to non-spherical shape of the Earth).

2. The observed value of 'g' at the lattitude 'λ' is

gλ = g - Re ω² cos² λ

At equator, gλ = g - Re ω²

Al pole, gλ = g

3. Value of 'g' at height 'h' above Earth surface decreases.

g' = g/[1 + h/Re]² = g[1 - 2h/Re]

4. Value of 'g' at height 'h' below Earth's surface decreases.

g' = g [1 - h/Re]

Motion of Objects Under the Influence of Gravitational Force of the Earth

Since 'g' is constant near the Earth, all equations for uniformly accelerated motion of objects become valid when the acceleration 'a' is replaced by g.

Thus, equations are

v = u ± gt

s = u ± 1/2 gt²

v² = u² ± 2gs

Planet

The celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun are called planets, e.g., Earth.

Satellite

Those celestial bodies that revolve around the planets, such as satellites, are called moons.

These are of two types

Natural Satellite
Artificial satellite

Escape Velocity

The minimum velocity that should be given to the body to enable it to escape away from Earth's gravitational field is called escape velocity (ves).

ves = √2GM/√Re = √2gRe

Its value for Earth's surface is 11.2km/s.

Kepler's Law

The planet moves in an elliptical path while the Sun is at one of its focus.

L The radius vector sweeps through the same area in equal time intervals.

The square time period of the planet is equal to the cube of the length of the semi-major axis.

Important Tips
The gravitational force between two masses is independent of the presence of other objects and medium between the two masses.
The value of escape velocity of a body does not depend on its mass.
The escape velocity of a body depends on the radius of planet from which it is projected.
The value of escape velocity does not depend on the angle and direction of projection.
For Earth Re 6400 km. g = 9.8 m/s².
Orbital speed of a satellite near the surface of Earth vo = √6.4 × 10⁶ × 9.8 = 8 km/s.
Weight of an object on Moon= (1/6) × its weight on the Earth.

Related Questions : (Answer in comment box.)

Q1. If ve denotes escape velocity and vo denotes orbital velocity of a satellite revolving around a planet of radius R, then

(a) ve = √2•vo

(b) ve = 2vo

(d) √2•ve = vo

Q2. 1f R denotes the radius of orbit of a satellite of mass m revolving around a planet of mass M the sqiared orbital velocity of the satellite is given by

(a) vo² = GM/R

(b) vo² =GmM/R

(d) vo² = GM/mR

Q3. The escape velocity of a sphere of mass m from the earth having mass M and radius R is given by

(a) √2GM/√R

(b) √2GmM/√R

(d) √GM/√R

Q4. The weight of a body at the centre of the earth is

(a) same as on surtace of Earth

(b) half of that on surface

(d) zero

Q5. There is no atmosphere on moon because

(a) it is closer to Earth

(b) It revolves round the Earth

(d) the escape velocity of gas molecule is smaller than their rms velocity

Q6. If the earth is at one-fourth of its present distance from the sun, the duration of the year will be

(a) one-half the present year

(b) one-sixth the present year

(d) one-fourth the present year

Q7. If the earth stops rotating, the value of g at the equator will

(a) remain same

(b) rermain half

(d) increase

|Gravitation|Physics, Definition, Types, laws, facts, formulas|

If you have any doubts let me know in comment box.

Thank you,

Laws of chemical combination and gas | Chemistry, Types, Definition, laws, | aurayne

2021-06-27T07:23:00.000+05:30

During the quantitative studies of chemical changes, the scientists made some of generalisations, these are known as laws of chemical combination.

Law of Conservation of Mass

This law establish the relationship between the masses of reactants and products during a chemical reaction. This law was postulated by A. Lavoisier in 1750.

This law states that,

"During any physical or chaemical change, the total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the reactants".

"Matter can neither be created nor destroyed during any physical or chemical change".

Example, 12g carbon combines with 32g oxygen to give 44g carbon dioxide. This law may be explained with the help of Landolt's experiments.

Law of Conservation of Mass in the Light of Modern Research

It is stated by modern research that mass can be converted into energy. There is some energy formed in each reaction, by which some mass has been lost. According to Einstein, mass and energy are related as,

E = mc²

Where,

E = energy

m = the mass of substance,

c = velocity of light (3 x 10⁸ m/s)

But chemical reactions those, we are completed in laboratory, energy released or absorbed in these reactions are too less,

So, there is a slight change in mass (decrease or increase) takes place which is negligible. These changes can be clearly seen in nuclear reactions. We assumed the law of conservation of mass is true for normal chemical reactions.

This law does not hold good for nuclear reactions like, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and radioactivity.

Laws of Constant Composition

This law deals with the composition of various elements present in a compound. This law was stated by French chemist Lewis Proust. This law states that,

"A pure chemical compound always contains same elements combined together in the same definite proportions by weight."

The converse of this law is not true.

Example, it is found by the analysis of water (taken from various places like river. Falls and wells) that in each sample of water the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen is 2 : 16 or 1 : 8.

Laws of Multiple Proportions

This law was proposed by Dalton (1803).

This law states that,

"When two elements combine to form two or more compounds then in two compounds the weights of one of the element which combine with a fixed weight of the other, bear a simple whole number ratio".

Example, carbon and oxygen react with each other to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide (CO) contain 12 parts by weight of carbon and 16 parts by weight of oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO2) contains 12 parts by weight of carbon and 32 parts by weight of oxygen and ratio of the weights of oxygen which react with or fixed weight of carbon (12 parts) in these oxides is 16 : 32 which is a simple whole number ratio (1 : 2).

Other examples of law of multiple proportions,

(i) H2O and H2O2;

(ii) CuO and Cu2O;

(iii) N2O, NO, N2O3 and N2O5,

which also verify the law of multiple proportions

Laws of Reciprocal Proportions

This law was proposed by Richter in 1792. This law is aiso called as the law of equivalent proportions or law of combining weights.

This law states that,

"When two different elements combine separately with the same weight of a third element the ratio in which they do so, wil be the same or some simple multiple of the ratio in which they combine with each other.

Example, carbon and sulphur react separately winth oxygen (third element) to give carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). They also react together to form carbon disulphide (CS2). Now, in carbon dioxide 12 parts by weight of carbon are combined with 32 parts by weight of oxygen and in sulphur dioxide (SO2) 32 parts by weight of sulphur are combined with 32 parts by weight of oxygen. Ratio of weight of carbon and sulphur which combine with fixed weight (32 parts) of oxygen is

= 12 : 32 or 3 : 8 ........(i)

In carbon disulphide (CS2) 12 parts by weight of carbon are combined with 64 parts by weight of sulphur.

So, ratio of weight of carbon and sulphur in which they react together,

= 12 : 64 or 3 : 16 ......(ii)

Now, the ratio (i) and (i) are related to each other 3 : 8 and 3 : 16 or 3 : 3 and 8 : 16 or 1 : 2

Gay-Lussac's Law of Gaseous Volumes

This law was proposed by Gay-Lussac. This law deals with the relation between volume of reactants and products during chemical reactions.

This law states that,

"Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure whenever gases react together the volume of the reacting gases as well as products bears a simple number ratio".

Example, one volume of hydrogen reacts with one volume of chlorine to give two volumes of hydrogen chloride (gas).

H2 + Cl2 → 2HCI

1vol 1vol 2 vol

Hence, volume ratio of H2 : Cl2 : 2HCI is 1:1:2.

Gaseous State

At STP

T = 273°K, p = 1atm = 101.35 Pa,

V = 22.4 L / mol

Gas Laws

Boyle's Law

This law states that, "the volume of a certain mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at a constant temperature."

Mathematically,

V ∝ 1/p (temperature and mass constant)

or, pV = Constant

Let V be the temperature T. The volume of a given mass of gas having pressure p1 at is. If pressure is changed to p2 at the same temperature, let the volume changes to V2. Then, according to Boyle's Law,

p1V1 = p2V2

Charle's Law

At constant pressure, volume of the fixed mass of a gas is directdy proportional to the temperature on Kelvin scale.

Mathematically,

V ∝ T (at constant pressure)

or, V/T = Constant

Let V1 be the volume of a certain mass of a gas at temperature T1 and at pressure p. If temperature is changed to T2 keeping the pressure constant, volume changes to V2. Then,

V1/T1 = V2/T2

Absolute Temperature or Kehvin Scale

Termperature in Celsius scale is converted into Kelvin scale by addition of 273.

Absolute ternperature =t°C + 273.

Temperature - Pressure Law

"At constant volume, the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature."

P ∝ T

or, P/T = Constant

Gas Equation

Combining Boyle's law, Charles' law and Avogadro's law, the relationship between temperature, pressure and volume can be obtained as follows,

V ∝ 1/p (Boyle's law) .....(i)

V ∝ T (Charle's law) ......(ii)

By combining Equations. (i) and (ii). we get,

V ∝ T/P

⇒ pV ∝ T

⇒ pV = RT (where, R = gas constant)

Value af R is 8.314 JK-¹ mol-¹ or 2 cal K-¹ mol-¹. If temperature, volume and pressure of fix amount of a gas vary from T1, V1 and p1 to T2,V2 and p2, respectively.

Then,

p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

"At constant temperature, the pressure of a mixture of two or more non-reacting gases enclosed in a definite volume is equal to the sum of partial pressures of each gas."

If p is the total pressure of the mixture of non-reacting gases at temperature T and volume V

and partial pressure of the gases are p1, p2, p3,.....

Then,

p = p1 + p2 + p3 + .....(T and V are constant)

Partial Pressure Individual pressure of a gas in the mixture is known as partial pressure of the gas.

Calculation of Partial Pressure If total pressure of the mixture is p, total number of gaseous molecules in the mixture is n and number of molecules of the gas is n1, then partial pressure of the gas is

p1 = p × n1 / n

Graham's Law of Diffusion

This law states that under the same conditions of temperature rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density or molar mass. If r is rate of diffusion and dis the density, then

r ∝ 1/√d

If r1 and r2 are the rates of diffusion of two gases, whose densities are d1 and d2, respectively. Then, according to Graham's law,

r1/r2 = √d2/√d1

⇒ r1/r2 = √M2/√M1

Where, M1 and M2 are molar mass of gases.

Where M1 and M2 are molar masses of gases and molar mass (M) = 2 × Density (d1)

∵ r = V/T (Where, V = Volume and T =Time)

Then,

r1/r2 = V1T2/V2T1

Molecular Velocities of Gases

Root Mean Square Velocity Square root of the mean of squares of different velocities possessed by molecules of a gas at a given temperature is called root mean square velocity. It is related to the temperature and molar mass as follows,

vrms = √3RT/√M

If temperature of two gases are T1 and T2 and molar masses are M1 and M2, then root mean square velocity v1 and v2 are

v1/v2 = √T1M2/√T2M1

Most Probable Velocity Most probable velocity is the velocity possessed by maximum number of molecules of a gas at a given temperature. It is represented by ump. It is related to temperature and molar mass as follows

ump = √2RT/M

If temperature of two gases are T1 and T2 and molar masses are M1 and M2 then most probable velocity u1 and u2 are,

u1/u2 = √T1M2/√T2M1

Avogadro's Law

Under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volume of all gases contain equal number of molecules. Avogadro's Number N. It is the number of formula unit present in 1 g-mol of a substance

N = 6.023 x10²³

Important TIPS
Law of conservation of mass is not valid for nuclear reactions.

Law of constant proportion is not valid for isotopes and metals which show various oxidation states.

Absolute temperature is at 0°C/273K and absolute pressure is at 760 mm or 76 cm.

For calculation purposes, temperature (°C) should be converted in absolute temperature by adding 273 in it.

At constant pressure, when the temperature of a gas having fixed volume, is raised from 0°C to 1°C, the initial volume increase by 1/273 part or vice versa
Rate of effusion ∝ 1/√density

Ideal gas is the gas which obey Boyle's law, Charle's law and strictly follow general gas equations.

Real gases are the gases which deviate from ideal behaviour at high pressure and laws temperature and do not obey laws.

A real gas approach ideal behaviour at high temperature and low pressure

Real gas equation (Van Der Waals' equation) is
[P + a/v²] (V - b) = RT

Related Questions : (Answer in comment box.)

Q1. Which one of the following is a correct relationship between mass and energy

(a) E = mc²

(b) E = m/c²

(d) c = √E/√m

Q2. Law of conservation of mass is not correct for

(a) radioactive change

(b) hydrolysis

(d) None of these

Q3. Radioactive change follows the law of

(a) conservation of mass

(b) conservation of mass-energy

(d) None of the above

Q4. One part of an element A combines with two parts of another element B. Six parts of the element C combines with four parts of the element B. If A and C combined together the ratio of their weights will be governed by

(a) law of definite proportions

(b) law of multiple proportions

(d) law ot conservation of mass

Q5. Which of the following compounds do not conform to the law of multiple proportion?

(a) NaCl and BaCl2

(b) CaO and Na2O

(d) H3PO4 and Ca3(PO4)

Q6. Law of combining volumes was given by

(a) Dalton

(b) Gay-Lussac

(d) Einstein

Q7. Real gas will approach the behaviour of ideal gas at

a) low temperature and high pressure

b) high temperature and low pressure

(d high temperature and high pressure

Q8. Matter can be converted into energy. lt is represented by

(a) E = mc

(b) E = mc²

(d) E = 1/2 mc²

Q9. Which of the following is not a chemical reaction?

(a) Purification of milk

(b) Formation of water

(d) Vaporisation

Q10. Which is correct relation between rate of diffusion and their densities

(a) r1/r2 = √d1/√d2

(b) r1/r2 = d1/d2

(d) r1/r2 = d2/d1

|laws of chemical combination and gas|

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Work, Energy and Power | Physics, Definition, Types, Formulas, Simple explanation |

2021-06-24T20:05:00.001+05:30

The terms work, energy and power are frequently used in everyday language. In physics, however the word, 'Work' converse a definite and precise meaning.

'Energy' is capacity to do work. In physics, the term energy is related to work. The word 'Power' is used in everyday life With different shades of meaning.

Work

When a body is displaced by applying a force on it, then work is said to be done.

If a body is displaced by a distance s on applying a force F on it, then the work done

W = F • s

It is a scalar quantity.

If there is an angle θ between the direction of force and direction of displacement, then work done

W = Fs cos θ

Thus, we can see that work is the scalar product of force and displacement.

So, if θ is acute angle, then work is positive. If θ is right angle then work is zero. If θ is obtuse angle, then work is negative. In CGS system unit of work is erg.

1J=10⁷ erg

In MKS and SI system, unit of work is N-m or J.

If the direction of force is towards the center of the circle and direction of motion is along the tangent to the circle at that point and perpendicular to the direction of force. Then, work done is zero.

Energy

Capacity of doing work is called energy because work is done by transtormation of energy, so unit of work and energy is same i.e., joule.

There are many types of energy, such as

(i) Mechanical energy

(ii) Chemical energy

(iii) Solar energy

(iv) Nuclear energy

(v) Light energy

There are two types of mechanical energy

Kinetic Energy

The energy of a body by virtue of its motion, is called kinetic energy. If a body of mass m is moving with velocity v, then kinetic energy

=1/2mv²

If the momentum of the body is p, then kinetic energy

= p²/2m

Potential Energy

The energy of a body by virtue of its position or/and configuration is called potential energy.

Potential energy = mgh

Total Mechanical Energy

The sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of a body or system is known as its total mechanical energy.

Conservation of Total Mechanical Energy

If there is no external force on a body and there is no dssipative force, then total mechanical energy of a body or system will remain conserved.

According to this law, "energy can neither created nor be destroyed, but one form of energy can be converted into another form".

Work Energy Theorem

It states that sum of work done by all the forces acting on a body is equal to its change in kinetic energy.

Power

Rate of doing work is called power. It is a scalar quantity.

Power, P = Work /Time = W/T

P = F • v

Unit of power is watt.

Some other units of power

1 kilowatt =10³ watt

1 mega watt = 106 watt

1 horse power = 746 watt

Important TIPS
If displacement is perpendicular to the direction of force, then work done is zero.
If a body is moving on a circle, then after completing cycle, work done is zero.
Work done does not depend on the path followed and time taken.
W = 1/2 mv²2 – 1/2 mv²1 (Work Energy Theorem)
When the body is projected upwards, then its kin energy goes on changing into potential energy.
When a body is falling downward then its potential energy goes on changing into kinetic energy.

Related Questions : (Answer in comment box.)

Q1. If the power of any engine is 1HP, then what does it means?

(a) Engine work for 746 N

(b) The rate of doing work by the engine is 746 J/s

(C)Total work done by the engine is 746 J

(d) None of the above

Q2. One "horse power" is equal to

(a) 750 W

(b) 746 W

(d) 760 W

Q3. The relation between kinetic energy K and linear momentum p of a particle is represented by

(b) 2K² = mp

(d) 2mK = P

(d) p² = 2mk

Q4. An artificial satellite is revolving around earth. The physical quantity which is conserved is

(a) angular momentum

(b) moment of inertia

(d) total energy

Q5. Maximum work will be done if the angle between force applied and displacement produced is

(a) zero

(b) 90°

(d) 180°

Q6. Minimum work will be done if the angle between the impressed force and displacement caused is

(a) 90°

(b) 60°

(d) zero

Q7. A body of mass M1 Collides with another mass M2 at rest. The collision is elastic. Maximum transfer of energy Occurs when

(a) M1 = M2

(b) M1 < M2

(d) None of these

Q8. The bullet is fired from the rifle and the rifle recoils. The kinetic energy of the rifle is

(a) less than KE of bullet

(b) greater than KE of bullet

(d) equal to KE of bullet

| Work, Energy and Power |

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Best Robot Vacuum Cleaner | Under ₹15,000, all-in-one, incredible cleaning | aurayne

2021-06-23T18:36:00.004+05:30

Milagrow Seagull Prime Robot Vacuum Cleaner

The Milagro Seagull uses 'gyro mapping' technology. It uses Earth's gravity to help determine orientation. With a freely rotating disc called a rotor mounted on a spinning axis at the center of a larger and more stable wheel, the gyroscope was able to measure the rate of rotation around a particular axis due to its effectiveness. maintains the level.

When estimating the rate of rotation around the robot's roll axis, it identifies a true value until the object becomes stationary. Milagrow Seagull uses disruptive simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) to generate or update maps of home or office environments, as well as keep track of the robot's location within the map.

Milagrow Seagull will display real-time progress and maps while you're cleaning on your device. Plan paths in real time over a given area to reduce the time taken. The gyro cleans up with the mapping algorithm and it keeps cleaning up as it sees it.

The special microfiber mop helps reduce the spread of infection in homes, hospitals, offices and similar environments. These microfibers are capable of attaching themselves to even the tiniest, tiniest dirt particles—which make brushing a normal fabric fiber (positively huge in comparison) severe.

If forces were visible, you would be able to see that there is an adhesive force (the force of attraction) between the microfiber and the dirt. It has a NIDEC brushless motor, with 1500Pa suction power, maximizing cleaning power. 5 years warranty on motor, 1 year warranty on robot vaccum cleaner.

Seamless connectivity

The Seagull Robotic Vacuum Cleaner is built with technology that supports smart wireless connectivity, allowing the unit to be connected to your smartphone, thus making it possible to operate via Google Assistant or Amazon Alexa. You can easily control the robot through the remote.

Gyro Mapping

Gyro mapping technology uses Earth's gravity to help determine orientation, therefore, as the unit moves from one location to another, the gyroscope measures the rate of rotation around a particular axis.

Dry Vacuuming or Slight Wet Mopping

Get clean floors without breaking a sweat as this unit is capable of dry vacuuming and light wet mopping. You don't need to do much, as all you have to do is turn on the unit and let it do its job.

Strong Suction Power

Manufactured with NIDEC brushless motor that provides strong suction power of up to 1500pa, be sure to get a dust-free floor at home. You can choose from 3 cleaning modes that efficiently suck up small beans and even heavy particles.

HEPA Filter

The Milagrow Seagull Floor Vacuum Cleaner is equipped with a HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) air filter that effectively captures dust, pollen, large particulate matter, bacteria, viruses, etc. and helps purify the air.

Thin and Slim Design

With a height of only 7.2cms, this robot vacuum floor cleaner is the thinnest. It can go under any furniture or under closets with low clearance. Its 35.6 cm width ensures that the maximum area where the unit passes through is ensured.

All Surface Cleaning

The unit can clean most surfaces such as concrete, tile, glass, linoleum, wood, marble and more. It can clean carpets as long as they don't have loose tassels or are too fluffy. Dirt goes into the large 650ml capacity dustbin that is built-in to the unit.

Robotic Technology

Once the battery is below 15%, the unit can charge itself via an infrared single from the receiver. It can also schedule your cleaning through the mobile app. If the unit has a problem, it can even diagnose/resolve the cause itself! If there is an obstacle near the unit, it can detect it with its smart sensor.

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Mixtures Compounds and Elements | Types, facts, Definition, Simple explanation, |

2021-06-21T00:58:00.004+05:30

Element An a element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler components by any non-nuclear chemical reaction.

Mixtures Two or more substances which have been combined such that each substance retains its own chemical identity.

Compounds A compound is a substance that results from a combination of two or more different chemical elements, in such a way that the atoms of the different elements are held together by chemical bonds that are different to break This is called compound.

Matter

Anything that occupies space and possesses mass is termed as matter.

Relation between Mass and Energy

E = mc

Where, E = Energy obtained

m = Lost mass

c = Speed of light = 3 × 10⁸ m/s

States of Matter

There are three states of matter.

There are

1. Solid State The state of matter which has definite shape and volume is known as solid e.g, iron, wood etc.

2. Liquid State The state of matter which has fixed volume but not fixed shape is known as liquid eg. milk, oil etc.

3. Gaseous State The state of matter which has not fixed shape and volume is known as gaseous state

Liquids and gasses are known as fluids.

Change in the State of Matter

The states of matter are inter-convertible. State of matter can be changed by changing temperature and pressure.

Melting Point

The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric pressure is called its melting point. The process of melting is known as fusion. The MP of ice is 273.16 K or 0°C. Presence of impurity decreases MP.

Boiling Point

The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling point. Boiling point of water is 373 K or 100°C. Presence of impurity increases BP.

Freezing Point

The temperature at which a liquid freezes to solid is known as freezing point. For waters it is 0°C. Presence of impurity increases freezing point.

On increasing pressure, BP increases.

On hills, atmospheric pressure decreases therefore, water boils at lower temperature than its boiling point.

In pressure cooker, pressure on water increases due to which BP of water increases. So, due to higher temperature in cooker, food cook easily in it.

Evaporation

The process of change of a liquid into vapours at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation. It is a surface phenomenon.

Sublimation

It is the change of gaseous state directly to solid state without going through liquid state and vice-versa.

Element

• An element is a substance which cannot be split up into two or more simpler substances by the usual chemical methods of applying heat, light or electric energy

• There are 115 elements known at present, out of which 92 elements occur in nature, while remaining 23 elements have been prepared artificially.

• Elements may be found in all the three forms as solid, liquid or gas.

Solid Sodium (Na), Carbon (C), Aluminium (Al) etc.

Liquid Mercury (Hg), Bromine (Br) etc.

Gas Oxygen (O2) , Hydrogen (H2) etc.

Types of Elements

Metals

• The elements which have a tendency to form positive ions (by loss of electrons) are known as metals, e.g., silver, tin, zinc etc.

• Metals are elements having lustre, ductility, malleability, conductivity etc.

• Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust.

Non-metals

• The elements which have a tendency to form negative ion by gain of electrons are called non-metals e.g., hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur etc.

• Oxides of non-metals are neutral (in low oxidation state) or acidic (in higher oxidation states) in nature.

• They are in powder or in gaseous form under normal conditions.

• Bromine and Mercury is the only non-metal which is liquid under normal conditions.

Metalloids

They are the elements whose properties fall between those of metals and non-metals, e.g., germanium, arsenic, selenium and tellurium etc.

Symbols

The short form used in place of full name of an element is called its symbol.

The symbol of an element is the 'first letter' or the 'first letter and another letter' of the English name of Latin name of the element.

Symbols derived from English Name of the Elements

English Name of the Element	Symbol
Argon	Ar
Bromine	Br
Hydrogen	H
Helium	He
Krypton	Kr
Lithium	Li
Manganese	Mn
Neon	Ne
Phosphorus	P
Silicon	Si
Zinc	Zn
Magnesium	Mg

Symbols derived from Latin Name of Elements

English Name of the Element	Symbol	Latin Name of the Element
Copper	Cu	Cuprum
Gold	Au	Aurum
Iron	Fe	Ferrum
Lead	Pb	Plumbsum
Mercury	Hg	hydrargysum
Potassium	K	Kalium
Silver	Ag	Argentum
Tin	Sn	stannum
Tungsten	W	Wolfram
Sodium	Na	Natrium

A symbol represents, name of the element one atom of the element, one mole of atoms of the elements and a definite mass of the elements.

Mixture

A mixture is a substance which consists of two or more elements or compounds not chemically combined together, e.g., air, milk, ink, brine, lime water, glass, paints, soil, food, wood, kerosene etc.

Types of Mixtures

Mixtures are of two types.

Hemogeneous Mixture

A homogeneous mixture has the same composition throughout its mass. It has no visible boundaries of separation between the various constituents, e.g., solution of sugar in water, solution of salt in water, a mixture of alcohol and water etc.

Heterogeneous Mixture

A heterogeneous mixture does not have a uniform composition throughout its mass. A heterogeneous mixture has visible boundaries of separation between the various components, e.g., solution of K2Cr2O7, in water, solution of CaCO3 in water, solution of oil in water, gun powder, soil etc.

A mixture which boils at a definite boiling point is called azeotropic mixture.

Changes Occurring in Matter or Substances

There are two types of changes in matter.

Physical Change

It is a temporary change. No, new substance is formed, e.g., melting of ice, sublimation of iodine etc. These changes are reversible.

Chemical Change

In this change, chemical composition and properties of the substance changes permanently, i.e. new substance is formed, e.g., rusting of iron, burning of magnesium wire, etc. These changes are irreversible.

Properties of a Mixture

• A mixture can be separated into its components by physical methods like, filteration, evaporation, sublimation, distillation, magnet etc.

• A mixture shows the properties of all the constituents present in it.

• Energy is usually neither given out nor absorbed during the preparation of a mixture.

• The composition of a mixture is variable, ie., the constituents can be present in any proportion by weight.

• A mixture does not have a definite melting point, boiling point etc. (except azeotropic mixture).

Methods of Separation of Mixture

1. Crystallisation This method is based on the difference in the solubility of the compound and the impurities in a solvent e.g., a mixture of KNO3 and NaCl can be separated by this process.

2. Distillation This method is used for the purification of liquids which boil without decomposition and contain non-volatile impurities, e.g., pure water can be obtained from sea water by distillation.

3. Fractional Distillation This process is used to separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids which have boiling points close to each other e.g., petrol, diesel, kerosene etc.

4. Sublimation This process is used for the separation of those solids which sublime from a non-volatile solid This process is generally used for the separation of naphthalene anthracene, benzoic acid, camphor, NH4Cl, iodine etc.

5. Distillation Under Reduced Pressure It is used for liquids which decompose below their boiling points. It is also called vacuum distillation, e.g., glycerol can be separated by this method.

6. Steam Distillation It is used for the separation and purification of liquids which are appreciably volatile in steam from non-volatile impurities of mixture, e.g., o-nitrophenol and p-nitrophenol are separated by this method. Aniline is also purified by this method.

7. Evaporation It is the process by which soluble solids can be obtained from their solution by allowing the solvent to vaporise, e.g., salt can be obtained from salt solution by evaporation.

8. Chromatography Chromatography is a moden method proposed by Tswett in 1903. This method is based on the difference in the rates at which the components of a mixture are adsorbed on a suitable adsorbent. This method has been used to separate blue and red dyes, to separate plant pigments and other natural products.

9. Atmolysis It is used for separating the mixture of gases. This method is based on the difference in their rates of diffusion.

Compounds

A compound is a substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion by weight, eg. water, NaCl, NH4Cl and CO2 etc.

Organic Compounds

Component	Functional Group	Name of Functional Group
Hydrocarbon
(i) Saturated	≡C–C≡	Paraffin bond
(ii) Unsaturated	≡C–C≡
(a) Olefin	>C=C<	Olefin bond
(b) Acetylene	–C≡C–	Acetylene bond
Halogen compound	–Cl, –Br, –I	Chloro, bromo, and iodo
Alcohol	R–OH	Hydroxy group
Ether	R'–O–R	Ether group
Aldehyde	R–CHO	Aldehyde group
Ketone	>C==O	Oxo and keto group
Carboxylic acid	–COOH	Carboxylic group
Ester	–COOR	Ester group
Nitro compound	–NO2	Nitro group
Amine	–NH2	Amino group
Amide	–CONH2	Amide group

Properties of Compounds

A compound cannot be separated into its components by physical methods.

The properties of a compound are entirely, different from those of its constituent elements.

The composition of a compound is fixed, ie., the constituents are present in fixed proportion by weight.

Compounds have fixed melting point and boiling point etc.

A compound is a homogeneous substance.

Chemical Formulae

The chemical formula of a compound represents the composition of a molecule of the compound in terms of the symbols of the elements present in it, e.g., a formula of H2O represents that water has two atoms of hydrogen element and one atom of oxygen element.

Method for Writing the Formula

If we want to write the formula of a compound which is made up of two elements having valencies x and y, respectively.

It can be done as follows

Write the symbols or formulae of the basic radicals to the left and acidic radicals to the right.
The valency of each radical is written on the radicals.
The criss-cross rule is applied by exchange of numerical value of valency of each radical.
A complex radical (or compound radical) is enclosed in brackets and the subscript is written outside the lower right hand corner.
A common factor is eliminated and unit subscript is omitted.

For Example (i) Calcium chlorite

(a) Symbols are written with their valencies Ca²+(CIO2)¯.

(b) Exchange the numerical value of valency of each radical.

2 1

Ca ClO2

(c) Omitting the unit subscript, the formula of calcium chlorite is Ca(CIO2)2.

Types of Formulae

Empirical Formula

The empirical or simple formula of a compound shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of various elements present in one molecule of the compound. e.g., the empirical formula of acetylene is CH and that of glucose is CH2O.

Molecular Formula

It gives the actual number of atoms of component elements in one molecule of the compound. e.g., the molecular formula of fructose is C6H1206.

Calculation of Empirical and Molecular Formula

The empirical formula of a compound is calculated from the percentage composition of compound as follows

The percentage of each element is divided by its atomic weight to get the relative number of atoms of various elements present in the compound.

The relative number of atoms is divided by the minimum value to have the simplest ratio of the number of atoms.

If the simplest ratio is not a whole number then it is made a whole number by either changing the value to the nearest whole number or by multiplying with a suitable integer throughout.

The whole number is written as a subscript at the lower right hand corner of the symbol of the element to give the empirical formula.

The empirical formula weight is calculated by adding the atomic weight of atoms of all elements present in empirical formula.

The molecular weight of the compound is calculated from the given data.

'n' is calculated by using the relation

n = Molecular weight of the compound / Empirical formula weight

Molecular formula = (Empirical formula) × n

Chemical Equations

• A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of an actual chemical change, e g,

Zn + H2SO4 –––– ZnSO4 + H2 ↑

• A chemical equation represents

compounds taking part in the reaction.

products or compounds formed during the reaction.

catalysts used for the reaction (If any).

Important TIPS
Silicon (Si) is an element and silica (SiO2) is a compound.
Oxides of metals are basic and non-metals are acidic.
Crystallisation is based on difference in solubility.
Mixture which boles at definite boiling point is called azeotropic mixtures.
NH4CI sumblimes due to its decomposition into NH3 and HCl.
I2 is the only halogen which sublimes.
A compound is always homogeneous.
Ants contain formic acid (HCOOH).
Urea is the first organic compound prepared in laboratory by Wohler in 1928.
Acetic acid is the first organic compound which is extracted from natural material by Kolbe.
Methane is the first organic compound which is synthesised in laboratory from its elements by Berthelot.

Related Questions : (Answer in comment box.)

Q1. Magnesium is present in

(a) haemoglobin

(b) vitamin B2

(d) ascorbic acid

Q2. An azeotropic mixture is a mixture which has

(a) constant boiling point

(b) all components have different boiling points

(d) None of the above

Q3. A mixture of red and blue ink can be separated by

(a) Distillation

(b) Chromatography

(d) Sublimation

Q4. Which one of the following is the most abundant metallic element?

(a) Aluminium

(b) Gold

(d) Silver

Q5. First organic compound which was prepared in laboratory is

(a) methane

(b) formaldehyde

(d) water

Q6. Formula of nitrate of a metal is M(NO3)3 the formula of its pyrophosphate is

(a) M3(P2O7)4

(a) M(P2O7)2

(a) M2(P2O7)3

(a) M4(P2O7)3

Q7. Which of the following is a compound? (a) Ozone

(b) Diamond

(d) Quick silver

Q8. On hearing 200 g CaCO3 CaO is obtained which will react with how much gram of water to obtain Ca(OH)2?

(a) 200 g

(b) 112 g

(d) 40 g

Q9. The percentage of zinc in ZnSO4 7H20 is (Zn = 65, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1) these

(a) 23

(b) 13

(d) 33

Q10. Which of the following contains maximum number of atoms?

(a) 2.0 mol of S8

(b) 6.0 mol of S

(d) 44.8 L of CO2 at S.T.P

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Law of Motion and Force | Physics, Types, Facts, Simple explanation |

2021-06-18T13:19:00.001+05:30

Newton's laws of motion are of central importance in classical mechanics (physics). A large number of laws and results may be derived by Newton's laws. The first two laws related to the type of motion of the system that result from a given set of forces, while second law relates force, acceleration and mass.

Force

Force is a push or pull which can change the position of a body as required. It is a vector quantity following all the rules of vector.

Forces are of two types:

1. Balanced Forces If there are many forces acting on a body, but resultant of all of them is zero, then the forces are called balanced forces.

2. Unbalanced Forces If the resultant of all the forces is not zero, then the forces are called unbalanced forces.

Newton's Law of Motion

There are three laws of motion

First Law of motion

"Everybody remains in its state of rest or state of motion, until an external force is applied on it." This law is also known as law of inertia.

Inertia Inertia is a property by virtue of which, a body tries to retain its state. Inertia are of two types

1. Inertia of Rest If a body is in rest, then it will remain in rest until an external force is applied on it.

2. Inertia of Motion If a body is in motion, then it will remain in motion until an external force is applied on it.

There are some examples of inertia in everyday life.

A glass is broken into pieces when a stone strikes on it. but when a high speed bullet hits the glass it makes a clean hole.

The persons sitting in the bus falls backward when bus starts to move suddenly.

An athlete runs very fast before taking high jump.

A man getting down of a moving bus falls forward.

Second Law of motion

"The force applied on a body is equal to the product of mass of the body and the acceleration produced in it.

F = ma

and also the rate of change of linear momentum (p = mv) of a body is proportional to force applied in direction of force

F = dp/dt

Third Law of motion

"Every action have equal and opposite reaction." Action and reaction always act on the different bodies.

Linear Momentum

The product of mass and velocity of a body is called linear momentum It is represented by p. its unit is kg-m/s. It is a vector quantity.

p = mv

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

If the external force on a system is zero, then the linear momentum of the system remains conserved.

If two particles of masses m1 and m2 move with velocities u1 and u2 before collision and after collision with velocities v1 and v2, then from law of conservation of momentum.

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Impulse

If a force acts on a body for a very short time Δt, then the product of force and time is called the impulse.

Impulse = Change in momentum

or, Impulse = F × Δt

Friction

When a body slides (or has sliding tendency) or rolls over another body or on a surface, then a force opposing the motion acts between those surfaces of the body which are in contact, this force is called friction.

Two basic types of friction is kinetic friction and static friction.

Kinetic friction

Kinetic friction is defined as a force that acts between moving surfaces. A body moving on a surface experiences a force in the opposite direction of its motion. The magnitude of the force will depend on the coefficient of kinetic friction between the two substances.

Friction is simply defined as the force that holds a sliding object back. Kinetic friction is a part of everything and it interferes with the motion of two or more objects. The force acts in the opposite direction to the way an object is supposed to slide.

If a car has to stop, we apply the brakes and that's where the friction comes in.

When walking, when one wants to stop suddenly, friction is again to thank.

But when we have to stop in the middle of the puddle, things get tough because there is less friction and no one can get that much help.

kinetic friction formula

The coefficient of kinetic friction is denoted by the Greek letter "mu" (μ) with a subscript "k". The kinetic frictional force is μk times the normal force on a body. It is expressed in Newton (N). The kinetic friction equation can be written as:

Force of Kinetic Friction = (Coefficient of Kinetic Friction) (Normal Force)

FK = μk η

where,

Fk = force of kinetic friction

μk = coefficient of kinetic friction

η = normal force (Greek letter "eta")

Static friction

Static friction is a force that keeps an object stationary. The static friction definition can be written as:

Friction is experienced when individuals attempt to move a stationary object across a surface without actually triggering any relative motion between the body and the surface it is on.

It can be explained as the force of friction that precisely balances the applied force for the duration of the steady state of the body.

Static friction force is a self-regulating force, i.e. static friction will be equal and opposite to the force applied at all times.

R is the reaction force due to the load W. The external force is F and fr is the friction. F = -fr when there is no motion.

Expert TIPS
If a body of mass m strikes horizontally a wall with velocity v and bounces back with the same velocity then the change in momentum = 2mv.

Liquid of density d coming out of a pipe of cross-sectional area A with velocity v exerts the force Adv².

If n bullets each of mass m and muzzle velocity v, are fired from gun, then the average force acting on the gun is mnv.

Motion of gun and bullet ie, when a bullet is fired from a gun also get a motion in reverse direction with speed v = m×u/M, where m is mass of bullet, u is speed of bullet. M is mass of gun and v is velocity of gun in reverse direction.

Weight of a man in a lift (w)
When lift is at rest w - mg
When lift is moving upward with acceleration a, then w = m(g + a)
When lift is moving downward with acceleration a, then w = m(g - a)
When the rope of lift breaks then lift will move downward with acceleration g, then w = 0.

Moment of Force

It is the measure of the tendency of a force to cause a body to rotate about a specific point or axis. It is also defined as the product of force applied and perpendicular distance from the pivot.

ie, τ = F × d

It has two directions of rotation i.e., clockwise and anticlockwise.

Laws of Moments

When an object is balanced (in rotational equilibrium) the sum of the clockwise moments is equal to the sum of the anti-clockwise moments.

Force1 × Its distance from pivot = Force2 × Distance from the pivot

ie, F1 d1 = F2 d2

Parallel Forces

It is a system of forces whose routes of action are parallel. There are two types of parallel forces

Like Parallel Forces

Forces which are parallel and acting in same direction are called like parallel forces. Resultant force of two like parallel forces is the sum of parallel forces.

Unlike Parallel Forces

Forces which are parallel and acting in opposite direction are called unlike parallel forces. Resultant force of two unlike parallel forces is the difference of two forces.

Couple

It consist of two equal and opposite forces whose line of action do not coincides. The length between these two line of forces is known as arm of couple.

Lever

It is a simple machine which has a board or bar that rest on turning point. This turning point is known as fulcrum.

Mechanical Advantage It is the measure of the force amplification achieved by using a tool, mechanical device or machine system.

Mechanical advantage = Weight w / Line of effort P

There are three types of lever

1. Lever of First Group In this group, fulcrum is in between and the applied force and load are at opposite ends like scissors, sea saw etc.

Mechanical advantag (MA) = Load/line of Effort = AF/BF

(AF > BF)

2. Lever of Second Group In this lever, the load is between the effort and the fulcrum e.g., wheel barrow whose wheel's axle is the fulcrum, handles are effort and load is placed between them.

= w/P = AF/BF

3. Lever of Third Group In this type of lever, effort is placed between the load and the fulcrum eg., hammer.

= w/P = AF/BF

To Measure Accurate Weight by Faulty Balance

1. When both scales of a balance are unequal, then weighing the object on both scales, find the mass of w1 and w2, then accurate mass w = w1 + w2 / 2.

When arms of the balance are not equal and object on both scales having masses w1 and w2, then

w = √ w1 × w2

Related Questions : (Answer in comment box.)

Q1. Two spheres of masses 3 kg and 4 kg are attached to ends of a string which passes over a frictionless pulley. Take g 9.8 m/s². The relative acceleration of the system is

(a) 5 ms-²

(b) 1.4 ms-²

(d) 3.8 ms-²

Q2. A person of 60 kg enters a lift going up with an acceleration 2 ms-². The vertical upward force acting on the person will be (g = 10 ms-²).

(a) 720 N

(b) 680 N

(d) 1600 N

Q3. A person of 60 kg descends in a lift with an acceleration 2 ms-². The cable of lift suddenly breaks down. The weight of the person inside the lift is.

(a) 60 g

(b) 28 g

(d) 68 g

Q4. A man is sitting on the upper birth of the coach of a train, which is to be stopped on a nearby station. Man drops an apple on the open hand of his friend sitting just below the man about 2 m away. Apple will drop

(a) exact in the hand of his friend

(b) little away from the hand, in the direction of motion of trains

(d) None of the above

Q5. A rocket works on the principle of conservation of

(a) angular momentum

(b) energy

(d) speed

Q6. A solid block is lying on a smooth horizontal table. A bullet hits and gets embedded in it. The physical quantity conserved is

(a) kinetic energy alone

(b) momentum alone

(d) power alone

Q7. When brakes are applied, it becomes difficult to moves a cycle because

(a) sliding friction is greater than rolling friction

(b) rolling friction is greater than sliding friction

(d) sliding friction is absent

Q8. The weight of a person will be greater when the lift

(a) accelerates downwards

(b) fall with uniform velocity

(d) retards upwards

Q9. A person of 50 kg revolves around earth in a satellite. In this situation, his weight will be

(a) 50 kg wt

(b) 50 N

(d) zero

Q10. On a stationary sail boat, the fan attached to the boat projects/blows air at sails. The boat will

(a) move with air blown

(b) move opposite to air blown

(d) spin around

|Law of Motion and Force|

Hope you like this. If you like it please comment and share.

Thankyou,

Top 10 Best Earphones | Under ₹1000, Best Brands, High Ratings, India | aurayne

2021-06-15T19:45:00.012+05:30

1. BoAt Bassheads 225 in Ear Wired Earphones with Mic

M.R.P.: ₹ 999.00
Price: ₹ 499.00
You Save: ₹ 500.00 (50%)
Inclusive of all taxes
FREE delivery

BoAt BassHeads 225 Polished Metal Earphones are designed to give you an experience that no other brand can match. It has an incredible sound clarity with "Super Extra Bass".

This isn't a plastic earphone - it's polished metal. With Tangle Free Flat Cable, you are expected to be hassle free. Since the headphones have 10mm drivers, they give you clear sound with that thumping bass.

The in-built noise canceling mic makes sure you don't miss those important calls. With colors that match your style in your day, the boAt earphones are the ideal choice for anyone who can embody that attitude. Just plug them in and plug in Nirvana.

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About this item

Has a PVC cable which is durable and tangle free
Compatibility and Connectivity: Compatible with Android/iOS and connectivity via 3.5mm AUX cable
IPX Rating: NA
Active Noise Cancellation: NA
Mic: In line Mic
Other Inclusions: Additional earbuds, Warranty Card
1 year warranty from the date of purchase, you can activate your warranty by giving a missed call on 9223032222. Alternatively you can claim your warranty at support.boat-lifestyle.com or reach out to us at +912249461882/info@imaginemarketingindia.com.
Sensitivity (dB) : 92db ±3db, Frequency Response : 20Hz-20KHz

2. BoAt Bassheads 152 in Ear Wired Earphones with Mic

M.R.P.:	₹ 1,290.00
Price:	₹ 449.00
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Entertain the scene for your nirvana with boAt BassHeads 152, Bass Oasis. Equipped with 10mm drivers, experience the audio nirvana that takes you places! Get ready to turn up the space with that super extra bass.

Step up the fashion game, with an effortlessly vibrant design available in trendy color variants. Always be one step ahead, perfect for having earphones at hand. Take calls using the inbuilt microphone and tune freely with the tangle free braided cable.

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About this item

Has a PVC dual tone braided cable which is durable and tangle free

Compatibility and Connectivity: Compatible with Android/iOS and connectivity via 3.5mm AUX cable

IPX Rating: NA

Active Noise Cancellation: NA

Mic: In line Mic

Other Inclusions: Additional earbuds, Warranty Card

3. BoAt Bassheads 100 in Ear Wired Earphones with Mic

M.R.P.:	₹ 999.00
Price:	₹ 378.00
You Save:	₹ 621.00 (62%)
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The boAt BassHeads 100 Stereo In-Ear Earphones are designed to give you an experience that no other product can match. Since the headphones have 10mm drivers, they give you clear sound with that enhanced bass.

The built in noise isolation mic makes sure you don't miss those important calls. With seven exciting colors to match your style in your day, the boAt earphones are the ideal choice for anyone wearing a "hawk attitude".

Just plug them in and plug in Nirvana.

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About this item

Has a durable PVC cable that is tangle free

Compatibility & Connectivity: Compatible with Android/iOS & Connectivity via 3.5mm AUX Cable

IPX Rating: NA

Active Noise Cancellation: NA, Cable is 1200mm Long

Mic: Line-in Mic

4. pTron Atom in-Ear Mono Bluetooth 5.0 Wireless Headphone, Built-in Mic, Clear Calls, Snug-fit Sweatproof Earbud, Voice Assistant, Passive Noise Cancelation Earphone & Smart One-Key Control

M.R.P.:	₹ 1,899.00
Price:	₹ 599.00
You Save:	₹ 1,300.00 (68%)
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Advanced Bluetooth 5.0 technology ensures fast pairing, strong wireless connectivity up to 10 meters, low power consumption and superior sound quality. The in-ear design of PTron Atom is comfortable and secure and comfortable to wear.

It weighs only 4 grams and is small enough, you can barely see it inside your ear. Clear audio provides ample sound and helps you to hear music and voice clearly. You can easily control the phone call, play or pause, next song or previous song via single-key multi-function button (MFB).

The PTron Atom Bluetooth Headset has a built-in 60mAh rechargeable lithium battery. Enjoy 5 hours of music playtime and 3.5 hours of talk time and 100 hours of standby time. Simple and portable design, 180mAh large battery magnetic storage cum charging case.

Once fully charged, the charging case can fully charge the earbuds for about 3 times. Other features are 8mm speaker driver, frequency response 18Hz~20KHz, speaker impedance 16?, charging time about 1 hour and charging input DC5V/1A.

1 year warranty from the manufacturer from the date of purchase by the end consumer.

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About this item

In-Ear Mono Wireless Earphones with Crystal Audio

The on-earbud multi-function button allows for call and music control for a hands-free experience. Transmission range: up to 10 square meters

Get verified sellers for 1 Year Manufacturer Warranty, Customer Care Number: 040-67138888

Bluetooth 5.0; 10 meters wireless range; 1.5 hours charging time. 6 hours music play-time; talk-time of 5 hours; standby-time of 100 hours; Micro USB charging cable is included

Passive noise cancellation; 8 mm dynamic driver; 60 mAh Li-polymer battery; 180mAh Charging Case; 2-3 charge cycles

Clear audio provides enough sound and helps you hear music and voice clearly

5. Boult Audio BassBuds Storm in-Ear Wired Earphones with Mic and Full Metal Body for Extra Bass & HD Sound with Passive Noise Cancellation

M.R.P.:	₹ 999.00
Price:	₹ 299.00
You Save:	₹ 700.00 (70%)
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Storm is stylish in design with built in mic and ear-loop for snug fit from Boult is all you need to experience stereo sound quality anywhere you go, owing to its built-in micro-woofers that produce deep bass.

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About this item

In line controls: This feature allows you to skip tracks, pause and even take and hang up phone calls, you don’t even have to touch your device to complete a variety of essential functions

Compatibility: Compatible with a range of electronic devices, you can plug these earphones into virtually any device with a headphone jack. Suitable for laptops, mobile phones and tablets

Drivers: It has neodymium magnet drivers which makes these headphones unique and supremely powerful. They are capable of producing top grade, punchy, bass boosted sound

Punchy Bass: These Earphones are designed to deliver deep bass with balanced tones for all music playback; Experience impressive bass with sparkling highs and detailed sound

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6. Boult Audio BassBuds Storm-X in-Ear Wired Earphones with Mic and Full Metal Body for Extra Bass & HD Sound with Passive Noise Cancellation

M.R.P.:	₹ 999.00
Deal Price:	₹ 299.00
You Save:	₹ 700.00 (70%)
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Enjoy clean, distortion-free audio with the Boult Audio StormX. The headphones are completely engineered from strong and flexible aerospace-grade machined aluminum, whose sonic properties deliver the clear sound that Boult Audio is known for.

The aluminum also gives these earphones a premium finish and is extremely lightweight. easy auto-pairing

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About this item

In Line Control: This feature allows you to skip track, pause and even take and hang up phone calls, you don't even need to touch your device to complete various essential tasks.

Compatibility: Compatible with a range of electronic devices, you can plug these earphones into virtually any device with a headphone jack. Suitable for laptops, mobile phones and tablets. easy auto-pairing

Drivers: It has neodymium magnet drivers which make these headphones unique and extremely powerful. They are capable of producing top grade, punchy, bass enhanced sound

Punchy Bass: These earphones are designed to deliver deep bass with balanced tone for all music playback; Experience impressive bass with sparkling highs and detailed sound

STYLISH DESIGN: Easy to slip into your pocket, the attractive premium finish makes them more noble and elegant, while the quality and advanced materials mean they last longer

7. Boult Audio BassBuds X1 in-Ear Wired Earphones with 10mm Extra Bass Driver and HD Sound with mic

M.R.P.:	₹ 999.00
Price:	₹ 349.00
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Boult X1 ergonomically designed drivers come with super-soft and flexible ear fins that make them extremely comfortable for long music sessions and calls.

Justifying its name, the Boult X1 is out of this world! The AL grade aluminum driver and built in micro-woofer create a smooth synchronized sound with a punchy bass.

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About this item

In-line controls: answer/reject/call, play/pause, voice commands

Ergonomically designed drivers: aerospace grade AL alloy drivers deliver best acoustics, 3D HD sound and a punchy bass

Ear loop for sport fit: Ear Loop hold your buds firmly in the ear Perfectly fit for running, climbing, hiking, cycling and more.

Extra Bass: Boult’s Neodymium technology enables drivers to deliver extra punchy and deep bass with accentuates the warm mids and crystal clear sparky highs

Built-in Mic: Condenser microphone for HD calls and Siri or Google assistant voice command

Compatibility: Works with all OS, all Bluetooth enabled Smartphones, Laptops, PCs, Tablets, from all the brands

8. JBL C50HI by Harman in-Ear Headphones with Mic

M.R.P.:	₹ 999.00
Price:	₹ 499.00
You Save:	₹ 500.00 (50%)
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The new JBL C50HI is a dynamic, ultra-lightweight in-ear headphone. Its powerful 8.6mm drivers deliver the feel-in-your-bone bass response and great sound quality you'd expect from the JBL.

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About this item

JBL Signature Sound

High Clean Bass

Noise Isolation Microphone

One-Button Universal Remote with Mic

Quick Launch Access to Google Assistant / Siri
Ultra Lightweight and Comfortable with 3 sizes of ear tips

High Fidelity Twin Cable

9. Evidson B4 in-Ear Rich Bass Headphones with Mic

M.R.P.:	₹ 1,799.00
Price:	₹ 669.00
You Save:	₹ 1,130.00 (63%)
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The new Evidson B4, proudly made in India, is a dynamic in-ear headphone. The B4 is packed with performance and style for music enthusiasts who love powerful rich bass, natural vocals, and precise highs for every playlist.

These stylish lightweight metal alloy in-ear earphones are ergonomically designed to stay in your ear and deliver straight and detailed HD sound in total comfort while blocking out outside noise.
Ultra-durable cable minimizes nasty tangles and delivers a stylish look. In-line noise canceling microphone with universal remote control lets you manage music and phone calls with ease. Hybrid silicone ear-tips provide long-lasting comfort and are designed to reduce ambient noise.
1 year warranty provides complete peace of mind.

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Features & details

Made in India

Rich bass

Specially customized had driver and noise-isolating fit - rich, clear audio across all genres of music

Tangle resistant heavy duty thermoplastic elastomer cables

Comfortable for long periods of music experienceNoise cancelling microphone - clear voice on calls

Manage music and phone calls with the built-in remote

Play, pause and skip tracks with ease, gold-plated 3.5 mm jack

Passive noise isolation - now enjoy music, even in noisy surroundings

Extra pair of tips S, M, L

Country of Origin: India

10. Odestro HBS-730 Bluetooth Stereo Sports Headset

M.R.P.:	₹ 999.00
Price:	₹ 375.00
You Save:	₹ 624.00 (62%)
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₹ 60.00 delivery

Smartphone Neckband, Neckband Wireless Bluetooth, Neckband Headset, Headphones The Wireless Bluetooth Headset delivers top-rate sound with advanced audio features.

Superior bass response, HD Voice, and aptX compatibility make for an incredible listening experience with full, rich sound for music and crystal-clear voice calls.

Vibration call alerts can be turned on or off with the simple touch of a button. can go. If messaging should be the preferred method for communication, a Bluetooth headset can read text aloud with Text to Speech.

Bluetooth Version: 4.1 Supported

Bluetooth Profiles: Headset, Head-free, Advanced Delivery, Audio/Video Remote Control

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Bluetooth V4.1 delivers skip-free stereo sound and exceptional in-call sound for sound and music enjoyment. Clear and deeply catchy music in CD sound. Noise-canceling technology ensures an interruption-free listening experience for the user.

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If you any doubts then comment me.

Vector and Motion | Physics, Type, facts, Simple explanation | aurayne

2021-06-13T13:54:00.007+05:30

If the position of a point on an object in the plane or space is changing it is said to be in motion otherwise in rest. To study motion of any object, we have to go through the basics of vector analysis.

Vector Analysis

Physical quantities are of two types.

1. Scalar

2 Vector

Scalar Quantities

The quantities which have only magnitude, not direction are called scalar quantities, for example, mass, distance, time, speed, volume, density, pressure, work, energy, power etc.

Vector Quantities

The quantities which possess both magnitude and direction and which obey the laws of vector addition are called vectors, for example displacement, velocity, force etc.

Some Important Definitions Regarding Vectors

(i) Equal Vectors These are the vectors having same magnitude and direction. regardless of their initial positions.

As shown in the figure, the vectors A̅ and B representing a quantity are equal vectors.

(ii) Opposite Vectors Two parallel vectors which have equal magnitude but opposite directions are called opposite vectors.

As shown in the figure, C̅ and D̅ are opposite vectors.

(iii) Unit Vector A vector whose magnitude is equal to unity is called unit vector. If A̅ is a vector, whose magnitude is |A̅|,then |A̅|

|A̅|is a unit vector. The direction of this vector is in the same direction of A̅.

The unit vector is denoted as Â. If we show a unit vector in particular direction, then a vector of desired magnitude can be obtained by multiplying the unit vector with the magnitude.

A = Â A̅

Orthogonal Unit Vectors If î, ĵ and k̂ are assumed to be unit vectors along x, y and z-axes respectively, then a vector of magnitude 5 along x-axis can be expressed by 5 î.

(iv) Null Vector It is a vector whose magnitude is zero and direction is undetermined.

Addition of Vectors

It can be done by following two laws. These are triangle law of vector addition and parallelogram law of vector addition.

Triangle Law of Vector Addition

It states that, if a̅ and b̅ are two vectors to be added, then as shown in the diagram given below i.e, the tail of b̅ coincides with the head of a̅, the resultant will be a vector joining the tail of a̅ with the head of b̅.

⇒ AB + BC - AC

|AC|= √|AB|² + |BC|² 2·AB·BC cosθ

Parallelogram Law of Addition of Vectors

If two vectors acting at a point are represented both in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of parallelogram drawn through that point then the diagonal passing through that point represents the resultant of those two vectors both in magnitude and direction. If θ be the angle between two vectors A̅ and B, then

|R̅|= √A² + B² + 2AB cos θ

and, tan α = B sin θ / A+B cos θ'

where α is the angle made by the resultant with vector A̅.

The magnitude of the resultant varies between A̅ -|B̅ and A̅ +|B̅ i.e.,

Product of Two Vectors

Multiplication of two vectors does not follows simple mathematical rule. These follows some special rules.

Scalar Product of Two Vectors

The scalar product of two vectors is equal to the product of the magnitudes of the vectors and cosine of angle between them.

• Thus, if θ is the angle between two

vectors A̅ and B̅, then the scalar product of A̅ and B̅ will be

A̅·B̅ = A B cosθ,

where A and B are the magnitudes of vectors A̅ and B̅ respectively.

Properties of Scalar Product

The properties of scalar product are as follows:

(i) The scalar product of any vector with the same vector is equal to the square of the magnitude of that vector.

A̅ · A̅ = A · A cos0 = A²

(ii) The relation between the scalar products of orthogonal unit vectors î, ĵ and k̂ are as follows

(a) î · ĵ = ĵ · k̂ = k̂ · î = 0

(b) î · î = ĵ · ĵ = k̂ · k̂ = 1

If vectors î, ĵ and k̂ each having magnitude 1 and angle between any two vectors is 90°, then,

î · ĵ = (1) · (1) cos90° = 0

Similarly, ĵ · k̂ = 0 and k̂ · ĵ = 0

Again î · î = (1) (1) cos 0 = 1

Similarly, ĵ · ĵ = 1 and k̂ · k̂ = 1

(iii) The scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the product of the corresponding components of x, y and z.

Let, A̅ and B̅ be two vectors. Writing them in rectangular components,

A̅ = AX î + Ay ĵ + AZ k̂

and, B̅ = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂

Hence, the angle between A̅ and B̅ is

cos θ = A̅ · B̅ / AB

= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz / √A²x + A²y + A²z · √B²x + B²y + B²z

Vector Product of Two Vectors

The vector product of two vectors is the product of the magnitudes of those vectors and sine of angle between them and its direction is perpendicular to the plane of both vectors.

If two vectors are A̅ and B̅ and the angle between A̅ and B̅ is θ, then the vector product will be

A̅ × B̅ AB sin θ n^

where A and B are the magnitudes of A̅ and B̅ respectively and n^ is a unit vector.

which is perpendicular to the plane of A̅ and B̅.

Properties of Vector Product

The properties of vector product are as follows

(i) The vector product of any vector with the same vector is a zero vector.

A̅ × A̅ = AA sin 0 n^ = 0 or 0

(ii) The relation between the vector products of orthogonal unit î, ĵ and k̂ are as follows

(a) î × ĵ = - ĵ × î = k̂

ĵ × k̂ = - k̂ × ĵ = î

k̂ × î = - î × k̂ = ĵ

It is essential to remember cyclic order in the above relation.

(b) î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0

(iii) The vector product of two vectors can be expressed in the form of determinant in terms of their corresponding components x, y and z.

Let A̅ and B̅ be two vectors. Writing them in rectangular components.

A̅ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂

B̅ =Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂

A̅ × B̅ =

Motion

If a body continuously changing its position with respect to a fixed point, then the body is said to be in motion. We study two types of motion.

(a) Motion in one dimension

(b) Motion in two and three dimensions

Motion in One Dimension

Some definitions related with motion

(i) Distance The length of total path covered by a body in any time is called distance. It is a scalar quantity i.e., does not depend on direction.

(ii) Displacement The minimum distance between the initial and final position of a body is called the displacement of the body. It is a vector quantity i.e., depends on direction.

(iii) Speed The distance covered by a moving body in unit time is called the speed of the body. It is a scalar quantity.

Speed = distance / time

Average Speed If a body covers different distances with different speed, then its average speed can be found with the formula.

Average speed = total distance / total time

If a body covers first half of a distance with speed v1 and second half with speed v2 then

Average speed = 2 v1v2 / v1 + v2

If a body covers first one-third distance with speed 'a', other one-third distance with speed 'b' and last one-third distance with speed 'c', then

Average speed = 3abc / ab + bc + ca

Instantaneous Speed The speed of the body at a given instant is called instantaneous speed.

If Δt→0, then instantaneous speed

= limΔt→0 Δs/Δt = ds/dt

(iv) Velocity The rate of change of displacement of a body is called its velocity. It is a vector quantity, it is represented by 'v' and its unit is m/s.

Average velocity = Total displacement/Total time

Instantaneous Velocity The velocity of the body at a given instant is called instantaneous velocity. The velocity at given instant Vins = dr̅/dt

If a body is moving on a circular path, then after completing one complete cycle, its average velocity is zero.

When a body covers equal half distances with the velocities v1 and v2 respectively, then

Average speed = 2 v1v2 / v1 + v2

When a body travels with velocity v1, for time t1 and v2 for time t2 then,

Average velocity = v1 t1 + v2 t2 / t1 + t2

(v) Acceleration Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration. It is a vector quantity, it is represented by 'a' and its unit is

a = Δv / Δt

If velocity of a body is decreasing, then the acceleration is called retardation or deceleration.

Relative Velocity If the objects A and B moves with velocity vA and vB with respect to one coordinate system along a straight line in same direction, then velocity of B with respect to A will be v = vB - vA .

Equations of Motion

Let a body starts to move with velocity u, after time t and after covering a distance s, velocity becomes v and acceleration of the body is a then there are three relations between these quantities, these relations are called equations of motion.

(i) v = u + at

(ii) s = ut + ½ at²

(iii) v² = u² + 2as

Distance travelled in nth second is,

sn = u + ½ a(2n - 1)

Special Cases

(i) If a body starts from rest, then equations of motion are converted into

(a) v = at

(b) s = ½ at²

(ii) If velocity of body is decreasing in place of increasing, then equations of motion are converted into

(a) v = u - at

(b) s = ut - ½ at²

(iii) If the body is moving with uniform velocity, then equation of motion converted into

(a) v = u

(b) s = ut

Motion Under Gravity

If a body is thrown upwards or falling downwards, then its motion is called motion under gravity. To obtain these equations, we put h (height) in place of s (distance), g (acceleration due to gravity) in place of a (acceleration).

For upward motion

(i) v = u - gt

(ii) h = ut - ½ gt²

(iii) v² = u² - 2gh

For downward motion

(i) v = u + gt

(ii) h = ut + ½ gt²

(iii) v² = u² + 2gh

Expert TIPS
If a body is thrown horizontally from some height and another body is dropped from same point, then time taken in both the cases are equal (provided resistance of air negligible).

Velocity and acceleration of a body may be in differe directions.

Velocity and acceleration of a body need. not to be zero simultaneously.

When, a body is dropped from a particular height, the ratio of distance covered by the body in successive seconds is 1 : 4 : 9.....

Related Questions : (Answer in comment box.)

Q1. Velocity at the top of vertical journey under gravity when a body is projected upwards with velocity 1000 m/s is

(a) zero

(b) 10 m/s

(d) 1000 m/s

Q2. At a particular height , the velocity of an ascending body is u . The velocity at the same height while the body falls under gravity is

(a) u

(b) 2u

(d) u²

Q3. The acceleration of body in motion can be known from slop of

(a) force-time graph

(b) work-time graph

(d) velocity-time graph

Q4. Two different masses are dropped from same height for downward journey under gravity . The larger mass reaches the ground in time t. The smaller mass takes time

(a) equal to √t

(b) greater than t

(d) equal to t

Q5. The dot product of two vectors is equal to zero when they are inclined to each other at an angle of

(a) 180°

(b) 90°

(d) zero

Q6. The cross product of two vectors gives zero when the vectors enclose an angle to

(a) 90°

(b) 180°

(d) 120°

Q7. Two vectors under scalar product yield one if angle between them is of

(a) 90°

(b) zero

(d) 60°

Q8. Two vectors under vector multiplication have magnitude one , if angle between them is of

(a) 45°

(b) 90°

(d) 120°

Q9. Two vectors of magnitudes 10 and 15 units can never have a resultant equal to

(a) 15 units

(b) 3 units

(d) 20 units

Q10. The sum of two vectors A and B is at right angles to their difference . This is possible if

(a) A = 2B

(b) A = B

(d) B = 2A

| Vector and Motion |

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Measurement | Physics, Type, Facts, Quantities, Definition |

2021-06-09T17:10:00.461+05:30

Physics describes the laws of nature. This description is quantitative and involves measurement and comparision of physical quantities. To measure a physical quantity, we need some standard amount of that quantity.

Physical Quantity

The quantities by means of which we describe the laws of physics are known as physical quantity.

We specify the physical quantity completely if it has

(i) Numerical values i.e., ratios, e.g., dielectric constant, refractive index etc.

(ii) Magnitude only i.e., scalar, e.g., current, mass etc.

(iii) Magnitude and direction both i.e., vector e.g., displacement, torque etc.

Units

For the measurement of physical quantity, a standard value (as unit) of the same physical quantity is required. That eudicants how many it is used during the measurment times the quantity contains that unit.

Fundamental Unit

It is an independent unit. Fundamental units in any system of measurements are independent of each other. In other words, one fundamental unit cannot be expressed in the form of other fundamental unit.

Fundamental units in different system of measurement are :

MKS system
CGS SYSTEM
FPS system
SI system

A. MKS system (Meter, Kilogram, Second System)

S.No.	Quantity	Unit	Abbreviation
1	Mass	Kilogram	kg
2	Length or Distance	meter	m
3	Time	second	s

B. CGS System or Gaussian System (Centimeter, Gram, Second System)

S.No.	Quantity	Unit	Abbreviation
1	Mass	gram	g
2	Length or Distance	centimeter	cm
3	Time	second	s

C. FPS System (Foot, Pound, Second System)

S.No.	Quantity	Unit	Abbreviation
1	Mass	pound	lb
2	Length or Distance	foot	ft
3	Time	second	s

D. SI System (International System of Units)

This system is result of CGPM meeting in 1971. Due to the variability of system of units a common system of unit was required to be opted. Now-a-days this system is popular throughout the world.

S.No.	Quantity	Unit	Abbreviation
1	Mass	kilogram	kg
2	Length	meter	m
3	Time	second	s
4	Electric current	Ampere	A
5	Temperature	Kelvin	K
6	Amount of substance	mole	mol
7	Luminous intensity	candela	cd

Supplementary Unit

The unit having no dimensions is supplementary unit. e.g.,

Plane angle = Radian

Solid angle = Steradian

Practical Unit

A larger number of units are used in general life for measurement of different quantities in comfortable manner. But they are neither fundamental units nor derived units.

e.g., per sec, tonne, day etc.

Derived Unit

The units of all other physical quantities except fundamental physical quantities which are obtained with the help of fundamental units are called derived units.

Derived units of some physical quantities are as follows:

S. No.	Physical Quantity	Derived Units
1	Area	m²
2	Volume	m³
3	Density	kg/m³
4	Speed	m/s
5	Acceleration	m/s²
6	Force	kg - m/s² or Newton
7	Work	kg - m/s² or Joule
8	Power	kg - m²/s³ or Watt
9	Charge	Ampere - sec or Coulomb
10	Potential	Joule/Coulomb or volt
11	Resistance	volt/Ampere or ohm

Some Other Units of Length Mass and Time

For Length

1 Angstrom (Å) = 10-¹⁰ m

1 Nanometer (nm) = 10-⁹ m

1 Micrometer (μ) = 10-⁶ m

1 Milimeter (mm) = 10-³ m

1 Centimeter (cm) = 10-² m

1 Kilometer (km) = 10³ m

1 Megameter (Mm) = 10⁶ m

1 Gigameter (Gm) = 10⁹ m

1 Tarometer = 10¹² m

1 Light year = 9.46 × 10¹⁵m or 10¹⁶ m

For Mass

1 Microgram (μg) = 10-⁹ kg

1 Milligram (mg) = 10-⁶ kg

1 Gram (g) = 10-³ kg

1 Quantal = 10² kg

1 Metric tonne = 10-³ kg

For Time

1 Picosecond = 10¹² s

1 Nanosecond = 10-⁹ s

1 Microsecond = 10-⁶ s

1 Millisecond = 10-³ s

Error in Measurement

There are many causes of error in measurement. Error may be due to instrumental defects, ignoring certain facts, carelessness of experimenter, random change in temperature, pressure, humidity etc. Therefore, difference between measured value and true value of a quantity represents error of measurement.

The Significant Figures

The significant figures express the accuracy with which a physical quantity may be expressed.

"The digits, whose values are accurately known in a particular measurement, are called its significant figures,"

The following rules have been set up for determining the number of significant figures.

1. All non-zero digits are significant. 65324 has five significant figures.

2. All zeros between two non-zero numbers are significant. The measure or data 309.009 has six significant figures.

3. All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are never significant. The measure 0.00956 has three significant figures. In this type of expression, traditionally even a single zero placed to the left of the decimal point is never significant.

4. (a) All zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant, if they are not followed by a non-zero digit. The measure 40.00 has four significant marks.

(b) All zeros to the right of the last non-zero, significant digit after the decimal point. The measure 0.08900 has four significant figures.

5. (a) All zeros to the right of the last (rightmost) non-zero digit are not significant. Measurement 2020 consists of three significant figures.

(b) All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are significant, if they come from the measurement.

Main POINTS
If a number is greater than 1 (without involving decimal point), the zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant.

If a number is greater than 1 and involves decimal point, the zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant.

If a number is less than 1, the zeros on the right of the decimal point but to the left of first non-zero digit are not significant.

Significant Figures in Addition and Subtraction

The accuracy of a sum or a difference is limited to the accuracy of the least accurate observation involved in the addition and subtraction.

Rule – Do not retain a greater number of decimal places in a result computed from addition and / or subtraction than in the observation, envolved which has the fewest decimal places.

Main POINTS
In the final result after addition or subtraction, as many number of decimal places are retained as are there in the data with the least decimal places.

Significant Figures in Multiplication and Division

When the values of different observations are multiplied or divided, the number of digits to be retained in the answer depends upon the number of significant figures in the weakest link.

Rule – Do not retain a greater number of significant figures in a result computed from multiplication and / or division than the least number of significant figures in the data from which the result is computed.

Vernier Callipers

It is an instrument that lets the user measure length, more accurately than could be done by reading a uniformly-divided straight or circular measurement.

Least Count of Vernier Callipers

The least count (LC) of an instrument is the smallest measurement that can be measured accurately with it.

Least count of vernier callipers

LC = Value of one main scale division - Value of one vernier scale division

Or,

LC = Value of the smallest division on main scale / Total number of divisions on vernier scale

= 1/10 = 0.01 cm

Screw Gauge

It is an instrument used to determine the thickness and area of cross-section of different objects. It works on the principle of micrometer screw.

Pitch of Screw Guage

It is defined as the distance between the consecutive threads of a screw, measured along the axis of the screw.

Least count of screw guage

= Pitch / Number of divisions on circular scale

Least count of screw guage is 0.001 cm.

Limitations of Accuracy

Limitations of accuracy of any instrument depends on its least count. So, lesser the least count of an instrument, more will be the accuracy of that instrument.

Some Important Definitions

Standard Meter

It is 1650, 763.73 times of the distance travelled by the wavelength of a particular colour of light emitted by pure Kr⁸⁶.

Light Year

It is the distance travelled by light, in vacuum in a year. It is a unit of length.

Standard Kilogram

1 kg Mass of 5.0188 × 10²⁵ atoms of ₆C¹².

Standard Second

1 s = It is the time taken in the 9, 192, 631.770 vibrations of the atom of CS - 133.

Mean Solar Day

Average of every solar day of a year is called a mean solar day which is equal to 86400 s.

Order of Magnitude

To perform rough calculations or comparisons, a number is rounded off to zero significant figures i.e., a number rounded to the nearest power of 10 is called an order of magnitude.

Determine the Order of Magnitude

To find the order of magnitude, the number is written as the power of 10 such as only one digit is before decimal and rest digits will be after decimal.

Example The data 32400 can be written as 324 × 10 and its order of magnitude is 10⁴.

Related Questions : (Answer in comment box.)

Q1. How much microseconds will be there in a minute?

(a) 7 × 10⁷ μs

(b) 5 × 10⁷ μs

(d) 8 × 10⁷ μs

Q2. Light year is the unit of

(a) mass

(b) time

(d) distance

Q3. What is the least measurement of a vernier calliper?

(a) 0.01 mm

(b) 0.05 mm

(d) None of these

Q4. Screw guage works on the principle of

(a) micrometer screw

(b) screw gauge

(d) none of these

Q5. Which of the following value is most accurate?

(a) 4500 g

(b) 4.5 kg

(b) 450 × 10³ g

(d) 45 × 10³ g

Q6. If light takes 5 yr to reach the Earth from a Star. Find the distance between that Star and the Earth in km.

(a) 3 × 10⁸

(b) 15 × 10⁸

(d) 9.3 × 10¹²

Q7. A particle travels 1260 m in 17s. What will it in appropriate significant figure?

(a) 74.11 m/s

(b) 74 1 m/s

(d) 74.6 m/s

Q8. If mass of one electron is 9.11 x 10-26 g then how many electrons will be there in 1 g of electrons?

(a) 110 × 10²⁵

(b) 1.093 × 10²³

(d) 0.1093 × 10²²

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Nuclear Reactor | Principle, Construction and Working, Component, Diagram | aurayne

2021-06-07T16:55:00.004+05:30

Principle of Nuclear Reactor

Note a fact of great importance in the fission reactions given in the equations.

The extra neutron(s) is released in the fission process. An average of two and a half neutrons are released per fission of a uranium nucleus. This one is different because some fission events produce 2 neutrons, some 3, etc.

The extra neutrons in turn can initiate fission processes, producing even more neutrons, and so on. This leads to the possibility of a chain reaction, as previously suggested by Enrico Fermi. If the chain reaction is handled appropriately, we can obtain a stable energy output. This happens in a nuclear reactor. If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, it leads to the production of explosive energy, as in an atomic bomb.

However, there is a hindrance in maintaining a chain reaction, as described here. It is known experimentally that slow neutrons (thermal neutrons) have a higher probability of fission at U-235 than fast neutrons. Also the fast neutrons released in fission would escape instead of causing another fission reaction.

The average energy of the neutron produced in the fission of U-235 is 2 MeV. These neutrons would then escape the reactor without interacting with the uranium nucleus, unless slowed down, unless a very large amount of fissile material was used to sustain the chain reaction.

What one needs to do is to slow down the fast neutrons by elastic scattering along the light nuclei. In fact, Chadwick's experiments showed that in an elastic collision with hydrogen the neutron almost comes to rest and the proton takes away the energy. This is the same situation when a marble at rest strikes an identical marble head-on. Therefore, in reactors, light nuclei called moderators are provided with fissile nuclei to slow down the fast neutrons. Commonly used moderators are water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite.

The Apsara reactor at Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC), Mumbai, uses water as a moderator. Other Indian reactors, which are used for power generation, use heavy water as a moderator.

Because of the use of moderators, it is possible that the ratio of the number of fission produced by a given generation of neutrons, K, to the number of fission in the previous generation, may be greater.

This ratio is called the multiplication factor; It is a measure of the growth rate of neutrons in the reactor. For K = 1, the operation of the reactor is said to be critical, which is what we want for steady power operation.

If K becomes greater than one, the reaction rate and reactor power increase rapidly. Unless the factor K is brought too close to unity, the reactor will become supercritical and may even explode.

The 1986 Chernobyl reactor explosion in Ukraine is a sad reminder that accidents at a nuclear reactor can be catastrophic.

The reaction rate is controlled by means of control-rods made of a neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium. In addition to the control rods, safety rods are provided to the reactors, which can be inserted into the reactor when required and the K can be rapidly reduced to unity.

The more abundant isotope U–238 in naturally occurring uranium is non-fissile. When it captures neutrons, it produces highly radioactive plutonium through these reactions.

Plutonium undergoes fission with slow neutrons.

Nuclear Reactor Working

The figure shows a diagram of a nuclear reactor based on thermal neutron fission. The core of the reactor is the site of nuclear fission. This includes fuel elements in suitably manufactured form.

The fuel can be said to be enriched uranium (that is, containing (U–235) more abundant than naturally occurring uranium). The core contains a moderator to slow down the neutrons. The core is surrounded by a reflector to reduce leakage.

The energy (heat) released in fission is continuously removed by a suitable coolant. A containment vessel prevents radioactive fission products from escaping. The entire assembly is shielded to prevent harmful radiation from coming out. The reactor can be closed by means of rods (for example, made of cadmium) which have a high absorption of neutrons.

The coolant transfers heat to a working fluid, And it is carried in the primary circuit to the steam generator, where it flows inside the tubes and its heat is transferred through the walls of the tubes in the steam generator to the secondary circuit. The water in the secondary circuit outside the tubes absorbs this heat and turns into steam under saturated conditions.

This steam is sent to the turbine where it expands to a low pressure while being directed onto the turbine blades and in doing so transfers its energy to the turbine rotor. The rotor drives an electric generator that generates electrical power.

The exhaust steam condenses by cooling the water passing through the condenser tubes and in doing so removes the bulk of the heat that cannot be converted to work. After preheating in the feedwater heating system, the condensate is returned to the steam generator.

Like any power reactor, nuclear reactors generate considerable waste products. But nuclear waste requires special care for treatment because they are radioactive and dangerous. Elaborate safety measures are needed for both reactor operation as well as for the handling and reprocessing of spent fuel.

These safeguards are a distinctive feature of the Indian nuclear power programme. A suitable scheme is being developed to study the possibility of converting radioactive waste into less active and short-lived material

Main Component of Nuclear Reactor

1. Nuclear reactor fuel :

Nuclear reactor fuel is a substance that can be broken down by neutrons. A certain mass of nuclear fuel can be taken in the form of tightly closed rods in aluminum containers. The rods are placed in the core of the nuclear reactor and detached by the moderator. They can be uranium (U-235), Thorium (Th-232), and so on.

2. Moderator :

In the fission of moderator uranium, fast neutrons are released which have very high energy and velocity. Rather than triggering another nuclear fission reaction, these fast neutrons have a greater tendency to escape.

Slow neutrons are efficient at triggering nuclear fission reactions. Thus, moderators such as heavy water, graphite, beryllium oxide are used to slow the fast neutrons to thermal velocity.

3. Control rods :

Rods of neutron absorbing material such as Cd, B are inserted into the core of the reactor to initiate, stop or control the chain reaction. The rate of neutron production is controlled by adjusting the depth of the control rod.

4. Coolent :

Coolant is a material with high boiling point and high specific heat used to cool fuel rods and moderators. This can remove the large amount of heat produced in the fission process.

It then transfers this heat to a working liquid like water and produces steam which is then used to drive a turbine and turn a generator. Heavy water, sodium can be used as a coolant.

5. Steam Generator :

Steam generator Part of the cooling system of pressurized water reactors (PWR & PHWR) where the high-pressure primary coolant that brings heat from the reactor is used in the secondary circuit to generate steam for the turbine. Essentially a heat exchanger like a motor car radiator. The reactor consists of six 'loops', each containing a steam generator.

Since 1980 more than 110 PWR reactors have replaced their steam generators after 20–30 years of service, more than half of these in the United States.

6. Container Vessel :

The container vessel prevents the escape of nuclear fission products.

7. Shelding :

Shielding fast neutrons and the gamma rays thus generated are highly harmful to the human body. Thus, the reactor core is surrounded by a reactor shield that protects the workers. This reactor shield is a thick concrete wall.

Principle of nuclear reactor | Nuclear reactor working | Main Component of nuclear reactor |

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Nuclear fusion and fission | Difference between, Nuclear energy, Equations | aurayne

2021-06-01T16:32:00.003+05:30

Nuclear Energy

The curve of binding energy at (Eb) per nucleon, given in the figure 1.1,

Figure 1.1

has a long flat median region between A = 30 and A = 170. The binding energy per nucleon in this region is approximately constant (8.0 MeV). For the light nucleus region, A <30, and for the heavy nucleus region, A> 170, the binding energy per nucleon is less than 8.0MeV.

Now, the higher the binding energy, the lower the total mass of a bonded system, such as a nucleus. Consequently, if nuclei with lower total binding energies are converted to nuclei with more binding energies, the net energy release will occur.

This occurs when a heavy nucleus disintegrates into two or more intermediate mass fragments (Nuclear fission) or when the light nucleus fuses into a heavy nucleus (Nuclear fusion).

Exothermic chemical reactions fall under conventional energy sources such as coal or petroleum. The energies involved here are in the range of electron volts.

On the other hand, in a nuclear reaction, the emission of energy is of the order of MeV. Thus, for the same amount of matter, atomic sources produce a million times more energy than a chemical source.

For example, fission of 1 kg of uranium produces 10^14 J of energy; Compare this to the burning of 1 kg of coal which gives 10^7J of energy.

NUCLEAR FISSION

New emerge when we go beyond natural radioactive decay and study nuclear reactions by bombarding nuclei with other nuclear particles such as protons, neutrons, α-particles, and more.

One of the most important neutron-induced nuclear reaction is fragmentation. An example of fission is when a uranium isotope U-235 breaks up into two intermediate-mass atomic fragments by bombardment with a neutron.

The same reaction can produce other pairs of intermediate mass fractions

The fragment products are radioactive nuclei; They emit β particles sequentially to obtain stable end products.

The energy (Q value) released in the fission reaction of nuclei such as uranium is of the order of 200 MeV per fission nucleus. It is estimated as follows:

Let us take a nucleus with A = 240 which breaks into two pieces of A = 120. Again

Binding energy (Eb) is about 7.6 MeV for A = 240 nuclei,

(Eb) is about 8.5 MeV for two A = 120 segment nuclei.

The gain in binding energy for the nucleon is about 0.9 MeV.

Therefore the total gain in binding energy is 240×0.9 or 216 MeV.

In fission events the dissolution energy first appears as the kinetic energy of fragments and neutrons. Eventually it gets transferred to the surrounding material appearing as heat.

The source of energy in nuclear reactors, which produces electricity, is nuclear fission. The enormous energy emitted in the atomic bomb comes from uncontrolled nuclear fission. We will discuss some details in the next blog about how a nuclear reactor works.

NUCLEAR FUSION

When two light nuclei form a larger nucleus, the energy is released, because the larger nucleus is more tightly bound, as seen from the binding energy curve in Fig. 1.1. Some examples of nuclear fusion reactions that release such energy are:

In the first reaction (a), the two protons combine to form a deuteron and a positron with an energy release of 0.42 MeV.

In reaction (b), the two deuterons combine to form the light isotopes of helium.

In reaction (c), the two deuterons combine to form a triton and a proton.

For fusion to occur, the two nuclei must come so close that the attractive short-range atomic force is able to affect them.

However, since they are both positively charged particles, they experience coulomb repulsion. Therefore, they must have enough energy to overcome this coulomb barrier. The height of the barrier depends on the charges and radii of the two interacting nuclei.

It can be shown, for example, that the barrier height for two protons is ~400 keV, and higher for nuclei with higher charges. We can estimate the temperature at which two protons (on average) in a proton gas will have enough energy to overcome the coulomb barrier:

(3/2) k T = K 400 keV, which gives T ~ 3 × 109 K.

When fusion is achieved by increasing the temperature of the system so that the particles have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the coupling repulsive behavior, it is called thermonuclear fusion.

Thermonuclear fusion is a source of energy production in the interior of wires. The temperature of the Sun's interior is 1.5×10^7 K, which is much lower than the estimated temperature required for the fusion of particles of average energy. Clearly, fusion in the Sun involves protons whose energies are much higher than the average energy.

The fusion reaction in the Sun is a multi-step process in which hydrogen is burned into helium. Thus, fuel in the Sun is hydrogen at its core. The proton–proton (p, p) cycle by which this occurs is represented by the following sets of reactions:

For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must occur twice, in which case two light helium nuclei unite to form normal helium nuclei. If we consider the combination 2 (i) + 2 (ii) + 2 (iii) + (iv), the net effect is

Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form a 42He atom with 26.7MeV of energy.

Helium is not the only element that can be synthesized in the interior of a star. As the hydrogen in the core is depleted and helium is formed, the core begins to cool. The star collapses under its own gravity causing the core temperature to rise.

If this temperature rises to about 10^8K, fusion occurs again, this time with the helium nucleus in carbon. Such a process can arise through the fusion of higher and higher mass number elements. But more massive elements than near the peak of the binding energy curve in cannot be produced.

The age of the Sun is about 5×10^9year and it is estimated that there is enough hydrogen in the Sun that will keep it running for another 5 billion years.

After that, the burning of hydrogen will stop and the sun will begin to cool and collapse under gravity, raising the core temperature. The outer shell of the Sun will expand, turning it into the so-called red giant.

Difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission:

Nuclear fission

Fission is the division of a large atom into two or more smaller atoms.

Fission produces highly radioactive particles.

The fission reaction does not normally occur in nature.

Requires critical mass and high-speed neutrons of matter.

It takes less energy to split two atoms in a fission reaction.

The energy released by fission is one million times greater than the energy released in chemical reactions, but less than the energy released by nuclear fusion.

Atomic bomb works on the principle of nuclear fission.

Nuclear Fusion

Fusion is the fusion of two or more light atoms into a larger atom.

Some radioactive particles originate from the fusion reaction, but if a fission "trigger" is used, radioactive particles will result in it.

Fusion occurs in stars like the Sun.

High density, high temperature environment is required.

Extremely high energy is required to bring two or more protons so close that atomic forces can overcome their electrostatic repulsion.

The free energy by fusion is three to four times higher than the free energy by Nuclear fission.

Hydrogen bomb works on the principle of nuclear fusion bomb.

Controlled thermonuclear fusion

The natural thermonuclear fusion process in a star is repeated in a thermonuclear fusion device. In controlled fusion reactors, nuclear fuel is to be heated to temperatures in the range of 10^8K to generate stable power.

At these temperatures, the fuel is a mixture of positive ions and electrons (plasma). The challenge is to confine this plasma, as no container can tolerate such a high temperature.

Many countries around the world, including India, are developing technology in this regard. If successful, fusion reactors would hope to supply nearly unlimited power to humanity.

Nuclear Fission | Nuclear fusion | Difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission | Nuclear Energy | Controlled Thermonuclear fusion|

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Radioactive decay | Definition, Stability belt, Types, Facts | aurayne

2021-05-29T14:01:00.011+05:30

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

In 1896, Prof. Henry Becquerel accidentally discovered radioactivity. He was studying the fluorescence and phosphorescence of compounds irradiated with visible light. This is when he noticed something interesting.

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He illuminated some pieces of uranium-potassium-sulfate with visible light. Next, he wrapped these pieces in black paper and separated them from a photographic plate with a piece of silver. Left him for several hours. When he developed the photographic plate, he found that there was blackness on the plate.

This meant that something was emitted by the compound that penetrated the silver and black paper and hit the plate. Subsequent experiments suggest that radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon that occurs when an unstable nucleus undergoes decay. This is called Radioactive decay.

Of the 1500 nuclides, less than 260 are stable and others are unstable.

The unstable nuclides achieve stability by emitting alpha particles or beta particles and gamma waves.

The spontaneous emission of alpha particles or beta particles and gamma waves from an unstable nucleus is called radioactive decay.

Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. The rate of emission of α, β, Y depends only on the concentrations of nuclei. These reactions remain unaffected by temperature pressures and other physical conditions.

There are three types of radioactive decay in nature:

α-decay – a helium nucleus (42He) is emitted

β-decay – where electrons or positrons (particles with the same mass as an electron, but with exactly the opposite charge of an electron) are emitted;

γ-decay – high energy (hundreds KV or more) photons are emitted.

Which nuclei are unstable — Stability belt

The nuclei located on the stability belt are stable for Z ≤ 20 stable nuclei that have n / p≈1. Carbon(C), Magnesium(Mg), Phosphorus(P), Calcium(Ca)......

For nuclei Z≥20, the stationary nucleus contains 1 ≤ n / p ≤ 1.6. (P—P electrostatic repulsion is high, so more neutrons are required). Iron (Fe), Silver (Ag)

The nucleus above and below the stability belt emits alpha particles, beta minus particles (electrons), beta plus particles (positrons) to react to the stationary belt. After Z = 83 bismuth no nucleus is stable. After z = 83, all nuclei are radioactive.

Atoms are radioactive, their nuclei are not on the stability belt. They emit various particles α, β minus, β plus to balance the n / p ratio, so that the stability curve is reached.

A radioactive material is either an α-particle emitter or a β-particle emitter. The Y-ray is emitted with both.

Types of radioactive decay

The three types of radioactive decay, namely alpha, beta, and gamma decay. We will try to understand how these particles are emitted and what effect it has on the emitting nucleus.

Alpha radioactive decay

An alpha particle has a helium nucleus 42He. Whenever a nucleus undergoes alpha decay, it turns into a separate nucleus by emitting an alpha particle. For example, when 23892U passes through alpha-decay, it changes to 23490Th.

23892U —> 23490Th +42He......(1)

Now, 42He has two protons and two neutrons. Therefore, after emission, the mass number of the emitting nucleus decreases by four and the atomic number decreases by two. Therefore, the transformation of AZX nuclei into. A-4Z-2X nuclei is expressed as,

AZX→ A-4Z-2X + 42He......(2)

Where AZX is the basic nucleus and.A-4Z-2X is the daughter nucleus. It is important to note that the alpha decay of 23892U can occur without an external source of energy. This is due to the total mass (23490Th and 42He) of the decay products <mass of the original 23892U

Or, the total mass-energy of the decay products is lower than that of the original nuclide. This brings us to the concept of the 'Q value of the process' or 'dissolution energy' which is the difference between the initial and final mass-energy of the decay products. For alpha decay, Q value is expressed as,

Q = (mX – mY – mHe)c2 ......(3)

This energy is shared as kinetic energy between the daughter nucleus, A-4Z-2X and the alpha particle, 42He. In addition, alpha decay obeys radioactive laws.

Structure of atomic mass and nucleus-energy and nuclear binding energies.

Beta radioactive decay

Beta decay occurs when a nucleus decays spontaneously by emitting an electron or positron. It is also a spontaneous process, such as alpha decay, with a certain dissolution energy and half-life. And, it follows radioactive laws. Beta caries can be beta minus or beta plus caries.

In beta minus (β-) decay, an electron is emitted by the nucleus. for example,

3215P → 3216S + e– + v– ......(4)

Where v-is an antinutrino, a neutral particle with little or no mass. Also, T1/2 = 14.3 days.

In beta plus decay, a positron is emitted by the nucleus. for example,

2211Na → 2210Ne + e+ + v ......(5)

Where v is a neutrino, a neutral particle with little or no mass. Also, T1/2 = 2.6 years. Neutrino and antinutrino are excreted from the nucleus with a positron or electron during the beta decay process. Neutrinos interact very weakly with matter. Therefore, they were not known for a very long time.

Also, in the beta minus decay, a neutron is converted into a proton within the nucleus:

n → p + e- + ν- ......(6)

Also, in beta plus decay, a proton turns into a neutron (inside the nucleus):

p → n + e+ + ν ......(7)

Therefore, we can see that the mass number (A) of the emitting nuclide does not change. As shown in equations (6) and (7), either a proton turns into a neutron or vice versa.

Gamma radioactive decay

We know that atoms have energy levels. Similarly, a nucleus also has an energy level. When a nucleus is in an excited state, it can transition to a low energy state by emitting Electromagnetic Radiation. In addition, the difference between the energy states in the nucleus is in MeV. Therefore, photons emitted by the nucleus have MeV energy and are called gamma rays.

After alpha or beta emission, most radionuclides leave the daughter's nucleus in an excited state. This child nucleus emits one or several gamma rays and reaches the ground state. for example,

6027Co undergoes beta decay and changes to 6028Ni. The daughter nucleus (6028Ni) is in excited state. This excited nucleus reaches the ground state by emitting two gamma rays with an energy of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. The energy level diagram shown below illustrates this process.

| Radioactivity decay | Which nuclei is unstable — Stability belt, Types of Radioactive decay |

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Fundamental force in nature | Definition, Types, Facts, | aurayne

2021-05-24T23:51:00.004+05:30

Fundamental force in nature

Fundamental forces in nature - We all have an innate notion of force. In our experience, force is needed to push, move or throw objects, deform or break them. We also experience the effect of forces on us, such as when a moving object hits us or we are in a blissful phase.

It is no small thing to move from this intuitive perception to the proper scientific concept of force.

Early thinkers like Aristotle had wrong ideas about it. The correct notion of force was given by Isaac Newton in his famous laws of motion. He also gave a clear form for the force of gravity between two bodies.

In the macroscopic world, apart from the force of gravity, we encounter many types of forces: muscular forces, contact forces between bodies, friction (which is also a contact force parallel to the surfaces in contact). The force exerted by compressed or elongated springs and taut wire and ropes (tension).

Force of buoyancy and viscous force, force due to fluid pressure, when solids are in contact with fluid. Force applied due to surface tension of a fluid. And so on.

There are also forces involving charged and magnetic bodies. Again in the astral field, we have electric and magnetic forces. Atomic forces include protons and neutrons, inter-atomic and inter-molecular forces, etc.

A great insight into twentieth-century physics is that these various powers arising in different contexts actually originate from a very small number of fundamental forces in nature.

For example, an elastic spring force is produced due to the net attraction / repulsion between neighboring atoms of the spring when the spring is extended / compressed.

This net attraction / repulsion can be detected by the (unbalanced) sum of the electric forces between the charged components of the atoms.

In principle, this means that the laws of derived forces (such as spring force, friction) are not independent of the laws of fundamental forces in nature.

However, the origin of these derivative forces is very complex. In the current stage of our understanding. We know about the four fundamental force in nature. Which are described briefly here.

Gravitational force

Each body of this universe attracts each other body with a force called gravitational force.

According to Newton, the force of attraction between two objects is proportional to the square of the distance between them.

F∝m1×m2

F∝1/r^2

F∝m1m2/r^2 Or F=G m1m2/r^2

G=6.67×10^-11Nm^2 kg^-2 --> Universal gravitation force.

This force is a central force.

This force is independent of the medium between the two bodies.

It is a long-range force. This means that the Earth not only has a gravitational effect on the Moon, but also every other giant object in the universe. This is a very small effect, but it is not zero. And since gravity affects all masses, this effect is the most influential force on the cosmic scale.

It is a conservative force, ie the work done by this force on a body is independent of the path followed by the body and depends on the initial and final position of the body.

Electromagnetic force

Two charges always attract or repel each other by a force called a electrostatic force. When charges move, they produce a magnet effect. The magnetic field produces a force on the moving charge.

The electric and magnetic effects of charges are inseparable. Therefore, the force acting between the moving charges is called electromagnetic force.

It is attractive as well as repulsive.

This is long-range strength.

It is the central force.

It is a conservative force.

It is the basis of all chemistry.

It follows the inverse square rule.

It is 10 ^ 36 times more powerful than the force of gravity. (So why isn't electromagnetism the most dominant force in the universe? ... because on a large scale the electric charges of most objects cancel each other out. Large objects are neutral. If large objects are not electrically neutral, then This force will completely dominate the universe.)

Strong nuclear force

The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons. The force that holds nuclei is called strong nuclear force. This force is due to the constant exchange of masons between the nuclei.

It is attractive.

It is a very short-range force. (~ 10 ^ -15 m)

It is 100 times more powerful than electromagnetic force.

It is non-central force.

It does not follow the inverse square rule.

It also accounts for most of the mass of any object, not the Higgs field.

Weak nuclear force

The weak nuclear force is manifested only in certain nuclear processes such as the B-decay of a nucleus. In B-decay, the nucleus emits an electron and an unchanged particle called a neutrino. Weak nuclear force is not that weak.

As a gravitational force, but much weaker than strong nuclear and electromagnetic forces. The range of weak nuclear forces is very small. In the order of 10^-16m.

One of the most important processes in nature is the beta decay of neutrons. If it did not decay, the universe would be full of neutrons, and no atom would ever have formed. And we will not have life. But its effective length is only one thousandth of the diameter of a proton.

(Fundamental force in nature)

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What is Transformer? | Working principle, Energy losses, Diagram, Types, How does work |

2021-05-23T07:58:00.005+05:30

What is Transformer?

What is transformer? - A transformer is a device that can convert alternating current of low voltage to alternating current of high voltage.

And can convert alternating current of high voltage to alternating current of low voltage. The stabilizer that is installed in our houses also has a transformer, The mobile charger we use also has a transformer, etc.

The transformer works on the basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

The transformer which can change the alternating current voltage can cause the voltage to low from high. And the voltage can be high as low, which transformer transforms the flame voltage to high voltage, it is called stepup transformer (voltage is larger).

And the transformer which converts the alternating current of high voltage into alternating current of low voltage is called step down transformer (that is reducing voltage).

Keep in mind that the main mechanism of the transformer works only on alternating current and does not work in direct current.

Step-up transformer

Reversing the situation, we can make a step-up transformer that increases the low voltage to high. This time, we have more terns on the secondary coil than on the primary one.

In a step-up transformer, we use more turn in the secondary than in the primary to obtain a larger secondary voltage and a smaller secondary current.

Step-down transformer

If the first coil has more turns than the second coil, the secondary voltage is smaller than the primary voltage. This is called a step-down transformer.

In a step-down transformer, the current is changed in the opposite way - increasing in size.

Working principle of transformer

Working principle of transformer - It works on the principle of mutual induction of two coils or Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

When the current in the primary coil is changed, the flux associated with the secondary coil also changes.

Therefore an EMF is induced in the secondary coil due to the electromagnetic induction of Faraday's Law.

The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can generate a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire produces a voltage at the ends of the coil.

Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that develops. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

How the transformer works?

A transformer is based on a very simple fact about electricity: electromagnetic induction.

How When an electric current flows through a wire, it produces a magnetic field or magnetic current around it.

A magnetic field can be considered the means by which forces are transmitted between magnetic materials.

In everyday life, the magnetic field is often encountered as an invisible force created by permanent magnets that pull ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, or nickel and attract or repel other magnets.

The strength of this field is directly proportional to the value of the current. Thus a magnetic field generated in this way can be turned on and off, reversed, and very easily varied in power.

Magnetic fields can be seen as lines of magnetic flux that form closed paths. The figure above represents the magnetic field (flux line) created around a wire that carries current.

Now another interesting fact about electricity. When a magnetic field fluctuates around a piece of wire, it generates an electric current in the wire. We can produce a fluctuating magnetic field by allowing current in a wire which is also fluctuating.

Next we try to reconcile the above two phenomena. So if we place the second wire of the wire next to the first wire, and send a fluctuating electric current to the first wire, we will create an electric current in the second wire. This is called electromagnetic induction because alternating current in the first coil produces current in the second coil.

All transformers work according to this principle. If the first wire has a sine-wave AC of a certain frequency, then the current induced in the second wire will be the sine-wave AC of the same frequency.

The closer the two wires are to each other, the greater the induced current for the current given in the first wire.

If the wires are bent into the coil and placed along a common axis, the induced current will be greater if the wires are straight and parallel.

The first coil, which takes electrical power from the source, is called primary winding, and the second coil, which gives the desired output voltage, is known as secondary winding.

We can more efficiently pass electrical energy from one coil to another by wrapping it around a soft iron core.

If the second coil has the same number of turns as the first, then the current in the second coil will be exactly the same as the size of the first one.

But if we have more or less turns in the second coil, we can make the secondary current and voltage larger or smaller than the primary current and voltage.

An important thing to note is that this trick works only when the electric current is fluctuating in some way. In other words, you have to use a type of continuously reversing power with a transformer called alternating current (AC). Transformers do not work with direct current (DC), where a steady current continuously flows in one direction.

In general:

Secondary voltage ÷ Primary voltage = number of turns in secondary Number of turns in primary

Secondary current Primary stream = Number of turns in primary Number of turns in secondary

The power in an electric current is equal to the current-time voltage (watt = volts x amps is one way to remember this), so you can see that the power in the secondary coil is theoretically the same as the power in the primary coil.

(In fact, there is some loss of power between the primary and secondary as some "magnetic flux" exits the core, some energy is lost as the core heats up, and so on).

Energy losses in a transformer

Even though transformers are very efficient machines, they cause less energy loss for four main reasons:

Resistance to winding - The low resistance copper cable used for winding remains resistant and thus causes heat loss.

Flux Leakage - If the core design is not good then the flux produced by the primary coil cannot all be connected to the secondary coil. This can be reduced by considering the shell type core.

Loss of eddy currents - Different magnetic fields induce not only secondary coil currents but also iron core currents. In the iron core, these currents flow in small circles and are called eddy currents.

Hysteresis - This is caused by repeated magnetization of the iron core and demagnetization induced by alternating input current. This can be reduced by using alloys such as mumetal or silicon steel.

Method of reducing energy loss in transformer

To reduce winding resistance, thicker wires with significantly lower resistance are used. The use of a shell style core will reduce flux loss. In addition, sound is emitted as a result of the vibration of the core, resulting in loss of energy. The heel current loss can be reduced by considering laminated cores. By using alloys such as mumetal or silicon steel, hysteresis losses can be reduced.

(What is Transformer? Working principle, Energy losses, Diagram, Types, How does work )

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What is electricity?| Physics, Simple explanation, facts, Type |

2021-05-19T15:07:00.010+05:30

What is electricity?

What is electricity - A form of electric energy that occurs due to the presence of electric charges in matter. All substances have atoms, and atoms themselves have charged particles.

Each proton in the atomic nucleus has one unit positive electric charge, and each electron orbiting a nucleus carries one unit of negative electric charge.

Electrical events occur when electrons exit atoms. The loss of one or more electrons (negative charges) from an atom leaves a positively charged fraction called a positive ion. An electric current is produced when a mass of electrons coming out of the atoms begins to flow.

Electricity is a controlled and convenient form of energy used in applications of heat, light and power. Electricity is the flow of electric power or charge.

It is a secondary energy source which means that we get it from the conversion of other sources of energy such as coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources.

The energy sources we use to create electricity may be renewable or non-renewable, but electricity itself is neither renewable nor non-renewable.

Electricity history

Starting with Benjamin Franklin's experiment with a kite on a stormy night in Philadelphia, the principles of electricity slowly began to be understood.

Thomas Edison helped change everyone's life - he perfected his invention - the electric light bulb.

Prior to 1879, direct current (DC) electricity was used in arc lights for outdoor lighting. In the late 1800s, Nikola Tesla pioneered the generation, transmission, and use of alternating current (AC) power, which could be transmitted over much greater distances than direct current.

Tesla's inventions used electricity to bring indoor lighting to our homes and to power industrial machines.

Science of electricity

Science of electricity - To understand how electric charge moves from one atom to another, we need to know something about atoms. Everything in the universe is made up of atoms - every star, every tree, every animal.

The human body is made up of atoms. There is also air and water. Atoms are the building blocks of the universe. An atom is approximately 10 ^ -8 centimeters in size (meaning that 100 million of them will fit together within one centimeter).

Atoms are made up of even smaller particles. The center of the atom is called the nucleus. The size of which is 10^-15. It is made up of particles called protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are very small, but electrons are very small, about 10^-18 m.

Electrons revolve in the shells around the nucleus, a considerable distance from the nucleus. If the nucleus was the size of a tennis ball, the atom would be the size of an empire state building.

Atoms are mostly empty spaces. If you can see an atom, it will look like a small center of balls surrounded by huge invisible bubbles (or spheres).

The electrons will be on the surface of the bubble, moving continuously and moving to stay as far away from each other as possible.

Electrons are held in their spheres by an electric force. The protons and electrons of an atom are attracted towards each other. They both carry an electric charge.

An electric charge is a force within a particle. Protons have positive charge (+) and electrons have negative charge (-). The positive charge of a proton is equal to the negative charge of electrons.

Opposite charges attract each other. When an atom is in equilibrium, it has the same number of protons and electrons. Neutrons have no charge and their number may vary.

The number of protons in an atom determines what type of atom or element it is. An element is a substance in which all atoms are equal (the periodic table represents all known elements).

For example, each atom of hydrogen has one proton and one electron, with no neutrons. Each atom of carbon has six protons, six electrons and six neutrons. The number of protons determines which element it is.

The electrons are usually at the same distance from the nucleus in the exact shells. The cell closest to the nucleus can hold two electrons.

The next shell can hold up to eight. The outer shells hold even more. Some atoms with multiple protons may have up to seven shells with electrons.

The electrons in the shells closest to the nucleus have a strong force of attraction to the proton. Sometimes, the outermost shell does not have electrons.

These electrons can be pushed out of their orbits. By applying force, they can move from one atom to another. These moving electrons are electricity.

Static electricity

Electricity has always been running in the world. Electricity is a form of electricity. These are electrons moving from one cloud to another or jumping from one cloud to the ground.

Have you ever felt a shock when you touch an object after walking on the carpet? A stream of electrons jumped from that object to you. This is called static electricity.

Have you ever rubbed a balloon and made your hair straight? If yes, you rubbed some electrons from the balloon. The electrons went from the balloon to your hair. They tried to get away from each other by going to the end of your hair. They pushed each other and shook your hair — they chased each other.

Just as opposite charges attract each other, similarly charges repel each other.

Magnet and electricity

Magnet and electricity - A small magnetic field is created by the movement of electrons around the nucleus of an atom.

Most objects are not magnetic because atoms are arranged so that electrons move in different, random directions and cancel each other out.

The magnets are different; The molecules in the magnet are arranged so that the electrons rotate in the same direction.

This arrangement of atoms forms two poles in the magnet, a north search pole and a south search pole.

A magnet is labeled with north (N) and south (S) poles. In a magnet, the magnetic force flows from the North Pole to the South Pole. This creates a magnetic field around a magnet.

Have you ever placed two magnets next to each other? They do not act like most objects. If you try to push the southern poles together, they repel each other. The two north poles also repel each other.

Turn a magnet around and the North (N) and South (S) poles are attracted towards each other.

The magnets come together with a strong force. Like protons and electrons, opposites are also attracted. These special properties of magnets can be used to make electricity.

Dynamic magnetic fields can pull and push electrons. Some metals, such as copper, have electrons that are relaxed. The magnets can be moved by pushing them from their shells.

Magnets and wires are used simultaneously in electrical generators.

Battery generate electricity

A battery generate electricity using two different metals in a chemical solution. A chemical reaction between metals and chemicals releases more electrons in one metal than another.

One end of the battery is attached to one of the metals; The other end is attached to another metal.

The end that releases more electrons develops a positive charge and the other end develops a negative charge.

If a wire is placed from one end of the battery to the other, electrons flow through the wire to balance the electric charge. A load is a device that performs or performs a task.

If a load (such as a lightbulb) is placed side-by-side with the wire, the power can work as it flows through the wire.

In the photo above, electrons flow through the wire from the negative end of the battery to the lightbulb.

Electricity flows through the wire into the lightbulb and back into the battery.

Electricity travel in circuit

Electricity travel in circuit - Electricity travel in a closed loop, or circuit. It must have a complete path before electrons can move.

If a circuit is open, electrons cannot flow. When we turn on a light switch, we switch off a circuit.

Electricity flows through the light from the electric wire and back into the wire. When we switch off, we open the circuit. No electricity flows into the light.

When we switch on the light, electricity flows through a small wire in the bulb. The wire gets very hot. This brightens the gas in the bulb.

When we turn on the TV, electricity flows through the wires inside the set, producing images and sound.

Sometimes the motor runs on electricity — in the washer or mixer. Electricity works for us a lot. We use it many times every day

How electricity is generated

How electricity is generated - A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The process is based on the relation between magnetism and electricity. In 1831, Faraday discovered that when a magnet was moved inside a wire, an electric current flowed across the wire.

A typical generator in a power plant uses an electromagnet - a magnet produced by electricity - not a conventional magnet. The generator consists of a series of insulated coils of wire that form a stationary cylinder.

This cylinder encloses a rotary electromagnetic shaft. When the electromagnetic shaft rotates, it generates a small electric current in each section of the coil of wire.

Each section of wire becomes a small, separate electrical conductor. A large stream is formed by joining small streams of different sections together.

This current is the electric power that is passed from the power company to the consumer.

An electric utility power station uses either a turbine, engine, water wheel, or other similar machine to drive an electric generator or a device that converts mechanical or chemical energy to generate electricity.

Petroleum

Petroleum can also be used to make steam to turn a turbine. Residual fuel oil, a product refined from crude oil, is a petroleum product often used in power plants that use petroleum to make steam.

Nuclear power

Nuclear power is a method in which steam is produced by heating water through a process called nuclear fission. In a nuclear power plant, a reactor contains a core of nuclear fuel, mainly enriched uranium.

When uranium fuel atoms collide with neutrons, they emit fission (split), heat and more neutrons. Under controlled conditions, these other neutrons can attack more uranium atoms, split more atoms, and so on.

Thus, continuous fission can occur, creating a chain reaction that emits heat. Heat is used to convert water into steam, which in turn rotates a turbine that generates electricity.

Hydropower

Hydropower is a process in which flowing water is used to spin a turbine connected to a generator. There are two basic types of hydroelectric systems that produce electricity.

In the first system, water flows into reservoirs created by the use of dams. Water falls through a pipe known as a penstock and pressurizes against the turbine blades to drive the generator to generate electricity.

In the second system, called run-of-river, the force of the river current (instead of falling water) pressurizes the turbine blades to produce electricity.

Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy comes from the heat energy buried under the earth's surface. In some areas of the country, enough heat increases near the surface of the Earth to heat ground water into steam, which can be used for use in steam-turbine plants.

Solar energy

Solar energy is derived from the energy of the sun. However, the sun's energy is not available full-time and it is widely scattered. The processes used to produce electricity using the sun's energy have historically been more expensive than the use of traditional fossil fuels.

Photovoltaic conversion generates electric power from direct sunlight in a photovoltaic (solar) cell. Solar-thermal power generators use the energy emanating from the sun to produce steam to drive turbines.

Wind energy

Wind energy is obtained by converting the energy contained in the wind into electricity. Wind energy, less than 1% of the country's electricity in 2007, is a rapidly growing source of electricity. A wind turbine is similar to a typical windmill.

Biomass

Biomass includes wood, municipal solid waste (waste), and agricultural waste, such as corn grains and wheat straw. These are some other energy sources for power generation.

These sources replace fossil fuels in boilers. Combustion of wood and waste produces steam that is commonly used in conventional steam-power plants. Biomass accounts for about 1% of the electricity generated in the United States.

How electricity is supplied to homes

To solve the problem of sending electricity over long distances, William Stanley developed a device called a transformer.

The transformer allowed electricity to be transmitted efficiently over long distances. This made it possible to supply electricity to homes and businesses located far from the power generation plant.

The power produced by a generator goes to a transformer with cables, which converts the power from low voltage to high voltage. Using higher voltages, electricity can be carried more efficiently over longer distances.

Transmission lines are used to carry power to substations. Substations have transformers that convert high voltage electricity to low voltage electricity.

From substations, distribution lines carry electricity to homes, offices, and factories, which require low-voltage electricity.

Measuring power

Power is measured in units of power called watts. It was named in honor of James Watt, the inventor of the steam engine. One watt is a very small amount of electricity.

It would require about 750 watts to equal one horsepower. One kilowatt represents 1,000 watts. One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is equal to 1,000 watts of energy worked in an hour.

The amount of electricity a power plant generates or a customer uses over a period of time is measured in kilowatt hours (kWh).

Kilowatt hours are determined by multiplying the number of kilowatts required by the number of hours of use. For example, if you use a 40-watt light bulb 5 hours a day, you have used 200 watt-hours of electrical energy, or 0.2 kilowatt-hours.

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TOP 5 MONEY EARNING APPS 2021 | Online work from home |

2021-05-15T21:16:00.015+05:30

TOP 5 MONEY EARNING APPS

You can earn ragularly and work from home in free time.

The best money-earning app for Android offers home-based part-time jobs that are perfect for those who want to make money.

To earn money from these online money-making apps in India, you just have to spend a few hours during your day.

You play your favorite games (money making games), watching video, Online game streaming, Online reselling business, read news, and complete survey work to earn money.

Every task has a big cash reward, India's best money earners can earn real money through the app. The medium of earning is as easy as downloading the app and using your smartphone.

Here is the list of top 5 apps for earning money sitting at home in India. So if you are looking for the best Android apps to earn money, then you will like this curated list of the best cash making apps in India. Top 5 money earning apps are.

Meesho app - "Click here" and get 30% discount in first shopping.

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Google opinion rewards - "Click here " and get rewards.

Swagbucks answer app - "Click here" and get rewards.

Loco app - "Click here" and get 5 gold loco.

MEESHO APP

Work from home online job app. Best Ern Money App for Android. # 1 reselling app

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Start Resale in Three Easy Steps

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Why Meesho APP is the best online earning app in India?

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Cash on delivery (COD) available

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ROZDHAN APP

India's best money earning app. Read news, play games and earn wallet cash ₹

Rozdhan is the best money earning app in India.

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Each task has a big cash reward, and you can earn real money through RozDhan, India's best money-earning app, ie hundreds of rupees in wallet cash per day.

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Best Money Earning App: You are India's best money earning app - Daily Money. Can earn unlimited money from

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GOOGLE OPINION APP

Google opinion app Answer Surveys and Earn Play Credits!

Answer quick surveys and earn Google Play credits with Google Ideas Award, an app created by the Google survey team.

Getting started is easy. Download the app and answer basic questions about yourself.

When you install the app, you will be given twenty to thirty surveys every week which you will have to complete, although it may be more or less frequent.

You will receive a notification on your phone when a brief and relevant survey is prepared for you, and you can receive up to $ 1.00 in Play Credit to complete it.

The questions may be,

"Which logo is the best?"

"Which hype is most compelling?"

"When are you planning to travel next?"

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SWAGBUCKS APP

Earn free gift cards fast by surveying with the SB Answer app ( SWAGBUCKS APP ).

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Answering survey

Telling us about yourself

Daily Voting

Visiting local retailers and responding to surveys.

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LOCO APP

Watch live game streaming, eSports and game videos; Play multiplayer Ludo and Carrom.

Loco is India's premier live game streaming platform made in India for the Indian gaming community. Now you can watch your favorite gaming videos in one place.

On Loco, you can watch India's best upcoming and top gamers playing top games live. You can follow them, support them and connect with them. You can also become a streamer and live stream games on Loco app to create your own gaming community.

You can also play free multiplayer games like Ludo, Carrom, Pool and Bull Bash with your friends and talk to them directly in the app.

At Loco, we have brought you the best gaming.

Game Streaming and eSports: Watch live game streams played by some of the best gamers in India.

Catch all the live gaming action performed by Indian gamers for the Indian gaming community.

You can also watch the best skills, game tutorials, highlights and other game videos of all your favorite mobile and PC games.

Top Features are:

Live game streaming

Watch top gamers live on Mobile, PC, Playstation as well as Xbox on India's favorite game streaming platform. You can watch live video games in HD, share videos and chat with members of the gaming community watching videos. You can watch a game live on your mobile phone anytime of the day.

Esports tournament

Watch the top esports tournaments in various sports live streaming on Loco. You can see India's top teams such as Soul, TSM-Entity, Synergy, Mayhem, and IND and top gamers such as Mortal, Viper, Scout, Owais, Frankie, Jonathan and Clutchgod competing against each other for the top spot .

Exclusive content

You can watch exclusive live streams of top Indian gamers like Jonathan, Snacks, Neu, Slayer, Kratos, Trance, GyroGod, and many more. You can also watch exclusive videos of Fnatic's Rising Program at Loco where underdog players will be trained to become the next biggest esports star in India.

ideo on demand

Missed a stream? You can still watch the live stream after the game is over. Not only this, you can watch the best pieces of the game stream whenever you want, such as highlights, recaps, tutorials, best skills, best moments, funny game videos and more. Suggested videos will help you find more similar content on the app.

Being a dreamer and a star on loco

You can also sign up to live stream your games on Loco directly from the comfort of your home. Stream your favorite games on the app and create a follower base for yourself to become the next biggest eSports star in India.

Join the gamer community

On Loco, you can also use live chat during live game streaming to chat with other game watchers and game streamers. You can support the streamer by sending gold and diamond stickers during the live stream. You can also comment on game video highlights, replays and more.

Play multiplayer games with friends at Loco Arena

If casual gaming is your thing, then play multiplayer games at Loco app Arena - compete 1-on-1. Why play games alone? Play Carrom, Ludo, Pool, Bull Bash and many other multiplayer games with your friends using a custom room and talk to them using audio chat. Play with friends and strangers to conquer the world.

Single Player Game Tournament at Loco Arena

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These is the Top 5 money earning apps 2021 . If you have any doubts. Comment me.

Nanotechnology | Type, facts, Future, simple explanation |

2021-05-12T21:22:00.019+05:30

WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?

"Nano" is a Greek word, which literally means micro or small."what is nanotechnology"

Every particle whose size is 100 nanometers or smaller is considered a" nanoparticle ".

The term Nanotechnology was first used in 1974 by Norio Taniguchi.

It is the engineering of molecules and atoms, combining disciplines such as physics, chemistry, information and biotechnology.

In 1959, Richard Feynman, an American physicist at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), stated in his lecture 'The Plenty of Room of the Bottom'.

This sentence later became the foundation of nanotechnology.

In his speech, Feynman also described a process in which scientists would be able to manipulate and control individual atoms and molecules.

Nanotechnology, as we know it, is an umbrella term used to define technologies that work on nanoscales for use in this transformed world.

Nanoparticles (NPs), fundamental parts of nanotechnology, are atomic or molecular aggregates that vary in size from 1nm to 100nm.

In nanoscience, we manipulate matters at their atomic or molecular level and discover a whole new material, which is completely different from, or more powerful than, the mother substance.

The world is facing significant changes in day-to-day life, be it with the environment, medical sector, automobile sector or any other sector, and nanoscience or nanotechnology is needed to deal with them.

Nanotechnology in nature

In today's world, nanotechnology is impossible to think of any innovation. Nanoparticles can be synthesized naturally or chemically, chemically or biologically.

In this particular technique, we repair, construct and monitor the molecular level of any system. Nanoparticles are of various types according to size, morphology, physical and chemical properties.Some of them are:

Carbon based nanoparticles,

Ceramic nanoparticles,

Metal nanoparticles,

Semiconductor nanoparticles,

Polymeric nanoparticles.

Nanotechnology in medical

Nanotechnology has its impact in every field with medicine-based and new technology-based devices, it can cure diseases, enhance the military with updated weapons, purify water, soil, gases and energy. Can preserve our environment with new technologies.

Thus Nanotechnology with nanoparticle is the only science that can control and conquer the world with its positive effects in fields ranging from medical, ethical, environmental fields to biology, engineering, physics and so on.

Agriculture and Nanotechnology

Nano fertilizer, nano weed etc. can be used to save and grow crops in agricultural areas.

Nanotechnology can also be used for storage, preservation, quality improvement and flavor etc.

The use of nanotechnology can reduce friction in the engine.

Light and strong vehicles can be built using Graphene.

It can also be used to reduce fuel consumption.

Mileage and pollution problems can be diagnosed.

As a result of nanotechnology, the size of computers and mobiles has reduced significantly.

Such a chip is being developed by nanotechnology in which much memory can be used in a very small area.

Composite plastics can be made using nanotechnology which is less harmful to the environment.

Strong fibers can be made from nanotechnology that can be used in the manufacture of fabrics and other materials.

Weapons can be made stronger and lighter through nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology is very reliable in making lightweight and strong protective shells for soldiers.

Disadvantages of nanotechnology

The use of nanoparticles also poses some challenges.

Concerns about the environment and human health are increasing due to the continuous increase in the production and use of metal nanoparticles.

Experts believe that the soil is directly or indirectly becoming a repository of nanoparticles.

Production of metal nanoparticles is estimated to reach 2 million tonnes by the year 2025.

Today, thousands of nano-products are available in the market, with nanoparticles used in most concentrations and types, etc. not explicitly mentioned.

Products with more than 3000 nanoparticles are commercially available in the market, of which more than 60 percent are not reported to contain nanoparticles.

These products and the waste generated during their production process will go into the atmosphere.

In such a situation, it is important to know how nanoparticles affect plants, animals and humans.

The deposition of nanoparticles in food crops or affecting the growth of crops can have dangerous consequences.

Nanoparticles enter the human body easily through water, air and foods and can also cause diseases.

As the use of nanoparticles increases, concerns about ecological, ethical, health, safety, policy, and regulations are increasing.

Nanoparticles can combine with pollutants to give rise to more toxic pollutants.

The conclusion

Nanotechnology is still in its early stage of development.

Although this technique has many benefits, some challenges are also associated with it.

Therefore, scientists should try to reduce the damage caused by it by expanding it. Profit potential, so that nanotechnology can be optimally utilized in human welfare and development.

What is the future of nanotechnology?

Here are some things to look forward to in "the future of Nanotechnology"

Nanobots:

Science fiction and comic books say that you can manufacture nanobots to cure deadly diseases. Sure, these robots are still a long way off, but they are being built, one component at a time.

Nano-sensor:

The reason nanoscience is so attractive is that the material behaves differently when you scale at the bottom of the nanoscale. For example, a material you have in its bulk form may be diamagnetic (non-magnetic), but the moment you make nanoparticles of the same material, they become paramagnetic.

These properties help in designing effective and efficient sensors for

gas leakage,
nuclear radiation,
fault / fissure detection,
mechanical stress detection,
earthquake, etc.

Hydrophobic material:

Hydrophobic material repels water, similar to lotus leaves or duck feathers. These hydrophobic materials bounce water droplets off its surface when wrapped on window panes, solar panels, etc., which helps in the effective trap of sunlight.

This improves the overall performance of solar panels or photochromatic windows. Chemical and physics methods such as etching, laser patterning, etc. are used these days to come up with better hydrophobic surfaces.

Cancer Research:

Gold nanoparticles can be used as "sniffers" to detect cancer and other diseases. As cancer cells proliferate, the genes and proteins within the cells change, and result in the release of volatile organic compounds that can be detected.

Nanoparticles can sniff (detect) these markers even in small spots. Researchers reported a new gold nanoparticle sensor a few years ago, which could reveal not only what a person has cancer, but also what kind - lung, breast, prostate, or colon cancer.

Genetic Therapy and Medicine:

Every other day, scientists announce a new breakthrough in the ability of nanoparticles to deliver genes, drugs, or chemical messengers inside cells.

Nanoparticles of different shapes and chemical makeup can track and target specific cells of a chemist's choosing, and perform a variety of tasks.

This image depicts DNA molecules (light green) packed in nanoparticles using a polymer with two different segments. A fragment is positively charged, which binds the polymer to DNA.

Nanomaterials in Food and Agriculture:

There is much to understand and desired the effects of Nanotechnology in agriculture.

Occasionally, discoveries have also found controversial and religious communities, who play such research with God's hands. Gods hands or not, nanoparticles can be used as a pesticide or as a fertilizer, but there are demonstrations that nanomatries can be dangerous in agriculture, and even limit when fatal.

In an article published by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, scientists report zinc oxide, a common wide bandgap semiconducting commonly used in cosmetics and electronics, can accumulate in plant tissue And can prevent proper nitrogen fixation, photosynthesis, etc. In heavy loss to crops.

If you think about it, there's a lot you can do and there's a lot you can explore!

Hope you like this article. If you like it please comment and share.

Thankyou,

PYTHON PROGRAMMING | LEARN PYTHON PROGRAMMING | CAREER SCOPE |

2021-05-12T00:02:00.012+05:30

LEARN PYTHON PROGRAMMING

"Python is the new era!" There is no second thought when making this statement. Python has become the world's most popular programming language, overtaking C and Java.

As the clock is ticking and the days are passing, so are we all rising to new challenges. As we can see, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning is raising great expectations for all visionaries.

While all these promising technological trends are catching on to all eyeballs, we should not forget the programming languages and algorithms that are the main drivers behind these phenomena. This is driving "popularity traffic" towards Python Programming.

Solidify these reasons :

Data science

Machine learning

Web development

Simplicity

Massive community

Liberary & frameworks

Automation

Multipurpose

Jobs and Development

Salary

Data Science:

Library and Framework Python offers, e.g. PyBrain, PyMySQL and NumPy are among the big reasons. Another reason is diversity.

The Python experience allows you to do a lot more than any other language, e.g. You can create scripts to automate stuff, go into web development, and more.

Machine learning:

The development of machine learning has been unprecedented in the last few years and it is changing rapidly around us. Algorithms become more sophisticated every day, the best examples are Google's search algorithms and Uber are completely powered by algorithms.

Although machine learning libraries are available in Java, you will find more content around Python as the developer community currently prefers Python over anything else for machine learning.

Web Development:

Good old development is another reason to learn Python. It provides a lot of good libraries and frameworks, e.g. Flask and Django, which make web development easier.

A task that takes hours in PHP can be completed in minutes with Python. Python is also used a lot for web scraping. Some popular websites on the Internet, such as Reddit, are built using Python.

Simplicity:

This is the single biggest reason for beginners to learn Python. When you first start with programming and coding, you don't want to start with a programming language that has hard syntax and complex rules.

Python is both readable and simple. It is also easy to install; You do not have to deal with any class problems like Java and compiler problems that exist in C ++. Just install Python and you're done.

Massive community:

You need a community to learn new technology and friends are your greatest asset when it comes to learning a programming language.

Thanks to Google, you can find a solution to any Python related problem in minutes. The community also brings together many Python experts to help newcomers.

Library and Framework:

One of the similarities between Python programming and Java is the sheer number of open source libraries, frameworks, and modules you want to do.

This makes application development easier. There are many libraries in Python for different requirements.

Automation:

You will be more impressed by the time than any other language when you write code for tools with Python;

When it comes to writing scripts, tools, and automating stuff, it exposes the power of Python.

Multipurpose:

One of the things I love about Python is its Swiss Army knife-like nature. It is not tied to just one discipline.

Learning the dragon means you can do many things. At bare minimum, you can use Python to write scripts to automate many tasks of your day.

Jobs and Development:

Python is growing rapidly and it means a lot to learn a growing programming language if you are starting your programming career.

This not only helps you get a job quickly but it will also speed up your career. In my opinion, for beginners, after simplicity, this should be the most important reason to learn Python programming .

Salary:

The final but most important factor that makes every person a salary! Python developers are some of the highest paid developers, especially in the fields of data science, machine learning and web development. [Depends on experience, location and area of specialty]

Knowing programming and coding is important in today's world and if you are not aware that you are coding then you are missing something and Python programming is a great way to learn code.

For programmers who already know C / C ++ and Java, learning Python will open the door to exciting areas of data science, machine learning, and more.

I hope I was able to describe exactly what was asked with the full knowledge needed to understand the same.

Hope you like this article. If you like it please comment and share.

Thankyou,

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION | Physics, Type, Difference, Simple explanation |

2021-05-09T17:49:00.015+05:30

SIMPLE DEFINATION - electromagnetic waves are waves emanating from alternating electric waves, which create a magnetic wave in front of it, which then forms and repeats an electric wave in front of it.

Some radiation is electromagnetic waves, but the most commonly known radiation (nuclear radiation) is from a decaying, unstable nucleus releasing neutrons. Now let's know a little deeper what is electromagnetic radiation and electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic radiation and electromagnetic waves?

Radiation is a term that means "the transfer of energy radially", or the energy emitted outward from a source - such as the sun's rays emanating from the sun.

Electromagnetic radiation is an electrical and magnetic disturbance traveling through space at the speed of light (2.998 × 10^8 m / s) "energy" that occurs through the vacuum of space or through a physical medium in the form of waves Is propagated - such as

Radio waves,
light waves,
X-rays and
Gamma rays.

The term also refers to the emission and transmission of such radiant energy. There is radiation all around us. - Actually, we are currently bombarded by radiation. It may be coming from the Sun and various electronic devices at home. However, the majority of the radiation we expose is harmless.

The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation consists of various forms of radiation, virtually all of them emitted by the sun in waves. According to this energy, radiation is divided into several fields. High energy radiation consists of gamma rays and x-rays, and low energy radiation consists of radios. The energy of radiation depends on its wavelength - short wavelength for high energy and long wavelength for low energy radiation.

On the basis of wave length / frequency, electromagnetic waves can be classified into the following:

radio waves

Microwave

Infra red waves

Visible (what we see)

Ultra violet waves

X ray

Gamma rays

From above, we can see that "radiation" is a transfer of energy, while "wave" is a property of radiation. The wavelength λ, is the distance from any point on a wave to the same point on the next wave, measured in meters.

The frequency of a wave, f, is the number of waves passing through a point in a given time. We typically use a time of one second, so this gives the frequency unit Hertz (Hz) called Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), the first to provide conclusive evidence of the existence of electromagnetic waves. One hertz is equal to one wave per second.

The amplitude, A, is the distance from the line (or still position) of a wave center above a crest or below a trough. The higher the amplitude of a wave, the more energy it has.

Through further information, it is important to note that not all electromagnetic waves are considered radiation, but not all radiation is an electromagnetic one. The radioactive decay process in which a helium nucleus and an electron are emitted from an atomic nucleus are additional forms of radiation, and they are not electromagnetic. They are classified as nuclear radiation.

What is the difference between nuclear radiation and electromagnetic radiation?

Electromagnetic radiation is different wavelengths of energy. Special materials are required to absorb certain wavelengths of energy.

Atomic radiation

Atomic radiation consists of real particles emitted from the decay of radioactive materials. Nuclear radiation is just a type of radioactive nucleus and the things that come out of gamma rays.

Alpha particles

Alpha particles are very energetic and can destroy your cells completely, but you only need a piece of paper to prevent the particles from damaging your cells. Alpha particles have a lot of energy but they do not pass through objects very well.

Beta particles

Beta particles are more dangerous and you need special material to absorb them because beta particles have much higher penetrating power than alpha particles. And if you think you are going to be smart and shield yourself from gamma rays and at the same time beta particles are wrong under your leadership. The use of lead can actually produce more X rays.

Ionic radiation

Ionic radiation is the most dangerous because it can literally rip off the electrons of atoms in your cells. It is just the extra neutrons that are emitted from radioactive decay. To shield yourself best you need a material that has a lot of free electrons that can donate to a neutron.

Why are electromagnetic radiation harmful to the human body?

If it is a wavelength less than about 100nm, it is ionization - it can trigger chemical reactions, give you sunburn, trigger skin cancer. If it is less than about 10nm, it is able to penetrate further into the body (such as X-rays) and cause deep-seated cancer. A single photon has enough energy to produce an effect, although a more intense field means more photons and therefore a greater probability of impact.

If it is visible light, or near infra-red that can be focused by the eye, it can damage the retina if it is intense (such as looking directly at the sun in the afternoon, looking at laser pointers).

If it has a long wavelength, and is very intense, it can cause warming, i.e. cooking you, e.g. microwave ovens. Intensive areas may arise in the handling of materials, and prevent associated risks, e.g. Causing explosion in flammable vapor, or triggered explosives.

How can you protect yourself from Electromagnetic radiation?

Limit your exposure time. When near the source of Electromagnetic radiation, keep it brief to limit any cumulative dose.

Maximize your distance. Stay away from the source as far as possible. Remember that intensity drops with distance - so a few extra meters can actually reduce your dose.

Use shielding.

Alpha particles are easy to block. Paper will work, even your epidermis can slow down or stop those particles. You should take great care in inhaling dust coated with alpha emitters or those isotopes. Radiation in the lungs Alpha radiation can cause massive damage to nearby tissues.

Beta radiation can be prevented with a layer of metal. Although I recommend being a bit thicker than aluminum foil, to the tune of sheet metal.

It takes lots of dense thick material to block gamma radiation. It usually means lead and a lot of it. The container can be more than a foot thick for a gamma-ray camera.

Neutron radiation is also deeply penetrating. A mixture of dense items such as lead with a mild material such as paraffin is highly effective.

Improved shielding for a shelter against nuclear attack is usually made of cast concrete with one meter or more of soil. A radiation meter is also highly recommended.

Hope you like this article. If you like it please comment and share.

Thankyou,

Neutron star | WHAT IS A NEUTRON STAR? | WHAT HAPPEN WHEN TWO NEUTRON STAR COLLIDE? |

2021-05-07T13:43:00.019+05:30

What is neutron star?

Neutron stars are formed when a giant star, about 8 to 30 times the mass of our Sun, bursts into a supernova.

They are small, typically the size of an asteroid, about 20 kilometers in diameter, but with a mass that is about 1.40 times greater than that of our Sun.

In that perspective, a cubic centimeter of neutron star material would weigh more than ten million tons! But what is a neutron star. How is it born?

Let us understand a little more deeply about neutron stars.

Neutron stars are the dead remnants of a massive star and are almost entirely made up of neutrons.

If you compress all humans on the planet into a small cup, the density will be the same as the density of a neutron star. One teaspoon of neutron stars weighs as much as one billion tons.

We know that every object with a non-zero mass, although smaller mass, has gravity. This gravity acts towards the center of the object, that is, the Earth's gravity pulls everything radially inward.

The mass of a star is very high, due to which the pressure and temperature are increasing as it moves towards its center. When the pressure and temperature at the core of the star is sufficiently high, it can form the helium nucleus by joining the protons together. This process is called thermonuclear fusion,

what happens in an atomic bomb. It releases tremendous energy. Lighter elements are less stable than heavy elements. So when they are linked together, they release energy to form a heavier element which is more stable. This energy is nothing but light / radiation emanating from the star.

This radiation exerts a radially outward pressure and balances radial inward acting gravity. Due to this, the star retains its spherical shape.

The star will keep shining until it has enough light elements to make it heavier. They are connected in an onion-like sphere in this order:

Hydrogen -> Helium -> Carbon -> Oxygen -> Neon -> Magnesium -> Silicon -> Iron.

Low-mass stars (up to 8 solar masses) can form elements up to oxygen and become a white dwarf. Heavier stars make elements up to iron.

Iron is the most stable element. After iron, the stability decreases. Therefore, the iron nucleus does not have to release energy to make it more heavy nucleus, but rather it is needed. Because of this when more fusion is not possible, there is no radiation pressure to balance gravity. Gravity wins, and the star collapses in a spectacular explosion called a supernova. For this to happen, the mass of the core must be above 1.44 solar masses.

All electrons form neutrons together with protons, and the resulting dead star is made up of neutrons and is called a neutron star.

Neutron degeneration pressure stops. However, even if the mass of the core is above 3 solar masses, the neutron degeneration pressure cannot stop and as a result the body becomes a black hole.

A pulsars or neutron star is composed almost entirely of neutrons, although some electrons and protons still remain on the surface. This compact object is called a neutron star.

Neutron star radius is about 10–20 km.

The escape velocity of Neutron star can be 100,000 - 150,000 km / s.

Neutron star is one-third to half the speed of light.

The value of g for a neutron star is about 2 × 10111011 or 200 billion times g on Earth.

The rotation of the neutron star is excessive due to the conservation of angular momentum from the original star. The currently known fastest rotating neutron star rotates more than 700 times per second! Due to the magnetic flux, it has an extremely strong magnetic field, which is billion times stronger than that of the Earth.

What happen when two neutron star collide?

Neutron star mergers are rare, requiring systems with two massive stars that have both burst as supernovae. According to researchers, in any one galaxy, these events occur once every million years.

Two massive stars are relatively rare compared to low-mass stars on their own. But when this happens, the two neutrons touch the stars toward each other for millions of years, until they touch and join each other, and in nature's most energetic bursts, a small but powerful force of gamma rays Receive the beam, which lasts for one or two seconds.

These tiny GRBs are highly explosive, emitting the same amount of energy in two seconds, as do all the stars of our entire galaxy in one year. Neutron stars revolve exactly like an intense gravitational atmosphere, where the waves will be strongest.

When two neutron stars merging, there are two possibilities: either they will form a new, larger neutron star together or they will fall into a black hole.

Case 1: Formation of Large Neutron Star

When the neutron star that collides weighs the same solar mass, they form a larger neutron star.

Both neutron stars have their own gravitational pull and the pulling effect will be the same. This causes them to merge together and form a new, larger neutron star.

Case 2: Formation of Black Hole

When a mismatched pair of neutron stars that weigh different solar masses, as the stars move toward each other, immense tidal forces break the star's crust and explode into smaller stars, causing Its hot and dense material begins to erupt and then spirals around the system.

As the stars merge, the mass mass acquired by the larger star collapses, and a black hole is born. The upper size limit for neutron stars is 3 solar masses.

Hope you like this article. If you like it please comment and share.

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Hologram Technology | Type, future of hologram technology |

2021-05-04T21:18:00.020+05:30

What is a hologram technology?

Hologram technology - A hologram is a three-dimensional image, created with photographic projection. Denis Gabor A Hungarian-British physicist invented holography. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics (1971). Holography is the science and practice of making holograms. The word is derived from the Greek words holos (whole) and gramam (message).

A hologram represents a recording of information about light that came from the original scene scattered only from one direction to another, as in a photograph. This view can be viewed from a range of different angles, as if it were still present. Unlike 3-D or virtual reality on two-dimensional computer displays, a hologram is actually a three-dimensional and free-standing image. In the future, holograms can be transmitted as electronics to a special display device in your home and business.

A hologram is made of light

Holograms appear directly in front of the user's eyes in a holographic frame. Holograms add illumination to your world, meaning that you are seeing both the light from the display and the light from your surroundings. Holograms cannot be done with black. Because there does not remove light from your eyes, so the black material appears transparent.

Holograms can have many different behaviors. Some are realistic and solid, and others are cartoonists and ethers. Holograms can highlight features in your environment, and they can be elements in your app's user interface.

A hologram can create sound

Holograms can also create sounds that seem to be coming from a specific location in your environment. Similar to displays, there are speakers, which can create new sounds without blocking sounds from your environment.

A hologram interacts with you and your world

Hologram is not only about light and sound; Hologram are also an active part of your world. Stare at a hologram and gesture with your hand, and a hologram can start following you.

Give the hologram a voice command, and it can answer.

Holograms enable personal interaction that is not possible anywhere else. Because Hololens knows where in the world it is, a holographic character walking into the room can look you straight in the eye.

A hologram can also interact with its surroundings. For example, you can place a holographic bouncing ball on top of a table. Then, with an air tap, try to bounce the ball and make a sound when it hits the table.

Holograms can also be represented by real-world objects. For example, a holographic character can walk out of your sight, behind a door and through a wall.

How are hologram techniques used in warfare?

Holograms have been used quite differently in Iraq and Afghanistan. Satellite data was used to create large digital holograms (1M X1M) that were on the photopolar with a flexible backing to roll them into a tube.

They are illuminated with a specially provided flashlight and the 3D data they provide makes it much easier for soldiers to create a picture in their minds of the actual area they are entering. What does he look like Topographic maps are difficult to read and require interpretation while holograms look like the real thing (though usually monochrome).

The different types of holograms are:

Holographic interferometry

Subtle change on an object can be measured quantitatively by creating two risks on a moving object. The two images interfere with each other and can be seen on an object revealing vector displacement.

In real-time holographic interferometry, the virtual image of the object is directly compared to the real object.

Even invisible objects, such as heat or shock waves, may be visible. Holometry has countless engineering applications in this field.

Multichannel hologram- With the change in the angle of viewing light on the same hologram, completely different views can be seen. This concept has the potential for large-scale computer recall.

Barcode Hologram

A unique high-security hologram for brand security, these are particularly new for track and trace. The unique hologram is capable of carrying encoded barcodes that can be easily detected and tracked through a scanner. These holograms are particularly useful in navigation and ensure product safety through the supply chain.

Dematerialized Hologram

Dematerialization refers to the removal of metallization from some part / s of the hologram. Demonetization involves the process of removing a metallic coating over an entire area or a specific area, to enhance the safety pattern or design. Dematization serves as one of the highest security level hologram technologies in conjunction with the holographic part, and the non-holographic piece makes it distinct and unique.

Scratch Holograms

Scratch holograms hide secret information that the end-user can see only after closing the holographic image. This type of hologram is used for applications such as recharge vouchers and cards and is also used for redemption purposes as part of gift schemes. The hologram provides a high level of security that enables the end-user to authenticate the product to its satisfaction.

Reflection hologram

The reflection hologram, in which a three-dimensional image is actually seen near its surface, is the most common type shown in galleries. The hologram is illuminated by a "spot" of white incandescent light, located at a specific angle and distance, and located on the viewer side of the hologram.

Thus, the image consists of light reflected by a hologram. More recently, these holograms have been created and displayed in color - their images are alternately indistinguishable from the original objects If a mirror is an object, the holographic image of the mirror reflects white light; If the diamond is an object, then the holographic image of the diamond is seen to "shine".

Although eagles are seen with reflective light on mass-produced holograms such as the Visa card, they are actually "mirrorized" transmission holograms with a layer of aluminum on the back.

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What is the Dark Matter? | DID? is real, Fact |

2021-05-02T15:00:00.017+05:30

What is dark matter?

"WHAT IS DARK MATTER"- What if I told you that trillions of particles are going in your body right now, and you can't see it, hear it, or touch it.

And these particles are so vast, that they form 6 times more than all visible matter visible in the universe.

6 times all stars, galaxies, planets, gas and radiation.

And we can not only see it with our eyes, we cannot detect it with any of our tools.

So how the heck do we know it's there too?

In the late 1970s, an astronomer by the name of Vera Rubin, a woman in a male-dominated profession, was studying the mundane field of astronomy that no one else seemed to have at the time.

He was observing the motion of stars in the spiral parts of the Andromeda galaxy, a neighbor of our own milky way galaxy.

What he found were surprising scientists ... because it seemed to violate Newton's laws of gravity, which had been established as scientific law for the last 300 years.

His observations showed that the outer rim of the spiral arms were rotating in the inner part of the spiral arm as a star-like velocity. This violates Newton's law of universal gravitation which governs the motion of stars in galaxies as well as the motion of planets around the Sun.

Force of gravity = G m1 m2 / r2

m1 = mass of the first planet

M2 = mass of another planet

r2 = square of the distance between them

G = gravitational constant

The equations determine that the center of mass is away from the mass (r), the force of gravity is low, and the object rotates at a slow rate.

Stars close to the center must travel faster than those moving away from the center.

Otherwise, the stars would have flown from their orbits around the galaxy.

It is easy to see the motion of all the planets in our own solar system that follow Newton's laws alphabetically.

Vera Rubin discovered that this was not the case with stars in the Andromeda galaxy. And since then, scientists have found that all observable star galaxies, including our own milky way, move in the same fashion.

The only possible way that stars in galaxies can move in this way is if we can see that galaxies had too much mass on their arms.

Vera Rubin's observations confirmed an earlier 1933 hypothesis proposed by Swiss-American astronomer Fritz Zwiecki that the universe has much larger mass than we can see with our telescopes.

The only problem, and still continues today, even after 40 years, is that we cannot see this matter, it emits no light, no radiation of any kind, and it does not emit any other than the normal case. Does not interact in the same way through gravity.

It only emits gravity. We can observe the behavior of stars and the bending of light due to the immense gravity of this unknown substance.

In physics an "unknown" is usually labeled dark. Therefore this substance is called "dark matter"

And it turns out that this dark matter has at least 6 times more gravity than all observable and detectable substances in the universe.

The majority of the matter in the universe is Dark Matter - about 85%. And it cannot be seen or identified (except for its gravity).

The things we can see are like froth above the waves of the sea, but we are not able to see the waves or the sea itself. We and our equipment are blind to this.

We are living in the only froth of waves on the sea which is the real universe.

Then you must have understood what DARK MATTER is.

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James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) | IS THERE ANY EXTRA -TERRESTRIAL LIFE ON SPACE?

2021-04-30T12:34:00.024+05:30

The James Webb Space telescope (JWST)

New York: The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), launched this October 2021, can detect ammonia around six gas dwarf planets after only a few orbits, thus detecting possible signatures of life on other planets It takes less than 60 hours.

Did? Gas dwarf planets have the ability to promote life.

Gas dwarf planets have the ability to promote life. Since none of these super-Earths or mini-neptunes exist within our solar system, scientists struggle to determine if there are ammonia in their atmosphere and other possible signs of living things.

"I was really surprised about the results that we could actually find signs of life on other planets over the next 5 to 10 years," said Ohio State University graduate student Caprice Phillips.

He will share the preliminary findings at a press conference during the 2021 APS April meeting.

He and his team modeled how the JWST instrument would respond to different clouds and atmospheric conditions, then produced a list of locations where the telescope should search for life.

"Mankind has pondered the questions, are we alone? What is life? Is life the same as us?"

Phillips said. "My research shows that for the first time, we have real scientific knowledge and technical abilities to find answers to these questions."

NASA's James Webb Space Telescope has kept all the harsh conditions associated with the rocket launch alive in space, prior to its October 2021 launch. Recent tests of the Web have confirmed that the fully assembled observatory will tolerate the deafening noise and mess that shake, tingling, and vibration that the observatory will experience during liftoff according to NASA.

The telescope is the world's largest, most powerful and complex space science telescope ever built.

It is designed to help unravel the mysteries of our solar system, beyond the distant worlds surrounding other stars, and investigate the mysterious structures and origins of our universe.

"The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)"

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