Exam Updates

What is Computers, Generation, computer System, basic features, types of Computer Language?

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Sat, 8 Jul 2023 07:19:00 -0700

Introduction to Computers

Today, Computer play an important role in our day-to-day life. In fact, we are dependent on computers to a great extent. Computers have made our lives easier, be it railway or airline reservation, movie tickets, telephone and electricity bills, hospitals - the list of computer usage is endless.

For example, earlier we had to stand in long queues to book our tickets at the ticket counter but now we can book tickets in a few minutes through the internet.

Although computer is more informed and more intelligent than man, still it cannot work without our instructions. It cannot perform any task without us. The computer needs to be given a set of instructions to perform a particular task.

Before we proceed to the working of a computer, let us first recall the journey of computers through different generations.

Generation of Computers

Over the past few decades, computers have evolved depending on our requirements. This growth is referred to as 'Generation of Computers.' Each generation of computers is characterized by a major technological development that changed the way computers operate. This resulted in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, more efficient and reliable devices.

1. First Generation: The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for money and were often extremely large in size, occupying an entire room. They were also noisy and created pollution.

2. Second Generation: Components used were transistors. The transistors were far superior to vacuum tubes, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than the first-generation computers. These were also the first computers that stored instructions in their memory which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

3. Third Generation: In this generation of computers, components used were Integrated Circuits. The transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

4. Fourth Generation: In this generation, components used were micro-processors. Thousands of integrated circuits were built on to a single silicon chip.

5. Fifth Generation: The fifth generation infused intelligence into computers called Artificial Intelligence. This is today's generation of computers and devices are still being developed. There are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today to give commands to these computers.

Computer Systems and Their Basic Features

Computer systems are categorized based on the size, cost and performance. The most common and most popular computer system we know today is Personal Computer (PC), also known as desktop computer. A PC is small in size and is capable of doing various things. It can be used for performing multiple tasks at a time. PCs are designed to be used by one person at a time.

Mobile computers are a kind of personal computers/ microprocessors that are small and light enough for a person to carry from one place to another. These are divided into following categories:

1. Laptop: It is a portable computer which can be carried from place to place. It has a small alphanumeric keyboard and an LCD computer screen, which can be folded and transported easily. It is designed in a notebook shape in the flip form factor to protect the screen and keyboard when closed.

2. Ultrabook: It is a very thin and light laptop.

3. Tablet: It is like a laptop or ultrabook computer but without the keyboard. We can operate a tablet via touchscreen.

4. Smartphone: A mobile phone with internet connectivity is known as smartphone. We operate it via touchscreen. Voice calling, text messages and camera are some of the important features of a smartphone.

Another type of computer system is Mini Computer, which is a small, general-usage computer. It is more expensive than a pc, has relatively high processing power and more storage capacity. A Mini Computer is designed for multiple users, i.e. more than one person can work on it at the same time.

Mainframe is another form of computer system, which is more powerful than a Mini Computer. It is very expensive as its performing capability is very high. These are typically used by large organizations as they have large scale data for processing, such as web servers.

The largest, fastest, most accurate and the most expensive of all types of computer systems in the world are Supercomputers. These are mostly used for scientific and defence applications.

Game Consoles are devices which are used to play video games. The player interacts with the game through a controller, a hand held device with buttons and joysticks. Video and sound are received through a television. For example, Xbox and Sony Playstation.

Embedded computers are not stand alone computers. These are incorporated into some other device. All the applications having digital interface use embedded systems. For example, digital camera, washing machine, microwave, cars, watches.

Types of Computer Languages

Computers do what we tell them to do with the help of a program. A computer program is written in a programming language. Nowadays, writing computer program is very easy as we write them in a language that is almost like English. Earlier, it was not as easy as these languages did not exist. Computer languages have evolved over time. We will briefly learn how new programming languages have emerged over the years.

Computer is an electronic device and can have either an ON state or an OFF state, which is like saying either it understands 1 or 0. All computers understand every instruction and data in a combination of 1s and 0s. We have learnt in Mathematics that when we represent numbers with the help of 1 and 0, it is known as binary number system. Computers understand binary language.

Features of Low-Level Languages

Initially, computer programs were written in Low-Level languages or binary language, also known as machine language. Cards were punched to store the binary or machine language commands and then these were fed into the computer. Instructions and data were represented with a combination of 1s and 0s. This method of writing programs was very tedious and complicated. If a single mistake occurred in punching the card, the card had to be discarded and a fresh card had to be re-punched.

In today's world, this language is used only by the programmers who write programs at the system level. This language enables them to write code for drivers, interfaces with hardware devices, etc.

Advantages

The main advantage of machine language is that the code takes very little time to execute. It runs very fast and very efficiently as the instructions are easily understood by the CPU. No translation of the program is required.

Limitations

Machine language has the following limitations:

1. Machine-dependent: This language is specific to a type of computer. Therefore, a program written on one machine cannot be easily transferred to another machine.

2. Difficult to program: To do programming in machine language, it is necessary for a programmer to memorize the number codes of the instructions.

3. Errors: The programmer is prone to making errors.

4. Difficult to modify: It is very difficult and time-consuming to check for errors or to modify the machine language programs.

Features of Assembly Language or Second Generation Language

As coding in Machine language was cumbersome, it became imperative to develop a language that was relatively simple to program in.

Thus, a new language of symbols, known as assembly language, emerged. It helped in overcoming the limitations of machine language by-

Using alphanumeric codes, instead of number codes. For example, ADD instead of 1110 (binary code), SUB instead of 1111 (binary code).

Allowing programmers to easily locate the storage location by using alphanumeric addresses.

Programmers were able to write programs in assembly language with relative ease as compared to machine language. Though the programmers were saved from remembering binary numbers for operations, they had to now remember symbols instead. As a computer understood only machine language, the language had to be converted into machine language for the computer to execute the program. The programs that converted the assembly programs into machine language were called assemblers.

Unmatched in India General Knowledge 2023

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Sun, 2 Apr 2023 22:10:00 -0700

General Knowledge 2023

Tehri is the the Highest Dam 261 Metres High on the River Bhagirathi in Uttrakhand.

Mawsynram is the Wettest place in Meghalaya average annual Rainfall more than 12000 mm.

Jama Masjid is the Largest Mosque it was build by emperor Shah Jahan at Delhi about 25000 people can offer prayers here at a time.

Buland Darwaza is the highest gateway 53.5 metres 175 ft high at Fatehpur Sikri built by Akbar to commemorate his victory over Gujarat.

Wular is the largest lake in Jammu and Kashmir.

Statue of Unity is the tallest statue it is at vadodara in Gujarat standing at a height of 182 metres statue of the Iron man of India.

Nh 44 is the longest road in India running from Srinagar in the north to Kanyakumari in the South. Its length is 3745 km.

The longest river in India is the Ganga and not the Brahmaputra, for only one-third of the Brahmaputra flows through India.

Symbols of Our Rich Heritage

1. Ajanta Caves are a group of 29 caves near Aurangabad in Maharashtra contain paintings made by Buddhist monks about 2000 years ago. The paintings cover two major themes

(i) the life of the Buddha and

(ii) illustrations of tales from Buddhist fables or jatakas.

2. Dilwara Temples are Five Jain Temples near Mt. Abu in Rajasthan built between 11th and 13th century. Vimal Vasahi is the most famous of these temples.

3. Gol Gumbaz is dome-shaped mausoleum of Mohammad Adil Shah in Bijapur, Karnataka built in 1656, the second largest dome in the world, has a remarkable echoing effect.

4. Golden Temple is a temple in Amritsar, Punjab the holiest of the Sikh shrines built in 1577 part of the exterior covered with gold leaf stands amidst a sacred tank.

5. Belur Math is the headquarters of Ramakrishna Mission in Kolkata founded by Swami Vivekananda.

6. Basilica of Bom Jesus is a church at Velha, Goa built in the seventeenth century houses the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier.

7. Ellora Caves are a group of 34 Caves near Aurangabad in Maharashtra. In Cave no. 16 is the Kailash Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, carved out of a single rock.

8. Hazratbal Mosque in Kashmir made of white marble very sacred to the muslims for a hair of prophet Muhammad is preserved here.

9. Shaking Minarets are two Minarets in Sidi Bashir's mosque in Ahmedabad, Gujarat built in the 10th century an architectural marvel. If one minaret is shaken, other shakens too.

10. Somnath Temple located on the southern trip of the Saurashtra Peninsula in Gujarat destroyed several times for its enormous wealth and rebuilt the present temple was built after Independence.

11. Sanchi Stupa near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh one of the major centre of Buddhist pilgrimage. It was commissioned by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century B.C.E.

12. Vivekananda Memorial at Kanyakumari, at the confluence of the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean built in 1970 in memory of Swami Vivekananda.

Pioneers

1. Ved Vyasa name means compiler. He is the one who compiler and classified the Vedas. He wrote the Mahabharata and is also a character in it. He also wrote the Puranas. The festival of Guru Purnima is dedicated to him.

2. Valmiki was a great Sanskrit poet. The epic Ramayana is attributed to him. He is also an important character in the epic.

3. Kalidasa was great Sanskrit poet and dramatist who lived in the 4th century B.C.E during the reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Abhijnana Shakuntalam and Meghduta are two of his famous works.

4. Aryabhata was the first major mathematician-astronomer of India, he lived from 476 C.E 550 C.E. He explained lunar and solar eclipses and asserted that the earth rotated on its axis causing day and night. He also calculated the value of π (pi) correct to four decimal places.

5. Brahmagupta lived from 598 C.E to 670 C.E. He is believed to have introduced the concept of zero into arithmetic.

6. Charaka is recognised as the father of the ancient system of medicine--Ayurveda; lived sometime during the 2nd century B.C.E. and 1st century Century C.E.

7. Sushruta wrote Sushruta, which includes surgical training instruments and procedures. He is also supposed to be the first plastic surgeon. Most probably, he belonged to the 6th century B.C.E.

Indian Handicrafts

1. Zardozi Embroidery with gold thread; gained popularity in the 17th century during the reign of Akbar.

2. Kalamkari is a type of hand painted or block- printed cotton textile produced in parts of India and Iran.

3. Chikankari is a traditional embroidery style; Lucknow is the heart of this industry today.

4. Phulkari literally means flower work. Very popular in Punjab.

5. Meenakari is the art of making designs on a metal by fusing different minerals over it. Popular in Jaipur.

6. Terracotta word means' baked earth'. It is the art of making sculptures using glazed or unglazed ceramic.

7. Tarakasi is a from of filigree work from Cuttack in Odisha.

8. Madhubani painting Practised in Bihar, this kind of painting is done with fingers, twigs and brushes, using natural dyes and characterised by attractive geometrical patterns.

Indian States Union Territories

1. Goa - Panaji

2. Odisha - Bhubaneswar

3. Sikkim - Gangtok

4. Telangana - Hyderabad

5. Jharkhand - Ranchi

6. Chhattisgarh - Raipur

7. Uttarakhand - Dehradun

8. Andhra pradesh - Hyderabad

Union Territories

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands - Prot Blair

2. National capital territory of Delhi - New Delhi

3. Chandigarh - Chandigarh

4. Lakshadweep - Kavaratti

5. Dadra and Nagar haveli and Daman and Diu - Daman

6. Puducherry - Puducherry

7. Jammu and Kashmir - Srinagar

8. Ladakh - Leh

1. Assam - Dispur

2. Meghalaya - Shillong

3. Manipur - Imphal

4. Tripura - Agartala

5. Mizoram - Aizawl

6. Arunachal - Itanagar

7. Nagaland - Kohima

1. India is made up of 28 states and 8 Union Territories.

2. Jammu and Kashmir, a state earlier is now split into two union territories

1. Jammu and Kashmir

2. Ladakh

3. Delhi has a special status. It is called National Capital Territory.

National Parks and Sanctuaries

1. Kaziranga National Park In Assam: on the bank of Brahmaputra river; one of the main centres of the greater one horned rhino or Indian rhino; also houses wild buffalo, sambar and wild elephant.

2. Gir Forest In Gujarat: lions are found here in their natural surroundings.

3. Dachigam Sanctuary In Jammu and Kashmir: about 20 km away from Srinagar; particularly noted for hangul or Kashmir stag; Himalayan black bear also found here.

4. Kanha National Park In Madhya Pradesh: specially famous for barasingha or Indian swamp deer; abounds in blackbuck or chital; also chosen for 'Project Tiger'.

5. Keoladeo National Park In Rajasthan: once the duck shooting preserve of the rulers of Bharatpur; one of the best breeding places for water birds.

6. Corbett National Park In Uttrakhand: situated at the foothills of the Himalayas; preserves the memory of a very famous English hunter; one of the 'Project Tiger' reserves.

7. Sultanpur Jheel In Haryana: famous for migratory birds.

Landmarks in History

1. First War of Independence - 1857

2. Quit India Movement - 1942

3. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - 1919

4. Indian National Congress Founded - 1885

5. Civil Disobedience Movement - 1930

6. Gandhiji came to India and led the National Movement - 1916

7. Non- Cooperation Movement Started - 1920

8. Indian National Army organised by Netaji - 1943

9. Declaration of American Independence - 1776

10. French Revolution - 1789

11. Abolition of Slavery in the U.S.A - 1865

12. Chinese Revolution - 1911

13. Russian Revolution - 1917

14. Mount Everest Conquered - 1953

15. Hiroshima Bombed - 1945

16. U.N.O. Founded - 1945

17. Second World War Started - 1939

18. First World War Started - 1914

Rapid Fire - 1

1. Which Indian state is surrounded on three sides by Bangladesh ?

Tripura

2. Which city in India has a famous Snake Park ?

Chennai

3. In which Indian state is the Chilka Lake situated ?

Odisha

4. Kamrup was an important Indian state in ancient times. What is it known as these days ?

Assam

5. When are the Kharif crops sown ?

In June

6. On which river would you find the Nagarjunasagar Dam ?

Krishna

7. Idenify the structure on the right. In which state is it situated ?

Victory Tower, Rajasthan

8. In which state are the Panna diamond mines situated ?

Madhya Pradesh

9. Which river of the south is known as Dakshin Ganga ?

Godavari

10. The highest road of the world is in India. Which two cities does it connect ?

Manali and Leh

11. Which Indian ruler was known as Chhatrpati ?

Shivaji

12. Which Mughal King was in power in Delhi in 1857 ?

Bahadur Shah Jafar

13. What is the official name of India ?

Bharat

14. What is the name of the ashram that Gandhiji founded near Ahmedabad in Gujarat ?

Sabarmati

15. Name the smallest Indian state in terms of area.

Goa

16. The Sculpture with the faces of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh known as Trimurti is found in a group of caves. What are these caves known as ?

Elephanta Caves

17. In which Indian union territory is the Jawahar Tunnel ? What is its Importance ?

Jammu and Kashmir, facilitates round the year connectivity to Kashmir Valley

18. In which battle did Akbar defeat Rana Pratap ?

Battle of Haldighati

19. What is Kodarma in Jharkhand famous for ?

Mica Mining

20. Which article in the constitution of India that gave special status to Jammu and Kashmir was abrogated in 2019 ?

Article 370

I. Q. Test

Supply the two terms of the series

(a) 16, 24, 36, 54, - 81, 121.5

(b) P Z R Y T - X V

2. Cross out (×) the one that does not belong to the group.

(a) Suez Panama Rhine Keil

Rhine

(b) La Paz Lisbon London Lebanon

Lebanon

3. Fill in the missing number

7 16 9

5 21 16

9 ___ 13

4. What comes once in a minute, twice in a moment and never in a thousand years?

The letter 'm'

5. If 8945=hide and 3856=CHEF, then 38945= ?

CHIDE

6. If a man at the north pole walks 10 km south, then 10 km east, and then 10 km north, how far would he be from his starting point?

He will be at the starting point

7. Insert a three-letter word that complete the first and begins the second word C(_ _ _ ) X

APE

8. Complete these statements.

(a) FLEET is to car as STRING is to PEARL.

(b) WATER is to HYDROSPHHERE as AIR is to ATMOSPHERE.

9. Rearrange the letters to from proper words. Then cross the odd one out.

(a) HWEAT WHEAT

(b) IREC RICE

(d) AIZME MAIZE

COCOA is the odd one out

10. Write T for and F for false statements.

(a) A number multiplied by zero gives zero as the product. T

(b) Open windows attract lightning. F

One and Only One

Across

1. The Largest producer of Tobacco - China

2. The Country known as the 'Coffee Pot of the World' - Brazil

3. The Largest producer of Mica - India

4. The Largest producer of Wool - Australia

5. The Land of the Golden Pagodas - Myanmar

6. The Eternal City/ The City of Seven Hills - Rome

7. The Land of White Elephant - Thailand

Down

1. The Island of Cloves - Zanzibar

2. The holy Land - Palestine

3. The Largest Country in terms of Area - Russia

4. The forbidden City (In Tibet) - Lhasa

5. Centre of film production in the U.S.A. - Hollywood

6. The Highest waterfall in the world - Angel

Jhanda Uncha Rahe Hamara

1. Black Flag - Used on a prison as a signal that a murderer has been executed by hanging

2. Blue Flag with a White square in the centre - A ship is about to sail

3. Red Flag - Danger

4. White Flag - Surrender

5. Yellow Flag - A ship or Hospital which is quarantined

Marvels of the World

1. Great Wall of China is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It was built by Emperor Qin Shi Huang to protect his empire from the Huns.

2. Angkor Wat is a temple in the Siem Reap region of Cambodia. Largest religious monument in the world. Its construction was started by the Khmer King Suryavarman II, who ruled over Cambodia in the 12th century. It was originally built in honour of Lord Vishnu but was later converted into a Buddhist Temple.

3. Statue of Unity is a statue of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel in the state of Gujarat in India. It is the world's tallest statue with a height of 182 metres. It is located on a river Island facing the Sardar Sarovar Dam on river Narmada in Keradia Colony.

4. Eiffel Tower in France, on the bank of the river Seine. Recognised as the symbol of France. Named after French Engineer Alexandre Gustave Eiffel, who designed it. Completed in 1889. It has three platforms and 1652 steps leading to the top.

5. Burj Khalifa at 828 m, this 200-storey tower with over 160 habitable storeys, is currently the tallest building in the world. It is situated in Dubai and offers a stunning view of the area around it. It was thrown open to public in 2010.

6. Sydney Opera House is multi-venue performing arts centre in Sydney, Australia. It is recognised as one of the twentieth century's most distinctive buildings. Along with the Harbour Bridge, it makes a truly iconic scene. Opened to public in 1973.

7. This bridge, that opened in 1988, connects the four main and numerous small islands of Japan by rail. It is 13 km long and took about 40 years to build. It is specially designed to withstand earthquakes this area is notorious for Seto Ohashi Bridge.

8. Potala Palace situated in Lhasa, Tibet, this place was the chief residence of the Dalai Lamas, until the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India during the 1959 Tibet turmoil. It is a beautiful landmark overlooking the city. It is now a museum and a world Heritage site.

Delicacies From Around the World

1. A sweet Ice Cream dessert; topped with fruit and sauce or syrup - Sundae

2. A dish originating in Japan; made with cooked vinegar rice, vegetables and seafood - Sushi

3. A rich Ice Cream made with eggs and low butterfat; popular in Italy - Gelati

4. An Arabic Wrap of meat which may be grilled for as long as a day - Shawarma

5. A dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat served with a sauce, popular in Indonesia - Satay

6. A popular spicy noodle soup, a combination of Chinese and Malay Cuisine - Laksha

7. It has a layer of pastry filled with a spice and nut mixture; popular in Greece and the Middle East - Baklava

8. A popular coffee flavoured Italian dessert; layered with a mixture of eggs, sugar, cheese etc - Tiramisu

9. A soup or stew of meat and vegetables, originating in Hungary - Goulash

10. Traditional Japanese sweet made with rice cakes called Mochi and Fruits - Wagashi

The Indomitable Spirit

1. Ludwig Van Beethoven was a German musician and composer. He became deaf at an early age but he continued to compose. His greatest symphonies, including Moonlight Sanata, were composed after he had become totally deaf.

2. Wilma Rudolph was an American track and field sprinter. She was a sickly child and had to wear a brace on her left leg. But in the 1960s, she became the first American women to win three gold medals in a single Olympics.

3. Stephen Hawking was one of the greatest scientists of all time. He suffered from ALS, commonly known as motor neurone disease, that gradually paralysed him. He would communicate using a single cheek muscle attached to a speech-generating device. A brief history of time is his most popular book.

4. Stevie Wonder is an American singer, songwriter and multi-instrumentalist. He lost his eyesight shortly after birth. His achievements include 25 Grammy awards.

5. Bob Hitlerman is a German-born deaf actor and drummer for Beethoven's Nightmare, a musical group, in which all the musicians are hearing-impaired.

6. Arunima Sinha is the first female amputee to scale Mount Everest and Mount Vinson. She was pushed from a running train by some robbers and her legs had to be amputated below the knee.

Major Assassinations

1. Abraham Lincoln was the American President who abolished slavery in America.

2. John F. Kennedy was the 35th President of the U.S.A.

3. Martin Luther King, Jr. was a social activist who led the Civil Rights Movement to defend in particular, the rights of the Black people in the U.S.A.

4. John Lennon was a famous singer-songwriter, who founded The Beatles, one of the most popular bands of all time.

5. Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984 by her security guards. Her son Rajiv Gandhi, who succeeded her as Prime Minister, was assassinated in 1991 at Sriperumbudur in Tamil Nadu, where he had gone for election campaigning.

Countries and Their Capitals

1. China - Beijing

2. Afghanistan - Kabul

3. Cuba - Havana

4. Czech Republic - Prague

5. Ghana - Accra

6. Hungary - Budapest

7. Kenya - Nairobi

8. Oman - Muscat

9. Qatar - Doha

10. Portugal - Lisbon

11. U.S.A. - Washington D.C.

12. Fiji - Suva

13. Thailand - Bangkok

14. Bulgaria - Sofia

15. Finland - Helsinki

16. Canada - Ottawa

17. Ethiopia - Addis Ababa

18. Germany - Berlin

19. Sweden - Stockhoim

20. Zimbabwe - Harare

21. Mauritius - Port Louis

22. Austria - Vienna

23. Australia - Canberra

24. Argentina - Buenos Aires

25. Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur

Currencies, Cities Washed by Rivers

1. U.S.A. - Dollar

2. Japan - Yen

3. Iraq - Dinar

4. Iran - Rial

5. China - Yuan

6. U.K. - Pound

7. Denmark - Krone

8. Kuwait - Dinar

9. Saudi Arabia - Riyal

10. U.A.E. - Dirham

11. Thailand - Baht

12. Argentina - Peso

13. Pakistan - Rupee

14. Sri Lanka - Rupee

15. Maldives - Rufiyaa

16. Bhutan - Ngultrum

17. Nepal - Rupee

18. Bangladesh - Taka

19. Myanmar - Kyat

Cities and Rivers

1. Karachi - Indus

2. Moscow - Moskva

3. Washington - Potomac

4. Shangai - Yangtze Kiang

5. Vienna - Danube

6. Tokyo - Arakawa

7. Bangkok - Chao Phraya

8. Cairo - Nife

The euro is the official currency of Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Netherlands and Spain.

Rapid Fire - 2

1. On which river are the Victoria falls in Africa?

Zambezi

2. Which two oceans does the Panama Canal connect?

The Atlantic and the Pacific

3. Which country is the largest producer of Milk?

India

4. Name the largest lake in the world?

Caspian Sea (salt) Lake Superior (fresh)

5. In which city is the famous Pashupatinath Temple situated?

Kathmandu

6. In which Italian city do we have canals instead of streets and gondolas as means of transport?

Venice

7. Which country is known as 'the Pearl of the Indian Ocean'?

Mauritius

8. What is the captal of Peru?

Lima

9. In which country would you find the volcano Mount Fuji?

Japan

10. Where is the permanent seat of the U.N.O situated?

New York (USA)

11. Name the popular Egyptian queen who married two Roman generals one after the other.

Cleopatra

12. In which country would you find the Kilimanjaro mountain?

Tanzania

13. In which country is the Leaning Tower of Pisa situated?

Italy

14. Where is the Great Barrier Reef located?

Australia

15. Which is the most densely populated country in the world?

Bangladesh

16. What is the Japanese name of Japan?

Nippon

17. Name the diamond-mining centre in South Africa?

Kimberley

18. Mesopotamia, meaning 'land between two rivers', was a very famous country in ancient times. What is it called in modern times?

Iraq

19. What is the line demarcating the boundary between India and Pakistan called?

Radcliffe Line

20. On the banks of which river is the city of Rome situated?

Tiber

The ABC of Human Nature

1. If you are alert, you are paying full attention to everything around you.

2. If you are boastful, you speak proudly about yourself or the things you possess.

3. If you are confident, you are certain of something.

4. To be diligent is to be hardworking.

5. If you are eccentric, you do things that look peculiar to other people.

6. Loyal - Faithful

7. Very willing to give to others. - Generous

8. An honest person doesn't tell lies, doesn't cheat or steal.

9. If you are Imaginative, you can form ideas or pictures in your mind.

10. Being Jumpy is being very nervous.

11. A Knowledgeable person is clever and knows a great deal.

12. A Lazy person does not like work and tries to avoid it.

13. Not proud or boastful - Modest

14. If you are Nosey, you interfare in others affairs.

15. Willing to do what you are told to do - Obedient

16. If you are Pompous, you behave as if you are more important than others.

17. If you are Quarrelsome, you are always arguing or disagreeing with others.

18. If you are Responsible, others can depend on you.

19. Selfish people want to keep things for themselves and do not think of others needs.

20. Truthful people always speak the truth.

I.Q. Test 2

1. Insert the missing number:-

2, 6, 8, 60

3, 7, 9, 86

4, 8, 10, __

Ans: 116

2. Tick the correct response.

a) TRAIN is to TRACK as SHIP is to ....

(i) CREW (ii) SAIL (iii) WATER (iv) KEEL

WATER

(b) PAINTER is to BRUSH as SOLDIER is to ....

(i) UNIFORM (ii) GUN (iii) TANK (iv) COMMANDER

GUN

3. Cross out the one that does not belong to the group.

a) Helium, Mercury, Ozone, Neon

Ans: Mercury

b) Plateau, Bay, Gulf, Cape

Ans: Plateau

4. My watch is 10 minutes slow and i think it is 5 minutes fast. Your watch is 5 minutes fast and you think it is 10 minutes slow. We plan to catch a train that leaves at 4 o' clock. Who gets to the station first?

Ans: You

5. Insert the word that completes the first word and begins the second.

a) IN (_ _ _) TER

Ans: LET

b) OR (_ _ _) TER

Ans: BIT

6. If 3 persons can make 3 packets in 3 minutes, how long will it take 100 persons to make 100 packets?

Ans: 3 minutes

7. The number of eggs in a basket doubles every minute. The basket becomes full in 5 minutes. When was the basket half full?

Ans: After 4 minutes

8. Which number when multiplied by 1.5, gives the same result as when 1.5 is added to it?

Ans: 3, 10

9. Write T for true and F for false statements.

a) There are 86,400 seconds in a day.

Ans: T

b) WORDS are to POET as CHISEL is to SCULPTOR.

Ans: T

c) If PALM is written as LAMP, POST is written as STOP.

Ans: F

Latest RBI Assistant 2022 Notification Out for 950 Vacancies

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Tue, 15 Feb 2022 02:40:00 -0800

RBI Assistant 2022

RBI Assistant 2022 Notification Out: RBI Assistant Examination is conducted every year for the recruitment of subsidiary candidates in various branches of the Reserve Bank of India every year. A small information about RBI Assistant 2022 has been broadcast through Employment News on February 14, 2022. According to the notified in the news, the RBI assistant online registration process will be done from 17 February 2022 to 08 March 2022 and the online examination will be conducted 26th and 27 March 2022.

After the RBI, the RBI is done through the premises, main and language proficiency exams to select candidates for the post of assistant post. The final result will be based on the marks made in the main examination and language test. In this article, we have covered all the necessary information about the RBI Assistant 2022 Notification.

RBI Assistant 2022 Notification

For the RBI Assistant, the selection process will be released in the third week of 2022, including the official notification, category vacancies, eligibility criteria, examination patterns, courses, selection process against ADV No 2A / 2021-22, as mentioned. Employment News released on February 14, 2022 Until then, candidates interested in RBI assistant posts should go through small information for RBI Assistant 2022 notification for reference.

RBI Assistant Record / File, Document Verification, Financial Sustainability, Release New Currency and Purchasing Day-to-day Transaction, Participating in the work of the government treasury, answering emails and more.

RBI Assistant 2022 Exam Summary

The Reserve Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is responsible for recruitment of eligible candidates at the national level for the post of RBI assistant. RBI Official Website Rbi.org.in

RBI Assistant Recruitment 2022- Important Dates

RBI has announced RBI Assistant 2022 online registration and test dates with RBI Assistant Notification 2022 issued on February 14, 2022. RBI Assistant Examination is organized in various changes in different places across India.

RBI Assistant 2022 Online Application

RBI Assistant has announced online application dates through 2022 notice. RBI will start accepting applications from 17 February 2022 and the last date will be 08 March 2022. The candidates who are eagerly waiting for the RBI Assistant Notification 2022, should not miss any updates for the upcoming RBI Assistant 2022 and should first apply the last date.

RBI Assistant 2022 Application Fee

Candidates are required to pay Rs. 450 (for General and OBC Candidate) or Rs. 50 (for Candidates belonging to SC/ST/PWD) as their Application Fee for RBI Assistant 2022 Exam. He/She can pay the application fee online using net banking or by any credit/debit card.

Please note that no application fee is required to be paid by the RBI staff.

Fee For OBC/General Candidates Rs. 450/-

For SC/ST/PWD/EXS Candidates Rs. 50/-

RBI Assistant Vacancy 2022

RBI has announced to fill 950 assistant positions through RBI Assistant Recruitment 2022. Detailed RBI Assistant 2022 Notification www.sbi.co.in will be updated after the classroom and state-wise vacancy delivery. In the last RBI Assistant Notification, 926 vacancies were notified for the post of assistants in various offices of RBI across the country.

Note: "The right to increase the number of vacancies according to bank requirement is the right to reduce or fill vacancies".

RBI Assistant 2022 Salary

The original salary for the RBI assistant is Rs. 14,650 / - every month (i.e.. 13,150 / - Plus only two advance increments acceptable for graduates). The RBI Assistant is also given in addition to the original salary, inflation allowance, home rent allowance, city compensatory allowance, transport allowance etc.. Thus, the gross salary of the RBI assistant is approximately Rs. 36, 723 / - every month.

RBI Assistant Selection Process 2022

RBI Assistant Examination is being held in three steps [Prelims + Men + Language Proficiency Examination (LPT)]. There are three sections in the initial exam: logic capacity, numerical capacity and English language.

1. There are five different classes in the main exam: logic, quantitative qualifications, English language, computer knowledge and general awareness.

2. Negative marking of 0.25 points for the wrong answers made by the candidate. If the question has been unanswered or empty then no mark will be inserted.

3. Last year, check the RBI Assistant Examination pattern for prelims and main mentioned in PDF, any change / upgrade will be updated in the RBI Assistant 2022 Notification.

RBI Assistant 2022 Exam Pattern

It is important to secure good marks in the knowledge examination about the full RBI Assistant Examination Pattern. In the section below, we have discussed examination patterns for both prelims and main exams for your reference.

RBI Assistant Prelims Exam Pattern 2022

Candidates are mainly visible in the RBI Assistant Prelims Exam, which is the screening phase to the candidates for the main examination.

RBI Assistant Mains Exam Pattern 2022

The candidates who qualify in the Prelims Exam will be eligible to appear for RBI Assistant Mains Exam.

Language Proficiency Test (LPT)

The main online examination will have to undergo a language proficiency test (LPT) to the shortlist candidates. Based on the score of the initial examination, students are eligible for the main examination. It is mandatory to obtain these three round qualifications for all candidates to ensure the final selection for the support of the Reserve Bank of India.

RBI Assistant 2022 Syllabus

The RBI Assistant Exam 2022 has a predefined syllabus for all the sections for both preliminary examination and mains examination.

RBI Assistant 2022 Eligibility

Nationality: A candidate (A) should be a citizen of India or

(b) The subject of Nepal, or

(D) A Tibetan refugee who came to India with the intention of settling permanently in India before January 1, 1962, or

(E) A person of Indian origin has been transferred from the intention of dealing with Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Kenya, East African countries of Uganda, Joint Republic, Zambia, Malawi, Zaire, Ethiopia and Vietnam permanently.

Age Limit

A candidate must range between 20-28 years of age to be eligible for RBI Assistant 2022 Exam. Age relaxation is given to candidates belonging to the reserved category.

Educational Qualification

A candidate must hold a bachelor’s degree with an aggregate of 50% and above in any discipline to be eligible for the RBI Assistant Exam 2022. He/She must hold knowledge of computers as well as have proficiency in the official language of the concerned state of Union Territory.

RBI Assistant 2022 Admit Card & Call Letter

Candidates are required to download the RBI Assistant Exam 2022 admit card from its official website as the admit card won’t be sent to candidates via post. To login to the official website, a candidate will require the following:

• Registration No./Roll No.

• Date of Birth/Password

The admit card/call letter will be issued to candidates in three phases:

Online Preliminary Examination

Online Mains Examination

Language Proficiency Test (LPT)

RBI Assistant 2022 Result

Within 1-2 weeks of the Reserve Bank of India, the RBI Assistant issues the result of the 2022 examination. Candidates appearing for the RBI Assistant Examination can check results and score cards on the official website. The result is released separately for each stage and the RBI assistant will be prepared based on the final merit list main examination and language efficiency examination.

RBI Assistant 2022 Cut Off

RBI Assistant Examination will be declared cut off for 2022 when examinations will be held on both initial and main level. Cut off is expected to be similar to the past years.

RBI Assistant Preparation

Preparation of RBI Assistant Examination should be considered keeping in mind the latest patterns and exams. Students are required to choose the correct set of books to prepare for their exam because the curriculum of the RBI Assistant Exam 2022 are quite huge.

Students should also go through the RBI Assistant Exam Questions of the previous years to adjust the pattern of the examination and to know those classes, which are asked mainly in the examination examination. In addition to the test chain, you may also include our offline class program for complete preparation for the RBI Assistant 2022 exam.

RBI Assistant Mock Tests Test Series

Career Power offers online test series for various banks and SSC exams such as IBPS PO, IBPS Clerk, Bank PO, SBI PO, RBI, NABARD, SSC, CGL, SSC, CHSL etc. These test series are well researched and are fully copied for the exact test pattern practice letters are ready to keep in mind the expected changes in the examination patterns and patterns and questions level.

RBI Assistant 2022: FAQs

Q1. What is the RBI Assistant 2022 Notification release date?

The detailed RBI Assistant 2022 Notification will be released in 3rd week of February 2022.

Q2. When will be the RBI Assistant 2022 Exam be conducted?

RBI Assistant 2022 Online Exam is to be held on 26th & 27th March 2022.

Q3. What is the Application Fee for RBI Assistant Exam?

Rs. 450/- is the application fee for the General and OBC categories. Rs. 50/- for candidates belonging to SC/ST/PWD category.

Q4. What are the online registration dates for RBI Assistant 2022 Exam?

The RBI Assistant online registration will start from 17th February 2022 and ends on 08th March 2022.

Q5. Does RBI Assistant have the negative marking?

There will be negative marks for wrong answers. 1/4th (0.25 marks) will be deducted as a negative marking system for each wrong answer in both the RBI Assistant Preliminary and Mains examination.

Q6. What is the salary of RBI Assistant?

The Basic Pay for an RBI Assistant is Rs. 14,650/- every month and the Gross Salary of an RBI Assistant ranges to approximately Rs. 36,091/- every month.

HAL Recruitment 2022 (Hindustan Aeronautics Limited)

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Mon, 14 Feb 2022 01:42:00 -0800

HAL Recruitment 2022

HAL Recruitment 2022 Notification: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is inviting online applications from Engineering Graduates for the recruitment as Management Trainees (MT) / Design Trainees (DT).

Interested Engineers can apply for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) MT Recruitment 2022 from 09 February 2022 to 02 March 2022 at hal-india.co.in.

A total of 85 vacancies shall be filled under various Divisions / Research & Design Centres/ Offices of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) situated across the country.

HAL MT Online Application Link

Important Dates

Starting Date of Online Application - 09 February 2022

Last Date of Online Application - 02 March 2022

HAL MT Admit Card Date - 10 March 2022

HAL MT Test Date - 07 to 09 April 2022

HAL MT Result Date - 12 April 2022

Download of Interview Call Letter in HAL Website - 13 April 2022

Interview for shortlisted candidates at HAL, Bengaluru - 04 to 06 May 2022

Declaration of the list of provisionally selected candidates in Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) Website - 09 May 2022

Download of Provisional Offer of Appointment in HAL Website - 12 May 2022

Pre-employment Medical Test at HAL Hospitals - 14 May 2022 – 20 June 2022

Pre-employment Administrative formalities at HAL, Bengaluru 23 and 24 June 2022

Commencement of Training Program at HAL Management Academy, Bengaluru 29 June 2022

HAL MT Vacancy Details

Design Trainee Aeronautical - 2
Design Trainee Mechanical - 15
Design Trainee Electronics - 21
MT (Technical) Computer Science - 4
MT (Technical) Mechanical - 4
MT (Technical) Electrical - 4
MT (Technical) Electronics - 8
MT (Technical) Production - 2
MT (IMM) Mechanical, Electrical, Production -5
MT Civil - 5
MT HR - 5
MT Legal - 5
MT Finance - 5

Eligibility Criteria for HAL MT Posts

Educational Qualification:

DT, MT Technical and MT IMM - Bachelor's Degree in Engineering / Technology or its equivalent (Full Time) (4 years after 10+2) from the Institutes / Universities recognized by appropriate statutory authorities in the Country, in the Disciplines / eligible Branches of Engineering.

HR - Regular / Full-time Bachelor Degree with 2 years regular / full-time PG Degree / PG Diploma / MBA
/ MSW / MA (3+2 years after 10+2) with specialization in Human Resources / Personnel Management / Industrial Relations / Labour Management / Organizational Development / Human Resource Development / Labour Welfare etc., from Institutes / Universities recognized by appropriate statutory authorities.

Legal - Regular / Full-time Bachelor of Law (5 years integrated course after 10+2) or Regular / Fulltime Bachelor degree with full-time Bachelor of Law (10+2+3+3)

Finance - Regular / Full-time Bachelor Degree (10+2+3) with a pass in final examination of CA / ICWA
from the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India / Institute of Cost Accountants of India.

HAL MT Age Limit:

UR and EWS - 28 years

Selection Process for HAL MT Posts

The selection process will consist of All-India based Online Selection Test and Interview

How to Apply for HAL MT Recruitment 2022 ?

Step – 1: Candidate is required to click the link given at www.hal-India.co.in (Careers Section) for the Registration & select the name of the post for which he / she wants to apply.

Step – 2: Eligibility Details are required to be filled up and photograph to be uploaded. On submission of Eligibility details, a unique Application number is generated and the Candidate is led to the Personal and Qualification details Page. Eligibility details once submitted cannot be edited. Once the Application number is generated, the Candidate
will have an option to re-login for further completion of Application.

Step – 3: The Personal & Qualification details are required to be filled up. Before finally submitting the details entered, an “Edit” option will be given to the candidate for editing any details already entered, if required.

Step – 4: (for UR/OBC(NCL)/EWS categories only): Candidates are required to deposit Application fee

Application Fee:

Rs. 550/- (No Fee for SC/ST/PwBD/ Internal candidates)

East Coast Railway ECR Recruitment 2022 | Apply Now

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Sat, 12 Feb 2022 17:05:00 -0800

East Coast Railway ECR Recruitment 2022

East Coast Railway ECR Recruitment 2022: East Coast Railway (ECR), Railway Recruitment Cell (RRC) has published an advertisement for Apprentice engagement for 2020-22. ECR Apprentice Online App Link is available at RRCbbs.org.in from February 07 to 07 March 2022.

More than 700 vacancies are available under various units and businesses including Carriage Repair Workshop, Khurdpur Division and Walter Division. You can check the eligibility, vacancy break-up, selection process and ways to apply in this article.

East Coast Railway Apprentice Notification

East Coast Railway Apprentice Online Application Link

Important Dates

Last Date of Online Application Submission - 07 March 2022

East Coast Railway Apprentice Vacancy Detail

Total Posts - 756

Carriage Repair Workshop, Mancheswar, Bhubaneswar – Total 190 Post

Fitter - 48

Welder G&E - 32

Electrician - 20

Machinist - 11

Refrigeration & AC Mechanic - 06

Wireman - 09

Carpenter - 29

Sheet Metal Worker - 20

Painter - 09

Mechanic MV - 06

Khurda Road Division - 237

Fitter - 73

Welder G&E - 33

Turner - 02

Electrician - 29

Machinist - 11

D/Man (Mech) - 1

D/Man Civil - 1

Refrigeration & AC Mechanic - 11

Wireman - 12

Carpenter - 40

Electronics Mech - 07

Plumber - 08

Mason - 09

Sambalpur Division -66

Fitter -102

Welder G&E - 54

Turner - 11

Electrician - 50

Machinist - 04

D/Man Mech -04

D/Man Civil - 01

Refrigeration & AC Mechanic - 01

Wireman - 10

Carpenter - 09

Electronics Mech - 04

Plumber - 07

Mason - 06

Waltair Division - 263

Fitter - 20

Welder G&E - 05

Electrician - 12

D / Man Civil - 01

Wireman - 08

Carpenter - 05

Electronics Mech - 05

Plumber - 05

Mason - 05

East Coast Railway Apprentice Eligibility Criteria

Educational Qualification:

The candidate must have passed a 10th grade examination or its equivalent (under 10 + 2 examination system) with a total of 50% marks from the recognized board and there should also be a national trade certificate in the notified business issued by NCVT / SCVT.

East Coast Railway Apprentice Age Limit:

16 to 24 years

Selection Process for East Coast Railway Apprentice Posts

Selection will be done on the basis of the merit list. Merit list will be prepared by organizing the average matriculation [with minimum 50% (total) points] Plus ITI (in the business that is to be done in anonymity) points.

How to apply for East Coast Railway Apprentice Recruitment 2022 ?

Go to the official website of RRC/ECoR website www.rrcbbs.org.in

Click on ‘Online Application Link’

Go to the ‘Register’ Tab for new registration

After registration, login ‘Existing User Login’

You can for any of one Unit only.

Application Fee:

Rs. 100/-

FAQ

What is ECR Apprentice Age Limit ?

16 to 24 years

IS there any exam for Railways Apprentice Recruitment 2022 ?

What is ECR Apprentice Registration Last Date ?

7 March 2022

ONGC Recruitment 2022: (Oil and Natural Gas) Grab This Opportunity

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Fri, 11 Feb 2022 20:38:00 -0800

ONGC Recruitment 2022

ONGC Recruitment 2022: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) has released a recruitment notification for the post of Deputy General manager (Logistics) – Aviation Safety, with salary of up to Rs Rs 2,60,000/- Per Month.

ONGC Recruitment 2022: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) is searching for an experienced official to join the company as Deputy General Manager (Logistics) - Aviation Safety to oversee ONGC's Offshore Helicopter Operations. Before applying for the position, candidates should make sure they meet all of the requirements.

Who Offered: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC)

Post Name: Deputy General manager (Logistics) – Aviation Safety

Start & End Date of Recruitment Drive: February 2, 2022 to March 3, 2022

Eligibility Criteria for ONGC recruitment 2022

Candidates must be a Qualified Aircraft Maintenance Engineer (AME) with a basic AME license approved to cover (a) Heavy Airframe and Jet engines OR (b) Electrical Systems, Instrument System, Radio and Navigation systems and have at least 10 years of senior level experience. Candidates with extra flying experience will be given preference.

Age Limit for ONGC Jobs

Applicants must be between the ages of 45 and 50 (as of the last date of application submission) (ONGC departmental candidates will be allowed relaxation in age as per existing rules).

Salary Package of ONGC Jobs 2022

The salary package of ONGC recruitment 2022 is as follows:

Post level: E5

Basic Pay Scale: Rs 1,00,000 – Rs 2,60,000

Allowances: Apart from Basic Pay and a 3% annual increase, the employee is entitled to allowances of up to 35% of Basic Pay under the Cafeteria Approach, Dearness Allowance, HRA/Company Accommodation, Contributory Provident Fund, Conveyance Maintenance, Leave Encashment, Substantial Performance Related Pay (PRP), Medical Facility for self and dependents, Gratuity, Post Retirement Benefit Scheme and Composite Social Security Scheme, among other things, as per Company rules.

How to Apply for ONGC Recruitment 2022

Through Online Mode:

Candidates must enroll themselves through the registration link.

Candidates will be informed about the style of interview, such as whether they should present in person or via an online method, as well as the date, time and location.

All discussions with the candidate must be done via text message or email.

"Application for Deputy General Manager (Logistics) – Aviation Safety at E5 level in ONGC" should be the topic of the email.

After completing registration, candidates must email the following documents in pdf format to recruitment@ongc.co.in(noting their name and document name).

Documents Required for ONGC Jobs 2022

Duly signed & filled format at Annexure I

Class 10thMark Sheet/ Date of birth certificate.
AME License, preferably Helicopter, endorsed to cover Heavy air frame & jet engines or electrical systems, instrument system, radio & navigation systems.

Certificate of flying experience including offshore flying, if any.

Minimum 10 years of work experience certificate at senior level.

Tech/ B.E or B.Sc. (Aviation) degree certificate, if there’s any.

Scanned copy of a recent passport size phot in a JPG/JPEG image format.

Note:

To know more about selection process and other details, kindly check-out the Official Notification by Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited.

Career Prospects in Economics & Business Studies

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Sat, 20 Feb 2021 09:56:00 -0800

Economics is the study of production and distribution and consumption of goods and services and teaches us most effective utilisation of available resources. Economists work in three broad sectors of the economy i.e. the primary sector related to raw materials, the secondary sector related to manufacturing and the third sector related to the services. Economics includes the study of how societies, governments, businesses, households and individuals allocate their resources. This discipline has two important features. First, we develop conceptual models of behaviour to predict responses to changes in policy and market conditions. Second, we use rigorous statistical analysis to investigate these changes.

Skills and Personal Qualities Required

For the majority of economist careers, you'll need to study economics at postgrauate level in order to gain the specialist skills required. An economist should have:

Knowledge of social sciences

Be good at understanding complex systems

Analytical skills

Mathematical acumen

Logical thinking

Be good at numerical ability to work with figures

Ability to handle concepts & figures with ease

Ability to clarify thoughts and predictions in relation to the industry

Interest in current affairs & ability to assess implications as an analysis

Patience and remain positive and optimistic

Good communication skills in speech & writing to explain complex economic analysis

Our society is becoming global and competitive at a very fast pace, as a result of this, it has become extremely complex. In recent times there is a spike in the career opportunities for professionals like Economic Analysts, Economic Researchers and Economic Consultants and Finance Managers. These professionals can handle the growing complexity of society very effectively and efficiently. Demand for experienced research fellows and trained associates is growing day by day in several National and Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and they are being appointed and employed as Economic Analysts. Banking and Insurance sector is a very crucial in terms of job prospects.

After liberation, privatization and globalization (LPG) the job opportunities have increased many times, Economists analyze issues related to growth and development, welfare and policy formulation and assess their long and short term significance for the country.

Careers in economics are diverse with job roles covering everything from food and agriculture to business and banking. Depending on your area of interest, an economics degree will help you develop specialized analytical skills, enabling you to successfully enter multiple industries as a professional economist, or as another type of professional with an eye for economics.

An economics degree will boost your employability in many areas, regardless of the industry you work within. This reflects strong demand throughout the global labour market and the widely transferable analytical and problem solving skills developed by economics students.

As a professional economist, you'll be involved in researching and analyzing economic data, issues and trends. To be a professional economist you'll also need to be confident in producing economic forecasts and reports to present to clients (individuals, companies, financial organizations and public bodies) and to advice on policy and/or business strategy accordingly.

Possible employers include local and national government, public and private banks, insurance companies, think-tanks, large multinational companies, financial consultancies, accountancy firms and local authorities. A sound awareness of current affairs and economic contexts is important.

Scope of Eco Professionals

Eco Professionals/Economists analyze issues related to growth and development, welfare and policy formulation and assess their long and short term significance for the country. Economics is the study of production and distribution processes and the most effective means of utilizing available resources. Economists often specialize some most fascinating jobs. Some of these are as under:-

Research Economists: Develop mathematical models to explain and interpret business cycles, inflation, effects of tax policies or unemployment; Use Mathematics and Statistics to the theory and principles of Economics; Apply econometrics for analysis and prediction of all economic activity.

Business Economists: Work as company's administrations, making decisions about company policies, plan future business activities in relation to general business conditions, national and international trade policies, governmental regulations and directives.

Agricultural Economists: Study economic aspects of agricultural problems in order to increase efficiency of farm management, improve farm income and effect favourable agricultural legislation; forecast production and consumption of agricultural products; locate optimum markets and deal with agricultural financing.

Financial Economists: Develop monetary policies and predict financial activity; Examine credit structures and collection, banking methods and procedures to devise techniques for regulation of lending, fixing interest and discount rates.

International Economists: Collect and analyze statistical data and other information on foreign trade for favourable trade balances; Establish acceptable international trade policies, exchange controls and operation of foreign exchanges; Study, implementation and formulation of policies on investments and transfer of capital on the international scene.

Labour Economists: Study labour trends and policies; handle labour disputes, unions, industrial policies of management; work as advisors to government or industry.

Industrial Economists: Studies the organizational structures of business to make maximum use of assets; investigate methods of financing, production costs, techniques of marketing policies for possible improvements; Analyze market trends to relate production for future consumption and interpret effects of governments regulations and legal restrictions on industrial policies.

Economics careers in the public sector: In the public sector, economics careers are prolific, serving to keep governmental finances under control. Those who study economics are likely to be valued in all areas of public and private spending, including roles within pricing and risk analysis, financial consultancy and economic planning. While job roles vary hugely, economist careers in the public sector are often involved in public taxation, transport, commercial and waste services, energy and other forms of government spending. Despite the recent global recession and the tigtening of economic regulation by governments across the globe, economics students are currently seeing an increase in demand in this sector.

Economics careers in Banking: Banking careers are very common among economics students, offering scope for high earnings and high demand for economists. Graduates with a background in economics are particularly valued for roles in financial control, financial planning, risk analysis, data analysis and consultancy. With a focus on keeping the financial requirements of clients and businesses on track, banking careers are largely concerned with advising and providing services for a range of banking clients and consumers.

Economics careers in business and financial consultancy: Economists and economics experts are at the heart of the business world and financial consulting. Roles within the business sector vary widely, but economics graduates may find positions in large and medium-sized business organizations where economic research is required. The role of an economic researcher is fairly self-explanatory, required in-depth knowledge of economics theories and models, thorough analytical and problem-solving skills and mathematical ability.

Finacial consultants: Financial consultants in the area of economics would fill similar roles, but may work for multiple clients instead of just one organization, producing reports and advising on business strategy. Up-to-date industry knowledge and awareness of corporate finance is essential in these roles.

Alternative economics degree jobs and careers: With a background in economics, it seems, anything is possible. Other common economics careers and roles include auditor, stockbroker, insurer, business manager and retail merchandizer, pricing analyst, statistician, financial consultant and salesperson.

But what can you do with an economics degree if none of the above appeals to you? Well, you may want to also consider these broader options: business intelligence, international development, human resource management, IT, jounalism, law, management, market research, politics, public relations, social research, and taxation. Or, you could even become an enterpreneur and start your own business!

Employment Opportunities in different Business Organisations:

Today in every business of production, marketing, service and even E-commerce, businesses are offering job opportunities to experts in economics or finance. Business organisations below cannot run without expertis in Economics or Finance.

Banking and Insurance offices

Business journals and newspapers

Census organization

Employment Organizations

Finance and investment firms

Government and public enterprises

Labour departments

Labour tribunals

Market research organisations

Research organizations

When you complete your Bachelor of Arts in Business Economics degree, you will be prepared for a career in which a broad background and general knowledge in the field of economics are requirements. You may choose to enter one of the areas of business or industry for which your degree has prepared you, start your own business, or pursue careers the government. Just a few of the many business economics careers that often begin with a Bachelor of Arts in Business Economics include:

Business Analyst

Bank Manager

Market Research Specialist

Investment Analyst

Director of Finance

Stock Broker

Insurance Underwriter

Risk Manager

Market Analyst

Actuarial Analyst

Chartered Accountant

Chartered Certified Accountant

Chartered Public Finance Accountant

Data Analyst

Economist

External Auditor

Financial Risk Analyst

Forensic Accountant

Statistician

Actuary

Business Development Manager

Data Scientist

Management Consultant

Policy Officer

Quantity Surveyor

Besides these, there are prestigious exams like Indian Economic Services, Indian Statistical Services Exam, Investigator's Examination which are conducted by Union Public Service Commission.

Salary and Remuneration/Payments:

In the age of global revolution, Economics is a well-paid job. A person, who desires to pursue a career in this field, can expect a salary between 30000-45000 per month in the beginning. However salaries of Eco professionals vary depending upon their individual qualifications, experience, size and nature of the hiring institutes. Persons with a superior record and high qualifications can achieve high positions. The salaries in college and university departments are comparable to those teachers. Indeed, the salaries of special professionals are high. Eco professionals working in bank/research/finance institutes and private research centres also have handsome earnings. The amount 40000-55000 at right shows the average starting salary of a industrial/agricultural economists with zero to two years experience. It clearly shows that oil companies are willing to pay handsome salaries to new economists.

Explain in detail about Secondary Bonds?

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Wed, 19 Aug 2020 08:31:00 -0700

Secondary Bonds

Today we will see the second kind of bond that is present which are known as the secondary bonds. Secondary bonds are relatively weak bonds when compared to primary bonds and they are also known as Van der Walls bond much weaker than chemical bond. Because there is no actual exchange of electrons or sharing of electrons. But as we will see there is a dipole induced or existing in the natural state and that dipole produces electrical attraction whereby the bond exists that is the nature of the secondary bonds. This exists between almost all atoms in one form or other. But they are hard to detect because the primary bond present is much more stronger than the secondary bond. They are formed due to electrical dipole either because of charge separation or because of Anathem inherent polarity in the atom. The resultant force is coulombic attraction since there is charge separation, there is columbic attraction and that is what causes the secondary bond.

Dipole Interaction

Now the dipole interaction occurs in three forms, that is the secondary bonds can occur in three forms. Prominently one is induced dipoles that he is a both the atoms which are part of the secondary bond has induced dipole. The second possibility is one polar molecule and thus dipole and finally two polar molecules. Hydrogen bond is a special case of secondary bonds and that occurs when one of the participating molecule has something like hydrogen there by the name hydrogen. Hydrogen is specifically highly electro positive and it has at the other end the molecule. Fluorine like if you have hydrogen fluoride then hydrogen is highly electro positive and it develops a slight positive charge and fluorine slides negative charge. Therefore the adjacent hydrogen fluorine will also develop positive and negative charge. This is inherently because of the high electro positivity of hydrogen. There by a bond which is known as hydrogen bond is created.

Induced Dipole

Now let us discuss all the three step by step to begin with induced dipoles that is induced out dipole. Induced dipole kind of secondary bond any atom as such is mainly symmetric atom and symmetric atoms has symmetric charge distribution. Thereby they do not have any disparity of charge throughout the atom. There is a positive charge here due to the protons and the negative electron revolves around it symmetrically. But what happens is that the symmetry of the atom is broken and there is fluctuating dipoles created in momentarily bases and that is shown here.

So symmetric atom momentarily transforms to an induced dipole. Now what is happening here we can see is that the positive charge is coming off center here and negative charge is coming this way. So effectively we have a plus over here and a minus here. Our dipole is created now this momentary creation of dipole will induce a dipole in the adjacent molecule too. So if there was a atom or molecule over here which was symmetric but now due to this it will be similar. Distortion will occur and the positive this place will become positive again and this end will become negative and this induced dipole. Induced dipole combination produces interaction. This interaction is a secondary bond known as induced dipole-induced dipole interaction. The constant vibration causes instantaneous distortion in the atom or molecule.

As in a small electric dipole beam being created and this small dipole induces polarity in the adjacent atoms or molecules. Similarly this induced dipole will affect its adjacent atoms and molecules. Hence a whole chain of induced dipole is created, thereby the different atoms at practice other. So this is what is the induced dipole kind of secondary bonding and as we can see that the induced dipole. The induced polarity in the atoms is quite weak because this is just due to the asymmetry of the distribution of electrons with respect to the nucleus. Therefore the strength of the force that is this attractive force is very weak in nature. This is in fact thus weakest secondary force amongst the three second forces because both are induced and that this results in a very low bond energy and such compounds or such atoms has a very less melting point.

Polar Molecule

Now let us jump into the second kind of secondary bond which is polar molecule induced dipole. A polar molecule is inherently a symmetric electric distribution. It has inherent a symmetric electric distribution there. Why it is inherently has a dipole in it and such molecules are known as polar molecules. Now what happens is since it has inherent polarity in it that will induce dipole in the adjacent atoms which are inherently not a symmetric rather symmetric. But the polar molecule will induce electrical charge asymmetry momentarily and will lead to again interaction and attraction between the polar molecule. The induced dipole and this phenomena will extend throughout the material. Thereby a weak bond is created which is secondary in nature. But this weak bond is stronger than the induced dipole. Induced dipole kind because this has a permanent symmetric distribution in the form of a polar molecule. The polar molecule has a permanent dipole moment this induces a dipole moment in other electrically symmetric atom or molecule and attractive force develops. As a result this is stronger than the induced dipole case.

Now after this let's go to the third kind in which both the molecules or the atoms which we are talking are inherently asymmetric that is both are polar molecules. So we have a polar molecule scenario whereby attractive force between two molar polar molecules and the force is stronger than the previous two configuration obviously. Because both molecules are polar that is there is no need to induce any charge distribution. They are inherently as symmetrically just distributed. Initially there is a special case known as hydrogen bonding and the example which we discussed is hydrogen fluoride. Hydrogen is slightly positively charged fluorine. Hydrogen fluoride slightly positive slightly negative charged this is a polar molecule.

Another hydrogen fluoride this is also a polar molecule and they attract each other forming a hydrogen bond which is a special kind of polar molecule. Polar molecule attraction hydrogen series. It's only electron strong positive and very strong attraction between fluorine of hydrogen fluoride which is negative of this. Now among the three different kinds of secondary bonding this polar molecule is the strongest kind of secondary bonding. Thereby it has the molecules which manifest itself in polar molecule. Polar molecule secondary bonding has the highest melting point and even in this case even in the polar molecule polar molecule keys. The hydrogen bonding elements which has rather the molecules, which has hydrogen bonding are the strongest kind of bond.

Today we saw the different kinds of secondary bonding which are not chemical bonding because there is no sharing or transfer of electrons. Rather there is creation of a charge distribution which is asymmetric either inherently or induced and that leads to or like here in hydrogen fluoride. The molecules attract each other by this kind of bonding also hydrogen bonding can be seen in hydrogen chloride. Basically hydrogen bonding too should have a high electronegativity difference with hydrogen.

Explain Different Types of Non Ferrous Alloys?

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Sun, 16 Aug 2020 10:23:00 -0700

Magnesium Alloys

Today we will discuss about different types of non ferrous alloys so the first metal that we are going to discuss is magnesium. We will discuss about magnesium alloys. Most important property of magnesium is it's very low density. Magnesium is just 1.7 gram per cubic centimeter, aluminium on the other hand was 2.7 gram per cubic centimeter iron is close to 7 point 5 gram per cubic centimeter. So magnesium is practically one of the least dense metal that exists. Magnesium alloys have hexagonal cubic system structure and it is relatively soft metal. It is quite a soft metal. The problem the HCP structure since it has effectively only three slip systems makes it quite difficult to deform. So magnesium is not easily deformable this is the main point of concern in using magnesium alloys. Since many applications require deformation to make the end product. Thereby a lot of research is going on in the field of magnesium alloys in order to create something which is easily deformable. So magnesium alloys are being researched to improve its deformation properties. The problem with its deformation leads to fabrication by casting or hot working casting, is basically liquefying the magnesium alloy that is making it liquid and then casting it into the end-product shape hot working. How does that help increasing the temperature? Two high temperature leads to a better deformable properties. It can be deformed easier than at room temperature.

So fabrication process is normally carried out by casting or hot working similar to aluminium magnesium also has a very low melting point. Aluminum had 660 degree Celsius melting point, magnesium had fire has 651 degree surface melting point quite similar. Magnesium is a very reactive metal. Thereby if you expose magnesium to air and it is slightly high in temperature if it is heated then it catches fire instantly. So it's better to avoid exposing magnesium to heated air or exposing heated magnesium to air either way it can catch fire. Magnesium easily corrodes this is a big disadvantage under marine conditions. Therefore magnesium should be avoided from being used under marine conditions it can easily corrode. Now the alloying elements that are normally used for magnesium alloys is aluminium, zinc, manganese and some rare earth metals. Some rare earth elements are also used these are the main allowing elements and the magnesium alloys are either cast or wrought cast means liquefied and shaped. Finally wrought means it can be treated by different deformation processes. So the alloying basically improves the deformation behavior slightly and thereby it can be even either cast or wrought.

Titanium Alloys

Now let us see the next kind of allowing system that is titanium alloys. Titanium has also a low density relative to iron not as low as aluminium or magnesium. It has a density of 4.5 gram per CC. Advantage of titanium contrary to aluminum and magnesium which had a very low melting point. The melting point of titanium is quite high, it is 1668 degree Celsius which is actually very high even higher than iron in addition to that titanium has a very high Young's modulus. The Young's modulus for titanium is 107 Giga Pascal which is very high. Thereby in titanium alloys are extremely strong and the ultimate tensile strength for titanium alloys can be as high as 1400 mega Pascal.

Titanium alloys is also very ductile and easily malleable. So the good properties is it is strong as well as ductile has a very high melting point. The drawback is that it has chemical reactivity is high at elevated temperature. So this is a negative the chemical reactivity increases at high temperature. This is a positive property another positive property is at room temperature very good corrosion resistance. So this is also a positive property the corrosion behavior of titanium alloys is good at room temperature. Main drawback of titanium alloys is that it is very costly. Therefore the titanium alloys is only used in very specialized cases. So just to recap the positives are extremely strong ductile and machinable very good corrosion resistance, negatives chemical reactivity is high at elevated temperature and quite costly. Thereby titanium alloys are mainly used in scenarios like airplane structure specialized applications, spacecraft against the slice application implants. Body implants can be made out of titanium alloys again a specialized application.

Refractory Metals

The refractory metals as the name suggests refers to metals which has very high melting point. So some of the examples of refractory metals are nabhi 'm which has a melting point of 2468 degree celsius, moly bit gnam 2623 degree celsius, tantalum 3020 degree celsius and the highest melting point metal known tungsten which has 3410 degree celsius. So as you can see this melting point of these metals are very drastically high compare this to the melting point of aluminum which was 660 degree Celsius, compare this to even the melting point of titanium which was quite good at 1668 degree Celsius. But these are even better than those and thereby these metals have special applications under high temperature condition. Now what is it that gives such a high melting point for these metals. The fact is that they have very strong interact maquon dings. The bond strength for these metals are very high. In addition these refractory metals have large elastic moduli, high strength as well as very high hardness. The very high hardness is a manifestation of the strong inter atomic bonding and these properties even exist at elevated temperature. The idea that the properties remain good even at elevated temperature makes them very appropriate to be used at high temperatures.

Now refractory metals as such can have varied uses, but the most important fact is that their high melting point make them very suitable for high temperature application. So mainly they are used for high temperature condition applique. Now tantalum and molybdenum is also added to steel as a alloying element in order to improve corrosion behavior. These four refractory metals are also added as alloying elements in super alloys which are then used in aircraft industry. So these have specialized application to where fracture metals are basically used under conditions where they will be exposed to high temperature like aircraft industry. In scenarios where the temperature might go very high like the rocket nozzle, where the temperature is very high at entry or exit due to high frictional forces. So under such circumstances what happens is refractory metals come into play. In addition to ceramics which we did not discuss in details. So this brings us to the end of our discussion about non ferrous alloys.

Discuss and Explain in Brief About Primary Bond?

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Fri, 14 Aug 2020 09:30:00 -0700

Primary Bonds

We will discuss about what is known as the primary bonds. So bonds between atoms or molecules can be categorized into two distinctive category. The first is known as the primary bond, the second is the secondary bond. Primary bonds - what are the basic features of primary bond. Primary bond are stronger bonds than secondary bond that is very characteristic property about primary bond and point of difference with secondary bond. Primary bond also known as chemical bonds involve the valence electrons. The valence electrons of the atoms comes into picture when we discuss about primary bond. The nature of the bond depends on the type of atom we are talking about what that means is that primary bond is not just a single type of bond. There are multiple types of primary bond and what kind of primary bond will be formed between two atoms will depend on the nature of both the atom.

Types of Primary Bond

Now what are the types of primary bond that are present. Primary bonds can be divided into three categories. First and foremost it's called ionic bond, the second is called covalent bond and finally what we have is known as the metallic bond. We'll discuss about all three of them in details.

Ionic Bond

Ionic bond are the type of bond which normally exists in a compound having one metallic atom and another nonmetallic atom. Put differently the two atoms participating in an ionic bond generally have large distance of electronegativity. The difference of electronegativity gives rise to ionic bond and the reason as we will discuss now. We will discuss it through an example of sodium and chlorine. Now you might be knowing that sodium has 11 electrons and chlorine has 17 electrons. So the configuration is like the first orbit really be using the Bohr's model for the simplification. But we can also write 1s2 2s2 2p6 and 3s1. So this gives 10 electrons and this is the 11th electron, this 10 electrons lie in the two inner orbit only this single electron in the outer shell. Similarly chlorine has a configuration of 1 is 2s2 2p6 and 3s2 3p5. So there are a net of 7 electrons in the outermost shell from your basic chemistry understanding. Might be knowing that in order to have a stable configuration, in order to have a noble gas configuration or the outermost orbit should have eight electrons in it for stability. Now how can this two atoms attain stability.

Let's suppose that the single electron in sodium atom here is transferred to the outer orbit of the chlorine atom. What will that give rise to that, will give rise to eight electrons here because this orbit no longer exists. This orbit will have eight electrons and the stable configuration will be attained that is exactly what happens. So the electron is donated by the metal to the nonmetal and that gives rise to something known as sodium chloride. Since sodium has lost electron it becomes singly positive charged and chlorine, since it cleaned the electron it became single negative charge and the compound which we got is sodium chloride. This kind of bond that is developed by transfer of electron from one atom to another is known as a ionic bond. This helps attain the novel gas configuration as I said.

Properties of Ionic Bond

What are the properties of an ionic bond? There is columbic force of attraction between the atoms why so because there is a positive charge here and a negative charge here. There is electrical attraction between the two atoms now and that binds the two atoms together. It is non directional in nature. What we mean by non directional nature of an ionic bond is that it does not matter if we have a sodium positively charged atom. The chlorine atom can be anywhere around here because charge spreads is attraction in a spherically symmetric manner. There is no fixed direction in which it attracts more, it attracts in all the directions. Similarly so it is non directional in nature. As we will discuss in our discussion about covalent bond, covalent bond is a directional nature bond that is not the case of ionic bond. The bond energy is relatively large in ionic bonds and this large bonding energy results in a higher melting point for ionic systems. I think bonds normally gives rise to hard brittle and good insulators, hard materials and brittle because of the strong bond, good insulators because there are no free electrons isn't it and also the charged particles. The atoms are charged but they are bound together. Thereby they are electrically neutral, thereby they are good insulators ceramic materials. The sodium chloride dissolves in something dissolves in water a polar material this being polar it will dissolve in water. Thereby we will have charge distribution there will be sodium plus ion and chlorine minus ion and that will result in conductivity. So the ionic material then not dissolved in water are good insulators. But once it dissolves it starts to conduct a letter and ceramics mainly have ionic bond. This gives you a holistic picture about what ionic bonds are.

Covalent Bond

Let us discuss the second kind of primary bond that is the covalent bond. Covalent bond are formed by sharing of electrons. Ionic bonds were formed by either accepting electron or donating electron, that is a major point of difference between the two. Then both atoms contribute electron to the bond since there is sharing both participating atoms will contribute electron to it.

Let's take an example in which now we have both atoms as chlorine. Now since this chlorine atom has 7 electrons at the outermost shell. Similarly this has 7 electrons in the outermost shell, there is no way one is going to transfer an atom to the other. Since then it will become further 6 electrons. Our alternative is defined out is that if they share one electron into a common bank then both of them will have 8 electrons and they will get their stable configuration. That is exactly what the chlorine atom stares. Now these two electrons are the shared electrons and this two shared electrons form a single covalent point. If there were a atom like oxygen which had six electrons in the outermost shell, then each of them would have shared two electrons and we would get four electrons shared effectively. Thereby two bonds will be formed two covalent bonds.

We understand now how the sharing happens and as I said in the previous discussion about ionic bond that ionic bonds are non directional in nature. But covalent bonds are directional in nature. Why so because they have sharing of electrons. The electrons lie in between the two atoms thereby they are bounded in the 3d space. They cannot be at any angle they want right in this case since there are just two atoms they always be at 180 degrees. Since they are symmetric in the case of water where we have h2o one oxygen, two hydrogen. There is a angle something like this. Oxygen here hydrogen here the two hydrogen shares one electron each and the oxygen spheres to. Thereby oxygen has another four so it completes his octet. The only exception to the octet rule is for hydrogen where it can take to and from noble gas configuration the helium configuration. Therefore we can see here that the two hydrogen can be with respect to the oxygen is defined by the bonding nature and this is roughly 109 degree for water. That is what we mean when we see the covalent bonds are directional in nature, number of bonds depend on the number of valence electrons.

As I discussed for chlorine we will have single bond for oxygen we have two bonds and for nitrogen three bonds. Now when is the covalent bond formed? It is normally formed when the two participating atoms have closer values of electronegativity for ionic bond. The two participating atoms had a huge difference electronegativity. Covalent bonds should have closer electronegativity. Thereby they should be willing to share electrons and this is a important point that though we have discussed, as if ionic nature exists independent of covalent nature or covalent nature and ionic nature cannot coexist. But in reality since there is at least some electronegativity difference between most of the atom except for the cases when both are same atom. Then there is no hundred percent covalent or no hundred percent ionic bonds rather they are partially ionic or partially covalent. Maybe more covalent if they are closer in electronegativity more ionic, if they are further in electronic that is for the covalent bond nature the strength of the bond really varies. It can be very strong bond in a covalent bond or it can be a very weak bond like in this example, bismuth has a very low melting point because it's bond strength is quite weak. Whereas diamond has a very high melting point because it has one of the strongest covalent bond known to mankind.

Metallic Bond

Now let us discuss the third kind of primary bond that is metallic bond. Metallic bond are founded metals are metallic alloy systems. We know that in the metals normally only one two or three electrons exist in the outermost shell. So it is not possible for them to share electrons and gain the octet stability nor is it possible for them to transfer electrons and gain octet stability. So instead what they do is that they share electron to the whole bulk and thereby attain octet stability at the atomic level. So if we have a single let's say sodium or some metal what it will do. It will have a ionic core which will remain positive and the electrons become part of a large sea of electrons drifting throughout the metal.

That is how the metallic bond is found and again here the bonding nature is non directional metallic bonds. Similar to ionic bonds are non directional and the bond energy and the melting point varies greatly. As we know metals like mercury are a liquid at room temperature whereas other metals like tungsten has a very high melting point. Metallic bonds are always strong or always weak. This gives you a rough idea about the third kind of primary bond to briefly summarize. We have three kinds of primary bond ionic bond which is formed by transfer of electrons from one atom to another, covalent bond which is formed by sharing of electrons, metallic bonds which are in metal systems by giving up its valence electrons in the sea of electron.

Bond and Property Relation

What are the bond and property relations? The property of a material is highly influenced by the type of bond. As we saw that something which has a strong bond will find it very difficult to be in the molten state. A lot of energy will be required to melt it. So let us discuss the bond property relation using one simple example of electrical conductivity covalent bonds, covalent materials are insulator. Why so because they have no free electrons available. This is a general statement there may be cases where covalent bonds are electrical conductive conducting. But generally: materials are very good insulators, ionic materials are generally insulators again because there are no free electrons. But when you dissolve some ionic material in water, then ions will be formed separate out and that can conduct electricity. Finally metallic materials normally they have a sea of electrons which are free to move throughout the body of the material. Thereby they are very good conductors of electricity. So we see by understanding the nature of the bond. How we can understand what property it should have and also if we see a material and have a property of it. We can derive back what kind of bonding it has? This brings us to a conclusion on our discussion about the different kind of primary bonds.

Atomic Radii of Two Metals

Explain Imperfection in Solid with Example.

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Mon, 10 Aug 2020 18:21:00 -0700

Imperfection in Solid

In last topic I introduced you to the concept of crystalline materials and amorphous materials and how there is a long range ordering in crystalline materials. Now with this idea you might think that should a crystalline material have ordered throughout the material or in a part of the material a part of the specimen. So a single crystal is one where there is the complete specimen has ordered throughout the specimen, whereas poly crystal has different crystals throughout the specimen. But now imagine, you have even if you have a single crystal or if you have a poly crystal. Then is it possible that there is a uninformative within the material or is it that even for a single crystal or for a poly crystal. There has to be exact ordering throughout the material. What I mean is that all the atoms should be at exact position. No atoms should be missing from anywhere, no additional atoms should be anywhere is that the case as we will see in today's topic that is not the case.

So our discussion will be on imperfections in solid. The case we have studied till now are perfect solids are crystalline materials perfectly ordered that is the question and as I said no. So if the crystalline material is not perfectly order then what is the exact scenario? What is the practical scenario there are actually a large number of imperfections present in any crystalline material. Be it single crystal, be it polycrystals. There the type of imperfection present may be different in single crystal and poly crystalline material. As we will see and also within the polycrystalline material. There may be different kind of imperfection trivalent.

What are Defects

So this particular kind of imperfections which are present in a crystalline material are known as defects. So as the term suggests defect is kind of a deviation from perfection. That's why defects and this defects you might think that the defects which are there hamper the properties. But as a matter of fact the defects are sometimes very important for property enhancement too, because all the applications have different requirements and different applications requirements can be met by tailoring the amount of defect and the types of defect we have in the material. So the properties are profoundly affected by that defects that are present in the material and defects in crystalline material or crystalline lattice is irregularity in one or more dimension. So what this means is that defects can be rather not just one or more dimension. It can even be in zero dimension as well see it can even be zero dimension. So crystalline or lattice irregularity which is known as the imperfections or defects can be in zero dimension or point affect one dimension or line defect two dimension or surface defect and three dimensional or what is known as volume defect?

What are Point Defects

So to begin with our study let us see what are the point defects that are present in a solid are the zero dimensional defects. In metals we can have either vacancy or self. We'll see in details about each of the individual type of defect in the topic. But just to give you a brief glimpse Vacancy means atom is absent. Where there should be an atom where a self interstitial means extra atom is present in the void between atoms. So this is effectively less atom than there should be this is effectively more atom. Than there should be then point effects in the case of ceramics can be Frenkel defect and Schottky defect. Frenkel defect is basically at the missing from its location and is located at a different location. Schottky defect is basically two atoms missing. We'll see in details later then we have impurities that can be both in metal case and ceramic case.

Now what do I mean by impurities, see the idea is that for a particular metal or for a particular ceramic the composition is defined. Let's say for example iron iron has Fe atoms present at its lattice sites. But suppose that we add something to iron. Let's say we add carbon that makes steel. So in addition to the iron that was initially there. We now have additional element which was not supposed to be there that is carbon. So this thing which is externally added or which is externally present which should not be there are known as impurities. Now the impurities can be present both in the metal case as well as the ceramic case and what are the type of defects that can be under the categorization of impurities.

The type of defect will be substitutional or interstitial. As the name suggests substitutional impurities will be impurities which will substitute a metal or ceramic atom from its initial position. So the impurity atom will displace our original atom and takes its position that is substitutional interstitial. The impurity atom will go and sit at a interstitial site, it will not displace any atom. So these all are broadly speaking the point defects that can be present in a solid. Now that we have a idea about the point effects. We'll see all of them in details and their importance their significance. How they affect the properties of solid?

Line Defects

Let us see line defect, line defect as an if this line is a one dimension so line defect are basically one dimensional defects. So instead of atoms missing there will be line of atom missing or line of atom additional atoms present where there should not be. So the line defect is basically known as dislocation. Dislocation can be of two categories. It can either be a edge dislocation or it can be as through screw dislocation. A third category is basically a combination of edge and screw dislocation which is known as mixed dislocation. So now we know what is line defect.

Surface Defects

Let us see what are the surface defects. Possible surface defect as the name suggests any surface is a two-dimensional thing. So a surface defect is a two dimensional defect or two-dimensional imperfection in solid. So what are the possible surface defects? Some of the possible surface defects are the external surface. External surface is actually a discontinuity. So ideally there should not be any external surface. The atoms should keep on arranging till infinity for the perfect crystalline material to exist. But obviously that is not a practical scenario. The specimen need to end somewhere because it is a finite specimen. So it will obviously have a external surface and that is a discontinuity there by that is a imperfection.

Grain Boundaries

Then secondly we have what is known as grain boundaries? This grain boundaries comes into picture in the case of polycrystalline materials. As I have discussed in the previous topic polycrystalline materials are materials which have different regions of crystallinity and each crystal region. What is known as each grain has a orientation mismatch with its surrounding grain. Thereby these grains have are separated by a discontinuity which is known as the grain boundary and this grain boundary being a boundary is a two dimensional defect. Then we will see something which is known as twin boundary. So these three are examples of surface defects. There are other surface defects too but our point of concern will be mainly discussing these three surface defect.

Let's see the three dimensional defects. So imperfections in solid can be in three dimension to what is the possible examples. Some of the possible examples can be that it can be a pore. There can be porosity within the material and what material is completely absent from region. So that region is a three-dimensional region. So pore is a three dimensional defect then there can be cracks, there can be foreign inclusions, there can be inclusion particles or impurity particles present rather than atoms. So those things will cover three dimensional region thereby it will be a volume defect also. There can be different phase completely other phase present which is not supposed to be there. So this kind of makes the three dimensional defect. So today's topic was a basic introduction to the imperfections in the solid present. We saw the different kinds of zero dimensional or point effects, one-dimensional or line defect, 2d or surface defect and three-dimensional defects or volume defects.

Explain Briefly Phase Diagram in Material Science

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Sun, 9 Aug 2020 00:28:00 -0700

Phase Diagram Material Science

Hi everyone, welcome back to the topic on introduction to material science and engineering. today we will discussing about something which is known as phase diagrams. Today will be just to introduce you to several concepts upon which we will build further knowledge. So the fundamentals before we begin, you need to understand that there are certain definitions that needs to be understood better before we understand what phase diagram is.

Component

So one of the things that you will encounter many times when discussing about phase diagrams and phases is known as component. Component in metallurgy or in material science refers to a pea or metal or compound out of which alloys are made. So it is either a pure metal or a compound. Now in order to give you idea about each of these terms. I will be using a simple example of sugar water solution. Sugar water solution using this will understand each of the terms which will define here. So in a sugar water solution, the components are sugar and water. These are the two components present in a sugar water solution.

Solution

Now what is a solution? Solution can be referred to as a of alloys consisting of same components. What do I mean by this?? What I mean is that you again using the sugar water example. You can have 10% sugar in water or you can have 20% or 30 or 20 files. So there are different combinations of sugar and water and amount that can be present. So this is a series of alloys we normally use in metals. But here we can say series of mixtures or series of solutions which has the same components. You see this components are sugar and water. What we are varying is, we are varying the amount of the independent components of the individual components. This series of different solutions represent a system of solutions or a system of alloys in the case of metal systems. So now we understood what component is. We understand that what a solution is.

Solubility Limit

Now we need to understand something which is known as solubility limit. Solubility limit basically refers to the maximum amount of solute atoms that you can dissolve in a solvent to form a solid solution. so if you think about it, if you try to mix sugar in water. You take water at room temperature you put you take one cup of water. You add one spoon of sugar, you stir it. It will mix completely. You keep on adding sugar, you keep on stirring up till one level you can keep on dissolving all the sugar in the water. But we aren't a certain level the sugar will no longer dissolve in the water. You will see sugar deposited at the bottom of the water, which no longer dissolves in the water. What that means is at that moment when the sugar stops dissolving any further, you have reached the solubility limit. Which means no longer the solute that is the sugar can dissolve in the solvent that is the water. Therefore solubility limit is a hard limit of the amount of solute, that can basically dissolve in a solvent to form a solution. But the solubility limit is also a function of temperature. It depends on the temperature of the solution or of the solvent.

How can we figure this out in the same example of mixing sugar in water. Suppose you had water at room temperature and after four spoon of sugar the sugar no longer dissolves. Try this out, you increase the temperature, you heat the water. Then what you'll observe is that, now the water is able to take a dissolve further amount of sugar. So basically, by increasing that temperature of the water. You are able to increase the solubility limit. Now more amount of solute atoms can dissolve in the solvent. What I mean, when I say that solubility limit depends on temperature in the case of solids dissolving in liquid or solids dissolving in solid. The relation is linear, that is you not linear rather increasing. With increase in temperature, the amount of solute that can dissolve increases.

In the case of gases, it is normally the opposite. If you increase the temperature of the solution or of the solvent, then less amount of gas will be able to be retained. That piece the gas will start to evolve out on increasing that temperature. But since we will be fundamentally concerned with metals and metallic systems. Solid systems, the solubility limit will be increasing in most of the cases with increase in temperature. Now let us see we have composition. Weight percent of sugar in this axis. This is the composition over here we have 100 percent water. 100 percent water and over here, we have a hundred percent sugar. So any intermediate position here we have 50% water and 50% sugar. This axis is the y axis is the temperature axis. As you go up, you are increasing that temperature. What we observe is that over here we have something written as L. This L is referred to as the liquid. This is basically a water plus sugar solution.

There is no independent individual sugar left over in this region. But in this region across this line. Across this blue line here we have the liquid form of water plus sugar as well as solid sugar deposited. So we have liquid plus solid and let us take any temperature. Let's say we are at 20 degree Celsius. What we see from this graph is that at 20 degree Celsius we can dissolve approximately a maximum of somewhere close to 70% sugar in water. If you add more sugar then it will deposit as solid sugar on increasing the temperature. Let us say we are at 80 degree Celsius. At 80 degree Celsius instead of the previous amount of 70 percent. Now we can dissolve around 80% of sugar in water. So this line basically separates the region. This solubility limit basically separates the region in which sugar completely dissolves in water. The region where sugar is left over and is not able to completely dissolve in water. This line basically represents the solubility limit line. This type of representation in which we have one axis devoted to composition of the components. These are the component side water and sugar. One axis is devoted to percentage of different components. The other axis over here is the polar devoted to the temperature. Over here the whole area is divided into regions having different. What will call them as phases? We will see that these are phases this type of diagram is known as phase diagram.

Physical and Chemical Properties

We will see this in much more details. So here it is what is a phase, a phase is basically a homogeneous portion of a system, which has uniform physical and chemical properties. Uniform physical and chemical properties that is the most important criteria for our given phase. So here what we saw is in the sugar water solution case, here this liquid or this solution basically which had sugar and water completely dissolved had the same physical and chemical property. Throughout whether we took it over here anywhere. So this was our phase whereas in this region we had two phases. One was water and sugar solution and the other was solid sugar which was deposited. Because it could not further be dissolved. So we had two phases here we had single phase here, whereas for both the cases we had two components water and sugar.

Now that we have an idea what phase is and this is what I already discussed that in the sugar water syrup case. If complete sugar is dissolved then we have single phase. If complete sugar is not dissolved then we have two phases. When the sugar water set up and the other is the solid sugar. Now how do you distinguish phases, we already know the basic definition of phase. But a phase the phases are basically separated by distinct boundaries. Two phases will be separated by distinct boundary and what is the property across the boundary. Across the boundary you will have either different physical properties or different chemical properties or both of them. Different both physical and chemical properties different. So two phases need to have at least some physical property. Different or some chemical property, different or both physical and chemical properties different. You cannot have two different phase having identical physical and chemical properties.

Just to give you an example in the case of water. You can have ice, you can have liquid water and you can have vapor. But these three are different phases though they are same component. They have the same chemical formula. These are different phases they will have same chemical properties that is all will be h2o. But they will have different physical properties. So this will be in solid phase, this will in the liquid phase, this will be Decius. They have different physical manifestations. Now finally in case there is a single phase present. In case you have a system where the single phase present then we call it homogeneous system. In case there are multi phases present since there is more than one phase it is no longer homogeneous. What we call it now is either heterogeneous or it is termed as a mixture. So depending on the number of phases present whether it is singular or plural. It will be termed as homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Phase Diagram of Water

Now let us discuss see the phase diagram of water. As I already said that water is a single component. Water is single component h2o but it has ice water and steam three phases present now. What phase will be present at a particular temperature and particular pressure will be defined by the combination of the temperature and pressure. Here in this phase diagram we have one axis for temperature, the other axis for pressure. There is no access for component percentage because it is single component. It is always hundred percent water. So we do not need a component percentage axis. We will have a temperature axis or pressure axis and depending on the combination of temperature and pressure. We will get whether will have the solid state the liquid state or the gaseous state.

Atmospheric Pressure

Let us take an example let us take atmospheric pressure. This is atmospheric pressure that is 180 m and let's say we are at minus 50 degree Celsius. Let's assume this is minus 50 degree Celsius and we are at one atmospheres pressure. We end up in this region and this region as we can see is the region for eyes by our experience. We know that at minus 50 degree Celsius, we are supposed to have eyes and nothing else given that. The pressure is atmospheric pressure. Now suppose that you take this you keep the temperature at minus 50 degree Celsius itself but you start reducing the pressure you reduce the pressure so low that you enter this pink zone. Suppose you are over here at this pressure. Then what will happen what is basically happening is that the ice is getting transferred or converted into steam. Why so basically vapor exists when the vapor pressure is able to overcome the atmospheric pressure and any solid has some vapor pressure associated with it. So I also have some vapor pressure associated with it because there are atoms on the surface which may come off and provide some amount of pressure. Similarly liquid water has also some vapor pressure associated with it. Therefore what is happening over here that the atmosphere pressure is coming so low that the vapor pressure of the atoms from the I is exceeding the atmospheric pressure. There were the solid ice is converting into vapor steam. So here you can see the different phenomena actually happening.

How you can tweak the pressure and temperature combinations to get a different phase altogether. Let's jump into the water region if you keep one atmospheric pressure but you go to zero degree Celsius. We know that at zero degree Celsius we have water as well as ice present. So if water as well as ice is present at zero degree Celsius that is exactly what is happening here. Zero degree and one atmospheric pressure is falling at the interface of water ice therefore over here we will have both water and ice increase the temperature. Further you reach hundred percent water peak that temperature 200 degree Celsius. Now you are at the equilibrium of water and steam. So you will have attended degree Celsius and 1 atmospheric pressure both water and steam increase the temperature further and we get complete steam or complete water vapor. So this is how increase of temperature effects. The phase changes and that can be deduced from this phase diagram.

Triple Point or Invariant Point

I would like to draw your attention to a few important details here one is what is known as triple point. Triple point or it's also called invariant point. You will encounter invariant point several times when discussing phase diagrams further. But for water it is called triple point. Triple point is the combination of temperature and pressure at which all the three phases coexist. So at zero point zero six atmospheric pressure and 0.01 degree Celsius temperature. We have ice water and steam all of them three coexisting that is same here because all the three lines meet at this point. Then we have this point that is 218 atmospheric pressure very very high pressure and 374 degree Celsius quite high temperature. Over here beyond that you will have something which is known as supercritical fluid.

Supercritical fluid

Supercritical fluid is basically something which has properties of both a liquid and vapor. Phase will not go into details of that. You can study up more about supercritical fluid if you want But we do not need for our understanding any further. The only take-home supercritical fluid has properties of both liquid and saw a vapor state coexisting and that temperature and pressure combination is known as critical point. Beyond which we have supercritical fluid. So this gives you an idea about phase diagram fundamentals here. Again what we see is that we have distributed that temperature pressure area into different regimes. Having different phases existing and we have boundaries along which phases coexist. with this back background.

Microstructure

Let us understand what is microstructure. This gives you a brief understanding about phase diagram. Now let us see microstructure, microstructure is one of the most important things that you need to understand while understanding metallurgy and material science. Microstructure is basically as the name suggests Micro that is small structure. It is the structure as observed under a microscope. What is the importance of a microstructure? Microstructure by studying it we can predict what is the property of the material at hand. The property is influenced drastically by the nature of the microstructure that exists. Now what are the different components of a microstructure when you see. Let's say a steel sample under a microscope, you will be able to see the phases different phases present. You will be able to identify what is the grain size of the different phases present.

There will be also able to observe what are the proportion of the different phases present. How much is each phase present and how are they distributed? How are the different phases distributed. What is the shape of the different phases? is it needle-like, is it equi-axed it, is it elongated everything together. All these properties all these observations together lends to the ultimate property that the material will have. But what are the things that decides this parameters. What is it that decides what will the phases present the grain size? How much amount of differences will represent that is kind of dictated by several things? One is what are the alloying elements present like. If you have a steel whether the disk Romey imprison tor not whether there is boron present or not. What are the alloying elements present that will affect the arrangement of the phases and the phases what is a concentration of the alloys that you add? Are you adding two percent from i am. Are you adding ten percent chromium to it?

That will affect the microstructure and last but not the least and one of the most important thing is the heat treatment schedule. That is you are undergoing you take a steel. You take it to 800 degree Celsius and you cool it rapidly to in ice cold water alternatively. You take a steel you heat it to 800 degree Celsius and you let it fall in the school that is it cools very very slowly. These two are two completely different kind of heat treatment schedule and this difference in heat treatment schedules will lead to completely different micro structure. Thereby completely different properties. So the take home here is that micro structure dictates property and the micro structure itself is dictated by several factors. Including the alloying element, their concentration and the heat treatment schedule. That you follow among which the heat treatment setting is one of the most because you are able to form the heat treatment schedule as per your requirement.

You cannot change the alloying elements as per your requirement always. Now these are two examples I have put up just to show you how micro structures look, how are different microstructures look? Thus different microstructures look this is copper to give you an idea this is 50 micron. This is about the thickness of a hair single here. So this is quite a magnified view this is copper single cells. You can see these are different range. This is one grain of copper, this is a different grain of copper. So what we see is that not all veins are equally sized. Some are quite small means some are relatively large grains. But the average size will tend to be close by the medium size will not vary a lot from the smallest or the largest and these things how they are. What is the average median size? How are the grains arranged? This will affect the property, this is another example of microstructure in which you have two phases present. You can see a dark phase and you can see a light phase. So this was single phase this is a two phase microstructure. Two phases need not exist only like this. Two phases can also exist like this, in which some of them are one phase and some of them are different phase like this may be one phase. This may be other phase and intermixed together. Here they are basically lap in a lamellar shape. When we'll study further, we will see that this kind of structure is known as lamellar structure obviously and this is obtained by eutectoid transformation dip toil'd transformation.

So just to give you a brief glimpse about what we study today. We began by the basic definitions component system, solubility limit phase and different kind of phases that can exist. We saw the phase diagram for either rather water and we understood how to read the phase diagram for hit from here and what are the details that we can extract from a phase diagram. Then we discuss what is the microstructure. We discuss the details that can be understood from a microstructure. What is the relevance of microstructure.

What are Crystalline Material in Amie Exam

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Fri, 10 Jul 2020 19:16:00 -0700

What are Crystalline Material

We'll come into the atomic scale of mainly metals because material science a lot of it deals with metals and alloys. We'll see how is the crystal system, how is the crystal structure of a material? Let's go into details and understand what I am talking about. So as I said, the properties of a material are influenced by its structure. How is the structure of a material helps define the end property of the material. Therefore it is quite pivotal to understand and enhance our knowledge about the structure of a material. Now broadly speaking, any material can be classified into two categories on the basis of structure. So the solids exist as either a crystalline material or amorphous material. We'll be focusing on solids, because the abundant amount of elements and all the alloy systems are in the solid state. Most of the material science will deal with that. So we'll focus on that for the time being now.

Crystalline material

Characteristics of Crystalline Material

What does each of them mean specifically, solid exist as a crystalline material or amorphous material. Crystalline material means, there is a long range order in the material. Whereas enough amorphous material there is no ordering in the material. Now we'll discuss it further. Let's see crystalline material as I said has long range periodic arrangement of atoms. That is if I give you if there is an atom here and here and the material is crystalline. Then you can predict where will be the next act that is it. It has a specific location where the atom can be present and there are locations where atom cannot be present. That is what is meant by long-range ordering. This long-range ordering is a repetitive 3d pattern. That is the ordering is present in the three dimension. So it will be in x axis y axis and z axis. There will be ordering in this direction. This direction and in this direction and that is typical characteristic a 3d pattern is a typical characteristic of a crystalline material.

Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline Material

Pattern of Crystalline Material

Now as I said, there is a pattern in a crystalline material. You might ask that there must be a very basic unit in the three dimension, that can be repeated over and over again to get the whole 3d isn't it exactly. That is how it happens, there are what is known as unit cells will come into that. Those unit cell is the smallest block of 3d space, which can be repeated in x axis y axis and z axis to give you the whole 3d pattern of the crystalline material. Therefore it is called the unit cell. It's a very basic building block of the crystalline material. Now to put things into perspective crystalline material composes of. Most of the metals a lot of ceramics and some polymers. When I say metals, I include metal as an elemental metal as well as alloys, which has combination of different metals. Now you can say that it's all fine that we have 3d arrangement. But is it possible to have different kind of 3d arrangement.

What is Crystalline Material and Amorphous Material

Actually as it happens there is a possibility to have different kinds of 3d arrangement. But the different kind of 3d arrangement can be grouped into seven crystal system. Further classified into fourteen prevail so that 14 gravel artists kind of includes all the possible 3d arrangements. That can be present in a crystalline material will not go into the 14 bravais lattice. We'll see there are seven crystal systems. That's what I have written here that there are different crystal structure need not be one type of 3d arrangement. The different crystal structure has a lot of influence in the property. That kind of determines a lot of property the material will have. So it is quite important to understand what category of crystal structure, that's a particular element or a metal come under. Now we have seen what is a crystalline material alternatively, what is a non crystalline or amorphous material. These both are alternative names for the same thing. Those are materials which do not have a long-range ordering. What do I mean long-range ordering. I have written long-range ordering here and long-range order here. So if there can be short-range order ordering like there can be order in a material.

Let's say in ten atom length or hundred atoms length, but it does not extend throughout the material. Right or to a large macroscopic region long range order is absent. In such a scenario and that scenario will result in a non amorphous material. A very simple example of non-emergent irreal which you all have seen is silica or sand.

It is a non amorphous material though the silicon has kind of a SP 3 hybridisation. It should have three bonds attached to it. But it does not have there are many broken bonds. As a result, the 3d repetition does not happen as it should happen thereby it is amorphous. Now that we have got a glimpse into what is a crystalline system and what is an amorphous system.

Types of Crystalline Material

let us dive deep and understand the different kind of crystal structures that I have mentioned here. Before that let's discuss some more thing, the metal system that will be discussing throughout our topic will be based on hard sphere model. Now what is hard sphere model, hard sphere model assumes atoms to be like marbles, hard marbles. If there is one atom here, then another atom is here and this cannot intrude into the space here. Like there is a physical repulsion, these are this is hard sphere model atoms are considered hard spheres unit cell. As I already discussed is the smallest building block, which can be repeated in the three dimension to get the whole crystalline material.

Now a unit cell, what is the characteristic of a unit cell. A characteristic of a unit cell will be that, it will have three dimension. It will have X Y and a Z dimension and it might be something like this. Make a cube which this angle is 90 degree and all the sides equal. It might be cuboid which all with all the angles is 90 degree. But the sides not equal and it can take other configurations too.

We'll see but to give you your idea unit cell composes of three set of parallel faces this face. This face is parallel to each other this face and this face is parallel to each other. The front face and the back face are parallel to each other. So it is a parallelepiped shaved with three set of parallel faces. As I said, there are seven crystal systems and there are 14 types of arrangement of atoms that can take place in the seven crystal systems. A total of 714 kind of arrangement known as 14 bravais lattice exist.

So now let us see what are the seven crystal systems. This is the unit cell which I have shown over here. But there are only difference being this angles are alpha beta gamma and the lengths are in the x-axis. Here they have considered this as the x-axis II. This is the y-axis so the length is B and this is the z axis and the lengths C.

So these are the six variables which define a crystal system. The angles alpha beta gamma and sides a b c. Now the different combination of angles and sides will give rise to seven different kind of crystal system. Let us see, each of them one by one. The cubic system which will be the most popular system in the metal system scenario which day in and day out is the cubic system. That has all the three sides of equal length and all the three angles 90 degree.

Second the hexagonal system this is the second most important crystal system. When we talk about metals in hexagonal system, we have two equal sides and a different third side and two angles as 90 degree and the third angle exactly 120 degree for a hexagonal system which do not has have any stress inside it. C is approximately equal to one point six three three times in.

But you need not remember this the basic idea is two sides are equal. Third is not equal dead dragon L you can think of this as a not exactly a matchbox. But something which has two faces of equal length. This is a square but the third dimension goes to a very large length or what we see here is a is equal to B but C is different and all the three angles are 90 degree.

So that is tetrahedral rhombohedral is three angles are equal three sides are equal. But the three angles though equal are each different from 90-degree. Orthorhombic has no side equal but all the angles equal to 90 degree. Monoclinic has no side equal to angle equal to ninety degree and the third angle is not equal to 90 degree. Finally comes triclinic, this is the most non symmetric system in which none of the angle is equal R. The none of the sides are equal and none of the angles are equal to each other and none of the angle is equal to 90 degree. So we see that these are seven different kind of systems, which can exist and based on which all unit cells can be defined.

Arrangement of Atoms in Crystalline Material

But as I already mentioned, these two the first two will be the most important for our topic and in fact even in advanced topics. When we focus mainly on metals and metal alloy systems cubic and hexagonal are the most important systems. Now there are four different ways in which atoms can be arranged in a system. This basically gives you just the outline of the unit cell, but this does not tell you where the atoms are going to be placed. So what are the four different locations where atom can be placed. Those are one is simple I will take the example of cubic system.

Let's say in the simple cubic system, only atoms are occupied at the eight corners and this is simple. Second system is known as the body centered. In body centered what happens in addition to the eight atoms at the eight corners. We have another atom at the center, this is body centered then we have. What is known as the face Center? Face Center as the name suggests is you have atoms at eight corners and you have atoms at the six faces too.

So this is face centered and there is another which is known as edge Center which does not exist in the cubic system. It does not exist in the cubic system at center, but in the system in which it does exist the earth system. What will happen is something like this, this is not our cubic system.

I'm not going to say what system supports the earth Center its Center system. But just know that there will be systems which will have at center and in those system, we will have eight atoms at the eight corners and two atoms one at the top face and one at the bottom. Bottom face this is edge Center, so these are the four different kind of ways in which atoms can be arranged in a given unit cell. These are the different ways a unit cell itself can exist and this combination will give you 14 brave a lattice.

Now you can ask me that, I said these three systems of atom arrangement exist in the cubic system but the edge Center does not exist why is it so? This is so because, if we try to make a edge Center in a board cubic system, then what will happen is that it will come out to be a replication of. I think the tetragonal system I'm not quite sure about it from the top of the head. But it will be just a repetition of a different kind of crystal bravais system which already exists.

So we do not take it into the body centered system rather into the cubic system. Rather it goes into the other system, that there is no repetition. So this kind of gives you a brief glimpse into the idea about how the atoms are arranged in a crystalline material. What is the difference between crystalline and amorphous material, the different crystal systems in are available, the different web browser lattices that can be available. The idea that the understanding of the arrangement of atoms is crucial is at the heart of the property evaluation or of any given material.

What is Atomic Structure Explain Briefly in Amie Exam

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Thu, 9 Jul 2020 04:31:00 -0700

What is Atomic Structure

Atomic structure

I will start to dive deeper and we'll start by studying the atomic structure, which is more of a chemistry knowledge. But for the completeness of this topic, we need to rediscover what about atomic structure and why do we know this to understand material science and engineering better. The properties of a material depends on the atomic structure on one hand and the interaction between atoms and molecules on the other hand. Therefore the basic building block of the material will help define the properties, to which the material is being used and also the atoms which are the constituent atoms of the material will interact with each other via different forces. Therefore that will also affect the property. We'll focus on atomic structure to start with and then with the different forces and interactions between atoms and molecules. This necessary the understanding of atomic structure to begin with.

Let us see the very basic structure of a simple atom. We can see here are some particles with a negative charge. Here are some particle with a positive charge and the green particles are supposedly charged last. Let us see each of them individually one by one. The negatively charged particles which seemed to move in orbits around the center is known as electron. So electrons are basically negatively charged particles.

Types of Bravais Lattice

Properties of Electron in Atomic Structure

What are the properties of electron? Electron is having a charge of - 1.602 into 10 power -19 Coulomb. There is the charge what is the mass of a Ronny's 9.1 1 into 10 to power - 31 kg it's in the art of - 32 kg. Finally as I said, this electron seems to revolve around.

What is Nucleus in Atomic Structure

What is known as nucleus in atomic structure? this is the nucleus of the atom and the radius of revolution. That is the distance from here, the center to this place is in the order of angstrom and that is what defines the atomic size. The distance from the centre to the outermost electron roughly gives you an idea about the atomic size. Let's see what are these positive particles, this positive particles are known as protons and similar to the charge of the electron. Which was negative 1.602 into 10 power -19 protons have same magnitude. But are oppositely charged that is their positively charged and have same magnitude. That point of difference is the mass. The mass of electron was in the order of 10 to power -31 whereas the mass of proton is in the order of 10 to power -27.

There is four orders of magnitude different. So a proton is much more heavier than an electron then third part is as ice'. Mentioned the central region which comes the proton is known as the nucleus of the atom. The nucleus of the atom is in the order of 10 to the power -15 meter so the radius of the nucleus is kind of 10 power -15 meter. Which is a distinctive point of difference from the radius at which 10 electrons revolve around the nucleus. Which was angstrom that is 10 power -10 meter. Let us see the third kind of particle that constitute an atom the green particles. The green particles are known as neutron.

What is neutron in atomic structure

What is a neutron? Neutron is a charged particle there it has zero charge the mass is very similar to that of a proton it's a very very slightly more than that of a proton it is 1.675 into 10 power -27 kg and thereby even a neutron is kind of four orders of magnitude heavier than an electron and the same radius that is the radius of nucleus in the order of 10 to power -15 meter as that of the proton now the interesting take home from here is if you observe the heavy particles that is the proton and the neutron both reside in the nucleus isn't it the very light particles electron revolves in these orbits therefore the mass of the atom almost completely resides at the center or resides at the nucleus of the atom now the proton and the neutron together.

What is nucleus in atomic structure

what is called as the nucleus? So this is my nucleus and in a particular atom if the atom is supposed to be electrically neutral and how is that possible. that is possible only when the number of electrons and the number of protons are same. Thereby the negative charge imparted by all the electrons will be counteracted by the positive charge imparted by all the protons. So in order to maintain the neutrality of an atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. This whole description is the basic Bohr's model description. In which the electron revolves around the nucleus in fixed orbits.

Let us familiarize ourselves with a few terminologies atomic number. The atomic number represented by a capital Z represents the number of protons. Atomic mass is the sum of the number of proton and the number of Neutron. The bulk of the mass lies in the nucleus that is within the proton Neutron. Therefore the electrons are not going to come into the picture.

A mole is defined as 6.023 into 10 to the power 23 atoms or molecules that is the definition of a mole. An isotope is rather two materials which has same atomic number but different mass number are known as isotope. To give you an example an isotope would be chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. Both have atomic number 17, but chlorine 35 has a mass number 35. Whereas fluorine 37 has a mass number 37. That's why they both are isotopes. So this gives you a brief definition of the different terminologies pertinent with atomic structure.

Bohr's model in Atomic Structure

Next we'll Discuss the Bohr's model. In description we will see what is the limitation of Bohr's model. How that gives rise to what is known as wave mechanical model. What does that mean? While discussing the atomic structure this was the simplistic known as the Bohr's model. In the Bohr's model, the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits. So these are the orbits in which the electron revolve around the nucleus. They cannot revolve in any arbitrary orbit. You cannot have an orbit intermediate between two defined orbits. Electron will not be able to revolve in those. So only fixed distances, the electrons can revolve around the nucleus energy of electron is quantized.

Now since we have said that the electrons are revolving around in fixed orbits, the energy level will be defined by the orbit. Therefore the energy is quantized. It cannot take up any value at once. It has to be either the energy level at this radius or the energy level at this radius. The energy level at the next quantum radius. Now this quantization of the locations at which electrons can be present results in what is known as energy states? See over here what you can observe there is an orbit, which is closest to the nucleus in which the electrons can revolve. Then there is a second closest orbit. So there are states of orbit and each state has a particular energy associated with it.

Therefore what we can say is that these are energy states in which the electron can revolve the radius closest to the nucleus. In which electrons revolve is known as the ground state. This is the energy representation for a hydrogen atom drive for home. The point we are using hydrogen atom which is the simplest atom. Because it has one electron, now the electron ideally will be at the lowest energy state. The orbit which is closest to the nucleus and we define the energy at infinity. That is very very far away from the nucleus as 0 electron volt. Then after calculations it is found that for the hydrogen atom at the lowest energy state. The energy level for the ground state turns out to be minus thirteen point six electron volt. But suppose, we give some energy into the electron which is at the ground state.

What it will do, it will absorb that energy and jump to a higher state such that it has sufficient energy to jump from the first state to the second state. Then the energy will increase from minus thirteen point six electron volt to -3.4 electron volt. Similarly, we can increase the amount of energy input and we can keep pushing the electron further away from the nucleus. Each of this state is a energy State, this lowest energy state is the ground state then the first excited state. Second excited state and if you give sufficiently high amount of energy.

What is ionization in Atomic Structure

What is known as ionization can take place. What happens in annihilation the electron is complete rejected from the atom. Electron gains sufficient amount of energy to be freed from the atom. The atom will develop a single and positive charge, because it has lost a single negative charge. So this was the basic idea behind the Bohr's model. Now what is the drawback of poor's Bohr's model defines definitive orbits in which electrons can revolve. But what we know is that any charged particle which is accelerating will lose energy. This is the fundamental one-one of physics. Therefore this electrons which are revolving revolution is accelerated motion. Therefore the electrons should not be able to be moving in the same path. It should slowly lose energy and spiral down into the nucleons that does not happen. Thereby there is some drawback obviously in the Bohr's model which it does not account for this led us to the development.

Difference between Wave and Bohr's Model

What is known as a wave mechanical model and Boh's model? Let's see what does it talk about, The major difference between wave mechanical model and Bohr's model is that Bohr's model defines specific paths. You have a path here or here whereas wave mechanical model says that electrons do not move in specific paths. Rather you have probability distribution of regions where electron can be found. There will be some region where the probability of finding electron is more. There will be some region the chances of finding electron will be less. But you cannot specify that this is the orbit. There will be a range of orbits with probability at different location. This leads to what is known as an electron cloud because you are not specifying where exactly the electron is. It can be anywhere in this whole bound region. This is my nucleus and this way mechanical model comes from the idea that Truong like a wave has a dual nature. That is electron can sometimes you have as a wave and sometimes as a particle.

Let me try, how the probability distribution will look like this is the electron cloud. Suppose that this is my probability and this is my radius. This is the nucleus which is lying over here and I am trying to draw the probability along this path. So what is observed is very close to the nucleus, the probability of finding the electron is almost 0. The probability keeps rising and near the poor's orbit radius. The probability is maximum and after that it starts to decrease again. and it tends to 0 at infinity. So there is a probability to find electrons even at a very far distance.

But the probability is very less the probability to find electron is maximum at Bohr's radius. But it's not hundred percent at poor's radius. There's a clear distribution and this kind of solves the problem which we encountered in the Bohr's model. Whereby accelerated electrons should lose energy and spiral down into the nucleus. So this brings us to the end of the topic on the basic structure of atom. We discussed Bohr's model, the components of a nucleus, the wave mechanical model and how it is better than the Bohr's model.

Material Science and Engineering Notes for Amie Exam

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Tue, 7 Jul 2020 03:56:00 -0700

Material science and engineering notes

Introduction to material science and engineering

I will give you introduction about material science and engineering which is a very exciting field in today's context. Let's jump into some discussion about this field, some history and the relevance of this field. All of you might have a idea about what the SIPP is this, is one of the most iconic sips.

I think you have guess it right. It's Titanic and this was taking when it was living in Southampton for its maiden journey. The journey which ultimately led to the sinking of the Titanic. Initially, it was thought that Titanic is unsinkable why was it so. It was one of the best ships build on all different varieties by the existing standards. But what exactly happened that led to the failure. There were actually several factors which led to the failure. But one of the most important factor quality of steel used which was not conducive for sub-zero temperature operations. Steel has something or rather all materials which is known as ductile to brittle transition temperature.

Discuss strengthening mechanism in Amie Exam

Material Science and Engineering Temperature

The temperature above which the material is ductile. Hence it can transform elastically and it does not feel easily that's the bottom line. But we know that temperature it fails easily. The testings w done above the ductile to brittle turn transition temperature. The Titanic when it hit the iceberg was actually below. It would not take the impact and that led to the sinking of the Titanic among other factors. So this is just to give you an idea about the importance of understanding the material. What are the analysis you need to do for putting it into applications. So as I said that I'll hide the title brittle transition temperature. There for the Titanic and brittle fracture took place at lower temperature which was not predicted.

Hence it thought to unsinkable with this brief and a dot. What are the uses of material science and engineering notes? Where do we see it in our day to day activity. This is a aircraft, this signifies the transportation sector. The complete transportation sector requires something lightweight and engines, which can be more efficient. So these are the things where a material scientists come into play. So transportation sector affected by material science and engineering. The knowledge of it, housing sector still reinforcement bars cement everything. Our everything is materials and the better material we have the metal better material.

Material Science and Engineering in Communication Sector

We can develop the more strong. Our buildings will be the higher the skyscrapers. We can build that telecommunication sector, which have optic fibers now. Nowadays the internet speed is ranging in gigabytes per second. So the development in material science and engineering and physics has led to high-speed communication. Then again, we have the agriculture sector.

Food is the most important thing along with house. So material science and engineering notes has provided us with different materials and different equipments. Which helps us enhance our capabilities in the agricultural sector. You yourself can think of many more fields where you apply your material science knowledge. Either to improve the human living quality or to increase the amount of luxuries, we can afford.

Classification of materials

Material Science and engineering history

Now let's take a dive into the history of human civilization. Thereby of materials engineering Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age. Now see the whole history, prehistoric human civilization is actually divided by the names of certain materials which was present. Which actually led to the development of human self civilization slowly. But certainly the impact of material was so dominant. That today humans named those ages after the materials rather than anything else find now.

These are some of the things which was used in the prehistoric era. When the science and technology was not really developed. What are these wooden logs, so these were basically the things which were freely available in the nature. Human did not have to innovate or invent. So logs used to build houses or to build a raft to get through the water bodies. Stones used as tools and devices. Animals fur and stuff used to make clothings to protect yourself against the harshness of the weather. Then clay pottery used to contain water or cooking things like that.

What we see is that, even in the prehistoric civilization conditions, materials where of most importance. The only difference was that humans did not invent new materials. Rather than they use the materials which were given by nature. But nonetheless, they were there and they were one of the most important constituent in living relatively decent life. Now to present situation, we build our house using steel reinforcement bars. So the day to day research is going in this field is leading to stronger bars. Which whereby we can build much more stronger to all our houses. Which are more resistant to natural calamities like earthquakes or we can reduce the cost. So a lot of research goes in this field, then the silicon revolution as you can call it.

Material Science and Engineering in Present

The present generation is basically the silicon age. So the whole integrated chip, the whole IT sector is based on the knowledge of material science and engineering. Along with physics in combats a lot of more lives would be lost if there were no Kevlar present. So that it is so strong that it can even restrict a bullet to get through you. Some research and that is the power of material science and engineering. The materials used to make the spaceship that's the epidemic of material science research.

When the spaceship is re-entering the atmosphere. The temperature goes in the range of two thousand twelve years and you need to have materials. Which can restrict, which can withstand such harsh conditions. Huge friction, high temperature materials are those kind of un-human conditions. Thereby protect the astronauts and help us get into space and come back safely. Finally this represents a graphene sheet, one of the more talked about materials in present civilization. Present material science community, you can google and study a lot more about it. If you are interested, so these are just glimpses of different aspects, which material science and engineering is affecting us.

This was just to give you an idea about a brief history about material science and engineering. How much impact it is having on us on a day to day activity.

How to Pass AMIE Section A | How to Pass AMIE Easily

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Sat, 4 Jul 2020 17:53:00 -0700

Hello friends, as we know that my examinations are nearing. You might be in a great tension as you might have not completed the syllabus. Apart you might be thinking of an assertive plan to practice examinations as successfully as possible.

How to Pass Amie Section A

How to Pass AMIE Section A

Today we are going to talk about How to Pass AMIE Section A and grab maximum marks and left minimum time for the AMIE exam. In situation, where our exams are nearing hands and we suddenly realized that only few days are left and somehow due to our work or other personal reasons. We are not able to complete the required syllabus and then we give ourself next goal saying, I will do it next time and then an another year passes away.

Now stop saying it no more next time as next time is never going to come. You still have got a potential is called C or D which will still help in getting me through Section A or B. May be you should get lucky this time the best way to overcome this situation is to make some stop perforations to yourself and set this plan which are going to discuss with you and stick to it. Remember you have to work. Now, what should be a comprehensive plan to achieve at least the grade C or D.

How to Pass AMIE Section A Easily

Remember this is only accepted if it's your last attempt and so that you are clear by the concept of complete in section a and Section B. So now let's focus on AMIE paper. We have three parts in our section A question papers. Part A long answers 40 marks and Part B all long answers 40 marks and Part C all short answers of 20 marks. The most easiest of all where you can straightaway score 20 - Part C. Now you want to know How to Pass AMIE Section A and prepare for Part C.

Simple as it just get previous years question paper of last ten years which is sufficient for you to achieve this target and everything's starting from today. Until the end of your exams study only for 2.5 hours a day i.e. approximately 2 hours 30 minutes. I assure you at least 70 to 90% of these questions are from the past 10 years are repeated and will be able to score much better by this. You will be assured that we at least know some people buy in and reach your target.

I would rather recommend you to perform history of Section C before going to sleep as after your tough schedule of the day. You can is this light passed through these 10 to 15 questions, which are more easy to remember and most reliable while scoring marks and always try to solve Part C at the end, not in the studied are as usually end up wasting your time for 20 marks, which is much needed when you have to solve Part A and B, where you have 80 marks to score it. So this might be helpful for you to prepare yourself for the upcoming AMIE Exam.

Social Disintegration Definition, Social Norms and Features

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Thu, 2 Jul 2020 23:51:00 -0700

Social disintegration

Social disintegration is the exact opposite of social organization. Social disintegration occurs when social organization in a society is reduced or eliminated. Co-operation, co-operation and harmony work in an organized society and the members of the society are bound together by traditions, culture etc.

But when this form of society changes and anarchy, opposition, non-cooperation, etc. increase, then social disintegration begins. In a social organization there is complete adaptation in all the parts of the society but when this adaptation changes then the balance between the different sections of the society is disturbed. When this imbalance intensifies, social disintegration begins.

Social Disintegration Definition

Different sociologists have given social disintegration definition of in their own way which are described as follows: -

According to Agburn and Nimkoff, social disintegration means the disruption of the functioning of a social entity, such as a group, organization, or community.

According to Ferris, when relationships break down to the point where things stop happening, whatever the situation is, it's social disintegration.

According to Elliott and Merrill, social disintegration is the process by which social relationships between members of a group are broken or destroyed.

According to Thomas and Janenky, the effect of current disintegration of social norms on the behavior of members of a social disintegration group is diminishing.

According to Landis, social disintegration is primarily a breach of social control that leads to confusion and confusion.

According to Fairchild, social disintegration means the destruction of organized relationships and systems of work. Disruption of integration and organized behavior leads to disarray and misunderstanding.

Thus from these definitions it is clear that the state of social disintegration is a state in which the relations between the different members or organs of the society are broken which leads to imbalance in them. A state of anarchy, etc. arises in the society.

Characteristics of social disintegration

Features of Social Disintegration: -

1. In case of social disintegration, a state of unrest arises in the society which spreads anarchy in the society.

2. In a state of social disintegration, mutual trust among the people either decreases or disappears and superstition increases.

3. When a state of social disintegration occurs, the pure thoughts in the society disappear and are replaced by dirty and wrong thoughts.

4. In a state of social disintegration, hypocrisy etc. increase. Reality goes too far.

5. In this situation the population faces a lot of problems.

6. Social disintegration is never caused by the efforts of individuals but happens unconsciously. The member of the community does not even know it and it happens automatically.

7. It is not necessary that in the event of social disintegration, social institutions and rules etc. are completely abolished. It can never end. That is why complete social disintegration never occurs.

8. When it comes to social disintegration, there is a strong emphasis on individual freedom and rights.

9. In this situation the feeling of lust increases and people do their work for the sake of getting things of pleasure.

10. In social disintegration, social attitudes and values begin to erode and a state of anarchy ensues.

11. In the process, social institutions, practices, manure, etc. become ineffective.

12. Social change is very important in the process of social disintegration because disintegration is the result of the change that has taken place in society.

Symptoms or Levels of Social Disintegration

In the event of a social disintegration, some of the symptoms emerge that let us know that the society is disintegrating. The description of these symptoms is as follows:

1. Internationalist notions - In the event of social disintegration, the individual does not have the flow of the rules and practices of the society. When a person begins to look at things from his personal point of view, regardless of disintegration of social norms, practices etc., then his personality is not social but personal. At that point the group loses control of it and the process of social disintegration begins.

2. Change in the social structure - Social disintegration brings about a change in the status and functions of the members of the society. The tasks of each individual in an organized society are large and they work according to the same division. But sometimes it also happens that the status of the members of the society is not fixed and they work independently due to their work and behavior. This is when the social disintegration begins.

3. Struggle between manure and institutions - Every society is based on its manure and institutions so that the life of the members of the society runs in an organized manner. But over time, that is likely to change. Being outdated, it cannot meet the needs of members of the community. This is where the process of change in society begins. The struggle between ideas and ideals begins and new institutions and rules emerge. This is how the revolution of ideas comes about. Some people don't like to get rid of old institutions and manure and some want to get rid of them completely. There are some people who want to take the middle ground. Thus begins the struggle between old manure and new rules and old and new institutions. This spreads chaos in the society and starts the process of social disintegration.

4. Transferring or changing group tasks - When a group's tasks begin to be transferred, it is divided into several other groups. Sometimes the reasons for the transfer are not known and it is not even known to whom the transfer takes place. This causes chaos in the society and social disintegration starts. For example, we can see the transfer of the old family to the new family.

Our Indian society also has many signs of social disintegration. Social structures are changing. Stability and certainty are increasing in one's actions and situation. Individualism is on the rise.

Discuss Strengthening Mechanisms in Amie Exam

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Tue, 23 Jun 2020 23:30:00 -0700

Strengthening mechanisms in Amie Exam

Hi everyone welcome back to the Amie Exam topic on introduction to material science and engineering. Today we study about the strengthening mechanisms. If by some mechanism or by some method, we are able to make the dislocation of motion of dislocation difficult, then what we can do is we can increase the strength of the material. Because now to move the dislocation thereby to cause deformation, we will have to apply more stress. Let us see the different strengthening mechanisms that are there.

How is martensite formed in steel?

Grain size reduction as a mechanism solid solution strengthening strain hardening precipitation and dispersion strengthening transformation hardening. These are the different methods for strengthening mechanisms that are generally used and we'll see all of them shortly to understand what each of them mean and as I said the idea is basically to provide hindrance to dislocation motion, because movement of dislocations leads to the deformation. If this location motion is restricted somehow, then deformation will be slowed down or more amount of energy or more amount of load or more amount of stress will be required for the deformation to take place. Now let's see each of them shortly before jumping into detailed description, grain size reduction is what we happen is that there will be green boundaries which will restrict the dislocation motion. This is basically grain boundary I will be writing. What are the factors which are affecting the under ends to dislocation motion, thereby increasing western solid solution strengthening is solute dislocation interaction. We will see in details but basically what is happening the solute and dislocation will interact and that will try to hinder the motion of the dislocation. Strain hardening is basically creation of lot of dislocations thereby there is dislocation interaction and this rotation dislocation interaction leads to reduction in the movement of dislocation or difficulty in the movement of dislocation.

Precipitation and dispersion strengthening are there are precipitates formed or dispersed particles throughout the material and those things restrict the dislocation. So basically physically restrict the dislocation motion transformation hardening is a completely different mechanism. That's not exactly restriction to dislocation motion. We will see that later let's start our discussion in details with grain size reduction. Grain boundaries are sites where dislocation motion is restricted in the case of poly crystals. Suppose we have something like this and the slip plane let's say is in this direction and over here is in this direction. So the slip dislocation which is moving in this direction on coming at the grain boundary it kind of gets restricted, because the slip direction is not the same in the adjacent crystal. It has to there has to be a buildup of stress over here, so that this dislocation which is at the grain boundary, if either pushed into the next grain or the stress becomes so high over here that leads to generation of new dislocations in the adjacent grain, so that increase in stress is what is leading to sending of that material.

Now imagine that you have two scenarios, in one scenario you have really large grains something like this and in another scenario you have very very small grains. What will happen is that in the second case the dislocation will keep on encountering grain boundary after very small distances. As a result much more amount of energy or much more amount of stress will be required for the dislocation movement from one end to another. It will be much easier in the case of larger grains so what is happening basically is by decreasing the grain size, we are increasing the number of hinderance per unit length for the dislocation thereby by decreasing the grain size, we are increasing the strength of the material. Notice here is that high angle grain boundaries are basically where the dislocation cannot penetrate from one grain to another. So for high angle grain boundaries there has to be dislocation accumulation in grain number one such that the dislocation accumulation leads to so much stress that there will be generation of grains. Green number two so stress concentration leads to activation of this location in the adjacent plane for high angle grain boundaries for low angle grain boundaries.

The dislocation can actually Traverse from one brain to another vein but in that case - there has to be sufficient stress for the grain to be pushed from one side to another side. But say this will be a less effective method to increase the strength, because obviously small gray small angle grain boundaries means small mismatch. It will not be very difficult for the dislocation to move from one grain to another grain, but obviously it will also provide strengthening mechanism. Now the exact relation for the grain size reduction leading to increase in strength is given by what is known as Hall page relation. What the whole page relations with Hall presentation states that the final strength is initial strain this is constant. This is a particular initial strength plus a constant times inverse of square root of grain diameter. This is grain diameter average grain diameter grain. So smaller the grain diameter larger will be this term and more will be distance and thereby the decrease in grain size leads to increase in strength yield strength of the material.

But one thing to note that this whole page relation though it holds good for microscopic scale. It fails at very small grain size or very large grain size. This is normally used in micro range, one interesting feature of grain size reduction method to increase the strength is that this is one of the only method which both increases the strength as well as the toughness of the material. It increases the strength as well as the ductility of the material. The other methods that will study those methods leads to an increase in the strength of the material. There is a compromise by reduction in ductility of the material since grain size reduction, these two improvement in both the properties. This is a very good method to increase strength and very preferred method the problem is you can only reach a particular amount of strength by using this method. You actually need other methods if the strength requirement is more than that can be achieved by grain size reduction.

The second method to increase strength is known as solid solution strengthening. Solid solution is basically you have a metal and you alloy that with different kind of atom. There is a alloying with impurity atoms, so if you have iron and let us say we have iron we allow it with. Carbon atoms spread throughout the iron matrix, there will be carbon atoms present now, what this will do is that carbon atoms the solid solution will provide strain the lattice will be strained and we know that dislocations are themselves also strained regions. They have strain associated with them therefore what happens. Suppose there is a region of compressive region, compressive strain due to the alloying element and the dislocation that is just somewhere like this which has the tensile region and the compressive region. The compressive region of the solute and the tensile region of the dislocation matches, then the dislocation will be kind of pinned down over there. It will require much more energy to remove the dislocation any further from the solute particle vice versa. If the compressive region of the dislocation, the compressive regime of the strain due to the solute particles come close. They will repel each other there, why the dislocation will again.

It will be difficult for the dislocation to move so either there is a pinning down of the dislocation or there is a repulsion of the dislocation and these both methods leads to increase in the stress requirement for the dislocation to move there by the strengthening takes place by solid solution. The alloying impurity atoms layers to strengthening. The increase in strength and reduction in ductility is the resultant of solid solution strengthening the strains failed dislocation interaction. This is basically what I already discussed that if we have a dislocation here and if we have solute particles over here, then this solute particles since there is the extra half plane missing here. The solute particles would like to go there and this will pin down the dislocation there. Why the dislocation will no longer be able to move on the other hand, if the dislocation is coming close to solute particles over here. Then it will actually be repelled and the dislocation can no longer move in this direction. This strain field due to the solute particle and the dislocation interaction leads to solid solutions changing.

What we saw in today's lecture of Amie Exam, we saw the different kind of strengthening mechanisms that is possible to increase the strain. We discussed about grain size reduction how in reducing that grain size leads to increase in strength because more number of grain boundaries means more restriction to the dislocation motion thereby increasing in the strength. We have seen the solid solution strengthening that the solute particles kind of pinch down the dislocation or they repelled the dislocation to from moving further. So this gives your idea about the different possible ways in which strength of material can be increased.

Classification of Materials - Metals, Ceramics, Polymers, Composites, Semiconductors, Biomaterials

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Sat, 20 Jun 2020 05:17:00 -0700

Classification of Materials

Hi everyone, welcome to this topic on Introduction to material science and engineering. In today's topic we will see the classification of materials. What are the different categories under which a given material can be put to and what are the basic properties and differences amongst each other. Here initially let me jot down all the different categories of materials the first is metals. As you might know a majority of the elements in the periodic table fall under the category of metals and by metal I do not mean just metal as in iron or magnesium. This also refers to the alloys associated with the metal. So steel will also be put under the metal category, then we have something known as ceramics. Ceramics by the day-to-day you might be knowing that clay pottery is and those things are ceramics. But in fact the materials which fall under the ceramic category are much more diverse group. We'll see about that then, what we had know as polymers the most prominent one are the polythene sand plastics which is used to carry day-to-day items though that is environmentally not friendly. So it's not advised to do so then we have what is known as composite materials, something known as semiconductors and biomaterials. So the initial four of them the metal ceramic polymer and composite are the most broad categorization of the materials. Semiconductor kind of fits into this scope are the biomaterials so basically these things are a subgroup. Let's say but mainly we have what is known as metal ceramic polymer composite.

Metals in Classification of Materials

Now let us pick each of them one by one and see to begin with metals in classification of materials the most prominent property of metal that the electrons in a metal are non-localized. When we will discuss about the atomic arrangement of electrons protons and neutrons we will see that the metals have what is known as non localized electrons. The outer valence electrons do not belong to individual atom rather it belongs to the whole bulk of the material and this non localized electron kind of gives the properties to the material. So influences the properties then we have what is known as good conductor. Since there is non localized electron those electrons are free to carry charge. Thereby conduct electricity that is a trademark property of metals. Metals normally have a lustrous appearance that is they are more on the signee side. These four are very basic properties.

Ceramics in Classification of Materials

There are many more properties of metals which we'll explore in details in further chapters. But to give you at least this are kind of the properties then ceramics. Ceramics in classification of materials are mainly oxides nitrides and carbides. So if you have some oxide zirconium dye boride varieties are also ceramics or carbide. Those things and fall under the ceramic category. Then we have insulating properties so ceramics are normally non conductors or they are very good insulators. Thereby a lot of application of ceramic is in the field where they need to be insulation from electricity or insulation from heat. But there is also extremely important conducting properties under different circumstances and those things we will see in details later. Ceramics are hard and brittle they have a very high hardness and they break easily. If you drop a ceramic material the chances are high that it will break immediately.

Polymers in Classification of Materials

Let's discuss about polymers in classification of materials, polymers are mainly made of comfort of organic molecules. Some of the examples of polymer can be rubber and plastic. These are day-to-day examples which you encounter every day. But the extent to which polymers are being used is much more broader than just rubber and plastic. Polymers are normally very large change molecules. The molecules are not small molecules they are quite large and that makes the molecules bulky. They have a very high molecular weight and polymers are normally low-density materials. They are not very compact the molecules are not compactly packed. Thereby their density is low and polymers mostly are flexible materials. Need not be the case always but generally speaking they are on the flexible side compared to ceramics materials or metals.

Composites in Classification of Materials

Let's see water composite in classification of materials till now what we have seen is at all the three metals. Ceramics and polymers are made out of one type of material. But composites are made of more than one material, they might have two metals. Let's say but they might have a metal and a ceramic. They might have a metal and a polymer or any combination. Thereof it may have more than two material. What is the reason of using more than one material? Suppose you have one material which has very high strength and you have another material which is quite flexible. But the first material is not flexible and second material does not have a high strength. So what you can do is you can combine the two materials and get a moderately good flexibility while retaining a moderately good strength. Depending on the application you can find combinations of materials which gives you the relevant properties. You need for the application that is the power that composite material provides us with. Basically composite materials provide best property of constituent material and one simple example is concrete that is used for house building that has Grable sand cement and water. There are different materials you see and those each material brings a inherent property with itself and they combined together to give our required application. The binding property of the whole concrete system. Now we have seen the four broad classifications of materials.

Semiconductor in Classification of Materials

Let us jump into the two kind of subcategories of material one is semiconductor in classification of materials as the name suggests and a semiconductor is a material which has intermediate conductivity. They are not as good conductor as metals but they are not a insulator and this semi conductivity of the material has interesting applications. Especially in the integrated chip system or the electronic area you need to control the amount of conduction that takes place and semiconductors give you precisely that control. How can you control a material which is a semiconductor. Let us say for example, silicon has a certain conductivity but by something what is known as doping? Adding different element to the silicon base in very controlled amount can help you fine tune the amount of conductivity you want to provide in the material. So semiconductors are basically very good at adjusting the amount of conductivity. Based on the amount of additional element you dope into that material, that gives you a fine tuned way to control conductivity and obviously this has brought about the integrated chip revolution. Which is kind of the modern revolution in the sense that all the electronic gadgets you see today is due to this semiconductor industry.

Biomaterials in Classification of Materials

Finally let us discuss briefly about biomaterials in classification of materials. Now water biomaterials exact definition is that these are materials which are compatible this body, mainly in our case with the human body. Let's say there is a need for knee surgery replacement of the knee or the hip bone. When you are inserting something into the body like the hip joint, that new material introduced to the body should be biocompatible or it should be compatible with your body. Else it will degrade inside the body and that will lead to a very tragic condition inside the body, which can eventually lead to even death. Such materials which is compatible with the body and which can be placed inside the body safely are known as biomaterials. This has a wide application as you can think. In the medical area mainly used in implants as I explained about it. It can be any of the above five on mainly the four categories that is metal, ceramic, polymer or composite not necessarily. A semiconductor itself falls under a combination of these categories. This gives you a broad picture about what are the different kinds of materials. In this topic we mainly focus on metals and metal alloys but we'll have discussions on ceramics composite and polymer too because, they are interesting topics. But they in themselves are much wider topics and can be offered on each of them individually with this classification.

Let's see what the future demands in the area of material science and engineering. Till now, what we have seen, the history about material science and engineering. How did it come about into being water the present applications of it and then we saw different kinds of material. Now what is the future of it one very simple thing which you can on your own-self is that sophisticated materials while maintaining the environment. What do I mean by this we need to keep on coming with new materials fit ever-increasing demand of new applications. Ever-increasing demand in terms of strength our particular electrical application or magnetic application. We need to keep coming up with new and better materials so that what sophisticated material means and maintaining environment global climate change is a very important thing that needs to be taken into consideration and we need to work towards maintaining the environment while making our own life better. We need to create the materials in such a way that the materials in itself do not harm the environment or while manufacturing the material. The environment is harmed as less as possible. The nuclear revolution needs new materials. What is the nuclear revolution? Till date our source of energy is mainly from the coal industry. There are renewable sources of energy being generated and used of late with knowledge about how much harm hold us to the environment burning coal and stuff. But still one of the most important area which is not yet tapped into is the nuclear. The regime it's being used but not to its full extent. The nuclear revolution needs to take place that's the source of infinitely large amount of energy but it's a very risky deal. So new and sophisticated materials which can withstand very harsh conditions and which can protect us from nuclear radiations. Such things needs to be come up with so that is a challenging field which is one of the futures of material science and engineering. You need to bring about ingenious noble ideas to deal with this problem then the transportation sector. The whole transportation sector is a game where you are trying to reduce the weight thereby increasing the efficiency of the vehicles which is one of the most important research area. The for weight reduction is one of the most prominent ideas that we need to be working on and in fact a lot of research is going on in that field. This is actually a very well-known field which is already being explored into but, which has a lot of future prospect to solar technology. As I mentioned about the energy we keep coming back to energy why because that is direct relevance with the climate change.

What is Solar Technology?

So coming to solar technology, solar technology is already being put to use. There are a lot of things that are running on day to day scale using the solar technology but do you know what is the main problem with solar technology. The main problem is that the efficiency of the materials which we have at present to capture the solar radiations is very low. It's in the range of around 20%. We are actually not utilizing the solar energy as much as we can. We need to find new materials and new ways to harness the efficiency much higher than 20% or even a little higher than 20% that is also going to give a lot of increase in the energy input. Through the solar technologies work needs to be done in that field. Then coming back to the metals point metal extraction methods. Metals normally except for the noble metals do not lie around in the Earth's crust. You need to dig out the poor and then put it through extraction processes and then the metal is obtained from it. But this is a highly energy intensive property, a lot of energy goes into extraction of metals or different materials. However needs to be done in finding methods which reduces the amount of energy required and finally new material development. What I mean is that there is need of materials which we even do not know what kind of materials future will demand. New things to be developed and accordingly new materials need to be developed. This is the zone of uncertainty that there in the material science and engineering domain but the exciting thing about it that you get to do things with you do not even know today. So to sum up the future demands as you can see is mainly focused on the energy sector directly or indirectly. In addition to that new and sophisticated material development is also a broad field where the future of materials engineering. So hopefully today's topic gave you an understanding about the different categories of material and what the future demands us and where the future of material science and engineering lie.

What is a social organization in Sociology and features of social organization in sociology?

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Sun, 14 Jun 2020 03:51:00 -0700

Why do we study social organization in sociology? The basis of society is organization. Every society is stable only through mutual cooperation and organization. Cooperation and organization are the hallmarks of an organized society. Organization is a great way to get work done from someone but when the cooperation, collaboration and mutual love in the society ends then the social disintegration starts. This system of society causes many problems. The notions of social organization in sociology and social disintegration go hand in hand because no society can be fully organized and no society can be completely disintegrated.

Meaning and Definitions of Social Organization

Social organization is made up of two words, social and organization. It means the organization of society. An organized society is one whose members have similarities in terms of status and functions. The various members of an organized society function properly and are balanced. Society is considered organized when its various organs function properly. Different scholars have given different definitions of social organization in their own way so that its meaning can be properly understood.

Social Organization Definition Sociology

According to Johnson, "within the social organization come all the processes that build the collective life and preside over the power of reason in the face of this crisis and conflict situation."

According to Lumley, "social organization is a whole, made up of allied and specialized organs."

According to Elliot and Merrill, "social organization is the state or situation in which the various organizations of a society are operating according to their accepted and predetermined objectives".

Thus based on the previous definitions of social organization we can say that social organization in sociology means the establishment of good and correct relations and all functions of social organization in sociology in different parts of the society. Organization means that the various organs work together in the right way.

Characteristics of Social Organization in Sociology

Based on the above definitions of social organization we can briefly mention some of the features of social organization in sociology:

1. All the units work in a social organization.

2. Social organization is neither meaningless nor purposeless.

3. Social organization is a relative concept that is always changing.

4. Social organization is a balanced form of social order.

5. No society is completely disintegrated and organized.

6. The concept of social organization in sociology is an abstract concept that cannot be seen and is used only in comparison of two societies.

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam (16 - 31 August): Application Form, Syllabus, Fee Structure

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Thu, 4 Jun 2020 22:11:00 -0700

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam - AMIE Summer 2020 pareeksha ke liye aavedan karne ki antim date 15 july, 2020 tak badha di gayi hai. Application form ieindia.org aur neeche diye gaye seedhe link ke maadhyam se upalabdh hai. Iske alava, AMIE Summer ki pareeksha date 16 se 31 August, 2020 tak sanshodhit ki gayi hai. Associate member & Institute of engineers ke candidate ke roop mein pramaanit hone ke lie, candidate ko 2 section clear karna aavashyak hai: Section A ya B aur AMIE pareeksha . AMIE Summer 2020 Exam se sambandhit poori jankari ke liye is pej ko dekhen.

IEI (The Institution of Engineers) har saal 2 sessions mein AMIE Exam aayojit karta hai: Summer session and winter session. Pareeksha utteern karne vaale candidates ko BE/B.Tech degree ke samatuly certificate milta hai aur unhen samaan naukari ke avasar pradaan kiye jaate hain.

AMIE Summer 2020 New Exam Date and Last Date to Apply

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam ki nayi pareeksha date 16 se 31 August, 2020 hai. Haalaki, ye dates bharat sarakar dvaara jaari disha-nirdeshon ke anusaar badal sakti hain. Covid-19 ke kaaran pareeksha phir se aayojit ki gay hai, jo ki shuruaat mein 6 se 12 June, 2020 tak honi thi.

AMIE Summer 2020 last date to apply: pareeksha ke lie aavedan karane ki antim date 30 May se badhaakar 15 June, 2020 kar di gayi hai.

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam Application Form

AMIE certification praapt karne ke ishukk candidate aavedan patr online ya offline jama kar sakte hain. Online panjeekaran aur aavedan karne ke liye seedhe link neeche die gaye hain.

Register for IEI Membership: AMIE Summer 2020 Exam ke liye panjeekaran aur aavedan karne ke liye yahaan click karen.

Apply: pahale se hee ek sadasy, phir aavedan form bharane ke liye yahaan click karen.

Procedure to fill AMIE Summer 2020 Application Form

Register: Wo candidates jo Institutions of Engineers (India) ke members nahin hain, unhe AMIE Exam ke liye aavedan karane se pahale khud ko panjeekrt karna hoga. IEI candidates ke liye panjeekaran karne ke liye upar diye gaye seedhe link ka upayog karen.

Login for Registered Members: IEI ke panjeekrt sadasyon ko sadasyata sankhya ka upyog karke login karna hoga. Aavedan form jama karne ke liye / mobile number / email id aur password.

Examination Fee: AMIE Summer 2020 Exam aavedan patr ke saath, candidates ko examination fee ka bhugtaan karna aavashyak hai. Shulk raashi ka bhugtaan ya demand draft ke nirdhaarit online mode ka upayog karke kiya ja sakta hai. Candidates ke liye Exam Fee samaan hai, chaahe vah Section A (diploma), Section A (non-diploma) ya Section B ke liye aavedan kar raha ho. AMIE Summer 2020 Exam Fee jaanch karen.

India pareeksha kendron ke liye- 3000 Rs

Overseas pareeksha kendron ke liye- US $ 225 (keval DD ke maadhyam se bhugataan kiya jaega)

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam Eligibility Criteria

Sabhi aavedkon ko IEI dwara nirdharit maandandon ki poorti sunishchit karni chahiye. Sabhi vargo ke liye neeche ki jaanch kare.

Section A (non-diploma): Candidates ke pass IEI ki Technician membership honi chahiye. Technician membership ke liye, candidate ki age kam se kam 17 year honi chahiye. Saath hi candidates ko 12 pass honi chahiye ya science subjects mein 45% total numbers ke saath ek samaksh pariksha aur saath hi sabhi subjects mein 45% total marks hona chahiye.

Section A (diploma): IEI ke senior Technician candidates is anubhag ke liye aavedan kar sakte hain. IEI ki senior technician sadasyta ke liye candidate ki age 18 years ya usse adhik honi chahiye aur Engineering/ Technology ya saath mein diploma pariksha pass honi chahiye.

Section B: AMIE Summer 2020 Exam ke Section B ke liye nimanlikht do mein se kisi bhi category se sambandhit candidate upasthit hone ke yogya hain.

IEI ke Technician/Senior Technician member jinhone Section A ko poora kiya ya Section A se exemption prapt ki.

IEI ke corporate member.

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam Syllabus

AMIE ka syllabus kaafi had tak B.Tech/BE jaisa hai. Poore program ko 2 Section mein divide kiya gaya hai. Kewal wo candidates jo Section A mein sabhi subjects ko pass karte hain, wo Section B pariksha ke liye panjikarn karne ke yogya hain. Section A Candidates ko Engineering ke mool sidhanto se parichit karata hai, jabki Section B varisht engineering anusashan ke gehan pehluon ko shamil karta hai, jiske liye ek ops shamil hai. AMIE Summer 2020 Exam ke liye jin subjects ko shamil kiya jaana hai, unki neeche jaanch kare.

Section A (non diploma scheme): 10 Subjects

Design aur vinirmaan ke mool tatv

Saamagri vigyaan aur engineering

Computing aur soochana vigyaan

Samaaj aur paryaavaran

Mechanical Science

Engineering bhautikee aur rasaayan vigyaan

Engineering drawing aur graphics

Electronics aur instrumentation

Engineering ganit

Vidyut vigyaan

Section A (diploma): 4 Subjects

Design aur vinirman ke mool tatav

Samagri vigyan aur engineering

Computing aur soochna vigyan

Samaaj aur prayvran

Section B (Engineering anusashan vishisht): 9 Subjects (6 zaruri + 3 vikalpik)

Dhyaan de ke ek Candidate 1 avdhi mein adhiktam 4 subjects ke liye upasthit ho sakta hai.

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam Disciplines

Koi bhi candidate Section A ya Section B mein se kisi 10 categories mein Engineering kar sakta hai.

Civil Engineering

Chemical Engineering

Computer Science Engineering

Electronics & Communication Engineering

Electrical Engineering

Production Engineering

Mechanical Engineering

Material Science & Metallurgical Engineering

Mining Engineering

Textile Engineering

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam Centres

Candidates India ya abroad ke in 69 centres mein se kisi bhi centre mein AMIE Summer 2020 Exam de sakta hai.

Abu Dhabi, Agartala, Ahmedabad, Aligarh, Allahabad, Anpara, Aurangabad, Bahrain, Bangalore, Bareilly, Belapur, Berhmapur, Bhilai, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, Chennai, Coimbatore, Dehradun, Delhi, Dharwad, Durgapur, Faridabad, Ghaziabad, Goa, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Indore, Jabalpur, Jaipur, Jalpaiguri, Jammu, Jamshedpur, Jodhpur, Kadapa, Kanpur, Karnal, Kathmandu, Kharagpur, Kolkata, Kochi, Kota Kozhikode, Kuwait, Lucknow, Ludhiana, Madurai, Mumbai, Mysore, Nagpur, Nashik, Neyveli, Patna, Port Blair, Pune, Raipur, Ranchi, Roorkee, Rourkela, Shillong, Shimla, Srinagar, Thiruvananthapuram, Tiruchirapalli, Tirupati, Udaipur, Vadodara, Varanasi, Vijayawada, Visakhapatnam

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam Result

The Institution of Engineers (India) pariksha ke 14 weeks ke bheetar pariksha ka result jaari karta hai. Candidates AMIE Summer 2020 Exam result ko IEI ki website ieiindia.org par dekh sakte hain. Result IEI ke rajya ya local centres par bhi uplabdh karaya jaata hai. C grade ya usse upar haasil karne wale candidates ko pass mana jaata hai. Result mein yogya candidates ki list aur un subjects ka beora hai, jisme candidate pass huye hain. Rechecking ke liye aavedano par vichar nahi kiya jaata hai, lekin agar kisi ka galti se koi error aaya ho toh uske liye aavedan kar sakte hain. Par yeh kewal AMIE result announcement ke 15 din ke andar kiya ja sakta hai.

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam Fee Structure

The Institution of Engineers (India)

IEI India mein Engineers ka ek peshewar sangathan hai jise year 1920 mein start kiya gaya tha. IEI ka headoffice Kolkata, West Bengal mein hai. The Institution of Engineers (India) ke 15 subjects mein 1 million se zada members hain. Inka main udeshya Engineering aur Technical shiksha ko badhava dena hai. IEI AMIE parmanan pardhan karta hai, jise B.Tech ya BE qualification ke brabar mana jaata hai. AMIE Certification prapt karne ke liye candidates ko 2 Sections pass karne hote hain. Candidates ko dono sections ko poora karne ke liye 6 years diye jaate hain, jiske baad candidates ko us section k liye naye sire se starting karni padti hai.

AMIE Summer 2020 Exam Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

AMIE 2020 Exam ke liye kise chunna chahiye?

Ek Engineering Diploma jo carrier ki vridhi ki talash kar rahe hain aur wo engineering degree ya kisi aur vishya mein Engineering yogyta prapt karne ki ichha rakhte hain, unhe priksha ke liye apply karne ki salah di jaati hai.

Kya mujhe Section A Exam pass karne ke baad Section B ke liye fir se panjikarn karna hoga?

Haan, Candidates ko Section B naye naam ke liye panjikarn karna hoga.

Main AMIE Summer 2020 Exam kaha se le sakta hu?

Candidates poore India mein aur India ke bahar faile kisi bhi centre ko select kar sakte hain. Is page par Exam centres ki poori list upar di gayi hai.

Kitne sessions ki priksha ayojit ki jaati hai?

Pariksha 2 sessions mein ayojit ki jaati hai: Subah aur dupahar.

Sarkari Website: ieindia.org

Discuss various types of Occupational Hazards?

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Wed, 3 Jun 2020 09:42:00 -0700

Occupational hazards meaning is the type of hazards that exist in every workplace, but how do you know which ones have the most potential to harm workers? By identifying hazards at your workplace, you will be better prepared to control or eliminate them, prevent accidents, injuries, property damage, and downtime.

First, an important step in any security protocol is to perform a thorough security threat assessment of all work environments and equipment. There are many types of hazards now we discuss Occupational Hazards types in detail:

In a security hazard assessment, it is essential to be as critical as possible because ultimately, you can protect your employees from threats that you are unaware of and for which you are not prepared. Avoid blind spots in your workplace safety procedures by keeping these six main categories of workplace hazards in mind.

Safety Hazards:

Safety hazards are unsafe working conditions that can cause injury, illness, and death. Safety hazards are the most common workplace risk.

They include:

Anything that can cause a spill or travel, such as cords on the floor or ice.

Anything could be the reason, such as working from heights, including ladders, scaffolding, roofing or any high work area.

Unintentional and moving machinery parts that a worker may accidentally touch.

Electrical hazards such as catastrophic cords, missing ground pins and improper wiring or Limited space.

Biological Hazards:

Biological hazards include exposure to harm or disease from working with animals, people or infectious plant material. Workplaces with this type of safety hazard include, but are not limited to, work in schools, day care facilities, colleges and universities, hospitals, laboratories, emergency response, nursing homes, or various external occupations.

These types of things are required to include you:

Blood and other body fluids

Fungi / Mold

Bacteria and viruses

The plants

Stinger

Animal and bird droppings

Physical Risk:

Physical hazards can be any factors within the environment that can harm the body without necessarily touching it.

They include:

Radiation: ionization and non-ionization (EMF's, microwaves, radio waves, etc.) including materials

Excessive exposure to sunlight / ultraviolet rays.

Temperature Extremes - Hot and Cold.

Continuous loud voice.

Ergonomic hazards:

Ergonomic safety hazards occur when the type of work, the state of the body and the state of work puts pressure on your body. They are the hardest ever since you do not immediately notice the stretch or damage caused by these hazards on your body. Short-term exposure can result in "muscle aches" the next day or the days following stress, but extended performance can lead to serious long-term problems.

Obstacles:

Better accommodate workplaces and chairs.

Frequent lifting.

poor posture.

Strange movements, especially if they are repeated.

Using too much force, especially if you have to do it often.

Excessive vibration.

Chemical Hazards:

Chemical hazards are present when a worker is exposed to any chemical preparation in the workplace in any form (solid, liquid or gas). Some are safer than others, but some workers who are more sensitive to chemicals, even common solutions, can cause illness, skin irritation, or breathing problems.

Be careful:

Cleaning products, paints, acids, liquids such as solvents - especially if the chemicals are in an unlisted container.

Vapors and fumes that are exposed to welding or solvents.

Gases such as acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide and helium.

Flammable substances such as gasoline, solvents and explosive chemicals.

Pesticides

Work Organization Threats:

Safety hazards or stresses that cause stress (short-term effects) and stress (long-term effects). These are hazards associated with workplace issues such as workload, lack of control and / or respect, etc.

examples include:

Workload demand

workplace violence

High intensity and / or speed

Honor (or lack thereof)

Flexibility

To control or say things

Social support or relationship

sexual harassment

Remember that these lists are non-exhaustive. When you are completing a workplace hazard assessment, consider these six major categories to consider the factors that may affect your workers in their particular circumstances.

Discuss the Euroquip T method of Technology Transfer?

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Tue, 2 Jun 2020 03:58:00 -0700

The choice of technology transfer method should be based on the future strategy of collaboration with technology analysis, the company's supplier, investment resources, and the company's technical capabilities.

When choosing the transfer method, it is necessary to understand that the more complex the technology is, the greater the relationship between buyer and supplier should be. As mentioned earlier, technology transfer does not end with device delivery. By themselves, devices do not generate new capabilities. Real changes in the work of the company can be introduced by the transfer of knowledge, skills and intellectual property rights.

Let us try to consider the main technology transfer methods, their strengths and weaknesses:

Discuss the pitfalls of technology transfer

Technology adaptation factors

Licensing

Licensing is an agreement under which the owner of a patent, trademark, or other intellectual property during a certain period of time permits another company in a certain area to use technology developed by him (her).

There are two main types of licenses: 1) one that gives a special right to use the technology; 2) Another with non-exclusive right, meaning that the patent owner can transfer the right to use the technology to other companies in the same area.

Additionally, the licensing agreement may include a subselection clause that allows the licensee to give someone else the right to use the technology.

The advantage of purchasing licenses / patents is that it costs less than other technology transfer methods. However, the purchase of licenses requires adequate knowledge, experience, relevant expertise and manufacturing base for the implementation of further in-house technology.

Support Agreement

According to the agreement, the technology owner participates in technology implementation, which provides at each stage of transfer technical support, as well as training personnel.

The technology developer's participation in the technology transfer process ensures close cooperation between the two parties that favors the complete transfer of all technology-related knowledge and skills. In this way, to improve the transfer contract, the support contract can be a part of the licensing agreement.

Joint Venture

A joint venture is an agreement between two or more companies to execute a particular business. Joint venture refers to mutual wealth, management, risk, profit sharing, co-production, services and marketing.

The benefits from a joint venture in terms of technology transfer are the following: long-term collaboration between the parties, the motivation of all participants in a successful transfer, lower costs than if companies are operating separately.

The disadvantages of a joint venture are often associated with the different attitudes and goals of the two partners, the inability to be independent in management. In addition, companies are not always able to purposefully determine the value of capital contributed by each and, therefore, the subsequent profit distribution. (The foreign company provides innovative technology and management capability, while the local company is familiar with the market and regulation. In the end it is difficult to determine the value of each asset).

Franchising

Franchising is an agreement where one company gives the right to use its trademark and business model to another. The buyer of the franchise begins manufacturing and selling goods according to the seller's specification. Generally, the owner of the trademark also shares his or her experience in operating and managing the franchised product / technology.

The main advantage of franchising is the fact that the company gets an already created brand. With a franchised product, the company gains a proven business model, knowledge in management and marketing.

The disadvantage is the company's dependence on the technology owner. In most cases, the company has to purchase raw materials, equipment and other products from specific vendors. It should follow the internal rules and procedures of the technology owner. Generally, the company cannot sell the franchise along with bringing the product to other markets. In addition, the decline in the reputation of the franchise owner may also affect the company that has purchased its franchise.

Strategic Alliance

A strategic alliance agreement is usually concluded between two or more large companies so that each of their new skills can be used to develop new innovative technologies. A strategic alliance can be in the form of joint laboratories, research programs, production and promotion of a new product.

Generally mutual efforts of different partners give better results than independent development of a new technology. During joint operations, each company can gain the necessary experience in new areas and in various forms of management.

The major weakness of strategic alliances is the complexity in managing companies with different cultures. There will be at least two teams of managers with different perspectives. Companies may have different goals and strategies in the development of new technology.

Turnkey Agreement

In the case of a turnkey agreement, the general contractor is responsible for all processes related to technology transfer, such as technology design, financing, equipment supply, construction and commissioning.

The advantages of a turnkey agreement are that the company concludes a contract with only one supplier who takes full responsibility for the execution of the project; Excluding a force table, the project will have a fixed value; The supplier guarantees performance and technology efficiency.

Disadvantages can be the following: The company should know in advance about all the features and output parameters that the technology should have after its launch; A complex or large-scale technology requires in-depth knowledge in a related field (in this case an independent specialist organization can be employed to determine the characteristics and output characteristics of the technology); The transfer price under a turnkey agreement is typically much higher than any other method (the higher the risk the supplier takes, the higher the price); During transfer implementation, a company assumes complete control over the progress and quality of each phase of the transfer; The financial problems of the contractor can lead to suspension of the project (it is difficult for the company to determine the financial capacity of the supplier and the ability to self-finance at all stages of the transfer).

One of the ways to mitigate the risks of a turnkey agreement is to involve the supplier in the capital of the new entity. This will motivate the supplier to ensure the quality of the new technology, plus it will bring the supplier's experience in further operational processes.

Equipment Acquisition

Equipment acquisition is a simple and, therefore, one of the most common methods of technology transfer. The main disadvantage of this method is the fact that the company is limited to the technical knowledge involved in the equipment and does not find any new competition in management and production. Furthermore, the equipment available in the market does not give the buyer unique privileges, as this equipment can be purchased by another competitor.

Management Contract

Technology can be transferred through a competent specialist, who may be "tempted" from another company.

This method of technology transfer involves minimum cost. But, in general, it can be effective only for small projects with relatively simple technology. Furthermore, the technology should not be patented.

Acquisition of Foreign Company

A company may acquire a foreign startup that is developing a new technology. As a result, the company will not only acquire the technology, but will also have a team capable of developing it in the future. In addition, the acquisition of a foreign firm automatically places the company in the new international market.

Among the main risks of buying an existing firm is the possible resignation of key employees after the acquisition. In addition, the founders of successful startups will agree to sell it at a significantly higher price than the market. This increases the risk of future profitability.

Foreign Direct Investment

Foreign direct investment is one of the main methods of technology transfer at the state level. Generally, a foreign company invests in developing countries to create a new market, remove export barriers and gain access to cheap labor.

In this case, a developing country receives all the benefits of technology transfer, particularly the development of its own research environment. In addition, it is a way of creating new jobs and raising taxes.

However, to attract foreign investors, the developing country's government generally has to make some concessions in its policy. As we can see in practice, without these concessions large international corporations are not motivated for long-term investment in developing countries.

Buy-back Contract

Buy-back contracts are a form of agreement between developing countries and large foreign companies. Under this agreement, a foreign company supplies industrial equipment in exchange for profits derived from the sale of raw materials or goods produced on this equipment. Such technology transfer is often used in the construction of new plants in developing countries. In that case the state-made enterprise becomes a shareholder.

There is a possibility for a developing country to get high-tech equipment without direct investment in it. In addition, the foreign company is responsible for the performance of supply technologies.

The potential disadvantages of buy-back contracts are the motivation of the foreign company to start production at the least cost, which will certainly affect the quality of execution. Typically, a new technology under a buy-back agreement costs a lot in terms of direct investment.

Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)

OEMs can be thought of as subcontracting, where a local firm starts manufacturing according to the specifications of a foreign company.

A foreign company transfers a part of its technologies and equipment. It restructures training and management. Later, the foreign company sells goods produced through its own channels and under its own trademark.

The OEM agreement enables local companies to absorb new technologies and reorganize their production. With new equipment and skills, these firms can produce new goods for the domestic market under their own brand.

The main drawback of this agreement is the obligation to supply the products of the foreign company at a fixed price which is much lower than the market in general.

Discuss the pitfalls of technology transfer?

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Mon, 1 Jun 2020 03:29:00 -0700

Access to various technologies has become easier in this new era and if the advantages are compared there are not many disadvantages of transferring technologies. Technology transfer meaning is a process by upgrading new features and technical methods for reliable and successful output. This reduces the major drawbacks of previous technologies. Some advantages and disadvantages of technology transfer are given below.

Benefit

With the advent of new technologies, people are now able to do things in an efficient manner. The use of computers and other devices has helped the education sector in many ways. The use of tools and machines has made manual labor easier in the agricultural sector. The advancement of medical devices and other equipment has outpaced the hospital industry in many areas.

Another benefit that comes with technology transfer is the cost savings factor. It becomes less expensive when new equipment and machinery is used in place of old equipment and new technology is applied to make the process run in industries. Money can be saved in many ways which is beneficial for business owners. Technology transfer also boosts the overall economy of the industry.

Loss

People dependent on machinery will increase in the long term. When there is a breakdown or stagnation of machines, people reach a helpless state until the problem is resolved. The amount of self-sufficiency for people will reduce and people will try to find an alternative to technology for every problem they face.

Another disadvantage of technology transfer is the number of workers who become unemployed. Automation of many jobs will make human labor cheaper and more people will find it difficult to get jobs.

Technology Transfer example is 'e-learning', it is a powerful delivery method. E-learning comes under online education. You can study anything through online. The main feature of e-learning is the virtual learning system.

Technology Transfer Process

Step 1: Invention Disclosure

The researcher reveals the disclaimer form describing the invention, which contains the funding used, the inventor's name, any public disclosures or details of the publication and other information. The disclosure will then be reviewed and a meeting will be held with the researcher to discuss the inventor.

Step 2: Evaluation

The office evaluates invention disclosure for its patent potential, potential commercial value, and best means of intellectual property protection and commercialization. If the invention is useful, novel, and non-obvious to those skilled in the field, a decision will be made on whether or not to file a patent application.

Step 3: Patent Application

There is a grace period of one year between public disclosure and the filing of a patent application. Under certain circumstances, a provisional patent application will be filed, allowing the university to file a non-provisional patent in a year. Due to the high cost of filing patent applications, the university does not file patent applications for the disclosure of all its inventions. The business potential of the technology will be carefully considered before filing an application. Once we decide to file, our patent lawyers will handle the filing and prosecution of patent applications. Patents typically take an average of four to six years to expire in 20 years from the date of issuance and filing. Once a patent has been issued, the university must pay a maintenance fee to the USPTO every 4 or 7.5 years.

Step 4: Evaluation and Marketing

Once a patent application has been filed, an assessment of the technology will be done. Important details of the evaluation after the patent is obtained will be used for marketing the technology.

Step 5: Patent License

The university aims to put our inventions and discoveries in the hands of the public. Patented inventions are transferred to the industry through licensing arrangements.

Step 6: Commercialization

Once the license agreement is implemented, the university distributes revenue in accordance with the licensee's business development and performance milestones monitoring, coordination of patent prosecution, processing of license income and the IP policy of the university.

Amie Exam | Amie Exam Date | Amie Exam Form | Amie Exam Fees | Amie Exam Centre

noreply@blogger.com (Sukhjeet Singh) — Wed, 20 May 2020 03:31:00 -0700

AMIE Section A & B Exam Scheme

In Summer & Winter AMIE Exams shall be conducted at 69 Examination Centres in India and abroad.

Exam Timings

10 AM to 1 PM (Called fore noon)

2.30 PM to 5.30 PM (Called after noon)

Condition to use for Amie Exam Form

MEMBERSHIP NUMBER. Apply as long as you've got got your membership number.

DATE OF ELECTION. for brand spanking new students Amie exam date of election should be (i) August 31 or before for Amie exam fee for Winter exams (same year) (ii) Feb 28 or before for Amie exam fee for Summer exams (same year). However, repeatedly relaxation is given by IEI.

AMIE Exam Form Details

WHERE TO SEND. you've got to fill and send AMIE exam form to The Institution of Engineers (India), 8, Gokhale Road, Kolkata - 700020 W.B.

WHAT TO FILL. you've got to fill exam centre code/place/scheme code etc. and also branch/subject codes.

EXAM FEE. AMIE Exam fee is Rs. 3000/-. DD should be in favour of "THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS (INDIA) Payable at KOLKATA. Overseas exam fee is $ 225 (₹ 16200 By DD only). The fee is fixed.

NUMBER OF SUBJECT TO FILL IN EXAM FORM. you'll fill max of 4 subjects in AMIE exam form.

Online AMIE Exam Form

Go to check in

Select Examination Section

Go to Examination Application

Fill in details and click on Pay Now. You can also pay Amie exam fee online now.

Take screenshot of the screen or take a snap together with your camera.

For any technical snag or refresh of account, send an email to edp@ieindia.org giving your mobile number and email id.

Remember, you've got to choose Examination (and not membership) while signing up.

Changing AMIE Exam Centre

You should normally select the examination centre within the jurisdiction of your respective State/Local Centre.

In exceptional circumstances, you'll be permitted to seem from the Centres outside the jurisdiction of your State / Local Centres provided you enclose with their Examination Forms the satisfactory evidence of your being required to seem from other Centres.

No application for a change of Examination Centre are going to be entertained after the Amie exam last date of submission of application forms.

Appearance from a special centre, without the prior approval of Headquarters in writing, shall be considered as irregular.

Call at (033) 40106234

Email at nilanjan.dasgupta@ieindia.org

AMIE Exam Centres

EXAM CENTRES. an inventory of AMIE exam centres is published soon after declaration of AMIE roll numbers and admit card.

AMIE CENTRES. you're suggested to know/confirm exact address of your exam centre by calling relevant AMIE Local or State Centre (which is mentioned in your admit card) on their telephone number .

WHAT IS PROVIDED IN EXAM HALL. In few subjects codes and tables are provided for the asking in exam hall otherwise you may bring your own.

ROLL NUMBER ANNOUNCED BUT ID CARD NOT YET RECEIVED. If roll numbers are announced but you are doing not get id card, then do the following: Proforma of ID undertaking to seem in AMIE exams, fill it and convey it with you in exam centre with a further photograph and Xerox of identity (such as vote card or license or PAN or employment id card etc.)

AMIE Result & Grade Card

Amie exam result/grade card is said in fourth week of March/September.

If you're not satisfied together with your result, you'll apply for inspection of AMIE answer scripts. there'll be no reevaluation/rechecking of answer script.

You may read further information on on AMIE result/grade card if unsure .

You should understand grading system in AMIE exams first in order that you'll understand the grade card. Grades also can be converted into percentages.

Project Work & Lab Experiments for AMIE Exams

After passing five subjects in Section B, you'll get form from Institution of Engineers (India) for registration for project and laboratory work.

You may do lab experiments in engineering colleges prescribed by IEI for AMIE exams. you want to have a previous knowledge of rules of AMIE Project work and laboratory experiments. an inventory of scholars registered for AMIE project/lab is published by Institution of Engineers (India) frequently.