BLABORAT

Bacteriology: The Study Of Bacteria

2020-06-25T21:27:00.002+05:30

☞ What is Bacteriology?

☞ What are Bacteria?

☞ How to classify Bacteria?

☞ What is bacterial anatomy?

☞ What is morphology of Bacteria?

Hello, Folks! Let's start today's knowledge

Bacteriology

Bacteriology is a branch of microbiology that is concerned with the study of bacteria (as well as Archaea) and related aspects. It's a field in which bacteriologists study and learn more about the various characteristics (structure, genetics, biochemistry and ecology etc) of bacteria as well as the mechanism through which they cause diseases in humans and animals.

Bacteria

Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. These organisms can live in soil, the ocean and inside the human gut.

Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes bacteria lend us a helping hand, such as by curdling milk into yogurt or helping with our digestion. In other cases, bacteria are destructive, causing diseases like pneumonia and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).

Bacterium (fig. 1)

Bacterial Anatomy

Bacteria are prokaryotes, lacking well-defined nuclei and membrane-bound organelles, and with chromosomes composed of a single closed DNA circle. They come in many shapes and sizes, from minute spheres, cylinders and spiral threads, to flagellated rods, and filamentous chains. They are found practically everywhere on Earth and live in some of the most unusual and seemingly inhospitable places.

Evidence shows that bacteria were in existence as long as 3.5 billion years ago, making them one of the oldest living organisms on the Earth. Even older than the bacteria are the archeans (also called archaebacteria) tiny prokaryotic organisms that live only in extreme environments: boiling water, super-salty pools, sulfur-spewing volcanic vents, acidic water, and deep in the Antarctic ice. Many scientists now believe that the archaea and bacteria developed separately from a common ancestor nearly four billion years ago. Millions of years later, the ancestors of today's eukaryotes split off from the archaea. Despite the superficial resemblance to bacteria, biochemically and genetically, the archea are as different from bacteria as bacteria are from humans.

In the late 1600s, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek became the first to study bacteria under the microscope. During the nineteenth century, the French scientist Louis Pasteur and the German physician Robert Koch demonstrated the role of bacteria as pathogens (causing disease). The twentieth century saw numerous advances in bacteriology, indicating their diversity, ancient lineage, and general importance. Most notably, a number of scientists around the world made contributions to the field of microbial ecology, showing that bacteria were essential to food webs and for the overall health of the Earth's ecosystems. The discovery that some bacteria produced compounds lethal to other bacteria led to the development of antibiotics, which revolutionized the field of medicine.

There are two different ways of grouping bacteria. They can be divided into three types based on their response to gaseous oxygen. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen for their health and existence and will die without it. Anerobic bacteria can't tolerate gaseous oxygen at all and die when exposed to it. Facultative aneraobes prefer oxygen, but can live without it.

The second way of grouping them is by how they obtain their energy. Bacteria that have to consume and break down complex organic compounds are heterotrophs. This includes species that are found in decaying material as well as those that utilize fermentation or respiration. Bacteria that create their own energy, fueled by light or through chemical reactions, are autotrophs.

Bacterial Anatomy (fig. 2)

Capsule - Some species of bacteria have a third protective covering, a capsule made up of polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates). Capsules play a number of roles, but the most important are to keep the bacterium from drying out and to protect it from phagocytosis (engulfing) by larger microorganisms. The capsule is a major virulence factor in the major disease-causing bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Nonencapsulated mutants of these organisms are avirulent, i.e. they don't cause disease.

Cell Envelope - The cell envelope is made up of two to three layers: the interior cytoplasmic membrane, the cell wall, and -- in some species of bacteria -- an outer capsule.

Cell Wall - Each bacterium is enclosed by a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, a protein-sugar (polysaccharide) molecule. The wall gives the cell its shape and surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane, protecting it from the environment. It also helps to anchor appendages like the pili and flagella, which originate in the cytoplasm membrane and protrude through the wall to the outside. The strength of the wall is responsible for keeping the cell from bursting when there are large differences in osmotic pressure between the cytoplasm and the environment.

Cell wall composition varies widely amongst bacteria and is one of the most important factors in bacterial species analysis and differentiation. For example, a relatively thick, meshlike structure that makes it possible to distinguish two basic types of bacteria. A technique devised by Danish physician Hans Christian Gram in 1884, uses a staining and washing technique to differentiate between the two forms. When exposed to a gram stain, gram-positive bacteria retain the purple color of the stain because the structure of their cell walls traps the dye. In gram-negative bacteria, the cell wall is thin and releases the dye readily when washed with an alcohol or acetone solution.

Cytoplasm - The cytoplasm, or protoplasm, of bacterial cells is where the functions for cell growth, metabolism, and replication are carried out. It is a gel-like matrix composed of water, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, and gases and contains cell structures such as ribosomes, a chromosome, and plasmids. The cell envelope encases the cytoplasm and all its components. Unlike the eukaryotic (true) cells, bacteria do not have a membrane enclosed nucleus. The chromosome, a single, continuous strand of DNA, is localized, but not contained, in a region of the cell called the nucleoid. All the other cellular components are scattered throughout the cytoplasm.

One of those components, plasmids, are small, extrachromosomal genetic structures carried by many strains of bacteria. Like the chromosome, plasmids are made of a circular piece of DNA. Unlike the chromosome, they are not involved in reproduction. Only the chromosome has the genetic instructions for initiating and carrying out cell division, or binary fission, the primary means of reproduction in bacteria. Plasmids replicate independently of the chromosome and, while not essential for survival, appear to give bacteria a selective advantage.

Plasmids are passed on to other bacteria through two means. For most plasmid types, copies in the cytoplasm are passed on to daughter cells during binary fission. Other types of plasmids, however, form a tubelike structure at the surface called a pilus that passes copies of the plasmid to other bacteria during conjugation, a process by which bacteria exchange genetic information. Plasmids have been shown to be instrumental in the transmission of special properties, such as antibiotic drug resistance, resistance to heavy metals, and virulence factors necessary for infection of animal or plant hosts. The ability to insert specific genes into plasmids have made them extremely useful tools in the fields of molecular biology and genetics, specifically in the area of genetic engineering.

Cytoplasmic Membrane - A layer of phospholipids and proteins, called the cytoplasmic membrane, encloses the interior of the bacterium, regulating the flow of materials in and out of the cell. This is a structural trait bacteria share with all other living cells; a barrier that allows them to selectively interact with their environment. Membranes are highly organized and asymmetric having two sides, each side with a different surface and different functions. Membranes are also dynamic, constantly adapting to different conditions.

Flagella - Flagella (singular, flagellum) are hairlike structures that provide a means of locomotion for those bacteria that have them. They can be found at either or both ends of a bacterium or all over its surface. The flagella beat in a propeller-like motion to help the bacterium move toward nutrients; away from toxic chemicals; or, in the case of the photosynthetic cyanobacteria; toward the light.

Nucleoid - The nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm where the chromosomal DNA is located. It is not a membrane bound nucleus, but simply an area of the cytoplasm where the strands of DNA are found. Most bacteria have a single, circular chromosome that is responsible for replication, although a few species do have two or more. Smaller circular auxiliary DNA strands, called plasmids, are also found in the cytoplasm.

Pili - Many species of bacteria have pili (singular, pilus), small hairlike projections emerging from the outside cell surface. These outgrowths assist the bacteria in attaching to other cells and surfaces, such as teeth, intestines, and rocks. Without pili, many disease-causing bacteria lose their ability to infect because they're unable to attach to host tissue. Specialized pili are used for conjugation, during which two bacteria exchange fragments of plasmid DNA.

Ribosomes - Ribosomes are microscopic "factories" found in all cells, including bacteria. They translate the genetic code from the molecular language of nucleic acid to that of amino acids—the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are the molecules that perform all the functions of cells and living organisms. Bacterial ribosomes are similar to those of eukaryotes, but are smaller and have a slightly different composition and molecular structure. Bacterial ribosomes are never bound to other organelles as they sometimes are (bound to the endoplasmic reticulum) in eukaryotes, but are free-standing structures distributed throughout the cytoplasm. There are sufficient differences between bacterial ribosomes and eukaryotic ribosomes that some antibiotics will inhibit the functioning of bacterial ribosomes, but not a eukaryote's, thus killing bacteria but not the eukaryotic organisms they are infecting.

Classification

A few different criteria are used to classify bacteria. The organisms can be distinguished by the nature of their cell walls, by their shape, or by differences in their genetic makeup.

The Gram stain is a test used to identify bacteria by the composition of their cell walls, named for Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique in 1884. The test stains Gram-positive bacteria, or bacteria that do not have an outer membrane. Gram-negative bacteria don't pick up the stain. For example, Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae), which causes pneumonia, is a Gram-positive bacterium, but Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Vibrio cholerae, which causes cholera, are Gram-negative bacteria.

Morphology

Size of Bacterial Cell

The average diameter of spherical bacteria is 0.5-2.0 µm. For rod-shaped or filamentous bacteria, length is 1-10 µm and diameter is 0.25-1 .0 µm.

● E. coli , a bacillus of about average size is 1.1 to 1.5 µm wide by 2.0 to 6.0 µm long.

● Spirochaetes occasionally reach 500 µm in length and the cyanobacterium

● Oscillatoria is about 7 µm in diameter.

● The bacterium, Epulosiscium fishelsoni , can be seen with the naked eye (600 µm long by 80 µm in diameter).

● One group of bacteria, called the Mycoplasmas, have individuals with size much smaller than these dimensions. They measure about 0.25 µ and are the smallest cells known so far. They were formerly known as pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO).

● Mycoplasma gallicepticum, with a size of approximately 200 to 300 nm are thought to be the world smallest bacteria.

● Thiomargarita namibiensis is world’s largest bacteria, a gram-negative Proteobacterium found in the ocean sediments off the coast of Namibia. Usually it is 0.1—0.3 mm (100—300 µm) across, but bigger cells have been observed up to 0.75 mm (750 µm).

Fig. 3

Shape of Bacterial Cell

The three basic bacterial shapes are coccus (spherical), bacillus (rod-shaped), and spiral (twisted), however pleomorphic bacteria can assume several shapes.

✔ Cocci (or coccus for a single cell) are round cells, sometimes slightly flattened when they are adjacent to one another.

✔ Bacilli (or bacillus for a single cell) are rod-shaped bacteria.

✔ Spirilla (or spirillum for a single cell) are curved bacteria which can range from a gently curved shape to a corkscrew-like spiral. Many spirilla are rigid and capable of movement. A special group of spirilla known as spirochetes are long, slender, and flexible.

Shape of bacteria cell (fig. 4)

➽ Arrangement of Cocci

Cocci bacteria can exist singly, in pairs (as diplococci ), in groups of four (as tetrads ), in chains (as streptococci ), in clusters (as stapylococci ), or in cubes consisting of eight cells (as sarcinae). Cocci may be oval, elongated, or flattened on one side. Cocci may remain attached after cell division. These group characteristics are often used to help identify certain cocci.

1. Diplococci

The cocci are arranged in pairs.

Examples: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, etc.

2. Streptococci

The cocci are arranged in chains, as the cells divide in one plane.

Examples: Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae

Fig. 5

3. Tetrads

The cocci are arranged in packets of four cells, as the cells divide in two plains.

Examples: Aerococcus, Pediococcus and Tetragenococcus

Fig. 6

4. Sarcinae

The cocci are arranged in a cuboidal manner, as the cells are formed by regular cell divisions in three planes. Cocci that divide in three planes and remain in groups cube like groups of eight.

Examples: Sarcina ventriculi, Sarcina ureae, etc.

Fig. 7

5. Staphylococci

The cocci are arranged in grape-like clusters formed by irregular cell divisions in three plains.

Examples: Staphylococcus aureus

Fig. 8

➽ Arrangement of Bacilli

The cylindrical or rod-shaped bacteria are called ‘bacillus’ (plural: bacilli).

1. Diplobacilli

Most bacilli appear as single rods. Diplobacilli appear in pairs after division.

Example of Single Rod: Bacillus cereus

Examples of Diplobacilli: Coxiella burnetii, Moraxella bovis, Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis, etc.

Fig. 9

2. Streptobacilli

The bacilli are arranged in chains, as the cells divide in one plane.

Examples: Streptobacillus moniliformis

Fig. 10

3. Coccobacilli

These are so short and stumpy that they appear ovoid. They look like coccus and bacillus.

Examples: Haemophilus influenzae, Gardnerella vaginalis, and Chlamydia trachomatis

Fig. 11

4. Palisades

The bacilli bend at the points of division following the cell divisions, resulting in a palisade arrangement resembling a picket fence and angular patterns that look like Chinese letters.

Example: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Fig. 12

➽ Arrangement of Spiral Bacteria

Spirilla (or spirillum for a single cell) are curved bacteria which can range from a gently curved shape to a corkscrew-like spiral. Many spirilla are rigid and capable of movement. A special group of spirilla known as spirochetes are long, slender, and flexible.

1. Vibrio

They are comma-shaped bacteria with less than one complete turn or twist in the cell.

Example: Vibrio cholerae

Fig. 13

2. Spirilla

They have rigid spiral structure. Spirillum with many turns can superficially resemble spirochetes. They do not have outer sheath and endoflagella, but have typical bacterial flagella.

Example: Campylobacter jejuni, Helicobacter pylori, Spirillum winogradskyi, etc.

Fig. 14

3. Spirochetes

Spirochetes have a helical shape and flexible bodies. Spirochetes move by means of axial filaments, which look like flagella contained beneath a flexible external sheath but lack typical bacterial flagella.

Examples: Leptospira species (Leptospira interrogans), Treponema pallidum, Borrelia recurrentis, etc.

Fig. 15

➽ Others Shapes and Arrangements of Bacteria

1. Filamentous Bacteria

They are very long thin filament-shaped bacteria. Some of them form branching filaments resulting in a network of filaments called ‘mycelium’.

Example: Candidatus Savagella

Fig. 16

2. Star Shaped Bacteria

Example: Stella

Fig. 17

3. Rectangular Bacteria

Examples: Haloarcula spp (H. vallismortis, H. marismortui)

Fig. 18

4. Pleomorphic Bacteria

These bacteria do not have any characteristic shape unlike all others described above. They can change their shape. In pure cultures, they can be observed to have different shapes.

Examples: Mycoplasma pneumoniae, M. genitalium, etc.

Fig. 19

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Microbiology: Definition, Classification & Branches

2020-06-24T09:48:00.004+05:30

☞ What is Microbiology?

☞ How to classify microbiology?

☞ What are the branches of Microbiology?

Hello, Folks! Let's start today's knowledge.

Fig. 1

Microbiology

Microbiology is a branch of science that deals with the study of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi and protozoa. This discipline includes fundamental research on the biochemistry, physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the host response to these agents.

Microbiology is concerned with their (1) form (2) structure (3) physiology (4) metabolism (5) identification and (6) reproduction. The microorganism are classified as Protista. This class includes all unicellular organisms, which are characterized by their lack of definite cellular arrangement as well as lack of differentiation of cells for specific metabolic function. The microorganisms included in the Kingdom Protista are (1) Bacteria (2) Algae (3) Fungi and (4) Protozoa. The microorganisms classified as Protista may be further divided into (A) Prokaryotes and (B) Eukaryotes.

A. The prokaryotic group

It contains microorganisms with a very simple cell structure. The cell is not bound by membrane and it does not contain well defined cellular organelles. The genetic material lies as a single piece of double stranded DNA in the cytoplasm. It is not organized into chromosomes inside a nuclear membrane. The cell does not contain mitochondria but contains simple enzyme system. Prokaryotes multiply by a simple dividing process, known as binary fission.

The prokaryotic cell (fig. 2)

B. The eukaryotic group

It contains microorganisms with a complex cell structure similar to that of higher organisms. The genetic material of a eukaryotic cell is differentiated into chromosomes which are contained in a nuclear membrane to form a definite nucleus. The cell contains complex enzyme systems, mitochondria and other organelles. The cell is able to make its own energy. Eukaryotes multiply by mitosis.

The eukaryotic cell (fig. 3)

Fig. 4

Note:

Viruses are also classed microorganisms, but they are differentiated from all cellular forms of life. A viral particle consist of nucleic acid molecule, either DNA or RNA, enclosed in a coat (capsid) made up of protein. The capsid protect the nucleic acid and it is replicated by the host's enzyme system and governs the formation of specific viral proteins. Mutation consists of formation of newly synthesized protein subunits and nucleic acid into mature viral particle. Viruses infect a wide variety of specific plants and animals hosts as well as prokaryotes and one of the eukaryotic algae.

There are several branches of anatomy, including:

Bacteriology: the study of bacteria.

Mycology: the study of fungi.

Protozoology: the study of protozoa.

Phycology: also known as algology, which is the study of algae.

Parasitology: the study of parasites.

Virology: the study of viruses.

Nematology: the study of nematodes.

Microbial cytology: the study of microscopic and submicroscopic details of microorganisms.

Microbial physiology: the study of how the microbial cell functions biochemically. Includes the study of microbial growth, microbial metabolism and microbial cell structure.

Microbial ecology: the relationship between microorganisms and their environment.

Microbial genetics: the study of how genes are organized and regulated in microbes in relation to their cellular functions. Closely related to the field of molecular biology.

Cellular microbiology: a discipline bridging microbiology and cell biology.

Evolutionary microbiology: the study of the evolution of microbes. This field can be subdivided into:

Microbial taxonomy: the naming and classification of microorganisms.

Microbial systematic: the study of the diversity and genetic relationship of microorganisms.

Generation microbiology: the study of those microorganisms that have the same characters as their parents.

Molecular microbiology: the study of the molecular principles of the physiological processes in microorganisms.

Medical microbiology: the study of the pathogenic microbes and the role of microbes in human illness.

Industrial microbiology: the exploitation of microbes for use in industrial processes.

Agricultural microbiology: the study of agriculturally relevant microorganisms.

Food microbiology: the study of microorganisms causing food spoilage and foodborne illness.

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Anatomy: Definition, Branches & Terminology

2020-06-22T20:39:00.006+05:30

☞ What is Anatomy?
☞ What are the branches of Anatomy?
☞ What is basic terminology of Anatomy?

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Anatomy

Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. A knowledge of body structure is necessary understand their functions.

Fig. 1

There are several branches of anatomy, including:

Histology, or the study of the microscopic structure of organs, tissues, and cells.

Embryology, also known as developmental anatomy, which is the study of embryo development from a single-celled zygote to a fully formed fetus.

Gross anatomy, or the branch of anatomy has a large-scale focus on organs and body structures as a whole.

Zootomy, or the anatomical study of animals.

Phytotomy, or the anatomical study of plants.

Human anatomy, also known as anthropotomy, which is the anatomical study of the human body.

Comparative anatomy, or the comparative study of the anatomy of different organisms.

Terminology

Before we get into the following learning units, which will provide more detailed discussion of topics on different human body systems, it is necessary to learn some useful terms for describing body structure. Knowing these terms will make it much easier for us to understand the content of the following learning units. Three groups of terms are introduced here:

Directional Terms

Planes of the Body

Body Cavities

Directional Terms

Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.

Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper. (example, the hand is part of the superior extremity).

Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior extremity).

Anterior or vertical - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg).

Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body).

Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the medial side of the foot).

Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little toe is located at the lateral side of the foot).

Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the proximal end of the femur joins with the pelvic bone).

Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example, the hand is located at the distal end of the forearm).

Fig. 2

Planes of the Body

Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A vertical plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior portions.

Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides.

Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts.

Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left halves.

Fig. 3

Body Cavities

The cavities, or spaces, of the body contain the internal organs, or viscera. The two main cavities are called the ventral and dorsal cavities. The ventral is the larger cavity and is subdivided into two parts (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities) by the diaphragm, a dome shaped respiratory muscle.

Thoracic cavity

The upper ventral, thoracic, or chest cavity contains the heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus, large blood vessels and nerves. The thoracic cavity is bound laterally by the ribs (covered by costal pleura) and the diaphragm caudally (covered by diaphragmatic pleura).

Abdominal and pelvic cavity

The lower part of the ventral (abdominopelvic) cavity can be further divided into two portions: abdominal portion and pelvic portion. The abdominal cavity contains most of the gastrointestinal tract as well as the kidneys and adrenal glands. The abdominal cavity is bound cranially by the diaphragm, laterally by the body wall, and caudally by the pelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity contains most of the urogenital as well as the rectum. The pelvic cavity is bounded cranially by the abdominal cavity, dorsally by the sacrum, and laterally by the pelvis.

Dorsal cavity

The smaller of the two main cavities is called the dorsal cavity. As its name implies, it contains organs lying more posterior in the body. The dorsal cavity, again, can be divided into two portions. The upper portion, or the cranial cavity, houses the brain, and the lower portion, or vertebral canal houses the spinal cord.

Fig. 4

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Laboratory Equipments: Glassware

2020-06-20T21:43:00.004+05:30

★ What is Laboratory Glassware?

★ What are the different types of Glassware?

Hello, Folks! Let's start today's knowledge.

Laboratory Equipments: Glassware

Laboratory glassware refers to variety of equipments used in scientific work. Glassware is usually manufactured from Borosilicate. It can be bent, cut, molded and formed into many sizes and shapes, and is therefore common in chemistry, biology and analytical laboratories.

Glassware (fig. 1)

General Glassware

Beakers

A beaker is generally a cylindrical container with a flat bottom. Most also have a small spout (or "beak") to aid pouring, as shown in the picture. These have capacity of 5 ml to 5 litre. This are used mainly for the preparation of solution.

Beakers (fig. 2)

Flasks

Flasks come in a number of shapes and a wide range of sizes, but a common distinguishing aspect in their shapes is a wider vessel "body" and one (or sometimes more) narrower tubular sections at the top called necks which have an opening at the top. These have capacities of 25 ml to 5 litre.

Flasks (fig. 3.1)

Flasks (fig. 3.2)

Test Tubes

A test tube, also known as a culture tube or sample tube, is a common piece of laboratory glassware consisting of a finger-like length of glass tubing, open at the top and closed at the bottom.

Test tubes (fig. 4.1)

Test tubes (fig. 4.2)

Microscope Slides

A microscope slide is a thin flat piece of glass, typically 75 by 26 mm (3 by 1 inches) and about 1 mm thick, used to hold objects for examination under a microscope. Typically the object is mounted (secured) on the slide, and then both are inserted together in the microscope for viewing.

Microscope slides are often used together with a cover slip or cover glass, a smaller and thinner sheet of glass that is placed over the specimen.

Microscope slide & slip cover (fig.5)

Petri Dishes

A Petri dish (alternatively known as a Petri plate or cell-culture dish) is a shallow transparent lidded dish that biologist use to culture cells, such as bacteria, fungi or small mosses. The Petri dish is one of the most common items in biology laboratories.

Petri dish (fig. 6.1)

Petri dish (fig. 6.2)

Desiccators

These are used mainly for protect chemicals which are react with water form humidity.

Desiccator (fig. 7)

Bottles

A bottle is a narrow necked container made of an impermeable material in various shape and size, as shown in the picture.

Bottles (fig. 8)

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Hindi Translate

★ ग्लासवेयर क्या हैं?

★ग्लासवेयर के विभिन्न प्रकार क्या हैं?

नमस्ते, दोस्तों! चलिए आज का ज्ञान शुरू करते हैं।

प्रयोगशाला उपकरण: ग्लासवेयर (कांच के बने पदार्थ)

लैबोरेट्री ग्लासवेयर वैज्ञानिक कार्यों में उपयोग किए जाने वाले विभिन्न प्रकार के उपकरणों से संबंधित हैं। ग्लासवेयर आमतौर पर बोरोसिलिकेट से निर्मित होते हैं। इसे मोड़ा जा सकता हैं, काटा जा सकता हैं, ढाला जा सकता हैं और किसी भी आकार और आकृति में बनाया जा सकता हैं इसलिए यह केमिस्ट्री, बायोलॉजी और एनालिटिकल लैबोरेट्रीज में आम हैं।

जनरल ग्लासवेयर

बीकर

बीकर आमतौर पर एक सपाट तल वाला एक बेलनाकार कंटेनर हैं। सहायता के लिए इसमें एक छोटी सी टोंटी (या "चोंच") होती हैं, जैसा की चित्र (fig. 2) में दिखाया गया हैं। इनमें 5 मिली से 5 लीटर तक की क्षमता होती हैं। इसका उपयोग मुख्य रूप से सोल्यूशन की तैयारी के लिए किया जाता है।

फ्लास्क

फ्लास्क कई आकृति और आकार की विस्तृत रेंज के साथ आते हैं, परंतु उनकी आकृतियों में एक सामान्य विशिष्ट पहलू एक चौड़ा बर्तन "बॉडी" और एक संकरी नली (या कभी-कभी ज्यादा) हैं, जिन्हें नेक (गर्दन) कहा जाता हैं, जिसका ऊपर की ओर मुंह खुलता हैं। इनमें 25 मिली से 5 लीटर तक की क्षमता होती हैं।

टेस्ट ट्यूब

टेस्ट ट्यूब, जिसे कल्चर ट्यूब या सैंपल ट्यूब के रूप में भी जाना जाता हैं, प्रयोगशाला ग्लासवेयर का एक सामान्य हिस्सा होता हैं जिसमें एक उंगली की तरह कांच ट्यूबिंग होती हैं, जो ऊपर से खुली होती हैं और नीचे से बंद होती हैं।

माइक्रोस्कोप स्लाइड

माइक्रोस्कोप स्लाइड ग्लास का एक पतला सपाट टुकड़ा है, आमतौर पर 75 मिमी 26 (3 इंच 1 इंच) और लगभग 1 मिमी मोटी, जिसका उपयोग माइक्रोस्कोप के तहत जांच के लिए ऑब्जेक्ट (स्पेसिमेन/नमूने) को रखने के लिए किया जाता है। आमतौर पर स्लाइड पर ऑब्जेक्ट (स्पेसिमेन/नमूने) को माउंट (सुरक्षित) किया जाता है, और फिर दोनों को एक साथ माइक्रोस्कोप में देखने के लिए डाला जाता है।

माइक्रोस्कोप स्लाइड का उपयोग अक्सर कवर स्लिप या कवर ग्लास के साथ किया जाता है, कांच की एक छोटी और पतली शीट जिसे नमूने (स्पेसिमेन) के ऊपर रखा जाता है।

पेट्री डिशेस

पेट्री डिश (वैकल्पिक रूप से पेट्री प्लेट या सेल-कल्चर डिश के रूप में जाना जाता है) एक उथला पारदर्शी ढक्कन रूपी डिश है जिसे बायोलॉजिस्ट कल्चर कोशिकाओं जैसे बैक्टीरिया, कवक या छोटे काई के लिए उपयोग करते हैं। पेट्री डिश जीवविज्ञान प्रयोगशालाओं में सबसे आम वस्तुओं में से एक है।

डेसीकेटर

इनका उपयोग मुख्य रूप से रसायनों की रक्षा के लिए किया जाता है जो नमी से पानी के साथ प्रतिक्रिया करते हैं।

बोतल

बोतल विभिन्न आकार और आकार में अभेद्य सामग्री से बना एक संकरी (पतली) गर्दन वाला कंटेनर है, जैसा कि चित्र (fig. 8) में दिखाया गया है।

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कृपया इस पोस्ट को शेयर करें।

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What Is Pathology and Laboratary?

2020-06-20T11:49:00.005+05:30

★ What is Pathology?

★ What is Laboratory?

★ What are the tests done in a general Pathology Laboratory?

Hello, Folks ! Let’s start today;s knowledge.

Pathology

Pathology is a branch of biological science which the study of the causes, processes and effects of disease or injury.

What causes any disease? How does it react to the body? And what is its effect on the body? This information gives us pathology.

Whenever a person is ill, some parts of his body are unable to work normally due to that disease, due to which some symptoms appear in his body. Now here comes the turn of Pathology. Pathology helps us to study these symptoms appearing in the body, its causes, its processes and its effects.

Laboratory

Laboratory is a place that provides facilities for experimental study for testing, research and measurement.

In the pathology laboratory, studies the disease by scientific method (which includes qualitative and quantitative analysis) based on equipments or instruments.

Tests to be done in General Pathology Laboratory:

C.B.C. (Complete Blood Count)
E.S.R (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate)
Urine Routine Test
Urine Pregnancy Test
Biochemistry based Tests

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Hindi Translate

★ पैथोलॉजी क्या हैं?

★ लेबोरेटरी क्या है?

★ सामान्य पैथोलॉजी लेबोरेटरी में कौन से टेस्ट किए जाते हैं?

नमस्ते, दोस्तों! चलिए आज का ज्ञान शुरू करते हैं।

पैथोलॉजी

पैथोलॉजी जैविक विज्ञान की एक शाखा हैं जो बीमारी के कारणों, प्रक्रियाओं और प्रभावों का अध्ययन करती हैं।

कोई भी बीमारी किस कारण से उत्पन्न हुई हैं? इसकी शरीर पर क्या प्रतिक्रिया है? और इसका शरीर पर क्या प्रभाव हैं? इसी की जानकारी हमें पैथोलॉजी देती हैं।

जब भी कोई व्यक्ति बीमार होता हैं तो उस बीमारी के कारण उसके शरीर के कुछ भाग सामान्य रूप से काम नहीं कर पाते जिससे उसके शरीर में कुछ लक्षण दिखाई पड़ते हैं। अब यहां बारी आती है पैथोलॉजी की। पैथोलॉजी शरीर में दिखाई दे रहे इन्हीं लक्षणों को, उसके कारणों, उसकी प्रक्रियाओं, उसके प्रभावों का अध्ययन करने में हमारी मदद करता हैं।

प्रयोगशाला

प्रयोगशाला एक जगह या सुविधा हैं जो परीक्षण, अनुसंधान और माप के लिए प्रयोगात्मक अध्ययन के लिए सुविधा प्रदान करता हैं।

पैथोलॉजी प्रयोगशाला में उपकरणों के आधार पर वैज्ञानिक तरीकों (जिसमें गुणात्मक और मात्रात्मक विश्लेषण शामिल है) द्वारा बीमारी का अध्ययन किया जाता हैं।

सामान्य पैथोलॉजी लेबोरेटरी में किए जाने वाले टेस्ट:

सी.बी.सी. (कम्प्लीट ब्लड काउंट)
ई.एस.आर. (एरिथ्रोसाइट सेडीमेंटेशन रेट)
यूरीन रूटीन टेस्ट
यूरीन प्रेगनेंसी टेस्ट
बायोकेमिस्ट्री पर आधारित टेस्ट

BLABORAT को उम्मीद है कि आपने इस पोस्ट से कुछ नया सीखा होगा।

कृपया इस पोस्ट को शेयर करें।

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BLABORAT

Bacteriology: The Study Of Bacteria

Bacteriology

Bacteria

Bacterial Anatomy

Classification

Morphology

Size of Bacterial Cell

Shape of Bacterial Cell

1. Diplococci

2. Streptococci

3. Tetrads

4. Sarcinae

5. Staphylococci

1. Diplobacilli

2. Streptobacilli

3. Coccobacilli

4. Palisades

1. Vibrio

2. Spirilla

3. Spirochetes

1. Filamentous Bacteria

2. Star Shaped Bacteria

3. Rectangular Bacteria

4. Pleomorphic Bacteria

Microbiology: Definition, Classification & Branches

Microbiology

There are several branches of anatomy, including:

Anatomy: Definition, Branches & Terminology

☞ What is Anatomy?☞ What are the branches of Anatomy?☞ What is basic terminology of Anatomy?

Anatomy

There are several branches of anatomy, including:

Terminology

Directional Terms

Planes of the Body

Body Cavities

Laboratory Equipments: Glassware

What Is Pathology and Laboratary?

★ What is Pathology?

★ What is Laboratory?

★ What are the tests done in a general Pathology Laboratory?

☞ What is Anatomy?
☞ What are the branches of Anatomy?
☞ What is basic terminology of Anatomy?