MEDICAL INFORMATION

FOOD POISONING

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Food poisoning may cause significant vomiting and caused by a bacterial toxin. Symptoms begin within a couple hours of eating contaminated or poorly prepared food and may last for 1-2 days. Sources of food poisoning include Clostridium botulinum.

NAUSEA AND VOMITING

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Nausea and vomiting are symptoms of an underlying disease and not a specific illness. Nausea is the sensation that the stomach wants to empty itself, while vomiting (emesis) or throwing up, is the act of forcible emptying of the stomach. Vomiting is a violent act in which the stomach has to overcome the pressures that are normally in place to keep food and secretions within the stomach. The stomach almost turns itself inside out - forcing itself into the lower portion of the esophagus (the tube that connects the mouth to the stomach) during a vomiting episode.

MALARIA TREATMENT

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There factors determine treatments: the infecting species of Plasmodium parasite, the clinical situation of the patient (for example, adult, child, or pregnant female with either mild or severe malaria), and the drug susceptibility of the infecting parasites. Drug susceptibility is determined by the geographic area where the infection was acquired. Different areas of the world have malaria types that are resistant to certain medications. The correct drugs for each type of malaria must be prescribed by a doctor who is familiar with malaria treatment protocols. Since people infected with P. falciparum malaria can die (often because of delayed treatment), immediate treatment for P. falciparum malaria is necessary.

MALARIA DIAGNOSED

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Clinical symptoms associated with travel to countries that have identified malarial risk (listed above) suggest malaria as a diagnosis. Malaria tests are not routinely ordered by most physicians so recognition of travel history is essential. Unfortunately, many diseases can mimic symptoms of malaria (for example, yellow fever. Consequently, physicians need to order the correct special tests to diagnose malaria, especially in industrialized countries where malaria is seldom seen. Without the travel history, it is likely that other tests will be ordered initially. In addition, the long incubation periods may tend to allow people to forget the initial exposure to infected mosquitoes. The classic and most used diagnostic test for malaria is the blood smear on a microscope slide that is stained (Giemsa stain) to show the parasites inside red blood cells

INCUBATION PERIOD FOR MALARIA

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Period between the mosquito bite and the onset of the malarial illness is usually one to three weeks (seven to 21 days). This initial time period is highly variable as reports suggest that the range of incubation periods may range from four days to one year. The usual incubation period may be increased when a person has taken an inadequate course of malaria prevention medications. Certain types of malaria (P. vivax and P. ovale) parasites can also take much longer, as long as eight to 10 months, to cause symptoms. These parasites remain dormant (inactive or hibernating) in the liver cells during this time. Unfortunately, some of these dormant parasites can remain even after a patient recovers from malaria, so the patient can get sick again. This situation is termed relapsing malaria.

MALARIA A PARTICULAR PROBLEM

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Malaria is a particular problem and a major one in areas of Asia, Africa, and Central and South America. Unless precautions are taken, anyone living in or traveling to a country where malaria is present can get the disease. Malaria occurs in about 100 countries; approximately 40% of the world population is at risk for contracting malaria. To get information on countries that have current malaria infection problems, the CDC (Centers for Disease Control) has a constantly updated web site that lists the problem areas in detail and malaria co-infection is a significant problem across Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Research suggests that malaria and HIV co-infection can lead to worse clinical outcomes in patients. It seems that co-infections enhance the disease process of both pathogens.

MALARIA

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Malaria fever is an infectious disease caused by a parasite, which infects red blood cells. Malaria is characterized by cycles of fever, pain, and sweating. Historical records suggest malaria has infected humans since the beginning of mankind. The name "mal aria" (meaning "bad air" in Italian) was first used in English in 1740 by H. Walpole when describing the disease. The term was shortened to "malaria" in the 20th century. C. Laveran in 1880 was the first to identify the parasites in human blood. In 1889, R. Ross discovered that mosquitoes transmitted malaria. Of the four common species that cause malaria, the most serious type is Plasmodium falciparum malaria. It can be life-threatening. However, another relatively new species, Plasmodium knowlesi, is also a dangerous species that is typically found only in long-tailed and pigtail macaque monkeys. Like P. falciparum, P. knowlesi may be deadly to anyone infected. The other three common species of malaria (P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. ovale) are generally less serious and are usually not life-threatening. It is possible to be infected with more than one species of Plasmodium at the same time. about 2 million deaths per year worldwide are due to Plasmodium infections. The majority occur in children under 5 years of age in sub-Saharan African countries. There are about 400 million new cases per year worldwide. Most people diagnosed in the U.S. obtained their infection outside of the country, usually while living or traveling through an area.

TREATMENT FOR TYPHOID FEVER

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Take antibiotics and supportive care, mortality has been reduced to 1%-2%. With appropriate antibiotic therapy, there is usually improvement within one to two days and recovery within seven to 10 days. Several antibiotics are effective for the treatment of typhoid fever. The original drug of choice for many years. Because of rare serious side effects, chloramphenicol has been replaced by other effective antibiotics. The choice of antibiotics needs to be guided by identifying the geographic region where the organism was acquired and the results of cultures once available. (Certain strains from South America show a significant resistance to some antibiotics.) Cipro is the most frequently used drug in the U.S. for nonpregnant patients. Ceftriaxone (Rocephin), an intramuscular injection medication, is an alternative for pregnant patients. Ampicillin Omnipen, Polycillin, Principen and (Bactrim, Septra) are frequently prescribed antibiotics although resistance has been reported in recent years. If relapses occur, patients are retreated with antibiotics. The carrier state, which occurs in 3%-5% of those infected, can be treated with prolonged antibiotics. Often, removal of the gallbladder, the site of chronic infection, will cure the carrier state.

HISTORY OF TYPHOID FEVER

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An acute illness associated with fever that is most often caused by the Salmonella typhi bacteria. It can also be caused by Salmonella paratyphi, a related bacterium that usually leads to a less severe illness. The bacteria are deposited in water or food by a human carrier and are then spread to other people in the area. Typhoid fever is rare in industrial countries but continues to be a significant public-health issue in developing countries. The incidence of typhoid fever in the United States has markedly decreased since the early 1900s. Today, approximately 400 cases are reported annually in the United States, mostly in people who recently have endemic areas. This is in comparison to the 1920s, when over 35,000 cases were reported in the U.S. This improvement is the result of improved environmental sanitation. Mexico and South America are the most common areas for U.S. citizens to contract typhoid fever. Pakistan, and Egypt are also known high-risk areas for developing this disease. Worldwide, typhoid fever affects more than 13 million people annually, with over 500,000 patients dying of the disease.

Exam of Medical

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Funfair of Nishtar Medical College

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Treatment for kidney stones

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Many kidney stones eventually pass through the urinary tract on their own within 24 to 48 hours, with ample fluid intake. Anti-inflammatory drug, and narcotics may be used for pain control when over-the-counter pain-control medications are not effective. Intravenous pain medications can be given when nausea and vomiting are present. There are no proven home remedies to dissolve kidney stones, home treatment may be considered for patients who have a known history of kidney stones. Since most kidney stones, given time, will pass through the ureter to the bladder on their own, treatment is directed toward control of symptoms. Home care in this case includes the consumption of plenty of fluids. Advil may be used as an anti-inflammatory medication if there is no contraindication to its use. If further pain medication is needed, stronger narcotic pain medications may be recommended. There are several factors which influence the ability to pass a stone. These include the size of the person, prior stone passage, prostate enlargement, pregnancy, and the size of the stone. A 4 mm stone has an 80% chance of passage while a 5 mm stone has a 20% chance. Stones larger than 9 mm-10 mm rarely pass without specific treatment. Some medications have been used to increase the passage rates of kidney stones. These include calcium channel blockers such as Adalat, Procardia, Afeditab, Nifediac and alpha blockers such as tamsulsoin. These drugs may be prescribed to some people who have stones that do not rapidly pass through the urinary tract. For kidney stones that do not pass on their own, a procedure called lithotripsy is often used. In this procedure, shock waves are used to break up a large stone into smaller pieces that can then pass through the urinary system.

Diagnosed of kidney stones

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Diagnosis of kidney stones is suspected by the typical pattern of symptoms when other possible causes of the abdominal or flank pain are excluded. Imaging tests are usually done to confirm the diagnosis. C.T Scan without contrast material is the most common test to detect stones or obstruction within the urinary tract. Formerly, an X-ray of the abdomen along with the administration of contrast dye into the bloodstream) was the test most commonly used to detect urinary tract stones, but this test has a greater risk of complications, takes longer, and involves higher radiation exposure than the non-contrasted helical C.T Scan. Helical CT scans have been shown to be a significantly more effective diagnostic tool than the IVP in the diagnosis of kidney or urinary tract stones.

Causes of kidney stones

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Kidney stones form when there is a decrease in urine volume and or an excess of stone-forming substances in the urine. The most common type of kidney stone contains calcium in combination with either oxalate or phosphate. Other chemical compounds that can form stones in the urinary tract include uric acid. Obstruction to the flow of urine can also lead to stone formation. In this regard, climate may be a risk factor for kidney stone development, since residents of hot and dry areas are more likely to become dehydrated and susceptible to stone formation. A number of different medical conditions can lead to an increased risk for developing kidney stones:

Risk of kidney stones

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Patient may develop a kidney stone, but people with certain diseases and conditions or those who are taking certain medications are more susceptible to their development. It is estimated that one out of every 10 people in the U.S. will develop stones in the urinary tract at some point in their lives. Most urinary stones develop in people 20-49 years of age, and those who are prone to multiple attacks of kidney stones usually develop their first stones during the second or third decade of life. In residents of industrialized countries, kidney stones are more common than stones in the bladder. The opposite is true for residents of developing areas of the world, where bladder stones are the most common. This difference is believed to be related to dietary factors. Urinary tract stones are about three times more common in males than in females. The prevalence of kidney stones begins to rise when men reach their 40s, and it continues to climb into their 70s. A Caucasian male has a one in eight chance of developing a kidney stone by age 70. People who have already had more than one kidney stone are prone to developing further stones. A family history of kidney stones is also a risk factor for developing kidney stones. Kidney stones are more common in Asia, America & Afruca. Uric acid kidney stones are more common in people with chronically elevated uric acid levels in their blood.

Kidney stone

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Kidney stone is very hard, mineral material formed within the kidney or urinary tract. Kidney stones are a common cause of hematuria and often severe pain in the abdomen, flank, or groin. Kidney stones are sometimes called renal calculi. Condition of having kidney stones is termed nephrolithiasis. Having stones at any location in the urinary tract is used to refer to stones located in the ureters.

Medical University/ Colleges in Pakistan with Address

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King Edward Medical University, Nelagumbad, Anarkali, Lahore, Pakistan, 54000 Ph : 9211145-54, Email : kemcol@brain.net.pk,
Website : www.kemc.edu

Allama Iqbal Medical College, Allama Shabbir Ahmad Usmani Road. Lahore - 54550. Pakistan Ph : 92-42) 9231480, 92-42) 9231443
Fax : (92-42) 9231442, Email : peoaimc@yahoo.com,
Website : www.iqbalians.com

Nishtar Medical College, Nishtar Road, 60000 Multan, Punjab, Ph : 92 61 725 147,
Website : www.nmc.edu.pk

Ayub Medical College, Karakoram Highway, Abbottabad-22040, Pakistan. Ph : 92-(992)-381907
Fax : 92-(992)-382321 Email : ayubmed@ayubmed.edu.pk,
Website : www.ayubmed.edu.pk

Aga Khan University Medical College, Stadium Road, P.O. Box 3500, Karachi 74800, Pakistan. Ph : 92 21 493 0051
Fax : 92 21 493 4294, 493 2095 Email : fhs@aku.edu,
Website : http://www.aku.edu/medicalcollege

Altamash Institute of Dental Medicine, 2-R Sunset Boulevard, Defence Housing Authority 75500, Pakistan. Ph : 9221-5872000-5874070
Fax : 9221-5874074
Website : www.altamash.edu.pk

Abbottabad International Medical College, Opposite CMH (Family Wing) Mansehra Road Abbottabad, Ph : 92 992 341439,
Fax : 92 992 331716 Army Medical College, Abid Majid Road Rawalpindi Cantt Pakistan 46000 Ph : 92-51-56130457 (3 lines)
Fax : 92-51-5581085 Email : info@amcolians.net Baqai Medical University, 51, Deh Tor, Gadap Road, Near Toll Plaza, Super Highway P.O Box No 2407, Karachi - 74600, Pakistan. Ph : (092-21)4410-293 to 298, Email : info@baqai.edu.pk,
Website : www.baqai.edu.pk

CMH Lahore Medical College, Abdur Rehman Road, Lahore Cantt., Pakistan. Ph : 92 42 660 5550-1, 92 42 610 6022 Email : info@cmhlahore.edu.pk
Website : www.cmhlahore.edu.pk

College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan, 7th Central Street, Defence Housing Authority, Karachi -75500, Pakistan Ph : 021-9207100 – 10 lines
Fax : 021-9207120 Email : administration@cpsp.edu.pk,
Website : www.cpsp.edu.pk

Chandka Medical College, Larkan, Sindh, Pakistan Ph : 074-9410715, Email : principal@cmc.edu.pk,
Website : www.cmc.edu.pk

Dow University of Health Sciences, Baba-E-Urdu Road P.O.BOX # 942,943 Karachi 74200- Pakistan Ph : (021)9215754-7, Email : info@duhs.edu.pk,
Website : www.duhs.edu.pk

Fatima Jinnah Medical College For Women, 16 College Block Allama Iqbal Town, Lahore Ph : 9203718,
Website : www.fjmc.edu.pk

Fatima Jinnah Dental College, Am-1/B,Blk-D Bhittai Colony, Korangi Creek Karachi-31(74900) Ph : 0333-3751881, 0321-2599571, 5111963-4,
Website : www.fjdc.edu.pk

Fatima Memorial Hospital College of Medicine & Dentistry, Shadman, Lahore Ph : (92-42)-111-555-600 ext 505, 417
Fax : (92-42)-7570586 Frontier Medical College, P.O. Public School, Mansehra Road, Abbottabad - Pakistan Ph : 92-0992-383568/ 383561/ 380190 / 381027
Fax : 0992-381053, Email : info@fmc.edu.pk,
Website : www.fmc.edu.pk

Foundation University Medical College, Defence Mall, Jinnah Avenue,DHA Phase - I. Rawalpindi, Pakistan Ph : 92-51-5788171, 5788250
Fax : 92-51-5788582 Email : fumc@fui.edu.pk,
Website : www.fui.edu.pk

Gandhara University, Kabir Medical College/GIMS, 57-Gulmohar Lane, University Town, Peshwar, Pakistan Pabx : 92-91-844429-32,
Fax : 92-91-844428, Email : gandhara@brain.net.pk,
Website : http://www.gandhara.edu.pk

Sardar Begum Dental College, 46-E, Jamal Uddin Afghani Road, University Town, Peshwar Pakistan Ph : 92-91-844429-32,
Fax : 92-91-844428, Email : gandhara@brain.net.pk, Hamdard University, Hamdard College of Medicine and Dentistry (HCMD), Sharae Madinat Al-Hikmah, Muhammad Bin Qasim Avenue, Karachi, 74600 Ph : (9221) 6440035-42,
Fax : (9221) 6440045,
Website : www.hamdard.edu.pk/hcmd.html

Isra University, Margalla Institute of Health Sciences Margallah Medical College, Quaid-e-Azam Avenue, Gulraiz Phase III, Near High Court Building, Rawalpindi, Pakistan Ph. : 92-51-5509817, 5509518,
Fax : 92-51-5509810, Email : Margalla@isb.comsats.net.pk,
Website : www.margalla.com

Jinnah Medical and Dental College, 22-23 Shaheed-e-Millat Road Karachi, Pakistan Ph : (92-21) 4938031 - 2,Fax : (92-21) 4938035, Email : studentaffair@jmc.edu.pk,
Website : www.jmc.edu.pk

Karachi Medical & Dental College, New Campus, Permanent site, Block-M, North Nazimabad Ph : 6628373/8353,
Fax : 6628353,
Website : www.kmdc.edu.pk

Liaquat College of Medicine &Dentistry, St - 19, Block - 15, Gulistan-e-Jauhar, Karachi Ph : 92-21-461-0271,
Fax : 92-21-461-0276, Email : lcmd@cyber.net.pk,
Website : www.lcmd.edu.pk

Lahore Medical & Dental College, Canal Bank North Tulspura, Lahore 53400 Ph : 92 42 6582201-6
Fax : 92 42 6582208,
Website : www.lmdc.edu.pk

Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences, Jamshoro, Sindh-Pakistan Ph : 92-22-2772-230,
Fax : 92-22-2772-827,
Website : www.lumhs.edu.pk

Peshawar Medical College, Warsak Road Peshawar NWFP Pakistan 25160 Ph : 92(091)5200982, 92(091)5200983
Fax : 92(091)5200980 Email : pmc@prime.edu.pk,
Website : www.prime.edu.pk

Punjab Medical College Sardogha Road, Faisalabad Ph :0092-41-9210080,
Fax : 0092-41-9210081, Email : pmcupdate@yahoo.com, Webiste : www.pmc.edu.pk

Quaid-e-Azam Medical College, Circular Road, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. Ph : 884289,

Specimen of Stones

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Chest Pain Diagnosed

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Chest pain to diagnosis remains history. Learning about the nature of the pain will give the healthcare provider direction as to what are reasonable diagnoses to consider, and what are reasonable to exclude. Understanding the quality and quantity of the pain, its associated symptoms and the risk factors for disease, can help the care provider assess the probability of what potential diagnoses should be considered and which should be discarded. Differential diagnosis is a thought process that healthcare providers use to consider and then eliminate potential causes for an illness. As more information is gathered, either from history and physical examination or testing, the potential diagnosis list is narrowed until the final answer is achieved. As well, the patient's response to therapy can expand or narrow the differential diagnosis list. In patients with chest pain, many potential diagnoses may exist, and the healthcare provider will want to first consider those that are life-threatening. Tests to rule out heart attack, pulmonary embolus, or aortic dissection may not be necessary; when clinical skill and judgment may be all that is needed to consider or discard a diagnosis. Patient may be asked a variety of questions to help the healthcare provider understand the patient's pain. Patients use different words to describe pain, and it is important that the healthcare provider get an accurate impression of the situation.

Chest Pain

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Chest pain is one of the most common complaints that will bring a patient to the Emergency Department. Seeking immediate care may be lifesaving, and considerable public education has been undertaken to get patients to access medical care when chest pain strikes. While the patient may be worried about a heart attack, there are many other causes of pain in the chest that the healthcare provider will need to consider. Some diagnoses are life threatening, while others are less dangerous. Deciding the cause of chest pain is sometimes very difficult and may require blood tests, x-rays,C.T scan and other tests to sort out the diagnosis. Often though, a careful history taken by the healthcare provider may be all that is needed to find the answer.

T.B Bacteria

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A person can become infected with tuberculosis bacteria when he or she inhales minute particles of infected from the air. The bacteria get into the air when someone who has a tuberculosis lung infection coughs, sneezes, shouts, or spits (which is common in some cultures). People who are nearby can then possibly breathe the bacteria into their lungs. You don't get TB by just touching the clothes or shaking the hands of someone who is infected. Tuberculosis is spread (transmitted) primarily from person to person by breathing infected air during close contact. There is a form of atypical tuberculosis, however, that is transmitted by drinking unpasteurized milk. Related bacteria, called Mycobacterium bovis, cause this form of TB. Previously, this type of bacteria was a major cause of TB in children, but it rarely causes TB now since most milk is pasteurized.

T.B

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T.B (Tuberculosis) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. It was first isolated in 1882 by a German physician named Robert Koch who received the Nobel Prize for this discovery. TB most commonly affects the lungs but also can involve almost any organ of the body. Many years ago, this disease was referred because without effective treatment, these patients often would waste away. Today, of course, tuberculosis usually can be treated successfully with antibiotics. There is also a group of organisms referred to as atypical tuberculosis. These involve other types of bacteria that are in the family. Often, these organisms do not cause disease and are referred to as "colonizers" because they simply live alongside other bacteria in our bodies without causing damage. At times, these bacteria can cause an infection that is sometimes clinically like typical tuberculosis. When these atypical mycobacteria cause infection, they are often very difficult to cure. Often, drug therapy for these organisms must be administered for one and a half to two years and requires multiple medications.

Test of HIV

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The commonly used HIV tests detect HIV antibodies – the substances the body creates in response to becoming infected with HIV. There are tests that look for HIV's genetic material or proteins directly; these may also be used to find out if someone has been infected with HIV.It can take some time for the immune system to produce enough antibodies for the antibody test to detect, and this “window period” between infection with HIV and the ability to detect it with antibody tests can vary from person to person. During this time, HIV viral load and the likelihood of transmitting the virus to sex or needle-sharing partners may be very high. HIV tests are sent to a laboratory for testing, and it can take a week or two before the test results are available. There are also rapid HIV tests available that can give results in as little as 20 minutes. A positive HIV test result means that a person may have been infected with HIV.

HIV AIDS

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HIV Aids is the human immunodeficiency virus. It is the virus that can lead to acquired immune deficiency syndrome. In United States contracted HIV 56,000 people in 2006. Two types of HIV, HIV-1 and HIV-2. In the United States, unless otherwise noted, the term “HIV” primarily refers to HIV-1. Some types of HIV damage a person’s body by destroying specific blood cells, called CD4+ T cells, which are crucial to helping the body fight diseases. Within a few weeks of being infected with HIV, some people develop flu-like symptoms that last for a week or two, but others have no symptoms at all. People living with HIV may appear and feel healthy for several years. However, even if they feel healthy, HIV is still affecting their bodies. All people with HIV should be seen on a regular basis by a health care provider experienced with treating HIV infection. Many people with HIV, including those who feel healthy, can benefit greatly from current medications used to treat HIV infection. These medications can limit or slow down the destruction of the immune system, improve the health of people living with HIV, and may reduce their ability to transmit HIV. Untreated early HIV infection is also associated with many diseases including cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, liver disease, and cancer. Support services are also available to many people with HIV. These services can help people cope with their diagnosis, reduce risk behavior, and find needed services.

Treatment of hepatitis C

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Treatment of hepatitis C, other tests may be carried out. These include liver function tests, which measure substances in the patient’s blood, showing how effectively the liver is working. A liver biopsy may also be carried out. A fine hollow needle is passed through the skin into the liver and a small sample is taken. The sample is then examined under a microscope to gauge the amount of liver damage. Treatment combines the antiviral drugs interferon and ribavirin. Although treatment has improved in recent years, the success rates vary depending on which genotype the patient has and how long they have had hepatitis C. year of 2011, the FDA approved a new drug called Victrelis When taken alongside existing drugs, Victrelis cured more than 60 percent of patients in clinical trials compared to between 20-40 percent of patients when existing drugs were taken alone. Unlike other drugs for hepatitis C, Victrelis is a protease inhibitor, similar to those used to treat HIV. Adherence to this drug is essential to prevent drug resistance.