Srinath Magic

Best 7 Types of Lubricants Used in Automobiles

2022-05-25T10:44:00.002-07:00

Do you know what vehicle lubricant is?

Vehicle lubricants are oils that can reduce friction in the car parts of any vehicle. Oil-based lubricants are a combination of plastics and solids. Oil and grease are the most abundant in the market.

Auto lubricants do two things.

* Clean the engine parts as well as calm the heat generated by friction

* Reduces corrosion and prevents the formation of corrosion

It also protects the inside of the engine from dragging, tearing, friction and heat dissipation to keep it warm, protect it from oxidation and corrosion over time, and keep the engine clean and free of contaminants. Lubricating oil is used to wet and cushion engine components under extreme stress.

In addition, with the development of the lubricant industry, several new functions have been added, so overall a large number of lubricants have been developed to facilitate our operations.

Gear oil and gear lubricants are used to lubricate gear parts against high-pressure contact, and motor oils are often used to improve fuel efficiency.

Depending on the type of oil you use, the performance of the lubrication system may vary. So it is essential to research that.

There are four significant types of study groups.

* Engine Oil & Gear Oil

* Grease

* Penetrating Lubricant

* Dry Lubricant

Let's take a look at the lubricants available on the market

Gear oil

This type of lubricant smells good and can be detected in case of any bleeding. Gear oil is used when the vehicle needs high-temperature lubricant

This oil is typically used in manual transmission

Motor oil

I think motor oil is the most commonly used oil for your vehicle, and it is recommended to change the oil between 3,000 and 5,000 miles when servicing a vehicle. Motor oil is designed to prevent any breakage or corrosion of parts of the vehicle. This lubricant can be separated by density, but the thinner the lubricant, the easier it is for the oil to flow through the parts. It is recommended that when converting out the oil, you pick multi-grade oil so that it can keep the viscosity score while the oil is at extraordinary temperatures.

wheel bearing and Chassis Grease

This is the essential lubricant for suspension and steering joints. It is used to prevent over-drawing on suspension. Vehicles with disc brakes do not use this grease because it is not high-temperature grease. You can fill these into a grease gun and use

High-Temperature Wheel Bearing Grease

This type of grease is used for wheels with disc brakes and is applied in areas with high temperatures to control the high temperatures caused by friction. This grease contains an additive that helps maintain the slippery nature of the affected areas even when they are dry.

White grease

White grease is often applied to parts that come in contact with water, this type of grease does not wash off and can be used in areas with high temperatures.

Electronic Grease

This type of grease is mainly used in electrical parts. This type of grease does not conduct electricity by sticking to those parts.

Penetration Lubricants

The translucent lubricant adds a slippery film or coating on machinery, tools or parts to reduce abrasion and friction between surfaces and keep equipment running smoothly. It will at least remove rust and release loose rust and corroded bolts and nuts. So you can apply this to your vehicle’s rust and corrosion areas.

Graphite

This grease can be applied to areas where oil should not be added; a commonplace where this should be used is indoor locks. Graphite lubricants for greasing forging tools, stamping parts in steel, stainless steel, titanium, super alloy or aluminium and die forging and hot and warm extrusion.

Final Thoughts

Adequately lubricated and maintained vehicles will help you use your beloved vehicle longer. Keeping the vehicle with proper maintenance means that you will not face any difficulties even while travelling. Your vehicle will guide you through your journey correctly. It will be a great help to your mind.

Stay tuned for more information on the lubricants you apply to your beloved vehicle; we will continue to talk about the automotive industry and the variety of lubricants available with the discovery of electric vehicles.

Mazda skyactiv technology

2017-08-19T09:19:00.006-07:00

SKYACTIV® TECHNOLOGY

1. At-A-Glance: Defy convention

Engines, transmissions, body and chassis: Mazda’s all-new range of SKYACTIV® technologies are designed to improve the efficiency and sustainability of the company’s new generation of vehicles while at the same time further enhancing safety and driving dynamics.

Innovation is at the heart of SKYACTIV TECHNOLOGY, which is focused on optimized internal combustion and lightweight engineering. These technologies will be implemented into all future models — not just expensive ―green‖ variants — in order to benefit all Mazda customers.
SKYACTIV-G 2.0-liter gasoline engine: The quest for the ideal combustion engine
A range of entirely new technologies has gone into the highly-efficient direct injection SKYACTIV-G gasoline engine. Exceptionally strong yet remarkably efficient, it takes compression to an all-new level, solving all the issues that until now have prevented this approach from being feasible. Such unconventional methodology is typical of Mazda’s unique way of engineering.

Highlights:

• Exceptionally high 13:1 compression ratio in North America (14:1 in other markets due to a higher fuel octane)
• Extraordinary compression ratio made possible thanks to a 4-2-1 exhaust system, redesigned piston cavity, new multi-port injectors as well as other innovations to avoid abnormal combustion (―knocking‖)
• Continuously variable sequential valve timing (dual S-VT) on the intake and exhaust minimizes pumping losses
• Internal engine friction reduced by 30 percent
• Overall weight reduced by 10 percent
• Approximately 15 percent lower fuel consumption and CO2 emissions than the current Mazda 2.0-liter MZR gasoline engine
• Approximately 15 percent more torque at lower and mid-range rpms

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SKYACTIV-D 2.2-liter diesel engine: More torque, cleaner combustion
Clean, high-revving, responsive and more fun than ever, Mazda has raised the bar for diesel power with SKYACTIV-D. The engine’s low compression ratio plays a central role here, too, as internal processes were again completely re-examined. The result: efficient power engineered to achieve the highest environmental standards without the need for special and expensive aftertreatment systems.

Highlights:
• Approx. 20 percent less fuel consumption (compared to the current 2.2-liter MZR-CD diesel) thanks to an extraordinarily low 14:1 compression ratio and subsequently greater expansion phase after combustion
• Variable valve lift for exhaust valves enables internal exhaust recirculation, immediately stabilizing combustion after a cold start
• New two-stage turbocharging delivers strong and steady responsiveness across the engine range (max. 5,200 rpms)
• Highly efficient active ceramic diesel particle filter (DPF)
• Fulfills Euro 6, Tier II BIN 5 (North America) and Japan’s Post New Long-Term Emission Regulations without expensive NOx aftertreatment
• Weight reduced by 10 percent
• Internal engine friction reduced by 20 percent

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SKYACTIV-Drive six-speed automatic transmission
A smooth, responsive and fun yet fuel-saving automatic transmission, Mazda’s SKYACTIV-Drive is engineered to deliver the best of all worlds in automatic performance and efficiency – even for a high-torque diesel engine.

Highlights:
• Unique technology combines the advantages of continuously variable (CVT), dual clutch and conventional automatic transmissions
• Full range direct drive (torque converter with a full range lock-up clutch) delivers a direct manual gearbox-like feel
• Improved fuel economy by up to 7 percent
• Fast and smooth shift response thanks to new mechatronics module
• Powerful, steady acceleration from a standstill
• Available for both SKYACTIV-G and SKYACTIV-D engines

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SKYACTIV-MT six-speed manual transmission
Lighter, smaller, more efficient, Mazda built the innovative new SKYACTIV-MT six-speed manual transmission to improve fuel economy, but without compromising on enjoyment. The benchmark was the swift and precise shifting feel of Mazda’s legendary MX-5 Miata roadster.

Highlights:
• Optimized for front-engine, front-wheel-drive vehicles with easy and tight shifting
• Re-engineered with a considerably smaller and lighter design
• Compactness enables efficient packaging
• Better fuel economy thanks to reduced internal friction

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SKYACTIV-Body
Lighter, stronger and safer, Mazda’s developers went back to the drawing board to design SKYACTIV-Body, which integrates lightweight engineering, increased material strength and more efficient structures.

Highlights:
• Weight reduced by 8 percent using a newly-developed body structure, new production processes (bonding methods) and a larger proportion of high-tensile steels
• Enhanced driving dynamics owing to 30 percent more rigidity with the ―straight structure‖ and ―continuous framework‖ (ring structure) concepts for frame components
• Enhanced passive safety performance by re-engineering crash zones using multi-load paths

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SKYACTIV-Chassis
Mazda has developed a chassis that combines nimble handling with ride comfort and stability when pushing the vehicle to its limits. The SKYACTIV-Chassis also achieves superior rigidity from a lightweight design. The driver will feel at one with the car.

Highlights:
• A ―Jinba Ittai‖-like feeling of oneness between car and driver inspired by the MX-5’s exceptional handling and ride comfort
• Improved driving quality at all speeds (low- and mid-range agility as well as high-speed stability) following a complete re-engineering of rear suspension mountings, trailing arm position, steering components and set-ups (among other things)
• Superior rigidity along with a 14 percent reduction in chassis weight thanks to newly developed suspension with front struts and a multi-link rear axle

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2. Introduction
“The sky’s the limit”: This phrase stands for an all-new generation of Mazda technologies and symbolizes a new era for the company. Distinct among manufacturers, Mazda’s unique way of engineering has always included one key element: the joy of driving. The principal goal of Mazda’s engineers when developing its SKYACTIV technologies was to dramatically increase vehicle efficiency for all next-generation vehicles by improving fuel economy and reducing CO2 emissions while, at the same time, further enhancing safety and driving fun. And, they have managed to successfully reconcile these, at times, conflicting objectives with the completely new SKYACTIV range of engines, transmissions, body architecture and chassis that will go into Mazda’s next generation of models beginning in 2012.

Internal combustion engines will still power more than 80 percent of vehicles in 2020. Today’s versions operate at only 30 percent efficiency, however, so there is much room for improvement. Defying conventional wisdom, Mazda’s engineers focused on one objective: achieving ideal combustion. Therein lays the basis for Mazda’s SKYACTIV-G gasoline and SKYACTIV-D diesel engines in all next-generation models – and not just pricey ―green‖ models. This underscores the company’s uncompromising commitment to improving environmental sustainability, vehicle safety and driving dynamics.

One of Mazda’s core business objectives is to make personal mobility environmentally friendly and affordable for a broad section of the population. This is why Mazda has made it a priority to increase the efficiency of its internal combustion engines. The company’s R&D staff in Hiroshima sought the best means of achieving a significant optimization of processes within this basic engine architecture, steadily and broadly reducing fossil fuel consumption.

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Internal combustion: Still the basis for mobility in 2020
Many carmakers plan to concentrate on hybrid propulsion over the medium term and fully electric drives in the long term. Mazda is no different in this respect, having already spent more than 20 years working on hybrid and fully-electric vehicles. In fact, an electric version of the Mazda2 will be offered in very limited numbers in 2012 in Japan as part of a leasing program. This electric vehicle project should deliver valuable new insight into electric drive technology as well as how electric vehicles are used. But even if optimistic assumptions prove accurate – that around 12 percent of all passenger cars in North America and 23 percent in Europe will be powered by electricity by 2020 – the vast majority of people will be driving vehicles with internal combustion engines.

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According to TrueCar Inc., an automotive solutions provider and publisher of new car transaction data, by 2020, hybrid vehicles will have an 8 percent market share in North America with purely electric cars garnering 4 percent of the market. Estimates are slightly higher in Europe. According to a 2010 EUROTAX study, electric only-powered vehicles will comprise 10 percent of the market. Sales of hybrid vehicles are also estimated at an additional 10 percent.
Whether low or high on the sales estimates spectrum, 10 years from now, vehicles powered exclusively by gasoline and diesel engines will still make up for 80 to 88 percent of the market. And the CO2 footprint of internal combustion engines will remain lower than electric drives as long as their electricity comes from non-renewable sources.

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3. “Sustainable Zoom-Zoom”: A Building Block Strategy
In 2007, Mazda devised its “Sustainable Zoom-Zoom” strategy, which calls for a staggering 30 percent increase in fuel efficiency (compared to 2008 levels) for all Mazda vehicles offered worldwide by 2015. This corresponds to a 23 percent reduction in fuel consumption and, therefore, CO2 output.
This ambitious objective will be implemented using Mazda’s building block strategy, meaning the step-by-step introduction of auxiliary electrical systems to SKYACTIV internal combustion engines.

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Mazda’s own ―i-stop‖ (stop-start system) technology, introduced in 2009 in some markets, represents one step on the path to the comprehensive optimization of this underlying technology. Additional electrical components will follow. One example currently under development at Mazda is a regenerative braking system designed to recover energy during deceleration. As far as hybrids are concerned, Mazda has formed a partnership with Toyota to combine its hybrid technology with SKYACTIV engines (see box). The reductions to fuel consumption and CO2 anticipated by 2015 would only be otherwise possible if half of all new Mazda passenger cars were hybrids or almost one quarter purely electric.

“Monotsukuri Innovation”: Innovative processes, innovative manufacturing
In 2007, even before SKYACTIV TECHNOLOGY was previewed, Mazda began reforming all the processes involved in making cars, from R&D to manufacturing. This company-wide approach, called Monotsukuri Innovation, is organized around a common architecture concept and a flexible manufacturing concept based on Bundled Product Planning. Monotsukuri has led to breakthroughs in diversification (to meet varying customer needs) as well as standardization of architectures and systems for increased efficiency, thus enabling Mazda to deploy high-grade, high-performance technologies over a wider range of vehicle models as well as respond more quickly to changes in customer demands. Monotsukuri Innovation enables a high level of cost-efficiency that ultimately benefits the customer.

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Mazda hybrid system technology in cooperation with Toyota
Toyota Motor Corporation and Mazda Motor Corporation reached an agreement in 2010 on the supply of the hybrid technology components, upon which the Toyota Prius is based. Mazda plans to combine this hybrid system with its next-generation SKYACTIV technologies to develop and introduce a hybrid vehicle in Japan, starting in 2013.
Advanced internal combustion for an efficient Zoom-Zoom hybrid
Mazda plans to offer hybrid vehicles in the medium term. However, it has chosen a different development focus than its competitors. Again, enhanced SKYACTIV internal combustion engines form the basis.

The fuel efficiency of today’s engines decreases significantly from medium to low loads at low engine speeds. Why hybrid vehicles deliver such good fuel economy is because the internal combustion engine is used at its most fuel-efficient range to generate electricity, which (together with regenerated energy) powers the vehicle at lower loads. But the wider the internal combustion engine’s inefficient lower load range is, the larger a hybrid’s electric motor and battery need to be to compensate for it.
Therefore, thanks to its efficiency over a wide operating range, the combination of a SKYACTIV internal combustion power plant and an electric drive enhances overall hybrid effectiveness while achieving a Zoom-Zoom hybrid with a lighter electric motor and battery. Regenerative braking can thus serve as the predominant source of power to charge the battery.

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4. SKYACTIV TECHNOLOGY

SKYACTIV TECHNOLOGY will be launched in North America in an all-new generation of models with new engines, transmissions, bodies and chassis. Along the way, Mazda followed what is known as the “breakthrough” approach. It calls for the resolution of technical conflicts – like enhancing safety, driving dynamics and fuel economy all at the same time – to continually improve the underlying automotive technology in new product generations.
Engineering the ideal internal combustion engine
Mazda is blazing its own trail based on the long tradition of ingenuity at its in-house engine R&D center. Even after 120 years of non-stop development the internal combustion engine still fails to utilize 70 to 90 percent of the energy contained in the fuel. Since this energy loss is primarily thermal in nature and can be attributed to the exhaust, cooling system, and engine and transmission surfaces, the R&D team’s central focus was on improving the engine’s thermal efficiency. Beyond that, Mazda has also been busy working to reduce internal engine friction as well as engine weight.

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The six controllable factors at the heart of this approach are:
• compression ratio
• air-to-fuel ratio
• combustion duration
• combustion timing
• pumping loss
• mechanical friction loss
The goal was to optimize these factors, making them function as optimally as possible and taking decisive steps towards creating the ideal internal combustion engine. Ultimately, the compression ratio would end up playing a central role among these factors in both gasoline and diesel engines.

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One of Mazda’s strengths is its willingness to defy conventional wisdom and approach challenges in new and innovative ways. An example is Mazda’s unique rotary engine, which powered the legendary 787B – the only rotary to ever win the 24 Hours of Le Mans (in 1991). Yet another is the MX-5 Miata, a car that revived the market for roadsters worldwide. Innovative SKYACTIV technologies will mark Mazda’s latest milestone in automotive history. Developed using characteristic Mazda processes, they demonstrate once again how Mazda is the master of its own technological destiny.
The new SKYACTIV engines, for example, were not developed independently in separate departments. Instead, a relatively small group of highly specialized engineers first developed the best possible individual engine architectures. These then served as the basis for all new engines, regardless of the number of cylinders or type of fuel.
―Our mass production development division worked together to engineer the best possible architecture with incredible efficiency, dramatic performance and the best quality we’ve ever had,‖ said Seita Kanai, executive vice president, Mazda Motor Corporation. ―We could then, for example,

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make the cylinder larger, smaller, multiply it by three, four, six, etc. create a range of engines for any future application.‖
Extreme compression ratio rather than downsizing
Some automakers are looking to improve the average fuel economy of their internal combustion engines by reducing displacement. Called ―downsizing,‖ the loss of power and torque is offset by forcing air into the combustion chambers using turbochargers or superchargers.
Although this is an effective approach, Mazda has chosen another route. As mentioned earlier, striving for the ideal internal combustion engine is an important basis of Mazda’s building block strategy. According to Mazda’s roadmap for the ideal engine, the most effective next step was to optimize the compression ratio.

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5. SKYACTIV-G Gasoline Engine
The advantages of the unique direct-injection SKYACTIV-G gasoline engine are the result of Mazda’s unique “breakthrough” engineering approach. By thoroughly analyzing and rethinking common thermodynamic principles, engineers succeeded in building an engine with an extraordinarily high 13:1 compression ratio. This is a level only seen thus far in high-performance race car engines not intended for everyday use. Mazda has overcome these barriers.
13:1 – an extremely high compression ratio
Any discussion about the compression ratio needs to examine the advantages and challenges of high compression. Raising the compression ratio in a gasoline engine increases its thermal efficiency, thus improving fuel economy. However, high compression in conventional engines leads to unwanted abnormal combustion (known as ―knocking‖) and an associated reduction in torque. A richer mixture and delayed ignition timing are used to avoid knocking, but these also come at the expense of fuel economy and torque. So how were these issues overcome?
High compression without knocking

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Knocking takes place when the air-fuel mixture ignites prematurely because the temperature and
pressure are too high. This can be countered by reducing the quantity and pressure of hot residual
gases in the combustion chamber. Mazda, in response, developed a special 4-2-1 exhaust
manifold, which, due to its relatively long structure, prevents the exhaust gas that has just moved
out of the cylinder from being forced back into the combustion chamber. The resulting reduction in
compression temperature inhibits knocking.
The combustion duration was also reduced. Faster combustion shortens the time the unburned airfuel
mixture is exposed to high temperatures, which enables normal combustion to conclude before
knocking occurs.
The new engine also received special piston cavities, which allow the initial combustion flames to
propagate without interference, and new multi-hole injectors, which enhance fuel spray
characteristics. Together with the 4-2-1 exhaust manifold, these innovations resulted in a
substantial 15 percent increase in torque over Mazda’s current 2.0-liter MZR gasoline engine.

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Everyday drivers will love the SKYACTIV-G’s noticeably higher torque over a wide range of rpms as well as its 15 percent improved fuel economy.
Minimizing pumping loss
To improve engine efficiency, it is also necessary to reduce the ―pumping loss‖ that occurs at lower engine loads when the piston draws in air while moving downward during the intake stroke. Generally, the amount of air going inside the cylinder is controlled by the throttle located upstream of the intake pipe. At lower engine loads, only a small amount of air is necessary. The throttle is nearly closed, causing the pressure inside the intake pipe and cylinder to be lower than the atmospheric pressure. As a result, the piston has to overcome a strong vacuum. This is known as pumping loss, which negatively affects efficiency.
Mazda managed to minimize pumping loss with a continuously variable dual S-VT (sequential valve timing) on the intake and exhaust valves. This changes the opening and closing timing of the

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valves, enabling the air intake quantity to be controlled by the valves rather than the throttle. During
the intake stroke, the throttle and intake valves are kept wide open while the cylinder moves
downward. The intake stroke finishes when the piston reaches the cylinder bottom (bottom dead
center or BDC). But if the intake valves close here, there is too much air inside the cylinder when
only a small amount of air is needed at lower engine loads. In order to push out the excess air, the
intake S-VT keeps the intake valves open when the piston starts to move upward during the
compression stroke. The intake valves then close when all unnecessary air is pushed out. This is
how an S-VT minimizes pumping loss, making the overall combustion process more efficient.
A drawback to this process is destabilized combustion. Since the intake valves are kept open even
when the compression stroke starts, the pressure inside the cylinder decreases, making it difficult
for the air-fuel mixture to combust. This is not a problem for the SKYACTIV-G, however, thanks to
its 13:1 compression ratio. The high compression ratio increases combustion chamber temperature
and pressure, so the combustion process remains stable — despite reduced pumping loss — and
the engine is more fuel efficient.
Reducing weight and internal engine friction
Reduced weight Reduced friction

A vehicle’s overall responsiveness can be enhanced by decreasing the size and weight of its
components. And a complete engine redevelopment project presents the
opportunity to forge new paths when it comes to lightweight design. With
20 percent lighter pistons, 15 percent lighter connecting rods and a 30
percent reduction to internal engine friction compared to the current 2.0-
liter MZR engine, the new SKYACTIV-G power plant is gleefully freerevving,
adapts faster to load changes and thus bolsters the sporty
character of the Mazda it powers. With less energy expended in the
process, fuel economy is improved by 15 percent compared to the current
engine.

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6. SKYACTIV-D Diesel Engine
The other member of Mazda’s new generation of innovative engines is a diesel: the all-new common rail SKYACTIV-D. At 14:1 SKYACTIV-D is the lowest-compression diesel engine in the world. SKYACTIV-D is also one of the first diesels to comply with strict Tier II BIN 5 North American emission regulations without needing expensive selective catalytic reduction (SCR) aftertreatments or a lean NOx trap catalytic converter (LNT).
Diesel engines do not require spark plugs. The injected fuel mixture ignites on its own at high pressure and the resulting high compression temperature near the ―top dead center‖ (TDC), or when the top of the piston is closest to the cylinder head. To ensure reliable cold starting and stable combustion during the warm-up phase, conventional diesel engines have high compression ratios of 16:1 to 18:1. But not Mazda’s unique SKYACTIV-D.
Its low 14:1 compression ratio enables combustion timing to be optimized. When the compression ratio is lowered, compression temperature and pressure at TDC decrease. Consequently, ignition takes longer even when fuel is injected near TDC, enabling a better mixture of air and fuel. The formation of NOx and soot is alleviated since combustion becomes more uniform without localized high-temperature areas and oxygen insufficiencies. Furthermore, injection and combustion close to TDC make a diesel engine highly efficient. The expansion ratio (or amount of actual work done) is greater than in a high-compression diesel engine. Simply put, optimized combustion timing means

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the SKYACTIV-D diesel engine makes better use of the energy contained in the fuel. And that is how a 20 percent reduction in fuel consumption was achieved.
Tier II BIN 5 without NOx aftertreatment
Thanks to its low compression the SKYACTIV-D diesel engine also burns cleaner, discharging far fewer nitrous oxides while producing virtually no soot. It can thus do without NOx aftertreatments and still meet tough emissions standards the world over.

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The fact that Mazda’s SKYACTIV-D is still considered a pilot development today – no other
manufacturer has attempted to emulate it thus far – can be attributed to the system-related
drawbacks of low compression. For example, the compression-ignition temperature for cold starts
and during cold operation is normally too low in a diesel engine with a compression ratio of only
14:1. It would run rough, particularly in winter conditions, misfiring during the warm-up phase. And
at extremely low temperatures, the engine might not start at all.
Exhaust Variable Valve Lift (VVL)
To improve cold starting and cold running, SKYACTIV-D diesel engines are furnished with ceramic
glow plugs as well as exhaust variable valve lifts (VVL). The role of the latter is to allow the internal
recirculation of hot exhaust gas into the combustion chamber. How it works is a glow plug is used
to carry out the first combustion cycle, which is enough to raise the exhaust gas to a sufficient
temperature. After the engine starts, the exhaust valve does not close as usual during the intake
stroke. Instead, it remains slightly open to allow some exhaust gas to re-enter. This increases the
air temperature in the combustion chamber, which in turn facilitates the subsequent ignition of the
air-fuel mixture and prevents misfiring.
Reducing weight and internal engine friction
Reduced weight Reduced friction

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SKYACTIV-D’s lower compression ratio means lower maximum pressure and less strain on engine components than in conventional diesels. This allows room for structural modifications to further reduce weight: cylinder heads with thinner walls and an integrated exhaust manifold are 6.6 pounds (3 kilograms) lighter while the new aluminum-made cylinder block saves another 55.1 pounds (25 kilograms).
Add another 25 percent decrease in the weight of the pistons and crankshafts, and Mazda has managed to reduce overall internal engine friction by 20 percent in the SKYACTIV-D diesel engine relative to the current MZR-CD diesel. For the driver, this translates into superior responsiveness, more pulling power and better fuel economy.
Two-stage turbocharger
Turbochargers not only help diesel engines deliver more torque but also improve fuel economy while reducing harmful emissions. SKYACTIV-D utilizes two-stage turbocharging.
One small and one large turbocharger are featured, which are selectively operated according to driving conditions. The small, quick-responding turbo feeds air to the combustion chambers at low engine speeds to provide low-speed torque and eliminate ―turbo lag,‖ which is characterized by abnormally low torque and

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poor throttle response caused by a lack of exhaust pressure to rotate the turbocharger’s turbine up to a speed necessary to supply boost pressure.
A two-stage turbocharger ensures increased torque and responsiveness at low engine speeds and more power even at unusually high rpms, enabling SKYACTIV-D to easily reach its 5,200-rpm redline. There is no compromise to power, driving dynamics or driving enjoyment, despite the engine’s extraordinary efficiency. And the synergetic effect of the two-stage turbocharging and low compression ratio enables optimal timing for combustion. Since there is a sufficient supply of air (oxygen), NOx and soot emissions are kept to a minimum.

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7. SKYACTIV-Drive Automatic Transmission
Striving for the ideal automatic transmission, Mazda focused on the following:
• Improving fuel economy
• Ensuring a direct gas pedal response
• Shifting gears smoothly
• Delivering comfortable acceleration

SKYACTIV-Drive was designed to do all this and more.

The all-new SKYACTIV-Drive six-speed automatic transmission combines the benefits of conventional automatics with those offered by continuously variable (CVT) and dual clutch transmissions. It shifts quickly and smoothly, reacts dynamically to changes in the engine load right from the get-go and raises the bar when it comes to fuel economy. The heart of SKYACTIV-Drive is a newly-developed six-speed torque converter with a full range lock-up clutch for all six gears called full range direct drive. The lock-up clutch ratio has been raised from 64 percent from the current five-speed automatic to 88 percent during vehicle operation.

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The early lock-up between engine and transmission by the torque converter (which enables engine output to be sent directly to the drive wheels) inhibits the characteristic loss of power during acceleration, delivering a more direct driving feel. Preventing engine output loss also improves fuel economy. High-precision hydraulics are essential to such a design. In order to make the necessarily fast and accurate oil pressure modulation possible in the first place and improve reliability, Mazda furnished SKYACTIV-Drive with a mechatronics module.
While maximizing the lock-up range is necessary to improve the driving feel and fuel economy, a negative effect is an increase in NVH (noise, vibration and harshness) because there is nothing to absorb the difference in the rotational speeds of the engine and transmission. A new torque converter was adapted to resolve this conflict. The expanded lock-up meant the role of the torus piece was confined to very low speeds. Therefore, it became smaller and thus creating space for an improved damper as well as a multi-disk lock-up clutch and its piston, which improve clutch durability and control.

SKYACTIV-Drive is available in two versions, making the automatic transmission compatible with both SKYACTIV gasoline and diesel engines.
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8. SKYACTIV-MT Manual Transmission

Mazda came up with a redeveloped, high-precision six-speed gearbox. With a remarkably compact and lightweight design along with diminished internal friction resistance, SKYACTIV-MT represents yet another contribution to economical resource usage.
Like its automatic transmission sibling, the SKYACTIV-MT six-speed manual transmission will be launched in two versions to meet different engine torque requirements. The goal was to reduce weight by between 7 to 16 percent (depending on the model) relative to the current manual transmissions. A completely new approach was needed to generate something truly innovative since today’s manuals have a relatively simple architecture. Every single component was paid attention to in order to gauge its functionality. With a new architecture featuring a shortened countershaft and no separate shaft for reverse gear in the larger model, SKYACTIV-MT is a testimony to Mazda’s innovative power.
MX-5 Miata sets the standard

A sporty shifting feel was at the top of the specifications list, with the MX-5 Miata roadster’s extraordinarily precise and agile manual gearbox serving as the inspiration. With the shift knob having only a 1.8-inch (4.57-centimeter) stroke from neutral to the in-gear position, the SKYACTIV-MT’s tight-shifting is reminiscent of the MX-5. Gear changes feel crisp yet with minimal effort. Simply put, SKYACTIV-MT radiates its Zoom-Zoom DNA.
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Mazda used a sophisticated mechanism to realize this desired shift precision and crisp feeling. The ideal operating characteristics were carefully considered based on benchmarking the MX-5 and its competitors. SKYACTIV-MT was given a continuous and lighter shifting feel with less resistance. To add precision and crispness, the shifter was designed to feel moderately heavy at the start of a gear shift and gradually became lighter, as if simply sliding into the next gear.

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S ene charge system

2017-08-19T09:07:00.004-07:00

vn turbo

2015-11-21T09:10:00.002-08:00

Turbocharged Direct Injection

2013-06-11T10:22:00.002-07:00

TDI

Most of us as North American consumers associate diesel engines with trucks. Volkswagen is hoping to change that perception next year when it will introduce all-new diesel engines in virtually every model they sell. From a 100hp 1.9l engine in the Golf, Jetta and New Beetle to a 133hp 2.0l in the Passat to a full 10-cylinder TDI powerplant with over 550 lb-ft of stump pulling torque in the new Touareg sport utility vehicle, diesel technology is coming and you only need to remember three little letters: TDI.

In the spring of 1976 series production began of VW’s first diesel passenger car – the 1.5-litre, 50-bhp naturally aspirated unit for use in the Golf and Rabbit. This engine with its superior fuel economy and high levels of low-end torque created a market for itself, particularly in Europe where gasoline prices are considerably higher than they are here in America.

In the early eighties Volkswagen introduced turbocharging and bumped displacement to 1.6l bringing the horsepower to 70hp and creating the new designation of "Turbodiesel" for all its diesel models. Later in the early 90's Volkswagen introduced direct fuel injection technology calling it TDI, the initials standing for Turbocharged Direct Injection. TDI enabled engineers to make the engine quieter and more efficient which meant even better fuel economy and more power. Compared to indirect injection engines, the TDI had a fuel savings potential of up to 15 percent.

Further development lead to the adoption of a variable-geometry turbocharger which utilized variable vanes within the turbine wheel to vary the amount of air and effectively reduce turbo "lag" at low RPM's but also allow for a higher volume of air at high RPM's. Volkswagen also added charge-air cooling in the form of an air-to-air intercooler as standard equipment. This boosted the current 1.9l unit to 90hp and 110hp with impressive levels of torque and refinement.

The next major peak in TDI development was high-pressure fuel injection called "pumpe duse" in German. By utilizing upwards of 20,000 psi in certain applications, Volkswagen was able to atomized and meter fuel delivery very precisely using a unit-injector developed by Bosch. This resulted in superior economy, further increases in power and even quieter running engines. Power in the 1.9l TDI is now available in europe in 100hp, 130hp and 150hp variations.

While the 1.9l 4-cylinder TDI powerplant is the bread and butter of Volkswagen's diesel offerings, it is far from being the only unit available - Volkswagen has everything from a 3-cylinder super high-efficiency TDI unit capable of nearly 90 miles per gallon, to inline-5, V6 and V8 models and even a V10 TDI that is available in the Touareg and Phaeton luxury car in Germany with unheard of levels of refinement, power and economy.

Today diesel engines make up over 40% of the Volkswagen models sold in Europe. Here in America, TDI sales represent less than 10 percent of total sales. Volkswagen has only offered us one TDI engine choice, the 90hp 1.9l TDI with a 2-valve head and older low-pressure injection systems. Why? Well two main reasons, one, diesels don't sell well here because gasoline is cheap and two, diesel fuel in North America is far less refined than European equivalents and makes it difficult to apply strict car emission standards to the TDI engines sold here.

Currently the 90hp 1.9l TDI is available in the Golf, Jetta and New Beetle and is rated at 42 mpg city and 49 mpg highway. With a 14.5 gallon tank and a 49 mph highway rating, you could theoretically drive over 710miles on a single tank of fuel. These models are only sold in limited numbers in states that have stricter emission standards such as California, Maine, Massachusetts, Vermont and New York so they don't affect Volkswagen's CAFE fleet standards too adversely but are otherwise available in the 45 remaining states.

While Volkswagen owners tend to be an enthusiastic bunch, TDI owners have elevated themselves to near-cult like status. Owner sites like Fred's TDI Club (www.tdiclub.com) have cropped up as a means for TDI owners and fans alike to communicate, share war stories, help each other with maintenance and other issues and even seek new ways to extract even more power from the existing 90hp 1.9l TDI.

TDI fans have been clamoring for the latest TDI technology available in Europe to find its way over to our shores. So far the new generation of pumpe duse/high pressure TDI engines have not been offered here due to the sub-par diesel fuel we have available. Particulate standards are nearly impossible to meet with the fuel available here, but Volkswagen's engineers have finally devised a way to get some of the new engines to run properly and pass emissions in 45 states. We'll start to see these new TDI engines starting with model year 2004 which we will cover in depth in our fifth installment.

In anticipation of these new TDI offerings coming to North America we set out to Germany last year to drive a number of the latest and greatest TDI models available in that market. We drove everything from the phenomenally economical Lupo 3L TDI to the tire shredding 150hp 1.9l TDI Bora/Jetta (with the same torque as a 3.2l VR6!) to the foundation moving V-10 TDI in the Touareg. Over the next several installments we will be highlighting a number of these TDI equipped vehicles to give you a feel for the different TDI offerings available in Europe and a little preview of what to expect in 2004.

Radiator Pressure cap

2013-02-06T10:00:00.002-08:00

Radiator Pressure cap

Beating the Heat: Advantage of a High Pressure Radiator Cap
Spoon, Mugen, TRD, and about two dozen other ‘big name’ companies all sell these “High Pressure” radiator caps. However, if you ask the average person what they actually do, you’ll be met with cricket chirps.

Most imports use 1.1 kg/cm2 radiator caps while these aftermarket pieces are typically 1.3 kg/cm2. These caps are also available for domestics and some exotics as well, but the same principle applies regardless of the make/model of car. Sometimes they are rated in the “bar” unit. The conversion factor is 1.02, so for the purposes of this article, because kg/cm2 is more awkward to write, I will say 1.1 bar and 1.3 bar. 1.1 bar is nearly exactly equal to 1.1 kg/cm^2. So, yes, I realize import caps are rated in the metric unit, but I’m going to use bar instead to make my writing a little easier.

These caps look cool, and they’re sold by big names – but let’s look at what they actually do and why you may or may not want one.

A Little Technical Background
To understand why the higher pressure radiator caps might be useful, we first need to understand something about the fluid inside the cooling system.

In an ideal world, engines would be cooled by straight water with no antifreeze added. Water is an excellent cooling agent and is extremely efficient at carrying heat away from the engine and then exchanging that heat with the air via the radiator.

However, water has a few properties that make it imperfect as an automotive coolant. For one, it has a relatively high freezing temperature at 32 degrees Fahrenheit. Freezing would be bad enough but water also has the unique property that it expands at its freezing (which if you’ve ever left a soda in the freezer before, you know why that’s bad). It also has a relatively low boiling point at 212 degrees Fahrenheit.

Since most engines are operating at a temperature of around 185-205 degrees, that only gives us a small amount of wiggle room before boiling would occur. Boiling is bad for a number of reasons which I won’t get too into here, but, steam/bubbles in coolant actually insulate coolant from the combustion chamber and would render the coolant useless at cooling the hot engine. It can also cause water pump failures amongst other damage via a process called cavitation.

Water is corrosive and it will gradually eat away at seals and cause metal inside your engine to deteriorate. Finally, it isn’t a very good lubricant and the water pump and seals in your cooling system rely on other compounds in your coolant to provide those properties.

So, we generally add antifreeze to distilled water to create the coolant we run in the car.

Antifreeze both keeps water from freezing in the winter (by lowering the freezing point of the water) and at the same time raises the boiling point of the water. A 50/50 mixture as we typically use actually gives us a freezing point of -35 degrees Fahrenheit and a boiling point of 223.

The trade off for the extra wiggle room of course is that antifreeze is not a very efficient heat exchanging fluid. In fact, 100% antifreeze in your cooling system would be an absolutely terrible idea. When you add antifreeze to water, the ability to cool evenly and quickly drops. Besides that, up until about 60% coolant, you do gain boiling point and freezing point. However, past 60% coolant to water, you start to go the other way again, sharply.

While we’d love to run 100% distilled water in the cooling system, we can’t because of corrosion and boiling/freezing points. We also don’t want to use 100% antifreeze because it would be a poor cooling fluid. Therefore, we need a compromise, which is usually a 50/50 ratio of the two fluids mixed together.

The Role of Pressure
But, back to the radiator cap. As the coolant gets hot it expands creating pressure in the system. The hotter things get, the more pressure created. The radiator cap allows pressure to build up in the cooling system and will eventually vent that pressure to the overflow bottle as the need arises. The cap does this by a spring loaded valve which serves as a pressure relief valve at a rated pressure. You’ll notice that there’s a plunger on the bottom of the cap. As pressure builds, it pushes up on that valve until eventually the valve is opened far enough for coolant to flow out of the tube connected at the radiator fill neck. It closes again when the pressure has dropped to the desired level.

This tank is there just to catch the coolant and store it until things cool back down, when a vacuum will be created and most of the coolant will return to the cooling system.

Pressure actually increases the boiling point of a fluid as you may know from high school physics class. The pressure literally forces the liquid to remain a liquid longer and does not allow it to transform into vapor. All modern automotive cooling systems are under pressure, completely regulated by the radiator cap. 1.1 bar is roughly 15psi, and 1.3 bar is around 18psi.

How much does the pressure raise the boiling point? Well, it’s about 2-3 degrees for every psi that we increase the pressure of the system. Therefore, by using a 1.1 bar cap we make the average boiling point of a stock cooling system somewhere closer to around 257-260 degrees.

When we change from a a 1.1 bar to 1.3 bar cap, we gain 0.2 bar or roughly 2.9psi of pressure. So, we effectively get 8.7 degrees (or around that) on top of the 257-260 degrees before we might experience boiling coolant in the system.

So if some extra pressure is good, why not a lot? Well, it may seem obvious, but the cooling system on your car is rated to a certain pressure. The radiator cap is designed to be the weak point in your cooling system so it can safely vent pressure, you don’t want to use a cap that is so resistant to venting pressure that it causes some other part of the system to become the weak point.

What does it DO for you?
Under normal operating conditions, with everything else untouched it gives you a small amount of extra protection against localized boiling and therefore hot spots in the cylinder walls and cylinder head. If you’re running a 50/50 ratio of antifreeze to water and aren’t overheating, there is no real measurable benefit.

However, when mixed with a slight change in coolant, these caps can actually add quite a bit of cooling efficiency to your car, especially for hot summer track days. It’s a cheap tweak that can give you some extra insurance against engine failure or detonation in extreme conditions, or, make you legal to be on certain tracks.

What these caps can be used to do, is run less antifreeze and more distilled water in your cooling system in the summer. It can also be used to run nearly straight water and water wetter (an additive which… increases the wetting ability of water.) for the track. The benefit on the track being two-fold. Some tracks do not allow you to use antifreeze as it is literally slick as snot if it leaks or spews onto the track. The other benefit is that straight water as we discussed before is the most efficient cooling fluid. Add a product called Water Wetter and that can be a really powerful combination.

So let’s get to the point…

Remember that a 50/50 ratio of coolant has a boiling point of 223 degrees. Straight water has a boiling point of 212 degrees. Both however are boosted significantly by the pressure in the system. A standard 1.1 bar cap adds 48 degrees to the boiling point of either fluid. So the coolant in your car will not actually boil until ~260 degrees, or ~271 degrees if it has antifreeze mixed in. Adding the additional 0.2 bar of pressure gives us another 8.7 degrees in both cases.

By upping our cooling system pressure to 1.3 bar we gain about 8.7 degrees. Antifreeze only adds 11 degrees to our boiling point, so the main reason for running a 1.3 bar cap is to run straight distilled water (with water wetter to prevent corrosion) or a significantly reduced antifreeze ratio without danger of boiling over. Specifically, in the summer months.

So why not run it this way all the time? Well, let’s not forget the freezing point. While the pressure cap trick gives us a higher boiling point, it does not a thing for freezing point. If your area doesn’t get down to negative temperatures in the winter, you can run a decreased ratio of antifreeze to coolant if you like all year round. However, I’d still run 50/50 in the winter. The good news is, in the winter, there’s less need for excellent cooling as air intake temps and ambient temps help you out a lot more than in the summer.

So Should I Get One or Get Rid of Mine?

Well, they’re generally inexpensive, around $20-30. I would never pay more than maybe $40 and really, you can get just about any old 1.3 bar cap that fits for around $10 that will do the job just fine.If an OEM tuning house sells one for your car, you may want to go with that one – the cap is simple but it’s extremely important it functions properly. OEM quality is important here.

They are a small amount of insurance against possible overheating, especially for tracked cars or for excessive idling in the hot summer months. Add another $10 for a bottle of water wetter as well. For a daily driver, the extra pressure would only be particularly helpful if running a modified coolant ratio. Installing one won’t hurt anything. If you ever do approach boiling point, they’ll give you a little more insurance against it, and they’ll keep the coolant doing its job longer before the bubbles in the fluid create problems.

For a car that sees track time, specifically road race time, it would be a good cheap upgrade to your cooling system. Especially when mixed with the straight distilled water+water wetter or reduced antifreeze ratio combo.

If you do run straight distilled water, make sure you put water wetter in with it, or you will create corrosion problems and the water wetter will make the distilled water more efficient as well.

In particularly hot areas with engines that are running high compression or boost, a 1.3 bar radiator cap, water wetter and a reasonable coolant ratio or distilled water setup would be a good “stock upgrade” to help prevent detonation. Granted, if your engine is fairly close to stock, you don’t need to worry about detonation as long as you run the right fuel as dictated in your factory service manual.

In closing, if you want to run the same setup all year round and want to be extra safe, run 50/50 antifreeze with Water Wetter (it improves coolant efficiency and especially helps evenly cool the cylinder head), add a 1.3 bar cap for good measure.

In a later article I will discuss other common ‘coolant system upgrades’ like low temperature thermostats, fan switches, as well as if/when you should upgrade your radiator.

Types of Oil Pumps

2013-01-18T08:28:00.001-08:00

Gear-type oil pump

Gear-type oil pumps have
a primary gear that is driven by an external member, and which drives a companion
gear. Oil is forced into the pump cavity, around each gear, and out the other side
into the oil passages. The pressure is derived from the action of the meshed gear
teeth, which prevents oil from passing between the gears, forcing it around the
outside of each gear instead. The oil pump incorporates a pressure relief valve, a
spring-loaded ball that rises when the desired pressure is reached, allowing the
excess oil to be delivered to the inlet side of the pum

Rotor-type oil pump

A rotor-type oil pump for sucking and discharging oil to be supplied to a variety of oil-requiring parts of an automotive engine. The oil pump comprises a generally annular outer rotor which is rotatably disposed in a pump casing. A generally annular inner rotor is disposed eccentrically inside the outer rotor and has an external gear which is partly in mesh with the internal gear of the outer rotor. The outer rotor is designed such that stress at the tooth base section of the internal gear is generally equal to stress at the tooth base section of the external gear of the inner rotor in their dynamic condition, thereby reducing the thickness of the tooth base section of the outer rotor.

Crescent type oil pump

Vane Type oil pump

Lubrication System

2013-01-18T08:05:00.001-08:00

how a engine lubrication system functions and talks about the main components for lubricating an engine (oil pump, oil filter, oil store, oil splash, etc

Functions of oil

Oil reduces unwanted friction. It reduces wear on moving parts, and helps cool an engine. It also absorbs shock loads and acts as a cleaning agent.

Viscosity

Viscosity rating indicates flow rate of oil at a given temperature. There are many grades. Thin oils tend to be for cold conditions. Oil with improver is called multi-grade or multiple-viscosity oil.

Oil additives

Different additives do different jobs. They can inhibit corrosion, foaming and oxidation, and act as dispersants.

Synthetic oils

Synthetic oils offer better protection against engine wear and can operate at higher temperatures. They have better low temperature viscosity, are chemically more stable and allow for closer tolerances in engine components without loss of lubrication.

Lubrication systems

The lubrication system

The lubrication system is designed to keep the components in the engine lubricated and to reduce friction.

Splash system

In the splash lubrication system, a dipper or slinger splashes oil through the internal parts of the engine. Oil is also splashed up to the valve mechanism.

Pressure system

In force-feed lubrication, pressure forces oil around the engine. In a wet-sump system, oil is kept in the sump ready for the next use. In a dry sump system, oil falls to the bottom of the engine and a scavenge pump sends it to an oil tank.

2-stroke engine premix fuel systems


Most 2-stroke gasoline engines use a set gasoline-oil mixture for lubrication. As the air, fuel and oil enter the crankcase, the fuel evaporates, leaving behind enough oil to keep parts coated and lubricated.

2-stroke engine oil injection systems

An oil injection system doesn't need the oil and gasoline mixed manually. An engine-driven oil pump takes oil from a tank and pumps a measured amount directly into the engine where it mixes with the fuel and lubricates the internal engine parts.

Rotary engine lubrication system

In addition to normal internal lubrication, the rotary engine uses oil injection. A pump injects a measured amount into the intake manifold. Oil from these nozzles goes to the engine and lubricates the rotor seals.

Corrosion/noise reduction

Engine oil performs many other functions apart from lubricating moving components. Two other functions are corrosion protection and noise suppression.

Lubrication system components

Sump

The sump is at the base of an engine. It can be used as a storage container in a 'wet sump system'.

Oil collection pan

An oil collection pan is used in 'dry sump systems' prior to being returned to an oil tank.

Oil tank

The oil tank is part of the dry sump lubrication system and is used for oil storage.

Pickup tube

A pickup tube is used to provide a means of collecting oil for the oil pump.

Oil pump

Oil pumps deliver oil under pressure to the internal engine parts. In a rotor-type oil pump, an inner rotor drives an outer one. Pressure differences force the oil to move. Geared oil pumps use a similar principle.

Oil pressure relief valve


The pressure relief valve is used to prevent damage to an engine due to too much oil pressure.

Oil filters

The oil filter helps to clean the oil in the system. If the filter clogs, a valve opens and directs unfiltered oil to the engine. Most oil-filters on diesel engines are larger than those on similar gasoline engines.

Spurt holes & galleries

Spurt holes and galleries are used to deliver oil from the oil pump to various components and bearings in the engine.

Oil indicators

Oil indicators are used to check when there are safe oil levels in an engine.

Oil cooler

An oil cooler cools oil prior to its reuse in the engine.

Lubrication procedures

Checking engine oil

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to check and adjust engine oil level and condition. Make sure the vehicle is on a level surface and the engine is off before taking a reading. If you don't, you'll get inaccurate readings.

Draining engine oil

Oil loses its clean, fresh look very quickly and yet may still be serviceable. The best guide to changing oil is knowing the vehicle's mileage and period of time since the last oil change. The objective of this procedure is to show you how to safely drain engine oil.

Replacing an oil filter

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to replace an oil filter to the manufacturer's specifications. Before removing an oil filter, first refer to the Service Manual for the vehicle and identify the type of filter required.

Refilling engine oil

The objective of this procedure is to show you how to safely refill engine oil. The service manual or the owner's manual will also tell you the correct grade of oil for the vehicle, and the quantity you will need to fill the engine.

cav rotary pump (epic)

2012-12-07T09:34:00.001-08:00

Careful section of a CAV rotary pump for training purposes, showing all its operating parts. The transfer pump, the speed governor, the automatic advance regulator, the hydraulic sensor device, the fuel circuit and the pumping small piston are clearly shown. It is operated by hand through a hand wheel.

It is supplied complete with an indirect injector and mounted on an elegant laminated plastic base.

New vehicle air condition system

2012-12-07T09:18:00.004-08:00

air condition system
Vehicles are found to have primarily three different types of air conditioning systems. While each of the three types differ, the concept and design are very similar to one another. The most common components which make up these automotive systems are the following: COMPRESSOR, CONDENSER,EVAPORATOR, ORIFICE TUBE, THERMAL EXPANSION VALVE , RECEIVER-DRIER,ACCUMULATOR.
Note: if your car has an Orifice tube, it will not have a Thermal Expansion Valve as these two devices serve the same purpose. Also, you will either have a Receiver-Dryer or an Accumulator, but not both.
COMPRESSOR
Commonly referred to as the heart of the system, the compressor is a belt driven pump that is fastened to the engine. It is responsible for compressing and transferring refrigerant gas. The A/C system is split into two sides, a high pressure side and a low pressure side; defined as discharge and suction. Since the compressor is basically a pump, it must have an intake side and a discharge side. The intake, or suction side, draws in refrigerant gas from the outlet of the evaporator. In some cases it does this via the accumulator. Once the refrigerant is drawn into the suction side, it is compressed and sent to the condenser, where it can then transfer the heat that is absorbed from the inside of the vehicle.
CONDENSER
This is the area in which heat dissipation occurs. The condenser, in many cases, will have much the same appearance as the radiator in you car as the two have very similar functions. The condenser is designed to radiate heat. Its location is usually in front of the radiator, but in some cases, due to aerodynamic improvements to the body of a vehicle, its location may differ. Condensers must have good air flow anytime the system is in operation. On rear wheel drive vehicles, this is usually accomplished by taking advantage of your existing engine's cooling fan. On front wheel drive vehicles, condenser air flow is supplemented with one or more electric cooling fan(s). As hot compressed gasses are introduced into the top of the condenser, they are cooled off. As the gas cools, it condenses and exits the bottom of the condenser as a high pressure liquid. . EVAPORATOR
Located inside the vehicle, the evaporator serves as the heat absorption component. The evaporator provides several functions. Its primary duty is to remove heat from the inside of your vehicle. A secondary benefit is dehumidification. As warmer air travels through the aluminum fins of the cooler evaporator coil, the moisture contained in the air condenses on its surface. Dust and pollen passing through stick to its wet surfaces and drain off to the outside. On humid days you may have seen this as water dripping from the bottom of your vehicle. Rest assured this is perfectly normal. The ideal temperature of the evaporator is 32 Fahrenheit or 0 Celsius. Refrigerant enters the bottom of the evaporator as a low pressure liquid. The warm air passing through the evaporator fins causes the refrigerant to boil (refrigerants have very low boiling points). As the refrigerant begins to boil, it can absorb large amounts of heat. This heat is then carried off with the refrigerant to the outside of the vehicle. Several other components work in conjunction with the evaporator. As mentioned above, the ideal temperature for an evaporator coil is 32 F. Temperature and pressure regulating devices must be used to control its temperature. While there are many variations of devices used, their main functions are the same; keeping pressure in the evaporator low and keeping the evaporator from freezing; A frozen evaporator coil will not absorb as much heat.

PRESSURE REGULATING DEVICES
Controlling the evaporator temperature can be accomplished by controlling refrigerant pressure and flow into the evaporator. Listed below, are the most commonly found. ORIFICE TUBE The orifice tube, probably the most commonly used, can be found in most GM and Ford models. It is located in the inlet tube of the evaporator, or in the liquid line, somewhere between the outlet of the condenser and the inlet of the evaporator. This point can be found in a properly functioning system by locating the area between the outlet of the condenser and the inlet of the evaporator that suddenly makes the change from hot to cold. You should then see small dimples placed in the line that keep the orifice tube from moving. Most of the orifice tubes in use today measure approximately three inches in length and consist of a small brass tube, surrounded by plastic, and covered with a filter screen at each end. It is not uncommon for these tubes to become clogged with small debris. While inexpensive, usually between three to five dollars, the labor to replace one involves recovering the refrigerant, opening the system up, replacing the orifice tube, evacuating and then recharging. With this in mind, it might make sense to install a larger pre filter in front of the orifice tube to minimize the risk of of this problem reoccurring. Some Ford models have a permanently affixed orifice tube in the liquid line. These can be cut out and replaced with a combination filter/orifice assembly.
THERMAL EXPANSION VALVE
Another common refrigerant regulator is the thermal expansion valve, or TXV. Commonly used on import and aftermarket systems. This type of valve can sense both temperature and pressure, and is very efficient at regulating refrigerant flow to the evaporator. Several variations of this valve are commonly found. Another example of a thermal expansion valve is Chrysler's "H block" type. This type of valve is usually located at the firewall, between the evaporator inlet and outlet tubes and the liquid and suction lines. These types of valves, although efficient, have some disadvantages over orifice tube systems. Like orifice tubes these valves can become clogged with debris, but also have small moving parts that may stick and malfunction due to corrosion.

RECEIVER-DRIER
The receiver-drier is used on the high side of systems that use a thermal expansion valve. This type of metering valve requires liquid refrigerant. To ensure that the valve gets liquid refrigerant, a receiver is used. The primary function of the receiver-drier is to separate gas and liquid. The secondary purpose is to remove moisture and filter out dirt. The receiver-drier usually has a sight glass in the top. This sight glass is often used to charge the system. Under normal operating conditions, vapor bubbles should not be visible in the sight glass. The use of the sight glass to charge the system is not recommended in R-134a systems as cloudiness and oil that has separated from the refrigerant can be mistaken for bubbles. This type of mistake can lead to a dangerous overcharged condition. There are variations of receiver-driers and several different desiccant materials are in use. Some of the moisture removing desiccants found within are not compatible with R-134a. The desiccant type is usually identified on a sticker that is affixed to the receiver-drier. Newer receiver-driers use desiccant type XH-7 and are compatible with both R-12 and R-134a refrigerants.
ACCUMULATOR
Accumulators are used on systems that accommodate an orifice tube to meter refrigerants into the evaporator. It is connected directly to the evaporator outlet and stores excess liquid refrigerant. Introduction of liquid refrigerant into a compressor can do serious damage. Compressors are designed to compress gas not liquid. The chief role of the accumulator is to isolate the compressor from any damaging liquid refrigerant. Accumulators, like receiver-driers, also remove debris and moisture from a system. It is a good idea to replace the accumulator each time the system is opened up for major repair and anytime moisture and/or debris is of concern. Moisture is enemy number one for your A/C system. Moisture in a system mixes with refrigerant and forms a corrosive acid. When in doubt, it may be to your advantage to change the Accumulator or receiver in your system. While this may be a temporary discomfort for your wallet, it is of long term benefit to your air conditioning system

Diesel Electronic Unit Injector

2012-07-19T07:54:00.002-07:00

The unit injector combines a high-pressure pump and nozzle with a solenoid valve to form compact assembly. As a result, high-pressure lines are no longer necessary and injection can be controlled by the integrated and extremely precise solenoid valve at pressures of up to 2000 bar. Each cylinder has a unit injector fitted between the valves in the cylinder head. The unit injector is used in both passenger cars and commercial vehicles. The Bosch Unit Injector system was first used in the VW Passat TDI in 1998, after which it rapidly found favour within the VW range. With the V10 TDI, VW recently presented what is currently the most powerful diesel engine for use in a car.

Diesel injection pump

2012-07-14T03:38:00.001-07:00

Robert Bosch has contributed to Diesel In-Line Fuel-Injection Pumps: Bosch Technical Instruction as an author. Robert Bosch GmbH is ranked among the world's major equipment suppliers. The Bosch experts that make up the editorial team come from the relevant divisions of Bosch and are at the forefront of technical developments in their field. Bosch demonstrates its leading competence in automotive technology through the sheer number of its applications for patents and patented designs. inline pump

The diesel fuel pump is a fairly complex and sturdy mechanism. In fact, it is the most complex diesel engine part. Additionally, a diesel fuel pump must be durable enough that it can withstand the pressure of the compressed air, and the heat of the injection process. The fine mist of fuel needed for the proper ignition must be maintained by the diesel fuel pump under these extreme conditions. Diesel fuel pumps may be located just about anywhere on the engine, depending on the manufacturers design. Much experimentation has been done over the years regarding the most effective placement of the diesel fuel pump. So far it seems that so long as the pump is mounted on the engine, it will effectively deliver fuel to the cylinders. A gasoline fuel pump, on the other hand, may be mounted anywhere in the engine compartment or along the fuel distribution system. Depending on the location and design of the diesel fuel injector pump, pre-combustion chambers, customized induction valves, and other systems are often used in the injection process. These injection enhancers often aid in circulating, or swirling the air inside the cylinder for more efficient combustion. Just as with any engine fuel injection system, diesel fuel pumps are constantly being improved to be more efficient and less costly.

Common Rail System

2011-11-12T10:12:00.002-08:00

The common rail system accumulates high-pressure fuel in the common rail and injects the fuel into the engine cylinder at timing controlled by the engine ECU, allowing high-pressure injection independent from the engine speed. As a result, the common rail system can reduce harmful materials such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) in emissions and generates more engine power. DENSO leads the industry in increasing fuel pressure and maximizing the precision of injection timing and quantity, achieving cleaner emissions and more powerful engines. DENSO’s common rail systems are supplied to a variety of vehicles including passenger cars and commercial vehicles. DENSO Technology – Leading the World In 1995, DENSO launched the world’s first common rail system for trucks. In 2002, DENSO launched a 1,800-bar common rail system that achieved the industry’s highest injection pressure, and five-time multiple injections at a high accuracy. This system comfortably cleared EURO4 emission regulations without a diesel particulate filter. Benefits and Features DENSO’s common rail system can inject fuel at up to 1,800 bar, significantly reducing the concentration of PM in emissions. DENSO’s new injectors can perform five injections during each combustion stroke. The five times multiple injections, including pilot injection with a predetermined small fuel quantity, reduce PM and NOx in emissions, and achieve quietness at idling equivalent to gasoline-powered engines. The high fuel injection pressure is generated by the supply pump, which is the lightest in the world for passenger car common rail systems.

diesel engine

2011-11-12T10:02:00.002-08:00

internal combustion engines designed to convert the chemical energy available in fuel into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy moves pistons up and down inside cylinders. The pistons are connected to a crankshaft, and the up-and-down motion of the pistons, known as linear motion, creates the rotary motion needed to turn the wheels of a car forward. Both diesel engines and gasoline engines covert fuel into energy through a series of small explosions or combustions. The major difference between diesel and gasoline is the way these explosions happen. In a gasoline engine, fuel is mixed with air, compressed by pistons and ignited by sparks from spark plugs. In a diesel engine, however, the air is compressed first, and then the fuel is injected. Because air heats up when it's compressed, the fuel ignites. The diesel engine uses a four-stroke combustion cycle just like a gasoline engine. The four strokes are: Intake stroke -- The intake valve opens up, letting in air and moving the piston down. Compression stroke -- The piston moves back up and compresses the air. Combustion stroke -- As the piston reaches the top, fuel is injected at just the right moment and ignited, forcing the piston back down. Exhaust stroke -- The piston moves back to the top, pushing out the exhaust created from the combustion out of the exhaust valve. Remember that the diesel engine has no spark plug, that it intakes air and compresses it, and that it then injects the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (direct injection). It is the heat of the compressed air that lights the fuel in a diesel engine. In the next section, we'll examine the diesel injection process.

New Turbocharger Ball Bearing Technology

2011-11-12T09:54:00.002-08:00

September 4, 2009 --The Comp Turbo CT3B turbocharger is relatively new on the scene, is dynamite in a small package and has a bearing system that utilizes the latest in ball bearing technology. Racing applications need turbochargers that accelerate at the fastest possible rate and the CT3B bearing system allows it to do just that. The acceleration rate of a turbocharger is a function of the rotor inertia and the friction losses in the bearing system. Conventional bearing systems have floating sleeve bearings that have an inner and outer oil film fed by lube oil under pressure from the engine lubricating system. They also must employ a stationary thrust bearing that is also fed by lube oil under pressure from the engine. The friction loss attributed to a stationary thrust bearing is proportional to the fourth power of the radius and can amount to several horsepower at the high speed at which turbochargers operate. The oil films in conventional sleeve bearing systems have significant viscosity that produces appreciable friction losses due to oil film shear when the turbocharger rotor accelerated and running at high speed. The friction losses in the sleeve bearings and in the thrust bearing result in mechanical efficiencies in the middle 90% range in conventional turbochargers. There is little or no oil film shear in ball bearings which operate with rolling friction only so that the CT3B accelerates much faster than turbochargers using sleeve bearings systems. The CT3B bearing system is a proprietary design that is unique in the industry. It utilizes full compliment, angular contact ball bearings with ceramic balls. Compared with steel balls, ceramic balls in ball bearings have a number of advantages. Bearing service life is two to five times longer. They run at lower operating temperatures and allow running speeds to be as much as 50% higher. The surface finish of ceramic balls is almost smooth, producing lower friction losses and lower vibration levels. There is less heat buildup during high speed operation, they exhibit reduced ball skidding and have a longer fatigue life. All these characteristics make ceramic ball bearings ideal for use in turbochargers where they must operate at very high speeds and survive in a high temperature environment. The Full compliment bearings do now use a cage to position the balls and this additional feature, combined with the ceramic material provides a combination that has minimal friction losses. The mechanical efficiency of the CT3B turbo can approach 99%, and this contributes to rotor acceleration rates that have been shown to be faster than competition. The angular contact bearings are mounted in an elongated steel cylinder that is free to rotate in the bearing housing. The outside diameter of the cylinder is fed with lube oil and this outer oil film provides a cushion against shock and vibration. Two angular contact bearings are mounted in tandem on the compressor end of the cylinder in an arrangement that carries rotor thrust in both axial directions. A single angular contact bearing is slid ably mounted under pre- load on the turbine end of the cylinder and is free to move axially with shaft elongation when heat is conducted down the shaft from the hot turbine wheel. The elongated steel cylinder containing the angular contact bearings represents complete bearing system and can be inserted and/or removed as an assembly making the CT3B turbocharger fully upgradeable, serviceable and re-buildable. Racing Applications require a turbocharger that builds boost as rapidly as possible, thus allowing the engine develop high torque at low engine speeds and with boost capability that can produce very high maximum power output .The CT3B turbocharger does exactly that. For example when mounted on one dragster, the CT3B produced 1.7 bar boost in two tenths of a second and developed 650 HP ready for takeoff. Now that’s phenomenal response and very impressive. In street applications, the acceleration rate of a vehicle equipped with a CT3B turbocharger is enhanced and moves the engine out of inefficient operating regimes more rapidly. An improvement in number of gallons of fuel used is the usual result when a vehicle is accelerated faster. Under steady-state operation, the lower HP losses in the CT3B ball bearing system means power is available to the turbocharger compressor which results in higher intake manifold pressure. In most cases, higher boost can make an additional contribution to improving engine fuel consumption. Comp Turbo can supply the CT3B turbocharger with various compressors and turbine wheel trims to tailor its performance so that it matches specific engine application requirements; whether they be racing, street or stationary. In addition, the CT3B will be followed in the near future by other model sized now under development at Comp Turbo. These new models will utilize the proprietary technology that has been designed into the successful CT3B to complete a line of high performance turbochargers utilizing the many advantages of ceramic ball bearings. They will also accelerate like greased lightning to produce the ultimate in engine and vehicle response

2 stroke engine

2011-11-12T06:58:00.005-08:00

Stroke: Either the up or down movement of the piston from the top to the bottom or bottom to top of the cylinder (So the piston going from the bottom of the cylinder to the top would be 1 stroke, from the top back to the bottom would be another stroke) Induction: As the piston travels down the cylinder head, it 'sucks' the fuel/air mixture into the cylinder. This is known as 'Induction'. Compression: As the piston travels up to the top of the cylinder head, it 'compresses' the fuel/air mixture from the carburetor in the top of the cylinder head, making the fuel/air mix ready for igniting by the spark plug. This is known as 'Compression'. Ignition: When the spark plug ignites the compressed fuel/air mixture, sometimes referred to as the power stroke. Exhaust: As the piston returns back to the top of the cylinder head after the fuel/air mix has been ignited, the piston pushes the burnt 'exhaust' gases out of the cylinder & through the exhaust system. Transfer Port: The port (or passageway) in a 2 stroke engine that transfers the fuel/air mixture from the bottom of the engine to the top of the cylinder

4 stroke engine

2011-11-12T06:58:00.004-08:00

Four Stroke Engine The four stroke engine was first demonstrated by Nikolaus Otto in 1876 hence it is also known as the Otto cycle. The technically correct term is actually four stroke cycle. The four stroke engine is probably the most common engine type nowadays. It powers almost all cars and trucks. The four strokes of the cycle are intake, compression, power, and exhaust. Each corresponds to one full stroke of the piston; therefore, the complete cycle requires two revolutions of the crankshaft to complete. Intake During the intake stroke, the piston moves downward, drawing a fresh charge of vaporized fuel/air mixture. The illustrated engine features a poppet intake valve which is drawn open by the vacuum produced by the intake stroke. Some early engines worked this way; however, most modern engines incorporate an extra cam/lifter arrangement as seen on the exhaust valve. The exhaust valve is held shut by a spring (not illustrated here). Otto compression stroke Compression As the piston rises, the poppet valve is forced shut by the increased cylinder pressure. Flywheel momentum drives the piston upward, compressing the fuel/air mixture. Otto power stroke Power At the top of the compression stroke, the spark plug fires, igniting the compressed fuel. As the fuel burns it expands, driving the piston downward. Otto exhaust stroke Exhaust At the bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened by the cam/lifter mechanism. The upward stroke of the piston drives the exhausted fuel out of the cylinder. Ignition System This animation also illustrates a simple ignition system using breaker points, coil, condenser, and battery. A number of visitors have written to point out a problem with the breaker points in my illustration. In this style ignition circuit, the spark plug will fire just as the breaker points open. The illustration appears to have this backwards. In fact, the illustration is correct; it just moves so fast it's difficult to see! Here's a close-up of the frames just at the point the plug fires:

5 stroke engine

2011-11-12T06:57:00.002-08:00

Ilmor Engineering, the firm made famous for its work with Indy Cars and Formula One, as well as Triumph Motorcycles and Harley Davidson plus GM, Honda and Mercedes have built an engine that will make you think for a bit, it's a 700cc, 3 cylinder, 130 horsepower turbocharged 5 stroke. Did they say 5 stroke? The 2 outboard cylinders are the high pressure (HP) fired cylinders while the center low pressure (LP) cylinder makes extra use of the exhaust gases. The point of this design is to enable the expansion and compression strokes to be decoupled. The effective expansion ratio is 14.5:1, almost diesel territory, converting the maximum thermal energy into work. The compression ratio can be reduced, delaying knock, without a decrease in performance. The extra expansion stroke of the LP cylinder is, effectively, the 5th stroke. Fuel consumption and emissions levels are similar to that of current diesel engines, without the serious problem of particulate and NOx emissions which plague diesels. Fuel consumption is decreased by 10% over conventional 4 stroke operation. The entire engine is built using conventional technology, no new manufacturing technology or processes are needed. This is more than a computer model, the running prototype is being dyno tested with a second development engine planned for in-vehicle testing. Just when you think the internal combustion engine has pretty well emptied the bag of tricks, a little creative thinking comes along and gets higher fuel efficiency and lower weight than equivalent engines by adding another stroke to the process. So now we have 2, 4, 5 and even 6 strokes. Very impressive engineering, I like it.

Chassis

2011-10-29T08:45:00.000-07:00

A chassis is an underlying supporting structure – such as a skeleton in an animal, or the metal frame in a television on which the circuit boards and other components are mounted. In a motor vehicle, a traditional chassis gave the vehicle structural strength as well as a platform on which to mount the engine, the wheels, the transmission, and all the other mechanical components. Also bolted onto this frame was the body, or coachwork. Originally made of wood, the vehicle chassis soon became an open steel ladder-frame structure. A separate chassis is still the preferred structural basis for commercial vehicles, which are often sold without a body at all but with the running gear mounted to a chassis only, or in a 'cowl-and-chassis' or 'cab-and-chassis' configuration so that specialized bodies can be fitted to them for different purposes. Body-on-frame used to be the preferred way of building passenger vehicles too, because it allowed new models of vehicles with different body styles to be released without having to retool most of the mechanical and structural components. In the 1960s, most manufacturers switched to vehicle designs which either partially or wholly integrated the bodywork into a single unit with the chassis so that the body became part of the structure of the vehicle rather than just an external skin. The idea of a single shell – or 'monocoque' – design was first used in aircraft, then spread to automobiles, and became popular with manufacturers because with less of a chassis component it was both quicker to manufacture and lighter in weight, therefore costing less in both material and labor. The spot-welded unit body process, known as 'Unibody', is the predominant vehicle construction technology today. High performance racing cars today have no chassis at all, their structural strength coming from their light, stiff, and stable body shells molded from newer lightweight materials such as carbon fiber reinforced plastics.

Turbine engine

2011-10-29T08:41:00.001-07:00

Turbine engines produce thrust by increasing the velocity of the air flowing through the engine. A turbine engine consists of an air inlet, compressor, combustion chambers, turbine section, and exhaust. Figure 1: Basic components of a turbine engine. The turbine engine has the following advantages over a reciprocating engine: less vibration, increased aircraft performance, reliability, and ease of operation. Types of turbine engines Turbine engines are classified according to the type of compressors they use. The compressor types fall into three categories—centrifugal flow, axial flow, and centrifugal-axial flow. Compression of inlet air is achieved in a centrifugal flow engine by accelerating air outward perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the machine. The axial-flow engine compresses air by a series of rotating and stationary airfoils moving the air parallel to the longitudinal axis. The centrifugalaxial flow design uses both kinds of compressors to achieve the desired compression. The path the air takes through the engine and how power is produced determines the type of engine. There are four types of aircraft turbine engines—turbojet, turboprop, turbofan, and turboshaft. Turbojet The turbojet engine contains four sections: compressor, combustion chamber, turbine section, and exhaust. The compressor section passes inlet air at a high rate of speed to the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber contains the fuel inlet and igniter for combustion. The expanding air drives a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the compressor, sustaining engine operation. The accelerated exhaust gases from the engine provide thrust. This is a basic application of compressing air, igniting the fuel-air mixture, producing power to self-sustain the engine operation, and exhaust for propulsion. Turbojet engines are limited on range and endurance. They are also slow to respond to throttle applications at slow compressor speeds. Turboprop A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives a propeller through a reduction gear. The exhaust gases drive a power turbine connected by a shaft that drives the reduction gear assembly. Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines because optimum propeller performance is achieved at much slower speeds than the engine’s operating r.p.m. Turboprop engines are a compromise between turbojet engines and reciprocating powerplants. Turboprop engines are most efficient at speeds between 250 and 400 m.p.h. and altitudes between 18,000 and 30,000 feet. They also perform well at the slow airspeeds required for takeoff and landing, and are fuel efficient. The minimum specific fuel consumption of the turboprop engine is normally available in the altitude range of 25,000 feet to the tropopause. Turbofan Turbofans were developed to combine some of the best features of the turbojet and the turboprop. Turbofan engines are designed to create additional thrust by diverting a secondary airflow around the combustion chamber. The turbofan bypass air generates increased thrust, cools the engine, and aids in exhaust noise suppression. This provides turbojet-type cruise speed and lower fuel consumption. The inlet air that passes through a turbofan engine is usually divided into two separate streams of air. One stream passes through the engine core, while a second stream bypasses the engine core. It is this bypass stream of air that is responsible for the term “bypass engine.” A turbofan’s bypass ratio refers to the ratio of the mass airflow that passes through the fan divided by the mass airflow that passes through the engine core. Turboshaft The fourth common type of jet engine is the turboshaft. It delivers power to a shaft that drives something other than a propeller. The biggest difference between a turbojet and turboshaft engine is that on a turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the expanding gases is used to drive a turbine rather than produce thrust. Many helicopters use a turboshaft gas turbine engine. In addition, turboshaft engines are widely used as auxiliary power units on large aircraft. Performance comparison It is possible to compare the performance of a reciprocating powerplant and different types of turbine engines. However, for the comparison to be accurate, thrust horsepower (usable horsepower) for the reciprocating powerplant must be used rather than brake horsepower, and net thrust must be used for the turbine-powered engines. In addition, aircraft design configuration, and size must be approximately the same. BHP Brake horsepower is the horsepower actually delivered to the output shaft. Brake horsepower is the actual usable horsepower. Net Thrust The thrust produced by a turbojet or turbofan engine. THP Thrust horsepower is the horsepower equivalent of the thrust produced by a turbojet or turbofan engine. ESHP Equivalent shaft horsepower, with respect to turboprop engines, is the sum of the shaft horsepower (SHP) delivered to the propeller and the thrust horsepower (THP) produced by the exhaust gases. Figure 2: Engine net thrust versus aircraft speed and drag. Figure 2 shows how four types of engines compare in net thrust as airspeed is increased. This figure is for explanatory purposes only and is not for specific models of engines. The four types of engines are: Reciprocating powerplant. Turbine, propeller combination (turboprop). Turbine engine incorporating a fan (turbofan). Turbojet (pure jet). The comparison is made by plotting the performance curve for each engine, which shows how maximum aircraft speed varies with the type of engine used. Since the graph is only a means of comparison, numerical values for net thrust, aircraft speed, and drag are not included. Comparison of the four powerplants on the basis of net thrust makes certain performance capabilities evident. In the speed range shown to the left of Line A, the reciprocating powerplant outperforms the other three types. The turboprop outperforms the turbofan in the range to the left of Line C. The turbofan engine outperforms the turbojet in the range to the left of Line F. The turbofan engine outperforms the reciprocating powerplant to the right of Line B and the turboprop to the right of Line C. The turbojet outperforms the reciprocating powerplant to the right of Line D, the turboprop to the right of Line E, and the turbofan to the right of Line F. The points where the aircraft drag curve intersects the net thrust curves are the maximum aircraft speeds. The vertical lines from each of the points to the baseline of the graph indicate that the turbojet aircraft can attain a higher maximum speed than aircraft equipped with the other types of engines. Aircraft equipped with the turbofan engine will attain a higher maximum speed than aircraft equipped with a turboprop or reciprocating powerplant. Turbine engine instruments Engine instruments that indicate oil pressure, oil temperature, engine speed, exhaust gas temperature, and fuel flow are common to both turbine and reciprocating engines. However, there are some instruments that are unique to turbine engines. These instruments provide indications of engine pressure ratio, turbine discharge pressure, and torque. In addition, most gas turbine engines have multiple temperature-sensing instruments, called thermocouples, that provide pilots with temperature readings in and around the turbine section. Engine pressure ratio An engine pressure ratio (EPR) gauge is used to indicate the power output of a turbojet/turbofan engine. EPR is the ratio of turbine discharge to compressor inlet pressure. Pressure measurements are recorded by probes installed in the engine inlet and at the exhaust. Once collected, the data is sent to a differential pressure transducer, which is indicated on a cockpit EPR gauge. EPR system design automatically compensates for the effects of airspeed and altitude. However, changes in ambient temperature do require a correction to be applied to EPR indications to provide accurate engine power settings. Exhaust gas temperature A limiting factor in a gas turbine engine is the temperature of the turbine section. The temperature of a turbine section must be monitored closely to prevent overheating the turbine blades and other exhaust section components. One common way of monitoring the temperature of a turbine section is with an exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gauge. EGT is an engine operating limit used to monitor overall engine operating conditions. Variations of EGT systems bear different names based on the location of the temperature sensors. Common turbine temperature sensing gauges include the turbine inlet temperature (TIT) gauge, turbine outlet temperature (TOT) gauge, interstage turbine temperature (ITT) gauge, and turbine gas temperature (TGT) gauge. Torquemeter Turboprop/turboshaft engine power output is measured by the torquemeter. Torque is a twisting force applied to a shaft. The torquemeter measures power applied to the shaft. Turboprop and turboshaft engines are designed to produce torque for driving a propeller. Torquemeters are calibrated in percentage units, foot-pounds, or pounds per square inch. N1 indicator N1 represents the rotational speed of the low pressure compressor and is presented on the indicator as a percentage of design r.p.m. After start the speed of the low pressure compressor is governed by the N1 turbine wheel. The N1 turbine wheel is connected to the low pressure compressor through a concentric shaft. N2 indicator N2 represents the rotational speed of the high pressure compressor and is presented on the indicator as a percentage of design r.p.m. The high pressure compressor is governed by the N2 turbine wheel. The N2 turbine wheel is connected to the high pressure compressor through a concentric shaft. Figure 3: Dual-spool axial-flow compressor. Turbine engine operational considerations Because of the great variety of turbine engines, it is impractical to cover specific operational procedures. However, there are certain operational considerations that are common to all turbine engines. They are engine temperature limits, foreign object damage, hot start, compressor stall, and flameout. Engine temperature limitations The highest temperature in any turbine engine occurs at the turbine inlet. Turbine inlet temperature is therefore usually the limiting factor in turbine engine operation. Thrust variations Turbine engine thrust varies directly with air density. As air density decreases, so does thrust. While both turbine and reciprocating powered engines are affected to some degree by high relative humidity, turbine engines will experience a negligible loss of thrust, while reciprocating engines a significant loss of brake horsepower. Foreign object damage Due to the design and function of a turbine engine’s air inlet, the possibility of ingestion of debris always exists. This causes significant damage, particularly to the compressor and turbine sections. When this occurs, it is called foreign object damage (FOD). Typical FOD consists of small nicks and dents caused by ingestion of small objects from the ramp, taxiway, or runway. However, FOD damage caused by bird strikes or ice ingestion can also occur, and may result in total destruction of an engine. Prevention of FOD is a high priority. Some engine inlets have a tendency to form a vortex between the ground and the inlet during ground operations. A vortex dissipater may be installed on these engines. Other devices, such as screens and/or deflectors, may also be utilized. Preflight procedures include a visual inspection for any sign of FOD. Turbine engine hot/hung start A hot start is when the EGT exceeds the safe limit. Hot starts are caused by too much fuel entering the combustion chamber, or insufficient turbine r.p.m. Any time an engine has a hot start, refer to the AFM, POH, or an appropriate maintenance manual for inspection requirements. If the engine fails to accelerate to the proper speed after ignition or does not accelerate to idle r.p.m., a hung start has occurred. A hung start, may also be called a false start. A hung start may be caused by an insufficient starting power source or fuel control malfunction. Compressor stalls Compressor blades are small airfoils and are subject to the same aerodynamic principles that apply to any airfoil. A compressor blade has an angle of attack. The angle of attack is a result of inlet air velocity and the compressor’s rotational velocity. These two forces combine to form a vector, which defines the airfoil’s actual angle of attack to the approaching inlet air. A compressor stall can be described as an imbalance between the two vector quantities, inlet velocity and compressor rotational speed. Compressor stalls occur when the compressor blades’ angle of attack exceeds the critical angle of attack. At this point, smooth airflow is interrupted and turbulence is created with pressure fluctuations. Compressor stalls cause air flowing in the compressor to slow down and stagnate, sometimes reversing direction. Figure 4: Comparison of normal and distorted airflow into the compressor section. Compressor stalls can be transient and intermittent or steady state and severe. Indications of a transient/intermittent stall are usually an intermittent “bang” as backfire and flow reversal take place. If the stall develops and becomes steady, strong vibration and a loud roar may develop from the continuous flow reversal. Quite often the cockpit gauges will not show a mild or transient stall, but will indicate a developed stall. Typical instrument indications include fluctuations in r.p.m., and an increase in exhaust gas temperature. Most transient stalls are not harmful to the engine and often correct themselves after one or two pulsations. The possibility of engine damage, which may be severe, from a steady state stall is immediate. Recovery must be accomplished quickly by reducing power, decreasing the airplane’s angle of attack and increasing airspeed. Although all gas turbine engines are subject to compressor stalls, most models have systems that inhibit these stalls. One such system uses variable inlet guide vane (VIGV) and variable stator vanes, which direct the incoming air into the rotor blades at an appropriate angle. The main way to prevent air pressure stalls is to operate the airplane within the parameters established by the manufacturer. If a compressor stall does develop, follow the procedures recommended in the AFM or POH. Flameout A flameout is a condition in the operation of a gas turbine engine in which the fire in the engine unintentionally goes out. If the rich limit of the fuel/air ratio is exceeded in the combustion chamber, the flame will blow out. This condition is often referred to as a rich flameout. It generally results from very fast engine acceleration, where an overly rich mixture causes the fuel temperature to drop below the combustion temperature. It also may be caused by insufficient airflow to support combustion. Another, more common flameout occurrence is due to low fuel pressure and low engine speeds, which typically are associated with high-altitude flight. This situation also may occur with the engine throttled back during a descent, which can set up the lean-condition flameout. A weak mixture can easily cause the flame to die out, even with a normal airflow through the engine. Any interruption of the fuel supply also can result in a flameout. This may be due to prolonged unusual attitudes, a malfunctioning fuel control system, turbulence, icing or running out of fuel. Symptoms of a flameout normally are the same as those following an engine failure. If the flameout is due to a transitory condition, such as an imbalance between fuel flow and engine speed, an airstart may be attempted once the condition is corrected. In any case, pilots must follow the applicable emergency procedures outlined in the AFM or POH. Generally, these procedures contain recommendations concerning altitude and airspeed where the airstart is most likely to be successful.

VVT-i, VVTL-i, Dual VVT-i, VVT-iE

2011-10-29T08:31:00.000-07:00

VVT-i, or Variable Valve Timing with intelligence, is an automobile variable valve timing technology developed by Toyota, similar in performance to the BMW’s VANOS. The Toyota VVT-i system replaces the Toyota VVT offered starting in 1991 on the 5-valve per cylinder 4A-GE engine. The VVT system is a 2-stage hydraulically controlled cam phasing system. VVT-i, introduced in 1996, varies the timing of the intake valves by adjusting the relationship between the camshaft drive (belt, scissor-gear or chain) and intake camshaft. Engine oil pressure is applied to an actuator to adjust the camshaft position. Adjustments in the overlap time between the exhaust valve closing and intake valve opening result in improved engine efficiency.[1] Variants of the system, including VVTL-i, Dual VVT-i, VVT-iE, and Valvematic, have followed. There are a couple of ways by which car manufacturer's vary the valve timing. The most well known system is the VTEC which is used on some of the Honda engines. Other systems which some of you might not have heard of are: VarioCam/VarioCam Plus which is used on some of the Porsche engines, MIVEC(Mitsubishi Innovative Valve timing and lift Electronic Control) which is used on the Mitsubishi engines, VVT-i(Variable Valve Timing with Intelligence) and now VVTL-i (Variable Valve Timing and Lift with Intelligence) which is being used on the current Toyota and some Lexus engines, VVL(Variable Valve Lift) which is used on the Nissan engines and also featured in the 350Z is the CVTCS (Continuously Variable Valve Timing System) VANOS(Variable Onckenwellen Steuerung) which is used in the BMW engines and also the Double VANOS system on the new 3 Series and they are many more similar systems used by manufacturers such as Ford, Lamborghini and even Ferrari. What do all these Vs have in common? Well, in case you don't already know (or haven't yet guessed despite the monster hint in the article's title), the V stands for valves or, more specifically, variable valve timing. Before you can appreciate how important valve timing is, you have to understand how it relates to engine operation. Remember that an engine is basically a glorified air pump and, as such, the most effective way to increase horsepower and/or efficiency is to increase an engine's ability to process air. There are a number of ways to do this that range from altering the exhaust system to upgrading the fuel system to installing a less-restrictive air filter. Since an engine's valves play a major role in how air gets in and out of the combustion chamber, it makes sense to focus on them when looking to increase horsepower and efficiency. This is exactly what Honda, Toyota and BMW and quite a number of other manufacturer's have done in recent years. By using advanced systems to alter the opening and closing of engine valves, they have created more powerful and clean burning engines that require less fuel and are relatively small in displacement. Before we take a look at each of these variable valve-timing systems, let's rehash how valve timing normally works. Until recently, a manufacturer used one or more camshafts (plus some pushrods, lifters and rocker arms) to open and close an engine's valves. The camshaft/camshafts was turned by a timing chain that connected to the crankshaft. As engine rpm's rose and fell, the crankshaft and camshaft would turn faster or slower to keep valve timing relatively close to what was needed for engine operation. Unfortunately, the dynamics of airflow through a combustion chamber change radically between 2,000 rpm and 6,000 rpm. Despite the manufacturer's best efforts, there was just no way to maximize valve timing for high and low rpm with a simple crankshaft-driven valve train. Instead, engineers had to develop a "compromise" system that would allow an engine to start and run when pulling out of the driveway but also allow for strong acceleration and highway cruising at 70+ mph. Obviously, they were successful. However, because of the "compromise" nature of standard valve train systems, few engines were ever in their "sweet zone," which resulted in wasted fuel and reduced performance. Variable valve timing has changed all that. By coming up with a way to alter valve timing between high and low rpm's, Honda, Toyota and BMW and many more manufacturer's can now tune valve operation for optimum performance and efficiency throughout the entire rev range. Honda was the first to offer what it called VTEC in its Acura-badged performance models like the Integra GS-R and NSX (it has since worked its way into the Prelude and even the lowly Civic). VTEC stands for Variable Valve Timing and Lift Electronic Control. It basically uses two sets of camshaft profiles-one for low and mid-range rpm and one for high rpm operation. An electronic switch shifts between the two profiles at a specific rpm to increase peak horsepower and improve torque. As a VTEC driver, you can both hear and feel the change when the VTEC "kicks in" at higher rpm levels to improve performance. While this system does not offer continuously variable valve timing, it can make the most of high rpm operation while still providing solid drivability at lower rpm levels. Honda is already working on a three-step VTEC system that will further improve performance and efficiency across the engine rpm range. The camshaft in a pushrod engine is often driven by gears or a short chain. Gear-drives are generally less prone to breakage than belt drives, which are often found in overhead cam engines. Toyota saw the success Honda was having with VTEC (from both a functional and marketing standpoint) but decided to go a different route. Instead of the on/off system that VTEC employs, Toyota decided it wanted a continuously variable system that would maximize valve timing throughout the rpm range. Dubbed VVTi for Variable Valve Timing with intelligence (Is this a dig at Honda, suggesting their system isn't intelligent?), Toyota uses a hydraulic rather than mechanical system to alter the intake cam's phasing. The main difference from VTEC is that VVTi maintains the same cam profile and alters only when the valves open and close in relation to engine speed. Also, this system works only on the intake valve while VTEC has two settings for the intake and the exhaust valves, which makes for a more dramatic gain in peak power than VVTi can claim. Ferrari has a really neat way of doing this. The camshafts on some Ferrari engines are cut with a three-dimensional profile that varies along the length of the cam lobe. At one end of the cam lobe is the least aggressive cam profile, and at the other end is the most aggressive. The shape of the cam smoothly blends these two profiles together. A mechanism can slide the whole camshaft laterally so that the valve engages different parts of the cam. The shaft still spins just like a regular camshaft, but by gradually sliding the camshaft laterally as the engine speed and load increase, the valve timing can be optimized. Several other manufacturers, including Ford, Lamborghini and Porsche have jumped on the cam phasing bandwagon because it is a relatively cheap method of increasing horsepower, torque and efficiency. BMW has also used a cam phasing system, called VANOS (Variable Onckenwellen Steuerung) for several years. Like the other manufacturers, this system only affected the intake cams. But, as of 1999, BMW is offering its Double VANOS system on the new 3 Series. As you might have guessed, Double VANOS manipulates both the intake and exhaust camshafts to provide efficient operation at all rpm's. This helps the new 328i, equipped with a 2.8-liter inline six, develop 193 peak horsepower and 206 pound-feet of torque. More impressive than the peak numbers, however, is the broad range of useable power that goes along with this system. Several engine manufacturers are experimenting with systems that would allow infinite variability in valve timing. For example, imagine that each valve had a solenoid on it that could open and close the valve using computer control rather than relying on a camshaft. With this type of system, you would get maximum engine performance at every RPM. Something to look forward to in the future! To close these series of articles on camshafts, you can see that as the benefits of variable valve timing used on cams become more apparent to both consumers and manufacturers, you can expect to see it on just about every vehicle sold in the world. I suspect that in five years, variable valve timing will be like ABS or side-impact beams: only really cheap cars won't have it.

history of automobile

2011-10-29T08:26:00.000-07:00

1770: Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built a three wheeled steam powered wagon. An example is preserved at the Musee des Arts et Metiers, Paris.
1801: Richard Trevithick built a steam powered coach. (His later 1803 carriage had a road accident.)
1861, UK: Speed limits of 10mph (16km/h) in the country and 5mph (8km/h) in town were imposed on powered vehicles.
1865, UK: Speed limits were lowered to 4mph (country) and 2mph (town) and a man on foot and carrying a red flag had to precede each vehicle by 60 yards, esp. to warn those with horses. (After 1878 the man on foot no longer needed to carry a flag.)
1884: Starley and Sutton invent the Rover Safety Cycle (bicycle); the company later developed into Rover cars.
1885: Karl Benz (1844-1929) built a motorised tricycle driven by an oil-spirit internal combustion engine in 1885. This is widely held to be the first successful motor vehicle.
1885: Gottlieb Daimler (1834-1900) built a motorised bicycle in 1885 and a 4-wheel motor carriage in 1886.
1892 August 26: Rudolf Diesel filed a patent application for 'a method of apparatus for converting heat into work,' US letters patent #542,846, 16 July 1895, and, filed 15 July 1895, 'internal combustion engine' #608,845, 9 August 1898 -- the compression-ignition, "diesel" engine.
1896, UK: Speed limits on light [road-] locomotives were raised from 4mph to 14mph and they no longer needed to be preceded by a man on foot. The first London to Brighton run was held in celebration.
1898: The World Land Speed Record was set at 63.15km/h (39.24mph) by Gaston the Comte de Chasseloup-Laubat driving a Jeantaud electric car [Geo00].
1898: The Renault Voiturette type A.
1898: Latil (France) made front wheel drive units and then 4x4.
1898: Tatra started manufacturing.
1899: Camille Jenatzy and de Chasseloup-Laubat traded the Land Speed Records until Jenatzy raised it to 105.88km/h (65.75mph) driving the electric La Jamais Contente [Geo00]. The car survives at the Compiegne Musee de la Voiture (Automobile Museum).
1899: Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino (Fiat) was formed.
1899: August Horch began a car company carrying his own surname in 1899; it evolved into Auto-Union and eventually Audi.
1900: Ferdinand Porsche's La Toujours Contente had battery-power with four electric motors, one at each wheel. (He later patented the Mixte transmission in which a petrol engine drove a dynamo and electric motors drove the wheels. It was too expensive for the day.)
1900: Puch's first car.
1901: Volume imports of cars began into Australia starting with De Dion Boutons.
1902: Leon Serpollet raised the Land Speed Record to 120.8km/h (75.06mph) in the Easter Egg Gardner-Serpollet steam car [Geo00].
1902: Mercedes registered as a trademark. March 1, 1902, the first 40hp Mercedes Simplex ever built was supplied to Emil Jellinek in Nice. It was named after Jellinek's daughter.
1902: Charles Stewart Rolls starts up C.S. Rolls and Co., later Rolls Royce.
1902: Spyker featured a 6-cylinder engine and four wheel drive!
1902: Minerva started making cars.
1903: Ford, Model A.
1904: The Federation International de l'Automobile (FIA) was founded.
1904: Rover 8hp.
1906: Societa Italinana Automobili Darracq (SIAD) founded; it later became Alfa Romeo (about 1921).
1906: Vincenzo Lancia released his first car.
1906: Fred Marriott, driving a Stanley steam car, at Daytona, raised the World Land Speed record to 121.57mph [NT98] over 1km; his speed of 127.66mph over one mile was not recognised internationally. (Also see Aug. 2009.)
1907: Felix and Norman Caldwell of South Australia applied for a patent for four wheel drive with four wheel steering; they went on to build Caldwell Vale 4x4 trucks with Henry Vale.
1907: The Peking to Paris car race was won by an Itala [Bar72].
08
A 1908 Itala.
1908: "General Motors (GM) was formed in the USA in 1908 when William C. (Billy) Durant brought Oldsmobile and Buick together to form General Motors Company. A year later, Cadillac and Oakland (which became Pontiac in 1932) marques joined General Motors." --GM.
1908: Ford Model-T production began.
1908: Harry Dutton and Murray Aunger drove from Adelaide to Darwin in a 25hp Talbot.
1909: Bugatti built his first car.
1911: FWD sold its first 4x4.
1911: First Indianapolis 500 race.
1913: Jeffrey Quad 4x4 truck went into production.
1913: Bamford and Martin Ltd founded; later became Aston Martin.
1914: The Society Anonima Officine Alfieri Maserati, Bologna, was created by the Maserati brothers.
1915: Big Lizzie road train (.au).
1917: First Oshkosh four wheel drive truck.
1919: Bentley founded.
1921: DKW - scooters first.
1922: Citroen half-tracks crossed the Sahara, leaving from Touggourt in Algeria.
1922: Baby Austin 7.
1922: Swallow Sidecar Company founded; later became Jaguar cars in 1945.
1923, May 26-27: First 24 hour race at Le Mans, won by Andre Lagache and Rene Leonard in a Chenard & Walcker at 92.06 km/h.
1924: Ernest Eldridge (GB), driving the Fiat special Mephistopheles (below) fitted with a 21.7-litre Fiat airship engine, set a Land Speed Record of 234.98km/h (146.01mph).
M at speed, more recently
1924: The first MG car was built - on a modified Morris Oxford chassis.
1924, December 28: Citroen half-tracks left to traverse Africa.
1925: Chrysler founded.
1927: Henry Segrave driving the "1000hp" Sunbeam raised the World Land Speed Record to over 200mph --FIA.
1927: Model-T production ended; 15 million Model Ts had been built from 1908 to 1927.
1927-1928: Francis Birtles drove a Bean car from England to Melbourne taking 10 months.
1928: Malcolm Campbell, driving Bluebird with a 950hp Napier engine, raised the World Land Speed Record to 206.96mph.
1929: AEC started to build AWD trucks in conjunction with FWD (UK).
1929: Henry Segrave driving the Golden Arrow raised the World Land Speed Record to 231.36mph (327.34km/h) -- FIA.
1929: First Monaco Grand Prix was won by Williams in a Bugatti -- FIA.
1931: Bentley taken over by Rolls Royce.
1931-1932: Citroen-Haardt expedition, using Citroen half-tracks, followed part of Marco-Polo's route from Beirut to Beijing.
1932: Audi became part of Auto-Union, with DKW, Horch and Wanderer.
1932: Miller 4x4 racing cars at Indianapolis.
1934: AEC road train (one of three built) was brought to Australia. It consisted of an 8×8 prime-mover and two 8-wheel self-tracking trailers.
1934: Dodge started building 4WD trucks (-George Miles).
1934: Prototype PX-33 four wheel drive car built for the Japanese government; the car did not go into production (Mitsubishi). Thanks to Balazs Toth.
1935: Malcolm Campbell in Bluebird raised to raised the World Land Speed Record to 301.129mph (484.620km/h) -- FIA.
1936: Toyota's first production car, the AA.
1937: Svenska Aeroplan Aktiebolaget, aircraft factory founded, later became Saab.
1937: ‘Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des deutschen Volkswagens mbH’, Company for the Development of the German People's Car (VW), was registered [Hop71].
1938: GAZ 61 - Russian 4x4.
1940: The Jeep specifications were issued. 1940-1941: Bantam built 2700 light 4x4s, early "Jeeps".
1941-1945: Ford and Willys-Overland built 700,000 General Purpose vehicles for WWII. GP became Jeep.
1946, October 10: Unimog introduced (- H. J. Feil); also see 1951.
1948: Series-1 Land-Rover released.
1948: Porsche's first car had a 1086cc 30kW VW engine.
1948: Jaguar XK120 launched.
1948: Holden 48-215.
1948: Ford released the 1st of the F-Series vehicles.
1950: The Ford GPA, or amphibious Jeep, Half Safe was "driven" across the Atlantic ocean by Ben and Elinore Carlin. This is true!
1950: VW Transporter lays down the foundations of the hippy era.
1950: The first round of the inaugural FIA Formula One (F1) World Championship was held at Silverstone on 13 May; the seven-race season included Monaco, Switzerland, Belgium, France, Italy and the Indianapolis 500. "Nino" Farina, driving an Alfa Romeo 158, won the first race, and the championship.
1951: First Toyota Landcruiser was built under the BJ Jeep name. The LandCruiser name came in 1954.
1951: Daimler Benz ("Mercedes") took over Unimog; also see 1948.
1952: Suzuki's first motorcycle.
1952 March 12: Launch of the racing sports car version of the Mercedes Benz 300SL (of the gullwing doors).
1953: The first Redex Reliability Trial was held. Competitors had two weeks to cover 11,000km taking them around Australia. Ken Tubman and John Marshall won in a Peugeot 203.
1954-1956: The amphibious Jeep La Tortuga "drove" from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego.
1955-1956: London to Singapore Overland (except for the Channel!) in 2×Land-Rovers.
1955: Suzuki's first car.
1955: The wonderful Goggomobil.
1955 December 5: The 8 mile Preston by Pass (part of the M6) opened -- the UK's first stretch of motorway. The first stretch of the M1 opened on 2 November 1959 -- AA.
1958: First Toyota LandCruisers imported into Australia.
1959: BMC Mini went on sale.
1959: Haflinger by Steyr-Daimler-Puch.
1960: A Jeep and a Land-Rover traversed the Darien Gap.
1960: Ford Falcon XK.
1960: The first British traffic wardens took up duty in September.
1961: Jaguar E-type unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show.
1961: Stirling Moss drove a Ferguson Project 99 (P99) with the Ferguson 4WD system to victory in the Oulton Park Gold-Cup race.
1964, 17 July: Donald Campbell in Bluebird (4WD) raised the World Land Speed Record to 403mph at Lake Eyre, Australia.
1964: Porsche 911, it went on to become a classic.
1964: Mini Moke went on sale.
1965: VW bought Audi.
1965: Craig Breedlove in the jet car Spirit of America set a World Land Speed Record of 600.601mph (966.574km/h) -- FIA.
1966: The Jensen FF road car had Formula Ferguson 4WD and Dunlop Maxaret anti-lock brakes (ABS).
1967, January 4: Donald Campbell (1921-1967) was killed while attempting to raise the world water speed record to over 300mph on Coniston Water, uk.
1969: Ferrari joined the Fiat group.
1969, 20 July: The lunar module, Eagle, from Apollo 11 landed on the moon carrying Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin.
1970: Range Rover released - luxury full-time 4WD.
1971: Lunar rover "car" on the moon in the Apollo 15 mission.
1971: Ford Falcon XY ute 4WD (.au).
1971-1972: British Trans-Americas Range Rover expedition. The Darien Gap was the most difficult section.
1974: Subaru Leone 4x4 car.
1978 August: The .au Gvmt introduced import parity pricing for local oil and petrol reached au$0.21/litre [the Age p.5 1/1/2009] -- $0.95 per (imperial) gallon.
petrol au$0.21/l
1979: AMC produced the Eagle 4x4 car.
1981: The specifications for the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) was issued; later known as the Humvee or Hummer.
1981: Audi revolutionized rallying with the Quattro 4WD rally car.
1981: Porsche showed the Porsche 911 AWD concept car at the Frankfurt Motor Show.
1983: Land-Rover 110, coil-sprung, full-time 4WD.
1983: Richard Noble, driving the jet car Thrust2, raised the World Land Speed Record to 1019.47km/h (633.468mph), Black Rock Desert, 4/10/83 [NT98].
1984: A Porsche 911 AWD won the Paris Dakar rally.
1986: Porsche 959 AWDs finished 1, 2 and 6 in the Paris Dakar rally.
1992: McLaren F1 rewrote the super-car rule book.
1993: Maserati was bought by Fiat from de Tomaso.
1994: BMW bought Rover Group from BAe.
1996: Lotus was taken over by Proton.
1996: The new Jeep Wrangler got coil springs.
1997: Thrust SSC, driven by Andy Green, broke the sound barrier and raised the World Land Speed Record to 1227.985kph (763.035mph), Mach 1.0175 under the prevailing conditions [NT98].
1998: Bentley bought by VW. Is nothing sacred? BMW pulled a swifty and bought the Rolls Royce name.
1998: Bugatti name bought by VW.
1998: Chrysler and Mercedes-Benz merged to form DaimlerChrysler (splitting up again in 2007).
1999: Volvo cars sold to Ford.
2000: Ford bought LandRover, and Phoenix took over MG - Rover from BMW.
2001: BMW put the retro. new Mini on sale in Europe (.au in 2002).
2001 July: Rolls-Royce and Bentley Motor Cars announced details of the last Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph model to commemorate 97 years of Rolls-Royce cars; production ends with 2001. VW continued to build Bentleys but future Rolls Royces were to be built at BMW's new factory.
2002: Rolls-Royce became pure BMW, and Bentley pure Volkswagen.
2008: Crude oil rose as high as us$147/barrel in July before falling to the us$30s at year's end as the global financial crisis bit.
ULP au$1.00 to $1.70/l
2008: Needing cash, Ford sold Jaguar and LandRover to Tata of India.
2009, January 29: The Skycar, a "buggy" fitted with a parafoil wing, flew the Straits of Gibraltar en route from Paris to Tombouctou (Timbuktu).
2009: General Motors (GM) and Chrysler passed into bankruptcy and were restructured, the latter forming an alliance with Fiat. VW and Porsche began a merger.
2009, August 25 & 26: The British Steam Car raised the Land Speed Record for a steam powered car to 139.843mph and 148.308mph over the measured mile and kilometer respectively. (See 1906.)
2010, August 24: The Venturi Buckeye Bullet 2.5 streamliner (Ohio State Univ., Venturi Automobile), driven by Roger Schroer, set a Land Speed Record for a battery powered electric vehicle of 495.526 km/h (307.905mph) for 1km, 495.140 km/h (307.666mph) for 1 mile -- FIA (A.8.3).

References
[Bar72] L. Barzini, Peking to Paris, Alcove Press, 1972, edited and reprinted from the 1907 original.
[Geo00] N. Georgano (ed), The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile (2 vols.), The Stationary Office, London, 2000.
[Hop71] K. B. Hopfinger, The Volkswagen Story, G.T.Foulis & co., 1971.
[NT98] R. Noble & D. Tremayne, THRUST Through the Sound Barrier, Partridge 1998.
See motoring books.

Diesel Injection Pump

2011-10-29T08:20:00.001-07:00

First thing's first: Pull the valve cover. I find that unscrewing the three 10 mm bolts that hold in the cruise control actuator and moving it over allows for easy replacement of the valve cover, for what it's worth. Then remove the fan blad and shroud from the bay by means of the four 10mm nuts that hold the fan in place. This will give you enough "swinging" room for turning the engine over by hand. Use a 27mm socket (a 1-1/8" works, also) on a small extension, 1/2" drive for turning the crank over by hand, and never go backwards. OK, this is all familiar from the valve adjustment routine.

To pull the pump, remove all lines attached. There is one fuel line banjo bolt on the block-side of the pump, one fuel line banjo bolt on the fender-side, and oil-feed line on the fender-side, and the fuel suply that goes to the priming pump and then from the pump to the main filter. I usually leave the two that run from the filter attached to the pump, and just removing them from the filter block. Remove the oil-feed from the pump, and this will allow easy access to the first nut you will remove. It is a 13mm, and there are three of them. The bottom is the easiest, I think. Just lay barely under the front of the car, reach your hand up there with a gear wrench, and feel for it. It's easy. To get to the top one, I use a 13mm deep-wall on a 6-inch extension on a U-joint on a 3/8" drive socket wrench. It's not to tough. And the middle one (blocked earlier by the oil-feed) can only be had by an open-ended wrench.

The final attachment is held in the back. It is a royal PITA to get to, and I have made a mock-up replacement. You will almost HAVE to use a gear wrench for it (it makes life a LOT easier). Once that is off, go under the car, and remove the support bracket that mounts to the block at the rear of the pump (held on by two 13mm bolts). Once all of this stuff is disconnected, you can remove the pump with the filter housing in place by sliding it straight back and upwards at the same time. I have heard it is sometimes necessary to remove the rack dampener pin, but I have never had to do so, and I have done this job probably around 11 or 12 times.

Once the pump is out, you will need to put your new one in. Crank the engine over many times by hand to get everything "settled". I doubt this does anything at all, but it's a mental thing for me (OK, so I'm crazy ;-). Look on the cam shaft near the front of the engine where it slides through the first bearing mount. You will see a tick mark. Turn the engine over until the stationary tick mark and the mobile tick mark are lined up. Your harmonic balancer should read at 0* TDC. Crank the engine around again, passing TDC once (that will be the exhaust stroke), and stop at 24* BEFORE TDC the second time. The tick mark on the cam should be just shy of reaching the TDC marker.

With the engine at this time setting, you will shoot the pump in. Take a 3/4" wrench for socket wrench, and as you look upon the nut on the front of the injection pump, turn it clockwise, making several resolutions. Then crank it, and again, only clockwise, until the spot with a missing tooth lines up with the dash mark that is set about 15* behind 12:00. It is easy for it to move out of time, so you must be gentle with the reinstallation.

Slide the collar that came off out of the engine with the pump over the sprocket on the pump. There is no special way to do this... just slide it on without turning anything. Piece of cake. Then, gently lower the pump into the engine, frontside going down first at an angle, and let it slide into place. Tighten it down at a random position with the nuts (NOT the rear bolt) and connect the feed lines. Pump the hand-priming pump to hell, and vent off your fuel filter so that there is NO more air in the system. Crank the engine over by hand, and see if fuel comes out of the feed lines. If it does, great. If not, reconnect your fuel injection lines, and pull the socket wrench of the engine. Then, disconnect your glow plug relay, go in your car, and hit the starter a few times to build some pressure in the lines without starting the engine. Go remove the line #1 injection line, and soak up the diesel in the port with the corner of a shop rag, being careful not to leave lint or anything behind. Then crank the engine over by hand, monitoring that first port. When you just BARELY start to see fuel well up in it, stop. Look at your degree marker. If it is at 24* BTDC, then your perfect, though I hear running at 26* can offer a little more low-end power. To advance, loosen the three nuts, and tilt the pump AWAY from the block with a cheater bar of some sort. Two people help this to be done a little more easily, as one can hold the cheater bar in place while the other tightens the pump. The lines will act as a memory-spring that can be a pain to deal with. If you want, remove all the lines (which is what I prefer).

car sound systems

2011-07-29T22:13:00.000-07:00

Many people just spend too much and in some cases go into debt. What can make this particular situation worse is that people go into debt for a system they realize they do not even like. First, figure out how much money there is available to spend. Then decide how much of the car audio system needs to be replaced. At this point plan a budget - how much can you afford to spend? Therefore you can locate system components in your price range. Deciding what is most important in the car audio system and plan to spend more on the important items. Going over budget is the first and most common mistake car audio system buyers make.Another thing to consider is how much of the car is going to need to be modified for your potential choices. For example, some speaker installation will require many modifications to be made to the car. Modifications will need to be made by a professional and therefore you will have to budget into the total cost of the car audio system parts as well as labor. Another car audio systems mistake is that the owner of the car does not think about the future. How long are you going to keep the car for? Will you sell the car with the new audio system or will you remove it before sale? Remember audio systems never increase the value of a car enough to balancewhat was spent on the audio system in the first place. Also, if you plan on remove the system before you sell the car that could be problematic. Having a radio and an audio system are high priorities when people are searching for a new car to buy.

When and for what do you use the car for? If the car sees a lot of use as well as wear and tear, then buying higher quality components like the car speakers is a great idea. Understandably, if you are spending more time in your car then at home you want to make sure it is as comfortable and entertaining as possible. However, if the car is only used for weekly shopping, low end parts are more appropriate.Another car audio system mistake people make is choosing a system, which is not appropriate for the type of music they listen too. This is probably the most important factor, which should influence the choice of the right car audio system. If the music that you enjoy is strong, bass beats then a high-end
power amplifier is needed. In addition, subwoofers would also be a good choice. However, if your music choice is at the opposite end of the music range then you will need a different audio system setup. For example, if you listen to classical music or trendy pop music, you will need to get a car audio that has a strong speaker system that offer even play of the sound spectrum.

EFI Systems

2011-07-29T22:05:00.000-07:00

EZ-EFI Self Tuning Electronic Fuel Injection

For years racers have known that FAST fuel injection systems are an excellent choice for their high revving, nitrous oxide, supercharger and turbocharger equipped rides. The FAST classic and XFI systems have also found their way onto many street machines. Though these systems served their users well, the Engineering team at FAST saw that many didn't have a need for the advanced functionality of the XFI systems, nor did they want to undergo a more lengthy install which may require them to replace their intake manifold and ignition systems.

Many prospective user's reasons for making the switch to EFI are the result of a desire to get the throttle response, mileage and power benefits that result from the ability to maintain the precise air to fuel ratios an electronic fuel injection system is able to deliver. In addition to delivering the aforementioned benefits, the FAST EZ-EFI systems also put an end to changing jets every time the weather and/or altitude changes.

While competing systems employ 20 year old OEM technology ECU's, awkward, costly and fragile mass air sensors, and narrow band O2 sensors (great for mileage, but not helpful for tuning for power), the FAST EZ-EFI offers dyno proven performance that may only be obtained from a wideband O2 equipped, speed density EFI system. Only the EZ-EFI system is worthy to wear the FAST brand name. In addition to its technical advantages, all FAST efi products are backed by the resources of the COMP performance group. If you were ever to have a question about, or problem with an EZ EFI product you can be assured that you will receive the service and support you need.

The EZ-EFI features an all new, patent-pending, self tuning control strategy. Simply hook it up, answer the basic setup Wizard questions on the included hand-held display and watch the system tune itself as you drive. Countless research and development hours were spent on a number of prototype test vehicles to develop a high-quality system truly worthy of the FAST brand.

Capable of supporting engines making up to 550 horsepower, the FAST EZ-EFI Self Tuning Fuel Injection System is a complete system which includes an ECU, wide-band oxygen sensor, wiring harness, fuel injectors, optional fuel pump kit and other assorted components, including an innovative 4150 flange Throttle Body. This Throttle Body delivers a total package approach for any 4150 (Holley square bore) type intake manifold. All necessary components are provided with the EZ-EFI kit, including appropriate fuel injectors and fuel rails. In addition, the EZ-EFI system works with original carb-style throttle linkage and is ready to accept all OEM sensors.

Installation of an EZ-EFI system can be completed easily in an afternoon and doesn’t require any EFI experience or expertise.