Half-Life

Car Insurance Rates

2011-04-06T22:31:00.001+08:00

Car Insurance is the most competitive and the biggest insurance product in the marketplace of world. Any amount of insurance companies assure old and new customers that they can offer cheap car insurance to any and every driver, either by providing low cost car insurance or by offering to compare car insurance quotes from any number of companies.
Many auto insurance companies, or more precisely the car manufacturers offer insurance packages that are included with the purchase price. And sometimes including extra like a car glass coating, car paint protector, car seat, and others.

Needs of each motorist varies widely, depending on the type of car, how to drive, even to finance any affect.And most of the searchers looking for car insurance the cheapest insurance company with a lot of advantages. After receiving the reviews from various sources, I can finally make recommendations to you.
One car insurance company is quite popular nowadays that I can recommend is MA car insurance. MA car insurance have had many partners who already have a name in the automobile industry, such as Mercury, MetLife, and Liberty Mutual.

If you are looking for car insurance company that is good enough, why not follow the advice from us? Or if you have a review about your current insurance company, please give your comments below.

Re-Activate

2011-03-16T15:50:00.003+08:00

Yeah. After a few years inactive, finally. Today, i reactivated this blog. Thanks to sponsoredreview that make me want to activated this blog. Actually, this blog is in a dormant state, because of i migrate to wordpress. I hope with this new part of this blog, i can make this blog more colourfull for the next decades. Viva La Vida.

Wind Enegy Indonesia

2010-07-16T10:54:00.000+08:00

Background

Wind is a form of solar energy. The uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth cause winds. Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetation. Humankind uses this wind flow, or motion energy, for many purposes, to name a few: flying a kite/zeppelin, sailing, grinding grain, pumping water, and even generating electricity.

The terms wind energy or wind power describe the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity.

A wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity. Large and modern wind turbines operate together in wind farms to produce electricity for utilities, while homeowners and remote villages, to help meet their energy needs, use small turbines.

Indonesia has relatively available potential site for wind energy utilization, but its utilization is still low. Currently, research and efforts are continuously conducted to open the possibilities of increasing the wind energy utilization.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Wind Energy

Despite its disadvantages, wind energy offers many advantages, which explains why it's the fastest-growing energy source in the world. Research efforts are aimed at addressing the challenges to larger use of wind energy.

Advantages

Because wind energy is fueled by the wind, a clean fuel source, it makes wind energy a clean energy. Wind energy does not pollute the air like common power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. Wind turbines do not produce harmful emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse gasses, so it is environmentally friendly.
Wind energy is a domestic source of energy, produced in the Indonesia . The nation's wind supply is relatively available (especially in the eastern part).
Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind, which cannot be used up. As already mentioned, wind is actually a form of solar energy.
Nowadays, wind energy is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy technologies available. Depending upon the wind resource and project financing of the particular project, wind energy cost less than 6 cents USD per kilowatt-hour (for potential site with wind speed > 5 m/s or offshore).
Wind turbines can be constructed on farms or ranches, thus benefiting the economy in rural areas, where most of the best wind sites are found. Farmers and ranchers can continue to work the land because the wind turbines use only a fraction of the land. Wind power plant owners make rent payments to the farmer or rancher for the use of the land.

Disadvantages

Wind power must compete with conventional generation sources on a cost basis. Depending on how energetic a wind site is, the wind farm may or may not be cost competitive. Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10 years, the technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled generators (and even other renewable based generators).
The major challenge to using wind as a source of power is that the wind is intermittent and it does not always blow when electricity is needed. Wind energy cannot be stored (unless batteries are used); and not all winds can be harnessed to meet the timing of electricity demands.
Suitable wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities where the electricity is needed.
Wind resource development may compete with other uses for the land and those alternative uses may be more highly valued than electricity generation.
Although wind power plants have relatively small impact on the environment compared to other conventional power plants, there is some concern over the noise produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts, and sometimes birds have been killed by flying into the rotors. Most of these problems have been resolved or greatly reduced through technological development or by properly siting wind plants.

General Condition in Indonesia

Wind energy development is part of national energy program in order to realize a sustainable supply and utilization of energy.
There are some potential locations in the country for wind energy utilization.
Installed capacity for wind power is relatively still small compared to its potential.

Wind Energy Potential in Indonesia

Wind energy potential in Indonesia quite varies and could be classified into three categories, namely:

small-scale utilization, with wind speed of 2.5 – 4 m/s and capacity up to 10 kW;
medium-scale utilization, with wind speed of 4 – 5 m/s and capacity of 10 – 100 kW;
large-scale utilization, with wind speed and capacity higher than 5 m/s and 100 kW, respectively.

Recorded and measured wind data are as follow:

Region of Nusa Tenggara Barat: wind speed ranging from 3.4 – 5.3 m/s (10 locations);
Region of Nusa Tenggara Timur: wind speed ranging from 3.2 – 6.5 m/s (10 locations);
Region of Sulawesi and other: wind speed ranging from 2.6 – 4.9 m/s (10 locations).

Detail data* of each region is tabulated below.

* Data is properties of National Institute for Aeronautics and Space ( LAPAN).

National Wind Energy Technology

Generally speaking, US / Europe wind turbines available in the market are usually designed for high wind speed application which is not quite appropriate for wind condition in Indonesia . Meanwhile, there are some wind turbines, which might be appropriate to be used in the country. Therefore, development of wind energy technologies in Indonesia is widely opened. Currently, wind energy technologies developed in the country are designs and prototypes for:

power plants with capacity of 50 – 10,000 W;
mechanical power pumping with capacity of 45 – 250 liters/min;
power plants with capacity of 3.5 kW coupled with electrical pump for water pumping.

National Fabrication Capability

In general, status of national fabrication for wind energy conversion system is:

small-scale utilization: national industry has already able to built wind energy conversion system components up to 5 kW capacity and they are ready for mass production if the market available;
medium and large scale utilization: still under development.

Application

Testing, information dissemination, and direct utilization of wind energy for various applications, to wit: lighting, battery charging, radio communication, television, radio, home industry, telecommunication, water pumping.

List of Companies Working on Wind Energy

Below are list of companies involved in wind energy development in Indonesia . To name a few:

PT Indonesia Power
PT PLN-JE
PT Bumi Energi Equatorial
Obayashi Corporation
PT Guna Elektro
PT Indokomas Buana Perkasa
PT Citrakaton Dwitama.

Supporting Facilities

To support wind energy development, the country already has various facilities:

wind potential measurement equipments;
wind energy conversion system laboratory;
field-testing laboratory;
aerodynamic laboratory – subsonic speed.

Barriers

Below are several barriers encountered for wind energy development in the country, viz.:

technical and financial difficulties in data access for input on establishment of wind potential map;
limited fund to access and identify potential location especially in islands and remote areas;
relatively high price for wind energy compared to fossil based energy;

available wind energy products (usually for high speed application) are not suitable for the country's application (low speed).

BiomAssa

2010-07-14T10:51:00.000+08:00

Abstract

The use and availability of biomass in Indonesia is spread out of the country, from the cities to very remote areas. Most of biomass consumed in the economic activities is practiced in the conventional or traditional ways, primarily as fuel. Recently, the national government has launched a national policy to increase the share of renewable energy including biomass in the electricity sector. National electric company, known as PLN, is obligated to buy certain amount of electricity generated from renewable energy resources. This new support from the government is believed can boost the utilization of biomass to support the sustainable development.

Introduction

Biomass is an important source of energy and its use is continuously increasing. The main applications are in the domestic sector and in small-scale industries, but also to a growing extent in large industrial and combined heat and power generating systems. Biomass is clean renewable source, carbon neutral and indigenous resource, which is not subject to world price fluctuations or the supply uncertainties of imported fuels.

Biomass energy, including fuel wood, accounted for about 43% of the national total primarily supply in 1997. In fact, it is the biggest. Biomass is used not only in rural areas but in some economic activities in the cities, it is still being practiced. However, in the electricity production or in other forms of commercial energy, biomass energy is the least used. Since biomass has important role in the economic activities, a sustained development program is necessary. Recently, the government has issued a policy on renewable energy and energy conservation (Green Energy Policy). It gives a guideline for stakeholders in developing biomass energy.

Biomass potential

The potential of biomass derived from wood and crop residues is shown in the table below. The potential sources of fuelwood are rubber wood or palm tree wood from plantations that are cleared or renewed, as well as logging residues, cuttings, trimmings and sawdust from wood processing and plywood industries. The major crop residues to be considered for power generation in Indonesia are palm oil residues, which are generated throughout the year, and sugar processing residues as well as rice processing residues.

Total area of forest in Indonesia is the third largest after those in Brazil and Zaire . Eventhough it produces a huge amount of forest residue, only residues from logging and saw mills is potentially available for energy generation. Residues from plywood and pulp/paper industries are currently recycled and utilized for derivative products or as supplementing energy sources. It is estimated that in 2003, total residues from logging industries are amounted to 15 million m 3 and in general, it is not utilized. While residues from saw mills were about 15.45 million m 3 .

It is estimated that Indonesia produces 146.7 million tons of biomass per year, equivalent to about 470 GJ/y. As shown in Table 3, the main source of biomass energy in Indonesia can be obtained from rice residues which give the largest technical energy potential of 150 GJ/year, rubber wood with 120 GJ/year, sugar residues with 78 GJ/year, palm oil residues, 67 GJ/year, and the rest with smaller than 20 GJ/year are from plywood and veneer residues, logging residues, sawn timber residues, coconut residues, and agricultural wastes. (ZREU,2000). These sources of biomass can help in supplying both heat and electricity for rural house hold and industries.

Indonesia also has a lot of plantation such as rubber, palm oil, coconut and sugarcane. Those produce abundant amount of biomass and the number is increasing gradually every year particularly for palm oil.

Other resources of biomass that have a big potential as feedstock for generating electricity are agricultural wastes and municipal city garbage.

Biomass Technology in Indonesia

The use of biomass energy is of long standing and is probably the oldest form of energy whose role is large, especially in rural areas. It is estimated that 35% of total national energy consumption in fact originates from biomass. Through direct burning and other conversion technology such as pyrolisis and gasification, biomass may be converted into heat, mechanical or electrical energy. The energy produced has been used for a variety of purposes, among others for household (cooking and home industry), prime mover for rice milling, for drying of agriculture products and wood industry, power generation in wood and sugar industry.

Cogeneration

Biomass cogeneration mostly installed in industries based biomass i.e. palm oil, wood and sugar industries.Existing co-generation plants are the 5.5 MW waste wood power plant at PT. Siak Raya Timber in Pekanbaru, Sumatra, the 35 t/h at 35 bar installed at PT. Kurnia Musi Plywood Industry in Palembang. Most palm oil mills generate combined heat and power from fibres and shells, making the operations energy self –efficient. However, the use of palm oil residues can still be optimized in more energy efficient systems. Sugar mills that have their own steam generation facilities are generally equipped with old, low-pressure systems. Upgrading to highly efficient, high pressure systems with higher capacities can be, commercially speaking, an interesting option. It is estimated that palm oil and sugar production will be the sector where the demand for biomass energy technology will increase considerably in the future. The palm oil industry is one of the agro-based industries in Indonesia attracted by many domestic as well as investors.

Gasification

Small scale biomass gasification with the capacity around 15-176 kW for the time being as demonstration projects, not fully commercially available. Technical improvements are especially required in fuel feeding, gas cleaning, ash removal and overall automatic control systems. A recent development in this technology was a demonstration plant of rice husk gasification coupled with generator set to produce 100 kW electricity. The project is based at Haur Geulis-Indramayu, West Java , the area which primary cover by rice. EPC of gasification unit was carried out by a national company.

Biogas

Bearing in mind that livestock population continually increases and the nation's population are large, the potential of biogas is quite substantial. However, only a very small portion of this potential has been used, and even this has been limited to cooking and lighting. The use of biogas from human wastes still at the stage of demonstration projects. In addition to producing clean energy in the form of gas, biogas from human waste could also overcome pollution of wells in dense human settlements, that are in large cities.

Biodiesel

Since the creation of Indonesian Biodiesel Forum (IBF), biodiesel development in Indonesia is attracting many keyplayers. In fact, there is a lot of potentially developed oil plantation. The IBF has identified that more than 50 species are available in which some of them are not planted and a kind of not edible oils. Indonesia currently is the second largest of palm oil industries in the world and soon to surface the Malaysian production, being the number one.

BPPT is pioneering biodiesel development through their first biodiesel demonstration plant in Serpong Laboratory. The plant is a batch-type allowing a capacity of 1,500 liter per day. Another plant is currently being built in a double capacity. BPPT also has commissioned a continuous type of biodiesel plant in Province of Riau with the capacity of 8 ton per day.

Bio-fuel

Research and development of bio-fuel technology especially for transportation have been implemented in Indonesia . The demonstration project and the assessment of economic viability will be done in near future.

Recently Bandung Institute of Technology with collaboration with Mitsubshi Research Institute and Kyushu Electric Company, Japan has launched the use of 100% of Jatropha oil to substitute petroleum diesel fuel in diesel engines. The project was facilitated by NEDO through international project collaboration. Currently, ITB is carrying out a long-term trial to test the engine fueled by Jatropha oil.

Efficient stoves

Efficient stove has been developed with modification of local/traditional stoves. Training and socialization to small industries particularly craft industries done by government and NGOs.

Policy development and biomass action programmes

In an effort to realize a sustainable energy supply through the development of renewable energy, a sustained and directed program should be carried out consisting a short-term program that will be completed within up to five years, and long-term programs, i.e. the programs that will be completed within five years. Biomass energy policy is part of a national renewable energy policy known as Green Energy Policy.

The short-term programs are divided into investment, incentive, energy price, standardization and certification, human resources, information, research and development, institution and regulation. Government will promote public-private partnership program for biomass energy, develop a micro financing system and give the support to financial institutions interested in biomass projects. Implementations of biomass energy project are in line with CDM. In addition, government will be continuing supports on fiscal incentives such as VAT, import duty, luxury goods VAT, establishing a realistic royalty for renewable energy to support its development and providing interest-free loan for engineering cost in the renewable energy project development.

The long term program includes a continuation of the short-term program, and the programs that are not implementable within a five-year period including mandatory to utilize renewable energy including biomass (non fossil fuel obligation). Establishment of funding institution in order to finance renewable energy programs is believed is one of the long-term programmes.

In addition, to meet the demand for small-scale energy, particularly in rural areas that are remote and not easily accessible by conventional energy means, locally available energy utilization needs to be promoted to enhance equitable distribution of development. The development of renewable energy as local energy has to be integrated to the regional development, it is developed particularly for income generating and finally can increase social and economic welfare.

The price of oil is still subsidized, it cause the distortion of energy price system. The subsidy will be reduced gradually, and it is expected that the price of renewable energy can be competitive. To encourage Small Power Producers to develop renewable energy, government has issued the decree on Small Power Purchase Tariff. This decree regulates the selling of privately produced electricity to the State Electricity Company.

Awareness raising programs

Information dissemination by publication of brochures/leaflet, directory of renewable energy projects and directory of companies involve in renewable energy development. Conduct training, seminars, workshops to exchange of information, and information dissemination; demonstration projects with involving the people in the planning, implementation and evaluation of renewable energy projects, and preparing guideline of renewable energy project preparation.

Barriers

There are some barriers in developing biomass development, among others:

Oil subsidy
High investment cost
Lack of financial institutions (Bank) interested in biomass development
Lack of coordination among related institutions
The efficiency and reliability of existing technology is still low
Difficulties of community acceptance regarding biogas from animal dung, manure
Low capability of rural institution

Biomass Utilization

Biomass consumption is around 35% of national energy consumption Installed capacity of cogeneration is around 302 MW particularly in palm oil industries, sugarmills and sawmill industries. Around 70 units of gasification with the capacity between 10-200 kW have been installed for electrification and drying. Hundreds units of biogas from animal dung and human waste. Thousands units of efficient stoves have been made for cooking in household, small industries such as brick and tile, crafts, etc.

Many projects related to biomass utilization have been implemented and still continue in the future. Some of them are dissemination of efficient stove through training and demonstration project by regional office of Ministry of Energy and Mineral Rsources, and financed by national budget. Demonstration projects of gasification in some locations done by Indonesian Institute of Sciences, financed by international donor agency.

Gasification project done by Indonesia Power with the capacity around 18 kW, financed by the company. Feasibility study of biomass cogeneration in East Kalimantan with the capacity of 15-30 MW, financed by international donor agency

Stakeholders and keyplayers

Institutions involved in renewable energy including biomass among others government, research institutions, universities, association, and NGOs. Government such as Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Forestry; Institutions such as PTE-Technical Committee for Energy, BAKOREN-National Energy Coordinating Board.

Research Institution such as BPPT-Agency for the Assessment and Application, LIPI Indonesian, Institute of Science; Universities such as Institute of Technology Bandung, Bogor Agriculture University; Association such as Association of Sugar Millers, Association of Palm Oil Millers, Association of Plywood Industries; NGO's such as IRES-Indonesian Renewable Energy Society; YBUL-Yayasan Bina Usaha Lingkungan and Yayasan IBK, Forum Biodiesel Indonesia.

NGO's involvement in national energy policy and implementation regarding the promotion of the program on reducing subsidy of oil and electricity, developing renewable energy based on community development, propose to government concerning energy policy, promoting renewable energy by dissemination information to rural community (awareness), and assisting local/rural organization to improve their technical and management capability

There are only few manufactures involving in the biomass technology production, such as PT. Boma Bisma Indra, design and manufacture of gasifier systems using wood and rice husk, capacity between 15-176 kW PT IMSF, design and manufacture of gasifier systems. PT. Spektra Matrika Indah, biogas design and construction, using animal manure and human waste, capacity 30-50 m3 .

Opportunities and markets for commercialization of biomass energy

Some issues regarding the opportunity of biomass development for commercialization:

Cogeneration have been commercial
Most of high potential of biomass in palm oil, sugar and wood industries not yet utilized
Most of existing biomass cogeneration are old and low efficiency. It should be replaced by the new and efficient cogeneration equipment. Biomass cogeneration can meet electricity demand in industries base biomass, and the excess of electricity can be sold
Replacing diesel oil in industries based biomass
There are around 50 sugarmills and 100 palm oil mills available

Indonesia represents an attractive market for biomass technology mainly because of the following reason:

Low cost of biomass residue combined with high electricity demand
Geographically, it is difficult and expensive to develop centralized electricity systems
Fuel supply to remote areas is often not possible due to weather condition
Biomass residues create a waste disposal problem.

Solar Energy

2010-07-11T10:44:00.000+08:00

As a tropical country, Indonesia has a relatively good potential of solar energy with average daily solar radiation of 4.8kWh/m 2 . To utilize such potential of solar energy, two technologies have been applied, namely thermal solar energy and photovoltaic solar energy.

A. PHOTOVOLTAIC

Photovoltaic solar energy is used to meet rural electricity requirement, water pump, television, telecommunication, and refrigerator (such as: in Community Health Centers and for the fish saving cabinet used by fisherman) with the total capacities of about 5 MW. The utilization of solar energy, especially in the form of SHS (Solar Home Systems) has reached the semi-commercial phase.

The barriers faced in the utilization of photovoltaic are:

High investment cost. As the main part of photovoltaic; module, is still imported. There is no industry yet in Indonesia that can produce the module of photovoltaic;
The price of photovoltaic energy could not compete to commercial energy, as high investment cost and the conventional energy is still subsidized;
The market of photovoltaic is still limited;
The absorption of photovoltaic technology is still low;
Less support of infrastructure, such as: there is no service center in the village or isolated area, so if one of component of PV is broken, the user has to go to the city area to buy the new one. It will take a lot of money and time just to fix the PV;
Less support on capability of service;
As yet no sense of urgency and synergy among government institutions in application of regulation concerning renewable energy;
In standardization, there is still no socialize yet, so many stakeholders and society still don't know about the standard of photovoltaic. Indonesia has many standards, but because there is no producer of module itself, the standards still not implement yet.

Government's programs in photovoltaic are:

Develop photovoltaic system for rural electricity program, especially to fulfill the electricity need in isolated area.
Increase the utilization of hybrid technology, especially to fulfill the lack of electricity supply from isolated power plant.
Replace all or some part of supply for Small Social Customer and Small Household Customers of public electricity company with the photovoltaic system.
Motivate the utilization of photovoltaic system at buildings, especially Government's buildings.
Investigate the possibility of developing module industry in Indonesia to fulfill the local need and foreign.
Motivate the private companies in utilize the photovoltaic.
Implement some cooperation with other countries for big scale development of photovoltaic system.

B. SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY

Solar thermal energy in Indonesia is generally used for cooking (solar stove) , drying for agricultural products (plantation, fishery, forestry, food crops), and water heater. The use of thermal solar energy for cooking and drying for agricultural products is still very limited, while as water heater it has reached the commercial phase.

Some devices that produced in Indonesia are:

Dryer ;
Domestic water heather;
Oven;
Water pump with Rankine- Cycle and Isopentane as working fluid ;
Solar Distillation/Stil l;
Cooler
Solar Sterilizer;
The power-plant that using concentrator and working fluid with the low boiling point.

The barriers of solar thermal energy development are:

Lack of socialization to the people of Indonesia ;
Buying ability of society are low even the price of solar thermal devices are relatively cheap;
The human resource in solar thermal energy field is limited. For this time, human resource is available in Java Island and only in the universities/academics.

Government's programs in solar thermal energy are:

Do inventorying, identification, and mapping the potential and application of photo thermal technology countinuesly.
Disseminate and transfer technology from developers to user (agro-industries, commercial building, etc) and national producer (manufacture, mechanic workshop, etc) by communication forum, education and training, and pilot project.
Make national standardization of components and system of photo thermal technology.
Investigate the financial schemes for national manufacturing development continuesly.
Increase the research activities and development for all kind technologies of photo thermal.
Increase the local production and investigate for the export possibility.
Develop the high temperature photo thermal technology, such as: electricity generation, stirling machines, etc.

[Penting] Jangan Pacaran Lebih Dari 4 tahun, bahaya!

2009-12-11T11:32:00.000+08:00

[Penting] Jangan Pacaran Lebih Dari 4 tahun, bahaya!

Hormon Cinta Hanya Bertahan 4 Tahun, Sisanya Dorongan Seks

Mexico, Sebuah hubungan pasti akan menemui titik jenuh. Bukan hanya karena faktor bosan semata, tapi karena kandungan zat kimia di otak yang mengaktifkan rasa cinta itu sudah habis. Peneliti menemukan jika sudah lewat 4 tahun yang tersisa hanya dorongan seks, bukan cinta yang murni lagi.

Hal itu diungkapkan oleh peneliti dari Researchers at National Autonomous University of Mexico. Menurut peneliti disana, rasa tergila-gila dan cinta pada seseorang tidak akan bertahan lebih dari 4 tahun.

"Tidak ada cinta yang benar-benar murni setelah 4 tahun," ujar seorang peneliti seperti dikutip dari Geniusbeauty, Rabu (9/12/2009).

Rasa tergila-gila yang muncul pada awal-awal jatuh cinta disebabkan oleh aktivasi dan pengeluaran komponen kimia spesifik di otak, berupa hormon dopamin, endorfin, feromon, oxytocin, neuropinephrine yang membuat seseorang merasa bahagia, berbunga-bunga dan berseri-seri.

Hormon-hormon itu sangat baik untuk tubuh dan mempengaruhi kesehatan seseorang karena bisa membuat aliran darah lebih lancar, denyut jantung lebih stabil, rileks dan perasaan lebih bergairah dan bersemangat. Namun masalahnya efek hormon-hormon itu tidak akan abadi dan akan berkurang seiring berjalannya waktu.

"Bahkan cinta yang sangat dalam sekalipun akan kehabisan efek itu ketika sudah berjalan lebih dari 4 tahun. Hal itu dikarenakan tubuh sudah kebal terhadap semua efek hormon tersebut. Jika sudah begitu, rasa cinta akan cenderung berubah menjadi ketergantungan emosi dan seksual," jelas peneliti dari Meksiko.

Peneliti telah melakukan survei skala besar terhadap orang-orang yang jatuh cinta dan menemukan fakta bahwa cinta adalah obsesi. Ketika terobsesi pada seseorang, apapun caranya akan diperjuangkan, bahkan rela tidak tidur dan tidak makan hanya gara-gara memikirkan orang yang dicintainya. Tapi setelah mendapatkannya, perlahan rasa itu akan hilang.

Untuk itu, bersiap-siaplah terhadap segala kemungkinan terburuk dari sebuah hubungan setelah melewati masa 4 tahun. Hindari rutinitas yang membosankan dan cari variasi dalam setiap kegiatan bersama agar tidak dilanda stres. Coba ingat-ingat lagi, apa yang membuat Anda jatuh cinta padanya dulu, lalu hayati lagi perasaan itu.

sumber :detikhealth

MikroHidro

2008-07-17T10:57:00.000+08:00

1. Tujuan dari Panduan untuk Pembangunan Pembangkit Listrik Mikro Hidro

Mikrohidro adalah istilah yang digunakan untuk instalasi pembangkit listrik yang mengunakan energi air. Kondisi air yang bisa dimanfaatkan sebagai sumber daya (resources) penghasil listrik adalah memiliki kapasitas aliran dan ketiggian tertentu dad instalasi. Semakin besar kapasitas aliran maupun ketinggiannya dari istalasi maka semakin besar energi yang bisa dimanfaatkan untuk menghasilkan energi listrik.

Biasanya Mikrohidro dibangun berdasarkan kenyataan bahwa adanya air yang mengalir di suatu daerah dengan kapasitas dan ketinggian yang memadai. Istilah kapasitas mengacu kepada jumlah volume aliran air persatuan waktu (flow capacity) sedangan beda ketingglan daerah aliran sampai ke instalasi dikenal dengan istilah head. Mikrohidro juga dikenal sebagai white resources dengan teluemahan bebas bisa dikatakan "energi putih". Dikatakan demikian karena instalasi pembangkit listrik seperti ini mengunakan sumber daya yang telah disediakan oleh alam dan ramah lingkungan. Suatu kenyataan bahwa alam memiliki air terjun atau jenis lainnya yang menjadi tempat air mengalir. Dengan teknologi sekarang maka energi aliran air beserta energi perbedaan ketinggiannya dengan daerah tertentu (tempat instalasi akan dibangun) dapat diubah menjadi energi listrik,

Seperti dikatakan di atas, Mikrohidro hanyalah sebuah istilah. Mikro artinya kecil sedangkan hidro artinya air. Dalam, prakteknya istilah ini tidak merupakan sesuatu yang baku namun bisa dibayangkan bahwa Mikrohidro, pasti mengunakan air sebagai sumber energinya. Yang membedakan antara istilah Mikrohidro dengan Miniihidro adalah output daya yang dihasilkan. Mikrohidro menghasilkan daya lebih rendah dad

100 W, sedangkan untuk minihidro daya keluarannya berkisar antara 100 sampai 5000 W. Secara teknis, Mikrohidro memiliki tiga komponen utama yaitu air (sumber energi), turbin dan generator. Air yang mengalir dengan kapasitas tertentu disalurkan clan ketinggian tertentu menuju rumah instalasi (rumah turbin). DI rumah instalasi air tersebut akan menumbuk turbin dimana turbm' sendin, dipastikan akan mencrima energi air tersebut dan mengubahnya menjadi energi mckanik berupa berputamya poros turbin. Poros yang berputar tersebut kemudian ditransmisikan ke generator dengan mengunakan kopling. Darl generator akan dthaslikan energi listrik yang ak-an masuk ke sistem kontrol arus listrik sebelum dialirkan ke rumah-rumah atau keperluan lainnya (beban). Begitulah secara ringlcas proses Mikrohidro merubah energi aliran dan ketinggian air menjadt energi listrik.

Terdapat sebuah peningkatan kebutuhan suplai daya ke daerah-daerah pedesaan di sejumlah negara, sebagian untuk mendukung industri-industri, dan sebagian untuk menyediakan penerangan di malam hari. Kemampuan pemerintah yang terhalang oleh biaya yang tinggi dari perluasan jaringan listrik, sering membuat Mikro Hidro memberikan sebuah alternatif ekonomi ke dalam jaringan. Ini karena Skema Mikro Hidro yang mandiri menghemat biaya dari jaringan transmisi, dan karena skema perluasan jaringan sering memerlukan biaya peralatan dan pegawai yang mahal. Dalam kontrak, Skema Mikro Hidro dapat didisain dan dibangun oleh pegawai lokal dan organisasi yang lebih kecil dengan mengikuti peraturan yang lebih longgar dan menggunakan teknologi lokal seperti untuk pekerjaan irigasi tradisional atau mesin-mesin buatan lokal. Pendekatan ini dikenal sebagai Pendekatan Lokal. Gambar 1 menunjukkan betapa ada perbedaan yang berarti antara biaya pembuatan dengan listrik yang dihasilkan.

Gambar 1. Skala Ekonomi dari Mikro-Hidro (berdasarkan data tahun 1985)

Keterangan gambar 1
Average cost for conventional hydro	= Biaya rata-rata untuk hidro konvensional.
Band for micro hydro	= Kisaran untuk mikro-hidro
Capital cost	= Modal
Capacity	= Kapasitas (kW)

2. Komponen-komponen Pembangkit Listrik Mikro Hidro

Gambar 2. Komponen-komponen Besar dari sebuah Skema Mikro Hidro

Diversion Weir dan Intake (Dam/Bendungan Pengalih dan Intake)
Dam pengalih berfungsi untuk mengalihkan air melalui sebuah pembuka di bagian sisi sungai (‘Intake’ pembuka) ke dalamsebuah bak pengendap (Settling Basin).

Settling Basin (Bak Pengendap)
Bak pengendap digunakan untuk memindahkan partikel-partikel pasir dari air. Fungsi dari bak pengendap adalah sangat penting untuk melindungi komponen-komponen berikutnya dari dampak pasir.

Headrace (Saluran Pembawa)
Saluran pembawa mengikuti kontur dari sisi bukit untuk menjaga elevasi dari air yang disalurkan.

Headtank (Bak Penenang)
Fungsi dari bak penenang adalah untuk mengatur perbedaan keluaran air antara sebuah penstock dan headrace, dan untuk pemisahan akhir kotoran dalam air seperti pasir, kayu-kayuan.

Penstock (Pipa Pesat/Penstock)
Penstock dihubungkan pada sebuah elevasi yang lebih rendah ke sebuah roda air, dikenal sebagai sebuah Turbin.

Headrace (Saluran Pembawa)
Saluran pembawa mengikuti kontur dari sisi bukit untuk menjaga elevasi dari air yang disalurkan.

Turbine dan Generator (Turbin dan Generator)
Perputaran gagang dari roda dapat digunakan untuk memutar sebuah alat mekanikal (seperti sebuah penggilingan biji, pemeras minyak, mesin bubut kayu dan sebagainya), atau untuk mengoperasikan sebuah generator listrik. Mesin-mesin atau alat-alat, dimana diberi tenaga oleh skema hidro, disebut dengan ‘Beban’ (Load).
Dalam Gambar 2. bebannya adalah sebuah penggergajian kayu.

Tentu saja ada banyak variasi pada penyusunan disain ini. Sebagai sebuah contoh, air dimasukkan secara langsung ke turbin dari sebuah saluran tanpa sebuah penstock seperti yang terlihat pada penggergajian kayu di Gambar 2. Tipe ini adalah metode paling sederhana untuk mendapatkan tenaga air tetapi belakangan ini tidak digunakan untuk pembangkit listrik karena efisiensinya rendah. Kemungkinan lain adalah bahwa saluran dapat dihilangkan dan sebuah penstock dapat langsung ke turbin dari bak pengendap pertama. Variasi seperti ini akan tergantung pada karakteristik khusus dari lokasi dan
skema keperluan-keperluan dari pengguna.

Energi Biomassa

2008-07-15T10:52:00.000+08:00

Biomassa sangat beragam jenisnya yang pada dasarnya merupakan hasil produksi dari makhluk hidup. Biomassa dapat berasal dari tanaman perkebunan atau pertanian, hutan, peternakan atau bahkan sampah. Biomassa (bahan organik) dapat digunakan untuk menyediakan panas, membuat bahan bakar, dan membangkitkan listrik, hat ini disebut bioenergi. Bioenergi berada pada level kedua setelah tenaga air dalam produksi energi primer terbarukan di Amerika Serikat.

Untuk kepentingan khusus, pemanfaatan biomassa menjadi solusi yang sangat menjanjikan untuk permasalahan sampah di kota-kota besar. Pemanfaatan sampah sebagai biomassa menjadi tenaga listrik meiaitji proses pembakaran langsung (direct cornbustion) atau metalui proses pembuatan gas metana (gasifikasi) dapat menjadi solusi, walaupun proyek ini lebih mahal dibandingkan proyek pembangkit listrik lain untuk kapasitas yang setara.

Pemanfaatan energi biomassa dapat dilakukan dengan berbagai cara. Dewasa ini teknologi pemanfaatan energi biomassa yang telah dikembangkan terdiri dari :

1. Pembakaran langsung (direct combustion) dalam bentuk pemanfaatan panas.

Pemanfaatan panas biomassa telah dikenal sejak dulu seperti pemanfaatan kayu bakar. Pemanfaatan yang cukup besar umumnya untuk menghasilkan uap pada pembangkitan listrik atau proses manufaktur. Dalam sistem pembangkit, kerja turbin biasanya memanfaatakan ekspansi uap bertekanan dan bertemperatur tinggi untuk menggerakkan generator. Di industri kayu dan kertas, serpihan kayu terkadang langsung dimasukkan ke boiler untuk menghasilkan uap untuk proses manufaktur atau menghangatkan ruangan. Beberapa sistem pembangkit berbahan bakar batubara menggunakan biomassa sebagai sumber energi tambahan dalam boiler efisiensi tinggi untuk mengurangi emisi.

2. Konversi menjadi bahan bakar cair.

Dua bahan bakar bio yang paling umum adalah ethanol dan biodiesel. Ethanol merupakan alkohol yang dibuat dengan fermentasi biomassa dengan kandungan hidrokarbon yang tinggi seperti jagung metaldi proses yang sama untuk membuat bir. Ethanol paling sering digunakan sebagai aditif bahan bakar untuk mengurangi emisi CO dan asap lainnya dari kendaraan. Biodiesel merupakan ester yang dibuat menggunakan minyak tanaman, lemak binatang, ganggang, atau bahkan minyak goreng bekas. Biodiesel dapat digunakan sebagai aditif diesel untuk mengurangi emisi kendaraan atau dalam bentuk murninya sebagai bahan bakar kendaraan

3. Pemanfaatan Gas Biomassa

Pemanfaatan gas biomassa skala kecil yang banyak diaplikasikan oleh masyarakat adalah pemanfaatan gas metana hasil fermentasil yang langsung dibakar untuk dimanfaatkan panasnya. Pada skala yang lebih maju pemanfaatan gas biomassa dilakukan melalui sistem gasifikasi menggunakan temperatur tinggi untuk mengubah biomassa menjadi gas (campuran dari hidrogen, CO dan metana).

Salah satu contoh pemanfaatan tersebut adalah penggunaan sekam padi pada Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Diesel. Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Diesel (PLTD) komersial pertama yang menggunakan. bahan bakar sekam padi berada di penggilingan padi rnifik PT (Persero) Pertani di Desa Haurgeulis, Keeamatan Haurgaulis, Kabupaten Indramayu. PLTD berkekuatan 1 x 100 kilowatt (kw) tersebut dibangun PT Indonesia Power dan PT Pertani.

Prinsip keda PLTD berbahan bakar sekam padi itu adalah mencampurkan gas hasil gasifikasi sekam padi pada temperatur tinggi dengan bahan bakar minyak (BBM) di dalam ruang bakar motor diesel yang menggerakkan turbin untuk menghasii'kan tenaga listrik. Pencampuran BBM dengan gas sekam padi dapat menghemat pemakaian BBIVi hingga 80 persen dari jumlah pemakaian semula, sehingga biaya operasional untuk membangkitkan listrik dengan daya yang
sama dapat berkurang jauh. Sebagai gambaran, jika PLTD berkapasitas 100 kW dioperasikan penuh dengan menggunakan BBM, dibutuhkan 0,3 liter BBM per kWh (kilowatt hour). Sementara jika ditambahkan gas sekam padi, hanya dibutuhkan 0,06 liter per kWh ditambah sekam padi sebanyak 1,5 kg per kWh.

Sistem penanganan material biomassa, merupakan bagian yang cukup besar dalam modal investasi dan biaya operasi dalam fasilitas konversi energi bio. Kebutuhannya tergantung pada tipe biomassa yang akan diolah dalam teknologi konversi seperti hainya kebutuhan gudang cadangan makanan, diantaranya penyimpanan biomassa, penanganan, pengangkutan, pengurangan ukuran, pembersihan, pengeringan serta peralatan.

Pengering Efek Rumah Kaca

2008-07-13T10:46:00.000+08:00

Pemanfaatan Produktif Energi Terbarukan Melalui Pemberdayaan Jender di Kelurahan Cipageran, Kecamatan Cimahi Utara, Jawa Barat

Pelaksanaan proyek “Pemanfaatan Produktif Energi Terbarukan Melalui Pemberdayaan Jender” dilaksanakan oleh Proyek Pemberdayaan Jender Biro Kepegawaian DESDM bekerjasama dengan CREATA IPB. Proyek tersebut telah selesai dilakukan untuk mengembangkan 2 (dua) unit teknologi pengering tenaga surya (spesifikasi teknis terlampir), yaitu untuk pengering makanan di Kelurahan Cipageran, Kecamatan Cimahi Utara dan pengering pakan ternak di Kecamatan Cibiru, Kodya Bandung, keduanya di Propinsi Jawa Barat.

Pengelola teknologi pengering makanan tenaga surya di Kelurahan Cipageran adalah Koperasi Barrak, yaitu koperasi pemasaran di bidang pakaian, makanan, dll yang beranggotakan pengusaha-pengusaha industri rumah tangga (tergolong kelompok usaha kecil dan menengah – UKM). Kegiatan utama Koperasi Barrak adalah memasarkan hasil-hasil produksi kegiatan usaha anggotanya baik di koperasi maupun melalui pameran-pameran di berbagai kantor instansi.

Pelaksanaan Proyek “Pemanfaatan Produktif Energi Terbarukan Melalui Pemberdayaan Jender” yang dilaksanakan di Koperasi Barrak antara lain:

Pembangunan alat pengering tenaga surya

Alat pengering tenaga surya dibangun tidak jauh dari Koperasi Barrak (± 20 m) di Kelurahan Cipageran dengan biaya sebesar Rp. 18 juta (ditambah ± Rp. 2 juta untuk biaya transportasi peralatan).

Pelaksanaan training

Training pengeringan makanan dengan memanfaatkan teknologi pengering tenaga surya dilaksanakan pada tanggal 29 November – 2 Desember 2004 di Pusat Kegiatan Belajar Masyarakat Bina Warga, Kelurahan Cipageran, Cimahi. Peserta training sebanyak 20 orang wanita terdiri dari anggota koperasi yang bergerak dalam usaha produksi makanan (rangginang dan dendeng jantung pisang) dan penduduk sekitar koperasi.

Pemanfaatan teknologi pengering makanan tenaga surya

Saat ini teknologi pengering makanan tenaga surya di Koperasi Barrak dimanfaatkan untuk mengeringkan dendeng jantung pisang yang seluruhnya dikerjakan oleh wanita. Dengan pemanfaatan teknologi pengering tenaga surya proses produksi dan kualitas produk meningkat dibandingkan dengan produksi semula yang menggunakan oven pengering berbahan bakar minyak tanah. Keuntungan penggunaan pengering tenaga surya antara lain:

Kapasitas produksi meningkat. Produksi semula 80 kantung dendeng/hari (6 kg) menjadi 250 kantung dendeng/hari (± 20 kg). Karena kemampuan produksi para pekerja masih rendah, jumlah produksi ini (250 bungkus/hari) belum memanfaatkan kapasitas maksimal alat pengering. Sampai saat ini hanya 3-4 tingkat digunakan dari 10 tingkat yang ada.
Penghematan biaya untuk bahan bakar yang sebelumnya menggunakan minyak tanah, kini memanfaatkan energi surya dan biomassa. Pembakaran biomassa (arang kayu atau batok kelapa) dilakukan bila kondisi cuaca tidak memungkinkan. Biomassa yang digunakan untuk pengeringan sebanyak 6 kg/hari. Apabila makanan disimpan dalam pengering pada malam hari, dibutuhkan bahan bakar biomassa sebanyak 2 kg untuk menjaga suhu makanan.
Kualitas produk makanan meningkat, yaitu warna dan rasa semakin mendekati dendeng sapi, tidak hangus atau basah.

Untuk selanjutnya, alat pengering tenaga surya ini juga akan dimanfaatkan untuk mengeringkan selai pisang madu dan tepung pisang batu.

Alat pengering tenaga surya di Koperasi Barrak ini dirasakan sudah memadai, namun pengusaha makanan mengharapkan kapasitas dan ukurannya dapat disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan. Dengan kapasitas yang tersedia saat ini, pengguna alat pengering di Koperasi Barrak merasakan kapasitasnya terlalu besar, mengingat rendahnya kemampuan produksi bahan dasar makanan. Untuk itu, produsen makanan di Koperasi Barrak mengharapkan bantuan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan produksi bahan dasar makanan (alat penumbuk, dll).

PENGERING EFEK RUMAH KACA

TEKNOLOGI

• SPESIFIKASI PENGERING

Bentuk : Limas heksagonal

Ukuran:

Sisi terpendek bagian bawah : 2 m
Sisi terpendek bagian atas : 1 m
Tinggi : 2 m

Jenis bahan:

Dinding : polikarbonat
Rangka : besi
Alas nampan : stainless steel
Dinding tungku : concrete
Batas ruang dan tungku : besi dan seng
Cerobong : pipa besi

Komponen fungsional:

Ruang pengering
Rak yang terdiri dari 60 nampan, 10 tingkat
Pengaliran udara: Kipas vortex dan kipas list rik 65 W
Ruang pembakaran, terletak pada bagian bawah.

II. PRINSIP KERJA PENGERING

Prinsip kerja pengering adalah sebagai berikut:

Iradiasi matahari yang bergelombang pendek masuk melalui dinding transparan, dan emudian diserap oleh komponen-komponen pengering yang berada di dalam ruang, seperti: lantai, rak, pipa cerobong, dan produk yang dikeringkan.
Proses absorpsi tersebut akan meningkatkan suhu dari komponen-komponen tersebut. Iradiasi panas akan dipancarkan oleh komponen-komponen tersebut dalam gelombang panjang. Karena gelombang panjang tersebut sulit untuk melalui dinding transparan, maka sebagian besar akan dipantulkan kembali ke dalam ruangan dan menyebabkan peningkatan suhu berikutnya.
Suhu udara yang tinggi menyebabkan terjadinya proses penguapan air dari produk yang lebih besar, dan uap air yang meninggalkan produk menyebabkan kelembaban di dalam ruangan akan meningkat.

Untuk menjaga agar proses penguapan tetap berlangsung, kelembaban di dalam ruangan harus dijaga pada tingkat yang memadai. Untuk itu, pengaliran udara dari luar dilakukan dengan menggunakan kipas listrik yang terletak di bagian bawah ruang pengering, untuk menggantikan udara yang telah basah tersebut. Selain itu, kipas vortex pada bagian atas juga dipasang, dimana kipas ini akan bekerja ketika kecepatan angin diluar cukup memadai.

Pengering ini juga dilengkapi dengan tungku pembakaran dengan bahan bakar biomassa untuk mengantisipasi kekurangan energi panas pada malam hari dan pada saat hujan. Bahan bakar yang biasa digunakan adalah batok kelapa dan ranting-ranting pepohonan. Sisa pembakaran dialirkan melalui cerobong asap. Panas yang dihasilkan dari pembakaran berkonduksi melalui cerobong asap serta pembatas ruang dan tungku yang terbuat dari besi. Temperatur di dalam pengering dapat mencapai 40

Hibrid Oeledo

2008-07-12T10:45:00.001+08:00

Proyek Oeledo dimulai pada tahun 1997, dan selesai pada tahun 2000. Proyek ini diserahkan secara resmi kepada masyarakat Oeledo pada tahun 2001. Proyek Oeledo terdiri dari studi sosial-ekonomi, finansial dan teknik, kemampuan manajemen skema listrik perdesaan dengan sistem hibrid serta turut serta dalam langkah-langkah pengembangan masyarakat.

Proyek ini dirancang dan diimplementasikan oleh e-7 Network of Expertise, sebuah organisasi internasional yang terdiri dari sembilan perusahaan listrik terkemuka dari negara-negara G7 (Kanada, Perancis, Jerman, Italia, Jepang, Inggris dan Amerika Serikat), yang bekerja sama dengan Pemerintah indonesia dan organisasi non-pemerintah setempat.

Sistem hibrid tersebut menyuplai 127 pelanggan dengan listrik AC 220 Volt. Energi angin dan photovoltaik membangkitkan listrik yang disimpan dalam baterei dan disuplai ke konsumen selama 24 jam. Konsumsi energi angin diukur dan dibayar pada bulan dasar kepada Pengelola Listrik Desa (PLD), yang menyediakan dan memastikan pelayanan listrik yang layak kepada para pelanggan. Sebelum adanya proyek Oeledo, masyarakat biasa menggunakan kerosin, lilin, dan baterei untuk memenuhi kebutuhan listriknya dengan biaya sekitar Rp 10.000,00 sampai dengan Rp 20.000,00 per bulan. Padahal dengan menggunakan teknologi energi terbarukan, dengan tarif Rp 800,00/kWh dan biaya kapasitas yang ditentukan Rp 5000,00 (10.000,00) per 0,5 (1) A per bulan ( circuit breaker ) yang dipromosikan oleh PLD, dapat diterima oleh masyarakat dan dituangkan dalam perjanjian pelayanan antara pelanggan dan PLD.

Selain penerangan dan aplikasi TV/radio, usaha skala kecil telah dibangun di Oeledo yang bertujuan untuk kelangsungan suplai listrik, seperti untuk penerangan kios-kios, lemari pendingin, pembuatan kerajinan (menjahit, mungukir kayu, dan lain-lain), proses pembuatan gula dan mendukung aktivitas kelompok perempuan di Oeledo.

Ukuran emisi CO 2 , yang dihindari dalam proyek, diperkirakan dan didokumentasikan sejak tahun 2001. dan dibandingkan dengan skenario dasar. Jumlah dan kualitas perkiraan data dimungkinkan untuk menghitung secara akurat dan detil mengenai penurunan emisi. Rata-rata emisi CO 2 pembangkit listrik tenaga diesel adalah 1,1 kg CO 2 /kWh, survey proyek menunjukkan bahwa rumah tangga di daerah terpencil menghasilkan rata-rata 360 kg CO 2 /year dalam suatu wilayah.

Sistem hibrid Oeledo dapat menyuplai kebutuhan masyarakat sebesar 22.000 kWh per tahun dan cenderung meningkat. Jumlah energi tersebut menghasilan penghindaran emisi sekitar 24t CO 2 /year. Kapasitas maksimum yang memungkinkan adalah 44.000 kWh per year, mencukupi perluasan pelayanan di masa depan dan perubahan pola konsumsi.

Sistem hibrid Oeledo terdiri dari 22 kWp dari sistem photovoltaik, 10 kW dari generator yang dibangkitkan oleh energi angin, 20 kW dari generator diesel sebagai cadangan, kapasitas penyimpanan baterei sebesar 144 kWh dan 2x20 kW IGBT inverter. Suplai dari sistem tersebut terbatas, namun layak, digunakan untuk melistriki 120 rumah tangga, sekolah-sekolah, dan tempat-tempat umum melalui distribusi jaringan LV tambahan denga jarak sekitar 3 km.

Umur proyek sistem hibrid Oeledo terbatas pada faktor teknis. Komponen-komponen sistem mempunyai umur pakai 10-20 tahun. Iuran yang terkumpul dari para pelanggan listrik yang ditabung di rekening bank dapat mencukupi untuk mengganti sebagian besar komponen selama periode 15-20 tahun. Analisis ekonomi menunjukkan bahwa 10-20% dari investasi dapat dikembalikan dalam waktu 20 tahun, termasuk biaya perawatan, biaya manajemen dan pergantian komponen setelah habis umur pakainya.

Dengan adanya proyek ini, banyak keuntungan yang didapatkan oleh masyarakat Oeledo dan negara, di antaranya:

Meningkatkan penerangan dan komunikasi
Memperluas waktu produktif bagi masyarakat
Memperbaiki pendidikan dikarenakan adanya perpanjangan waktu belajar sampai malam
Memperbaiki akses informasi melalui TV dan radio
Secara umum, dari segi kesehatan, sistem tersebut menciptakan lingkungan yang lebih bersih, mengurangi resiko kebakaran, mengurangi racun polusi di rumah karena asap dari pembakaran kerosin, mengurangi infeksi paru-paru akut, dan mengurangi pembersihan alat-alat rumah tangga, penutup tempat tidur dan jaringan nyamuk yang akan mengurangi biaya pemeliharaan rumah.
Membuka kesempatan kerja baru dan usaha skala kecil
Menciptakan kesadaran untuk menggunakan teknologi energi terbarukan
Meningkatkan rasio elektrifikasi di daerah perdesaan Indonesia .

Energi Surya

2008-07-10T10:41:00.000+08:00

Energi mempunyai peranan penting dalam pencapaian tujuan sosial, ekonomi, dan lingkungan untuk pembangunan berkelanjutan, serta merupakan pendukung bagi kegiatan ekonomi nasional. Penggunaan energi di Indonesia meningkat pesat sejalan dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi dan pertambahan penduduk. Sedangkan, akses ke energi yang andal dan terjangkau merupakan pra-syarat utama untuk meningkatkan standar hidup masyarakat.

Untuk memenuhi kebutuhan energi yang terus meningkat tersebut, dikembangkan berbagai energi alternatif, di antaranya energi terbarukan. Potensi energi terbarukan, seperti: biomassa, panas bumi, energi surya, energi air, energi angin dan energi samudera, sampai saat ini belum banyak dimanfaatkan, padahal potensi energi terbarukan di Indonesia sangatlah besar.

Energi surya merupakan salah satu energi yang sedang giat dikembangkan saat ini oleh Pemerintah Indonesia.

Kondisi Umum

Sebagai negara tropis, Indonesia mempunyai potensi energi surya yang cukup besar. Berdasarkan data penyinaran matahari yang dihimpun dari 18 lokasi di Indonesia, radiasi surya di Indonesia dapat diklasifikasikan berturut-turut sebagai berikut: untuk kawasan barat dan timur Indonesia dengan distribusi penyinaran di Kawasan Barat Indonesia (KBI) sekitar 4,5 kWh/m 2 /hari dengan variasi bulanan sekitar 10%; dan di Kawasan Timur Indonesia (KTI) sekitar 5,1 kWh/m 2 /hari dengan variasi bulanan sekitar 9%. Dengan demikian, potesi angin rata-rata Indonesia sekitar 4,8 kWh/m 2 /hari dengan variasi bulanan sekitar 9%.

Untuk memanfaatkan potensi energi surya tersebut, ada 2 (dua) macam teknologi yang sudah diterapkan, yaitu teknologi energi surya termal dan energi surya fotovoltaik. Energi surya termal pada umumnya digunakan untuk memasak (kompor surya), mengeringkan hasil pertanian (perkebunan, perikanan, kehutanan, tanaman pangan) dan memanaskan air. Energi surya fotovoltaik digunakan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan listrik, pompa air, televisi, telekomunikasi, dan lemari pendingin di Puskesmas dengan kapasitas total ± 6 MW.

Ada dua macam teknologi energi surya yang dikembangkan, yaitu:

• Teknologi energi surya fotovoltaik;

• Teknologi energi surya termal.

TEKNOLOGI ENERGI SURYA FOTOVOLTAIK

Teknologi dan Kemampuan Nasional

Pemanfaatan energi surya khususnya dalam bentuk SHS (s olar home systems ) sudah mencapai tahap semi komersial.

Komponen utama suatu SESF adalah:

Sel fotovoltaik yang mengubah penyinaran matahari menjadi listrik, masih impor, namun untuk laminating menjadi modul surya sudah dkuasai;
Balance of system (BOS) yang meliputi controller, inverter , kerangka modul, peralatan listrik, seperti kabel, stop kontak, dan lain-lain, teknologinya sudah dapat dikuasai;
Unit penyimpan energi (baterai) sudah dapat dibuat di dalam negeri;
Peralatan penunjang lain seperti: inverter untuk pompa, sistem terpusat, sistem hibrid, dan lain-lain masih diimpor.

Kandungan lokal modul fotovoltaik termasuk pengerjaan enkapsulasi dan framing sekitar 25%, sedangkan sel fotovoltaik masih harus diimpor. Balance of System (BOS) masih bervariasi tergantung sistem desainnya. Kandungan lokal dari BOS diperkirakan telah mencapai diatas 75%.

Sasaran Pengembangan Fotovoltaik di Indonesia

Sasaran pengembangan energi surya fotovoltaik di Indonesia adalah sebagai berikut: Semakin berperannya pemanfaatan energi surya fotovoltaik dalam penyediaan energi di daerah perdesaan, sehingga pada tahun 2020 kapasitas terpasangnya menjadi 25 MW.
Semakin berperannya pemanfaatan energi surya di daerah perkotaan.
Semakin murahnya harga energi dari solar photovoltaic , sehingga tercapai tahap komersial.
Terlaksananya produksi peralatan SESF dan peralatan pendukungnya di dalam negeri yang mempunyai kualitas tinggi dan berdaya saing tinggi.

Strategi Pengembangan Fotovoltaik di Indonesia

Strategi pengembangan energi surya fotovoltaik di Indonesia adalah sebagai berikut:

Mendorong pemanfaatan SESF secara terpadu, yaitu untuk keperluan penerangan (konsumtif) dan kegiatan produktif.Mengembangan SESF melalui dua pola, yaitu pola tersebar dan terpusat yang disesuaikan dengan kondisi lapangan. Pola tersebar diterapkan apabila letak rumah-rumah penduduk menyebar dengan jarak yang cukup jauh, sedangkan pola terpusat diterapkan apabila letak rumah-rumah penduduk terpusat.
Mengembangkan pemanfaatan SESF di perdesaan dan perkotaan.
Mendorong komersialisasi SESF dengan memaksimalkan keterlibatan swasta.
Mengembangkan industri SESF dalam negeri yang berorientasi ekspor.
Mendorong terciptanya sistem dan pola pendanaan yang efisien dengan melibatkan dunia perbankan.

Program Pengembangan Fotovoltaik di Indonesia

Program pengembangan energi surya fotovoltaik adalah sebagai berikut:

Mengembangkan SESF untuk program listrik perdesaan, khususnya untuk memenuhi kebutuhan listrik di daerah yang jauh dari jangkauan listrik PLN.
Meningkatkan penggunaan teknologi hibrida, khususnya untuk memenuhi kekurangan pasokan tenaga listrik dari isolated PLTD.
Mengganti seluruh atau sebagian pasokan listrik bagi pelanggan Sosial Kecil dan Rumah Tangga Kecil PLN dengan SESF. Pola yang diusulkan adalah:
Memenuhi semua kebutuhan listrik untuk pelanggan S1 dengan batas daya 220 VA;
Memenuhi semua kebutuhan untuk pelanggan S2 dengan batas daya 450 VA;
Memenuhi 50 % kebutuhan listrik untuk pelanggan S2 dengan batas daya 900 VA;
Memenuhi 50 % kebutuhan untuk pelanggan R1 dengan batas daya 450 VA.
Mendorong penggunaan SESF pada bangunan gedung, khususnya Gedung Pemerintah.
Mengkaji kemungkinan pendirian pabrik modul surya untuk memenuhi kebutuhan dalam negeri dan kemungkinan ekspor.
Mendorong partisipasi swasta dalam pemanfaatan energi surya fotovoltaik.
Melaksanakan kerjasama dengan luar negeri untuk pembangunan SESF skala besar.

Peluang Pemanfaatan Fotovoltaik

Kondisi geografis Indonesia yang terdiri atas pulau-pulau yang kecil dan banyak yang terpencil menyebabkan sulit untuk dijangkau oleh jaringan listrik yang bersifat terpusat. Untuk memenuhi kebutuhan energi di daerah-daerah semacam ini, salah satu jenis energi yang potensial untuk dikembangkan adalah energi surya. Dengan demikian, energi surya dapat dimanfaatkan untuk p enyedian listrik dalam rangka mempercepat rasio elektrifikasi desa.

Selain dapat digunakan untuk program listrik perdesaan, peluang pemanfaatan energi surya lainnnya adalah:

Lampu penerangan jalan dan lingkungan;
Penyediaan listrik untuk rumah peribadatan. SESF sangat ideal untuk dipasang di tempat-tempat ini karena kebutuhannya relatif kecil. Dengan SESF 100 /120Wp sudah cukup untuk keperluan penerangan dan pengeras suara;
Penyediaan listrik untuk sarana umum. Dengan daya kapasitas 400 Wp sudah cukup untuk memenuhi listrik sarana umum;
Penyediaan listrik untuk sarana pelayanan kesehatan, seperti: rumah sakit, Puskesmas, Posyandu, dan Rumah Bersalin;
Penyediaan listrik untuk Kantor Pelayanan Umum Pemerintah. Tujuan pemanfaatan SESF pada kantor pelayanan umum adalah untuk membantu usaha konservasi energi dan mambantu PLN mengurangi beban puncak disiang hari;
Untuk pompa air ( solar power supply for waterpump ) yang digunakan untuk pengairan irigasi atau sumber air bersih (air minum).

Kendala Pengembangan Fotovoltaik di Indonesia

Kendala yang dihadapi dalam pengembangan energi surya fotovoltaik adalah:
Harga modul surya yang merupakan komponen utama SESF masih mahal mengakibatkan harga SESF menjadi mahal, sehingga kurangnya minat lembaga keuangan untuk memberikan kredit bagi pengembangan SEEF;
Sulit untuk mendapatkan suku cadang dan air accu , khususnya di daerah perdesaan, menyebabkan SESF cepat rusak;
Pemasangan SESF di daerah perdesaan pada umumnya tidak memenuhi standar teknis yang telah ditentukan, sehingga kinerja sistem tidak optimal dan cepat rusak.;
Pada umumnya, penerapan SESF dilaksanakan di daerah perdesaan yang sebagian besar daya belinya masih rendah, sehingga pengembangan SESF sangat tergantung pada program Pemerintah;
Belum ada industri pembuatan sel surya di Indonesia, sehingga ketergantungan pada impor sangat tinggi. Akibatnya, dengan menurunnya nilai tukar rupiah terhadap dolar menyebabkan harga modul surya menjadi semakin mahal.

2. TEKNOLOGI ENERGI SURYA TERMAL

Selama ini, pemanfaatan energi surya termal di Indonesia masih dilakukan secara tradisional. Para petani dan nelayan di Indonesia memanfaatkan energi surya untuk mengeringkan hasil pertanian dan perikanan secara langsung.

Teknologi dan Kemampuan Nasional

Berbagai teknologi pemanfaatan energi surya termal untuk aplikasi skala rendah (temperatur kerja lebih kecil atau hingga 60 o C) dan skala menengah (temperatur kerja antara 60 hingga 120 o C) telah dikuasai dari rancang-bangun, konstruksi hingga manufakturnya secara nasional. Secara umum, teknologi surya termal yang kini dapat dimanfaatkan termasuk dalam teknologi sederhana hingga madya. Beberapa teknologi untuk aplikasi skala rendah dapat dibuat oleh bengkel pertukangan kayu/besi biasa. Untuk aplikasi skala menengah dapat dilakukan oleh industri manufaktur nasional.

Beberapa peralatan yang telah dikuasai perancangan dan produksinya seperti sistem atau unit berikut:

Pengering pasca panen (berbagai jenis teknologi);
Pemanas air domestic;
Pemasak/oven;
Pompa air (dengan Siklus Rankine dan fluida kerja Isopentane );
Penyuling air ( Solar Distilation/Still );
Pendingin (radiatif, absorpsi, evaporasi, termoelektrik, kompressip, tipe jet);
Sterilisator surya;
Pembangkit listrik dengan menggunakan konsentrator dan fluida kerja dengan titik didih rendah.

Untuk skala kecil dan teknologi yang sederhana, kandungan lokal mencapai 100 %, sedangkan untuk sistem dengan skala industri (menengah) dan menggunakan teknologi tinggi (seperti pemakaian Kolektor Tabung Hampa atau Heat Pipe ), kandungan lokal minimal mencapai 50%.

Sasaran Pengembangan Energi Surya Termal

Sasaran pengembangan energi surya termal di Indonesia adalah sebagai berikut:

Meningkatnya kapasitas terpasang sistem energi surya termal, khususnya untuk pengering hasil pertanian, kegiatan produktif lainnya, dan sterilisasi di Puskesmas.

Tercapainya tingkat komersialisasi berbagai teknologi energi surya thermal dengan kandungan lokal yang tinggi.

Strategi Pengembangan Energi Surya Termal

Strategi pengembangan energi surya termal di Indonesia adalah sebagai berikut: Mengarahkan pemanfaatan energi surya termal untuk kegiatan produktif, khususnya untuk kegiatan agro industri.
Mendorong keterlibatan swasta dalam pengembangan teknologi surya termal.
Mendor ong terciptanya sistem dan pola pendanaan yang efektif.
Mendorong keterlibatan dunia usaha untuk mengembangkan surya termal.

Program Pengembangan Energi Surya Termal

Program pengembangan energi surya termal di Indonesia adalah sebagai berikut:

Melakukan inventarisasi, identifikasi dan pemetaan potensi serta aplikasi teknologi fototermik secara berkelanjutan.

Melakukan diseminasi dan alih teknologi dari pihak pengembang kepada pemakai (agro-industri, gedung komersial, dan lain-lain) dan produsen nasional (manufaktur, bengkel mekanik, dan lain-lain) melalui forum komunikasi, pendidikan dan pelatihan dan proyek-proyek percontohan.

Melaksanakan standarisasi nasional komponen dan sistem teknologi fototermik.
Mengkaji skema pembiayaan dalam rangka pengembangan manufaktur nasional.
Meningkatkan kegiatan penelitian dan pengembangan untuk berbagai teknologi fototermik.
Meningkatkan produksi lokal secara massal dan penjajagan untuk kemungkinan ekspor.
Pengembangan teknologi fototermik suhu tinggi, seperti: pembangkitan listrik, mesin stirling , dan lain-lain.

Peluang Pemanfaatan Energi Surya Termal

Prospek teknologi energi surya termal cukup besar, terutama untuk mendukung peningkatan kualitas pasca-panen komoditi pertanian, untuk bangunan komersial atau perumahan di perkotaan.

Prospek pemanfaatannya dalam sektor-sektor masyarakat cukup luas, yaitu:
Industri, khususnya agro-industri dan industri pedesaan, yaitu untuk penanganan pasca-panen hasil-hasil pertanian, seperti: pengeringan (komoditi pangan, perkebunan, perikanan/peternakan, kayu olahan) dan juga pendinginan (ikan, buah dan sayuran);
Bangunan komersial atau perkantoran, yaitu: untuk pengkondisian ruangan ( Solar Passive Building , AC) dan pemanas air;
Rumah tangga, seperti: untuk pemanas air dan oven/ cooker ;
PUSKESMAS terpencil di pedesaan, yaitu: untuk sterilisator, refrigerator vaksin dan pemanas air.

Kendala Pengembangan Energi Surya Termal

Kendala utama yang dihadapi dalam pengembangan surya termal adalah:

Teknologi energi surya termal untuk memasak dan mengeringkan hasil pertanian masih sangat terbatas. Akan tetapi, sebagai pemanas air, energi surya termal sudah mencapai tahap komersial. Teknologi surya termal masih belum berkembang karena sosialisasi ke masyarakat luas masih sangat rendah;
Daya beli masyarakat rendah, walaupun harganya relatif murah;
Sumber daya manusia (SDM) di bidang surya termal masih sangat terbatas. Saat ini, SDM hanya tersedia di Pulau Jawa dan terbatas lingkungan perguruan

Geothermal Development In Indonesia

2008-07-09T10:37:00.001+08:00

Abstract

Indonesia is located between the eastern end of Mediterranean Volcanic Belt and western side of Circum Pacific Volcanic Belt, and is blessed with abundant geothermal resources, i.e. approximately 27 GWe or 40% of world's geothermal resources. Half of these potential are found on Java and Bali, the most densely populated islands in Indonesia . However, the utilization of this geothermal energy is still very small compared to its high potential. At the present, only 807 MWe geothermal installed capacity have been developed.

Geothermal development in Indonesia was started in 1974. The government has issued the President Decree No.16/1974, President Decree No.22/1981, President Decree No.23/1981, President Decree No. 45 in 1991 and President Decree No.49/1991. These decrees appointed the Pertamina, National Oil Company to conduct exploration, exploitation and utilized the steam into energy. However, the development of geothermal in Indonesia is still facing some barriers.

Monetary crisis since mid of 1997 have significant impact on Indonesia economic. It caused slow down geothermal business. To speed up geothermal development, recently, Government has issued the Geothermal Law No. 27/2003 to regulate the up-stream side and Government Regulations No. 3/2005 concerning Supply and Utilization of Electricity to regulate down-stream side. These Regulations also prioritizing the renewable energy especially in the local needs. In line with these regulations, Government and Parliament are still preparing the Energy Law following the 2003 National Energy Policy to support geothermal development in Indonesia .

Introduction

Indonesia consists of more than 17,000 islands and 210 millions of populations, located between the eastern end of Mediterranean Volcanic Belt and western side of Circum Pacific Volcanic Belt. Indonesia is blessed with abundant geothermal resources. Trial calculations indicate that forty percent of world's geothermal energy potential is in Indonesia which put Indonesia as the biggest geothermal energy potentials in the world. However, the utilization of geothermal energy is still low. Until 2003, only 7 areas exists to generate electricity with 807 MWe installed capacity, or 3-4% share to the national electricity installed capacity.

The use of geothermal energy would eliminate the dependency on oil to generate electricity, diversify source of energy to meet Indonesia 's growing energy demand and introduce clean energy to reduce greenhouse gas. Therefore, geothermal development should be accelerated.

To speed up geothermal development, new regulation on the power sector and geothermal development are introduced to encourage investor to develop geothermal energy in order to fulfill Indonesia 's increasing electricity demand.

Geothermal Resources and its development

Indonesia has a huge potential of Geothermal energy sources. In 2003, the countries geothermal energy potential was about 27 GWe in which the high temperature geothermal resources spread in 170 regions of Indonesia , mostly within the Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi , and Eastern Island Volcanic Zone. Twenty one (21) areas among those high temperature geothermal resources with electricity-generating capabilities exist and being developed in:

Sibayak, Salak, Wayang Windu, Kamojang, Darajat, Lahendong, and Dieng, which has seven high temperature systems. These are used for electricity generation of 807 MWe operated by PERTAMINA - a state owned oil company, own or with its contractors (Table 2).
Sarula, Sungaipenuh, Hululais-Tambang Sawah, Lumut Balai, Ulu Belu, Kawah Cibuni, Patuha, Karaha, Iyang- Argopuro, Bedugul, and Kotamobagu, which has eleven high temperature systems, non of which is used for electricity, and currently are under developing of by PERTAMINA own or with its contractors for electricity generation.

Tulehu, Mataloko, and Ulumbu, which has three high temperature systems outside of Pertamina Geothermal Energy activities, are operated by PLN, National Electricity Company.

Barriers to Geothermal Development

In the effort to develop geothermal energy, Indonesia is facing some barriers i.e.:

Electricity price of geothermal is not competitive yet;
Geothermal steam as an energy resource, at the present is relatively more expensive than other sources of energy available in Indonesia ;
High investment cost and lack of energy industry and services capability;
Lack of supporting policy;
Limited of infrastructure in region;
High risk on exploration and exploitation; etc.

Law No. 27/2003 concerning Geothermal

The development of geothermal energy in Indonesia has undergone its ups and downs owing to the lack of consistent legal basis, security for the operators that might increase the risks in their investment, and aggravated by the economic crisis that affects the commercial aspect. It is worth noting that the recent political and structural changes in Indonesia have created a business environment that is more conducive than ever before to convince the stakeholders. Furthermore, the implementation of the Indonesian regional autonomy starting January 1, 2001 will give impetus to various energy projects that contribute to regional development.

The issue of commitment and clarity of the Indonesian Government's vision, and the efforts to introduce law reforms for creating a healthy and competitive investment conditions will be the important aspects to be discussed in the developing of geothermal industry. Also the efforts the Government is making to gradually decrease the subsidy in Oil Fuel and Electricity would make geothermal energy to be competitive against diesel-powered electricity generating station. The Indonesian Government is fully aware that operators in the energy sector are largely dominated by global and multi-national companies, which will not only consider good business prospects when investing, but also the support of a more reliable and stable Government, and better security and certainty of law.

In order to support this effort, the legal basis required for geothermal exploitation/ utilization needs to be strengthened with Geothermal Law. The Parliament, government and geothermal stakeholders initiated a discussion on the preparation and the draft making of a Geothermal Bill. Fortunately, the initiation of strengthening the legal basis for the exploitation and utilization of geothermal is beginning to appear with the approval of the Geothermal Law in 23 of October 2003.

Geothermal Law No. 27/2003 clarifies and answer the conditions below such as:

Indonesia has the world largest geothermal potential reserves, yet only 3 - 4% of these reserves have been developed for power generation.
Geothermal energy is a renewable and environmentally clean energy that could substitute depleting fossil energy. Its utilization produces low air emission thereby it is entitled for Clean Development Mechanism.
The utilization of geothermal energy as a substitute of oil fuel will reduce oil fuel domestic consumption and thus add value through higher export of crude oil and other fossil fuels.
Geothermal energy utilization is side specific, can only be used within its discovery area, either for direct usage or indirect usage for generating electricity.
The Upstream Geothermal Energy Business undertakings is similar to the upstream oil and gas business: capital and technology intensive with high risk.
Geothermal reserves can be found in certain remote areas that are remote from oil fuel supply facilities; its utilization could give positive impact to remote area development.
Presidential Decrees No. 22/1981 and No. 45/1991 have attracted investment in Geothermal Energy Business for generating electricity amounting US$ 1.4 billion for 11 projects prior to the economic and monetary crisis that hit Indonesia in 1997/1998.
No new investment in geothermal business has taken place since the issuance of Presidential Decree No. 76/2000 which substitutes Presidential Decrees No. 21/1984 and No. 45/1991.
Geothermal energy business is different from other energy business whereby it should be managed as an integrated business from the upstream to the downstream.
To attract this high risk investment and produce usable energy at affordable price certain incentive programs based on law, including tax facilities, are required.
To be competitive with non-renewable fossil energy in the electrical power market, the geothermal business competition should be based on its “level of playing filed”.
Geothermal Energy is a natural heat energy that is contained in hot water, water vapor, and rocks, together with by-product minerals and other gasses, all of which are genetically inseparable in a Geothermal Energy system. Its utilization requires a mining process.
The geothermal heat and fluid are non-mineral materials. As in the case of crude oil and natural gas which are non-mineral energy resources, it is prudent that geothermal energy business is regulated by its own law to coincide with the implementation of Law No. 22 /1999 and No. 25 /1999.

The formed process of geothermal law is aimed at removing any obstructions that will make the competition in this sector more challenging and rewarding. For example, new opportunities for investments will emerge in the geothermal energy sector, underlying vast opening in the upstream activities and the release of the downstream sides to private sector. This is also true in oil/gas and coal mining as well as electricity business.

This Law regulates the upstream business of geothermal which consists of 15 Chapters and 44 Articles. The downstream business that engages in electric power generation shall subject to prevailing Electric Law No. 15/1985 and Government Regulation No. 3/2005 concerning the supply and utilization of electricity.

Strategic Plan to Geothermal Development

To overcome the need to develop geothermal energy, following are some actions required (base on National Energy Policy 2003), i.e. :

Measures are taken to intensify inventories and evaluations of geothermal potentials to change the status of speculative and hypothetic potentials to suspected, probable and proven reserves.
Measures are taken to increase exploitation of geothermal steam for large-scale electric generators through amendments to laws and regulations and improvement of its economics by, among others, fiscal restructuring.
Measures are taken to step up exploitation of geothermal steam for small-scale local electric generators in areas that do not possess sources of alternative energy.
Measures are taken to increase direct consumption as energy for heating and drying machines in small industries, geo-tourism, agro-industries, etc.
Related strategic action are taken to improve the economics of geothermal development in order to enable geothermal power to compete with other sources of domestic energy, e.g. :
Government has been gradually increase electricity price and lift-up oil subsidiary and will became marketed price by the year of 2005.
The government willing to share the upstream development risk by implementing various geothermal energy-related projects, including surveys of resources, especially for the remote areas.
Government Regulation No. 3/2005 concerning Supply and Utilization of Electricity that it gives a priority to renewable energy sources including geothermal to fulfill the domestic electricity demand. It is an obligation to electricity companies to use at least 5% of its production comes from renewable energy source.
In an effort to accelerate geothermal development, the government has invited private participation, including foreign interest. Recently eight companies have signed Joint Operation Contract with Pertamina.
Regional autonomy starting January 1, 2001 has give significant impact on district infrastructure development. More industries will expect to grow and consequently more energy is needed. Diversification of fuel is a must to ensure a stable and economically priced electric power.

Future Development Planning

Up to now, energy is solely evaluated by cost competitiveness; however, this criterion will no longer be meaningful in the 21st century. We must evaluate energy by the cleanness to the global environment. From this viewpoint, geothermal energy can be regarded as one of the excellent energy sources. Cleanness of geothermal power in terms of carbon dioxide emissions ranks it second among various energy sources, following medium to small-scale hydropower. Compared to the present energy composition, geothermal power is the most effective energy to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide in terms of cost.

Economic-driven development has solely dominated in the energy production field. However, to solve the global environmental problems, government commitment development must replace it. From this viewpoint, geothermal power development could play a worldwide role in the global environmental issue, so that future development could be expected not only by market force but also by government commitment.

This year, the Government Regulation on Geothermal Development will declare in order to the new law be implemented and workable. Accordingly, the Geothermal Blueprint and Road-map of Geothermal Development in Indonesia until the year of 2020 are now being prepared. In the short, medium and long-time planning of these two guidance show that government encourage the geothermal industries to explore and develop geothermal field in Indonesia . Furthermore, geothermal energy contribution is planned to develop for electricity generation for 2000 MW by the year 2008, for 3400 MW by 2012, and 6000 MW by the year 2020 (targeted)

Energi Panas Bumi Indonesia

2008-07-08T10:23:00.002+08:00

Jawa Barat memiliki potensi sumber daya alarn panas bumi yang luar biasa besar dan merupakan yang terbesar di Indonesia. Potensi panas bumi di Jawa Barat mencapai 5411 MW atau 20% dari total potensi yang dimiliki Indonesia. Sebagian potensi panas bumi tersebut bahkan telah dimanfaatkan untuk pembangkit listrik seperti:

PI-TP Kamojang di dekat Garut, memiliki unit 1, 2, 3 dengan kapasitas total 140 MW. Potensi yang masih dapat dikembangkan sekitar 60 MW.
PLTP Darajat, 60 km sebelah tenggara Bandung dengan kapasitas 55 MW
PLTP Gunung Safak di Sukabumi, terdiri dari unit 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 dengan kapasitas total 330 M1K
PI-TP Wayang Windu di Pangalengan dengan kapasitas 110 MW.

Pemanfaatan energi panas bumi memang tidak mudah. Energi panas bumi yang umumnya berada di kedalaman 1.000-2.000 meter di bawah permukaan tanah sulit ditebak keberadaan dan "karakternya". Investasi untuk menggali energi panas bumi tidak sedikit karena tergolong berteknologi dan berisiko tinggi. Investasi untuk kapasitas di bawah satu MW, berkisar US$ 3.000-5.000 per kilowatt (kW). Sementara untuk kapasitas di atas satu MW, diperlukan investasi US$ 1.500-2.500 per kW. Tantangan selanjutnya adalah akibat sifat panas yang "site specific" kondisi geologis setempat. Karakter produksi dan kualitas produksi akan berbeda dari satu area ke area yang lain. Penurunan produksi yang cepat, sebagai contoh, merupakan karakter produksi yang harus ditanggung oleh pengusaha atau pengembang, ditambah kualitas produksi yang kurang baik, dapat menimbulkan banyak masalah di pembangkit. Misainya, kandungan gas yang tinggi mengakibatkan investasi lebih besar di hilir atau pembangkitnya.

Dalam pembangkitan listrik, harga jual per kWh yang ditetapkan PLN dinilai terialu murah sehingga tak sebanding dengan biaya eksplorasi dan pembangunan Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Panas Bumi (PLTP). Dalam hat ini, PLN tidak bisa disalahkan karena tarif dasar listrik yang ditetapkan pemerintah masih di bawah harga komersial, yaitu tuluh sen dollar AS per kWh.

Di sisi lain, adanya potensi panas bumi di suatu daerah biasanya di pegunungan dan terpencil-sering tak bisa dimanfaatkan karena kebutuhan listrik di daerah itu sedikit sehingga belum ekonomis untuk mengeksplorasi dan memanfaatkan energi panas bumi tersebut.

Bio-Ethanol

2008-07-07T10:16:00.000+08:00

Latar Belakang

Seiringdengan menipisnya cadangan energi BBM, jagung menjadi alternatif yang penting sebagai bahan baku pembuatan ethanol (bahan pencampur BBM). Karenanya, kebutuhan terhadap komoditas ini pada masa mendatang diperkirakan mengalami peningkatan yang signifikan.Bioetanol (C2H5OH) adalah cairan biokimia dari proses fermentasi gula dari sumber karbohidrat menggunakan bantuan mikroorganisme

Gasohol º campuran bioetanol kering/absolut terdena-turasi dan bensin pada kadar alkohol s/d sekitar 22 %-volume.
Istilah bioetanol identik dengan bahan bakar murni. BEX º gasohol berkadar bioetanol X %-volume.

Bahan Baku

Nira bergula (sukrosa): nira tebu, nira nipah, nira sorgum manis, nira kelapa, nira aren, nira siwalan, sari-buah mete
Bahan berpati: a.l. tepung-tepung sorgum biji (jagung cantel), sagu, singkong/gaplek, ubi jalar, ganyong, garut, umbi dahlia.
Bahan berselulosa (Þ lignoselulosa):kayu, jerami, batang pisang, bagas, dll. Sekarang belum ekonomis, teknologi proses yang efektif diperkirakan akan komersial pada dekade ini !

Pemanfaatan Bioetanol

Sebagai bahan bakar substitusi BBM pada motor berbahan bakar bensin; digunakan dalam bentuk neat 100% (B100) atau diblending dengan premium (EXX)
Gasohol s/d E10 bisa digunakan langsung pada mobil bensin biasa (tanpa mengharuskan mesin dimodifikasi).

Sumber Karbohidrat	Hasil Panen Ton/ha/th	Perolehan Alkohol
Sumber Karbohidrat	Hasil Panen Ton/ha/th	Liter/ton	Liter/ha/th
Singkong	25 (236)	180 (155)	4500 (3658)
Tetes	3,6	270	973
Sorgum Bici	6	333,4	2000
Ubi Jalar	62,5*	125	7812
Sagu	6,8$	608	4133
Tebu	75	67	5025
Nipah	27	93	2500
Sorgum Manis	80**	75	6000
) Panen 2 ½ kali/th; $ sagu kering; * panen 2 kali/th. Sumber: Villanueva (1981); kecuali sagu, dari Colmes dan Newcombe (1980); sorgum manis, dari Raveendram; dan Deptan (2006) untuk singkong; tetes dan sorgum biji (tulisan baru)

Teknologi Pengolahan Bioetanol

Teknologi produksi bioethanol berikut ini diasumsikan menggunakan jagung sebagai bahan baku, tetapi tidak menutup kemungkinan digunakannya biomassa yang lain, terutama molase.
Secara umum, produksi bioethanol ini mencakup 3 (tiga) rangkaian proses, yaitu: Persiapan Bahan baku, Fermentasi, dan Pemurnian.

1. Persiapan Bahan Baku

Bahan baku untuk produksi biethanol bisa didapatkan dari berbagai tanaman, baik yang secara langsung menghasilkan gula sederhana semisal Tebu (sugarcane), gandum manis (sweet sorghum) atau yang menghasilkan tepung seperti jagung (corn), singkong (cassava) dan gandum (grain sorghum) disamping bahan lainnya.

Persiapan bahan baku beragam bergantung pada bahan bakunya, tetapi secara umum terbagi menjadi beberapa proses, yaitu:

Tebu dan Gandum manis harus digiling untuk mengektrak gula
Tepung dan material selulosa harus dihancurkan untuk memecahkan susunan tepungnya agar bisa berinteraksi dengan air secara baik
Pemasakan, Tepung dikonversi menjadi gula melalui proses pemecahan menjadi gula kompleks (liquefaction) dan sakarifikasi (Saccharification) dengan penambahan air, enzyme serta panas (enzim hidrolisis). Pemilihan jenis enzim sangat bergantung terhadap supplier untuk menentukan pengontrolan proses pemasakan.

Tahap Liquefaction memerlukan penanganan sebagai berikut:

Pencampuran dengan air secara merata hingga menjadi bubur
Pengaturan pH agar sesuai dengan kondisi kerja enzim
Penambahan enzim (alpha-amilase) dengan perbandingan yang tepat
Pemanasan bubur hingga kisaran 80 sd 90 C, dimana tepung-tepung yang bebas akan mengalami gelatinasi (mengental seperti Jelly) seiring dengan kenaikan suhu, sampai suhu optimum enzim bekerja memecahkan struktur tepung secara kimiawi menjadi gula komplek (dextrin). Proses Liquefaction selesai ditandai dengan parameter dimana bubur yang diproses menjadi lebih cair seperti sup.

Tahap sakarifikasi (pemecahan gula kompleks menjadi gula sederhana) melibatkan proses sebagai berikut:

Pendinginan bubur sampai suhu optimum enzim sakarifikasi bekerja
Pengaturan pH optimum enzim
Penambahan enzim (glukoamilase) secara tepat
Mempertahankan pH dan temperature pada rentang 50 sd 60 C sampai proses sakarifikasi selesai (dilakukan dengan pengetesan gula sederhana yang dihasilkan)

2. Fermentasi

Pada tahap ini, tepung telah sampai pada titik telah berubah menjadi gula sederhana (glukosa dan sebagian fruktosa) dimana proses selanjutnya melibatkan penambahan enzim yang diletakkan pada ragi (yeast) agar dapat bekerja pada suhu optimum. Proses fermentasi ini akan menghasilkan etanol dan CO2.

Bubur kemudian dialirkan kedalam tangki fermentasi dan didinginkan pada suhu optimum kisaran 27 sd 32 C, dan membutuhkan ketelitian agar tidak terkontaminasi oleh mikroba lainnya. Karena itu keseluruhan rangkaian proses dari liquefaction, sakarifikasi dan fermentasi haruslah dilakukan pada kondisi bebas kontaminan.

Selanjutnya ragi akan menghasilkan ethanol sampai kandungan etanol dalam tangki mencapai 8 sd 12 % (biasa disebut dengan cairan beer), dan selanjutnya ragi tersebut akan menjadi tidak aktif, karena kelebihan etanol akan berakibat racun bagi ragi.

Dan tahap selanjutnya yang dilakukan adalah destilasi, namun sebelum destilasi perlu dilakukan pemisahan padatan-cairan, untuk menghindari terjadinya clogging selama proses distilasi.

3. Pemurnian / Distilasi

Distilasi dilakukan untuk memisahkan etanol dari beer (sebagian besar adalah air dan etanol). Titik didih etanol murni adalah 78 C sedangkan air adalah 100 C (Kondisi standar). Dengan memanaskan larutan pada suhu rentang 78 - 100 C akan mengakibatkan sebagian besar etanol menguap, dan melalui unit kondensasi akan bisa dihasilkan etanol dengan konsentrasi 95 % volume.

Prosentase Penggunaan Energy

Prosentase perkiraan penggunaan energi panas/steam dan listrik diuraikan dalam tabel berikut ini:

Prosentase Penggunaan Energi
Identifikasi	Proses Steam	Listrik
Penerimaan bahan baku, penyimpanan, dan penggilingan	0 %	6.1 %
Pemasakan (liquefaction) dan Sakarifikasi	30.5 %	2.6 %
Produksi Enzim Amilase	0.7 %	20.4 %
Fermentasi	0.2 %	4 %
Distilasi	58.5 %	1.6 %
Etanol Dehidrasi (jika ada)	6.4 %	27.1 %
Penyimpanan Produk	0 %	0.7 %
Utilitas	2.7 %	27 %>
Bangunan	1 %>	0.5 %
TOTAL	100 %	100 %
Sumber: A Guide to Commercial-Scale Ethanol Production and Financing, Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, CO 80401

Peralatan Proses

Adapun rangkaian peralatan proses adalah sebagai berikut:

Peralatan penggilingan
Pemasak, termasuk support, pengaduk dan motor, steam line dan insulasi
External Heat Exchanger
Pemisah padatan - cairan (Solid Liquid Separators)
Tangki Penampung Bubur
Unit Fermentasi (Fermentor) dengan pengaduk serta motor
Unit Distilasi, termasuk pompa, heat exchanger dan alat kontrol
Boiler, termasuk system feed water dan softener
Tangki Penyimpan sisa, termasuk fitting

Biofuel

2008-07-06T10:15:00.000+08:00

Biofuel adalah bahan bakar dari sumber hayati (renewable energy).
Biofuel, apabila diartikan untuk pengganti BBM, maka biofuel merupakan salah satu bentuk energi dari biomassa dalam bentuk cair, seperti biodiesel, bioethanol dan biooil.

Latar Belakang
Indonesia sebagai salah satu negara tropis yang memiliki sumberdaya alam yang sangat potensial. Usaha pertanian merupakan usaha yang sangat potensial untuk dikembangkan di Indonesia karena Indonesia memiliki potensi sumber daya lahan, agroklimat dan sumber daya manusia yang memadai. Kondisi iklim tropis dengan curah hujan yang cukup, ketersediaan lahan yang masih luas, serta telah berkembangnya teknologi optimalisasi produksi dapat mendukung kelayakan pengembangan usaha agribisnis.

Terjadinya krisis energi, khususnya bahan bakar minyak (BBM) yang diinduksi oleh meningkatnya harga BBM dunia telah membuat Indonesia perlu mencari sumber-sumber bahan bakar alternatif yang mungkin dikembangkan di Indonesia. Salah satu tanaman yang memiliki potensi sebagai sumber bahan bakar adalah tanaman jarak pagar (Jatropha curcas). Selama ini ini tanaman jarak pagar hanya ditanam sebagai pagar dan tidak diusahakan secara khusus. Secara agronomis, tanaman jarak pagar ini dapat beradaptasi dengan lahan maupun agroklimat di Indonesia bahkan tanaman ini dapat tumbuh dengan baik pada kondisi kering (curah hujan <>

Luas lahan kritis di Indonesia lebih dari 20 juta ha, sebagian besar berada di luar kawasan hutan, dengan pemanfaatan yang belum optimal atau bahkan cenderung ditelantarkan. Dengan memperhatikan potensi tanaman jarak yang mudah tumbuh, dapat dikembangkan sebagai sumber bahan penghasil minyak bakar alternatif pada lahan kritis dapat memberikan harapan baru pengembangan agribisnis. Keuntungan yang diperoleh pada budidaya tanaman jarak di lahan kritis antara lain (1) menunjang usaha konservasi lahan, (2) memberikan kesempatan kerja sehingga berimplikasi meingkatkan penghasilan kepada petani dan (3) memberikan solusi pengadaan minyak bakar (biofuel).

Regulasi dan Peraturan yang terkait dengan Biofuel :

Peraturan Presiden No. 5 Tahun 2006 tentang Kebijakan Energi Nasional
Instruksi Presiden No. 1 Tahun 2006 tentang Penyediaan dan Pemanfaatan Bahan Bakar Nabati (Biofuel) sebagai Bahan Bakar Lain
Keputusan Direktur Jenderal Minyak dan Gas Bumi Nomor 3674K/24/DJM/2006 tentang Standar dan Mutu (Spesifikasi) Bahan Bakar yang Dipasarkan Dalam Negeri. (Keputusan ini memuat spesifikasi bensin yang memperbolehkan pencampuran bioetanol sampai dengan 10% (v/v))
Keputusan Direktur Jenderal Minyak dan Gas Bumi Nomor 3675K/24/DJM/2006 tentang Standar dan Mutu (Spesifikasi) Bahan Bakar yang Dipasarkan Dalam Negeri. (Keputusan ini memuat spesifikasi solar yang memperbolehkan pencampuran biodiesel sampai dengan 10% (v/v))
Peraturan Menteri Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral Nomo 0048 Tahun 2005 tentang Standar dan Mutu (Spesifikasi) serta Pengawasan Bahan Bakar Minyak, Bahan Bakar Gas, Bahan Bakar Lain, LPG, LNG, dan Hasil Olahan yang Dipasarkan di Dalam Negeri.

Peraturan Presiden No. 5 Tahun 2006 tentang Kebijakan Energi Nasional:

Target tahun 2025:

1. Elastisitas Energi <1

2. Bauran Energi Primer tahun 2025 sebagai berikut:

Target Energi Mix 2025

Pemanfaatan Biofuel

Jenis	Penggunaan	Bahan Baku
Biodiesel	Pengganti solar	Minyak nabati, seperti minyak kelapa sawit dan jarak pagar
Bioethanol	Pengganti bensin	Tanama yang mengandung pati / gula, seperti sagu, singkong, tebu dan sogum
Biooil Biokerosin Minyak Bakar	Pengganti minyak tanah Pengganti HSD	Minyak nabati (straight vagetable oil) Biomass melalui proses pirolisa
Biogas	Pengganti miyak tanah	Limbah cair dan limbah kotoran ternak

Pengembangan Biofuel

Penyediaan Bahan Baku (Sektor Hulu) sebagai focal point adalah Departemen Pertanian
Pengolahan (Sektor Tengah) sebagai focal point adalah Departemen Perindustrian
Pemanfaatan biofuel (Sektor Hilir) sebagai focal point adalah Departemen Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (SNI Biofuel, sertifikasi, tata niaga).
Kegiatan pendukung lainnya sebagai focal point adalah cq (Departemen Keuangan dan instansi terkait lainnya)

Bio-Diesel

2008-07-05T10:01:00.000+08:00

Biodiesel adalah bahan bakar motor diesel yang berupa ester alkil/alkil asam-asam lemak (biasanya ester metil) yang dibuat dari minyak nabati melalui proses trans atau esterifikasi. stilah biodiesel identik dengan bahan bakar murni. Campuran biodiesel (BXX) adalah biodiesel sebanyak XX`% yang telah dicampur dengan solar sejumlah 1-XX %

Latar Belakang Kebutuhan Biodiesel di Indonesia:

Bahan bakar mesin diesel yang berupa ester metil/etil asam-asam lemak. Dibuat dari minyak-lemak nabati dengan proses metanolisis/etanolisis. Produk-ikutan: gliserin. Atau dari asam lemak (bebas) dengan proses esterifi-kasi dgn metanol/etanol. Produk-ikutan : air Kompatibel dengan solar, berdaya lumas lebih baik. Berkadar belerang hampir nihil,umumnya < bxx =" camp.">

Keuntungan Pemakaian Biodiesel

Dihasilkan dari sumber daya energi terbarukan dan ketersediaan bahan bakunya terjamin
Cetane number tinggi (bilangan yang menunjukkan ukuran baik tidaknya kualitas solar berdasar sifat kecepatan bakar dalam ruang bakar mesin)
Viskositas tinggi sehingga mempunyai sifat pelumasan yang lebih baik daripada solar sehingga memperpanjang umur pakai mesin
Dapat diproduksi secara lokal
Mempunyai kandungan sulfur yang rendah
Menurunkan tingkat opasiti asap
Menurunkan emisi gas buang
Pencampuran biodiesel dengan petroleum diesel dapat meningkatkan biodegradibility petroleum diesel sampai 500 %

Bahan Baku Biodiesel

Minyak nabati sebagai sumber utama biodiesel dapat dipenuhi oleh berbagai macam jenis tumbuhan tergantung pada sumberdaya utama yang banyak terdapat di suatu tempat/negara. Indonesia mempunyai banyak sumber daya untuk bahan baku biodiesel.

Beberapa sumber minyak nabati yang potensial sebagai bahan baku Biodiesel.

Nama Lokal	Nama Latin	Sumber Minyak	Isi % Berat Kering	P / NP
Jarak Pagar	Jatropha Curcas	Inti biji	40-60	NP
Jarak Kaliki	Riccinus Communis	Biji	45-50	NP
Kacang Suuk	Arachis Hypogea	Biji	35-55	P
Kapok / Randu	Ceiba Pantandra	Biji	24-40	NP
Karet	Hevea Brasiliensis	Biji	40-50	P
Kecipir	Psophocarpus Tetrag	Biji	15-20	P
Kelapa	Cocos Nucifera	Inti biji	60-70	P
Kelor	Moringa Oleifera	Biji	30-49	P
Kemiri	Aleurites Moluccana	Inti biji	57-69	NP
Kusambi	Sleichera Trijuga	Sabut	55-70	NP
Nimba	Azadiruchta Indica	Inti biji	40-50	NP
Saga Utan	Adenanthera Pavonina	Inti biji	14-28	P
Sawit	Elais Suincencis	Sabut dan biji	45-70 + 46-54	P
Nyamplung	Callophyllum Lanceatum	Inti biji	40-73	P
Randu Alas	Bombax Malabaricum	Biji	18-26	NP
Sirsak	Annona Muricata	Inti biji	20-30	NP
Srikaya	Annona Squosa	Biji	15-20	NP

Spesifikasi Biodiesel sesuai SNI 04-7182-2006:

No	Parameter	Satuan	Nilai
1	Massa jenis pada 40 0C	kg/m3	850-890
2	Viskositas kinematik pada 40 0C	mm2/s(cst)	2.3-60
3	Angka setana		Min 51
4	Titik nyala (mangkok tertutup)	0c	Min 100
5	Titik kabut	0c	Maks 18
6	Korosi lempeng tembaga (3 jam pada 50 0C)		Maks no 3
7	Residu karbon Dalam contoh asli Dalam 10% ampas distilasi		Maks 0.05 Maks 0.30
8	Air dan sedimen	% vol	Maks 0.5*
9	Temperatur destilasi 90%	0c	Maks 360
10	Abu tersulfatkan	% massa	Maks 0.02
11	Belerang	ppm-m (mg/kg)	Maks 100
12	Fosfor	ppm-m (mg/kg)	Maks 10
13	Angka asam	mg-KOH/g	Maks 0.8
14	Gliserol bebas	% massa	Maks 0.02
15	Gliserol total	% massa	Maks 0.24
16	Kadar ester alkil	% massa	Maks 96.5
17	Angka iodium	% massa 9g-I2/100 g)	Maks 115
18	Uji Helphen		Negatif
catatan: *dapat diuji terpisah dengan ketentuan kandungan sedimen maksimum 0.01% vol

Spesifikasi solar sesuai SK Dirjen Migas No.. 3675K/24/DJM/2006:

No	Karakteristik	Unit	Super	Reguler
1	Berat jenis pada suhu 15 0C	kg/m3	820-860	815-870
2	Viskositas kinematik pada suhu 40 0C	mm2/s	2.0-4.5	2.0-5.0
3	Angka setana / indeks		≥51/48	≥48-45
4	Titik nyala 40 0C	0C	≥55	≥60
5	Titik tuang	0C	≤18	≤18
6	Korosi lempeng tembaga (3 jam pada 50 0C)		≤kelas 1	≤kelas 1
7	Residu karbon	% massa	≤0.30	≤30
8	Kandungan air	mg/kg	≤500	≤50
9	T90/95	0C	≤340/360	<370
10	Stabilitas oksidasi	g/m3	≤25	-
11	Sulfur	%m/m	≤0.05	≤0.35
12	Bilangan asam total	mg-KOH/g	≤0.3	≤0.6
13	Kandungan abu	%m/m	≤0.01	≤0.01
14	Kandungan sedimen	>%m/m	≤0.01	≤0.01
15	Kandungan FAME	%m/m	≤10	≤10
16	Kandungan metanol dan etanol	%v/v	Tak terditeksi	Tak terditeksi
17	Partikulat	mg/l	≤10	-
*) SK Dirjen Migas No. 3675/24/DJM/2006 memperbolehkan penambahan bioetanol sampai dengan 10% (v/v)

Penipuan Blue Energy

2008-07-04T09:54:00.002+08:00

Yah akhirnya satu kebenaran lagi terungkap. Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta dibantu para ahli dari Universitas Gadjahmada membongkar sendiri semua teknologi yang diklaim oleh penemu akbar tahun ini yaitu pak Joko cs.

Informasi lengkap silahkan baca sendiri di sini :

Satu sisi lega, karena nalar dan logika yang kugunakan dalam menuliskan topik tersebut beberapa saat lalu masih dapat diandalkan. Juga keberanian yang menyertainya. Untunglah sekarang di era demokrasi. Coba kalau tidak, maka jika hal tersebut sudah masuk ke tampuk kekuasaan, bisa-bisa kekal itu hasil penipuan, dan pada akhirnya jadi tipuan nasional. Ada gunanya ya alam demokrasi seperti sekarang ini.

Meskipun demikian, penulis tetap prihatin terhadap kondisi masyarakat yang ada, khususnya bila membaca tulisan-tulisan komentar terhadap tulisan-tulisan saya tersebut. Umumnya mereka menanggapi secara emosional mengandalkan rasa nasionalis sempit, bahkan nalar dan logika yang aku gunakan sebagai argumentasi dalam menulis tersebut jarang mereka sentuh. Pokoknya teriak dulu, urusan belakang. Hal-hal seperti itulah, yang memaksa saya harus mempertebal keberanian dalam mengungkapkan hal-hal yang menurut saya tidak benar dan tidak hanya ditujukan ke kelompok masyarakat tertentu saja, misal engineer, tetapi harus lebih luas cakupannya.

Lho khan bapak keahliannya hanya bidang civil engineering ?

Betul, itu adalah formal keilmuan yang aku geluti, oleh karena itu pula maka saya mengajarnya juga di jurusan teknik sipil, sesuai bidang keilmuan formal tersebut. Meskipun demikian, karena bidang ilmu yang aku pelajari adalah eksak, sehingga nalar dan logika secara umum juga terlatih, maka tidak ada salahnya jika nalar dan logika tersebut saya gunakan untuk membedah hal-hal lain. Minimal dapat menjadi bahan pemikiran baru bagi orang lain begitu.

Falsafah jawa ada yang mendukung ide tersebut, perhatikan :

Ngelmu iku kelakone kanthi laku.
senadjan akeh ngelmune,
lamun orang ditangkarake lan ora digunakake,
ngelmu iku tanpa guna.

Kanthi laku, artinya memang mencari ilmu itu tidak gampang. Tapi disisi lain, ada-ada juga orang yang ingin jalan pintas, ingin cepat kaya, ingin cepat terkenal. Perhatikan para peneliti banyugeni yang di UMY tempo hari, mereka semua orang ‘berilmu’, maksudnya bergelar, mempunyai pendidikan. Tapi apakah berilmu betulan. Apa sih definisi berilmu tersebut, yang menurutku adalah “orang yang tahu apa yang dia tahu, dan tahu apa yang dia tidak tahu“.

Coba kita telaah para peneliti tersebut dengan kriteria tersebut. Perhatikan pula, statement-statement mereka, yang bahkan menyitir kitab suci pula. Itu khan pelecehan. Sebenarnya mereka itu tahu nggak sih dengan statement-statement yang mereka buat. Kalau nggak tahu, lalu apa motivasi mereka mau ikut kegiatan tersebut. Paling-paling ingin cepat dikenal / terkenal (dan jadi kaya) jika proyek tersebut sukses. Karena motivasi seperti itulah, mereka kena ‘dolop’ pak Joko CS. Arti lain dari kondisi tersebut adalah mereka belum berilmu.

Tapi kalau dia tahu benar, khan katanya peneliti, tetapi ketika dibongkar diam aja. Itu berarti mereka adalah PENIPU.

Perhatikan pengakuan dari pihak UMY yang saya sitir dari detik.com

Sementara itu Humas UMY Ahmad Maruf menambahkan saat demo Banyugeni bulan Februari 2008, bahan bakar yang dinyalakan untuk kompor, lampu teplok dan motor bukan dari hasil penelitian di lab Pusper. Namun bahan bakar itu sudah dibawa Purwanto sendiri. “itu yang kami tahu, tapi masih perlu dichek lagi” kata Maruf

Jadi dengan diungkapnya situasi tersebut maka para peneliti banyugeni tersebut bisa mendapat dua hal DITIPU (karena termotivasi jalan pintas, arti lain tidak berilmu, tidak berkompeten) atau PENIPU. Wah dua kondisi yang nggak enak.

Memang, suatu kebenaran itu adalah mahal. Tetapi UMY sebagai universitas yang menjunjung tinggi kebenaran maka akan tahu benar bagaimana harus bertindak. Bagaimanapun reputasi harus dijaga, karena itu menyangkut harkat hidup orang banyak. Jangan sampai nila setitik, merusak susu sebelangga.

Itu semua menjadi pembelajaran, bahwa kita semua harus hati-hati.

Radioactive Wastes (Part I)

2008-06-18T17:13:00.001+08:00

Radioactive wastes are waste types containing radioactive chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose. They are sometimes the products of nuclear processes, such as nuclear fission. However, industries not directly connected to the nuclear industry can produce large quantities of radioactive waste. It has been estimated, for instance, that the past 20 years the oil-producing endeavors of the United States have accumulated eight million tons of radioactive wastes.^[1] The majority of radioactive waste is "low-level waste", meaning it contains low levels of radioactivity per mass or volume. This type of waste often consists of used protective clothing, which is only slightly contaminated but still dangerous in case of radioactive contamination of a human body through ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or injection. In the United States alone, the Department of Energy states that there are "millions of gallons of radioactive waste" as well as "thousands of tons of spent nuclear fuel and material" and also "huge quantities of contaminated soil and water".^[2] Despite these copious quantities of waste, the DOE has a goal of cleaning all presently contaminated sites successfully by 2025.^[2] The Fernald, Ohio site for example had "31 million pounds of uranium product", "2.5 billion pounds of waste", "2.75 million cubic yards of contaminated soil and debris", and a "223 acre portion of the underlying Great Miami Aquifer had uranium levels above drinking standards".^[2] The United States currently has at least 108 sites it currently designates as areas that are contaminated and unusable, sometimes many thousands of acres^[3]^[2] The DOE wishes to try and clean or mitigate many or all by 2025, however the task can be difficult and it acknowledges that some will never be completely remediated, and just in one of these 108 larger designations, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, there were for example at least "167 known contaminant release sites" in one of the three subdivisions of the 37,000-acre (150 km²) site.^[2] Some of the U.S. sites were smaller in nature, however, and cleanup issues were simpler to address, and the DOE has successfully completed cleanup, or at least closure, of several sites.^[2]

The issue of disposal methods for nuclear waste was one of the most pressing current problems the international nuclear industry faced when trying to establish a long term energy production plan, yet there was hope it could be safely solved. A recent research report on the Nuclear Industry perspective of the current state of scientific knowledge in predicting the extent that waste would find its way from the deep burial facility - back to soil and drinking water (such that it presents a direct threat to the health of human beings - as well as to other forms of life) is presented in a document from the IAEA (The International Atomic Energy Agency) - which was published in October 2007 This document states "The capacity to model all the effects involved in the dissolution of the waste form, in conditions similar to the disposal site, is the final goal of all the research undertaken by many research groups over many years. As we will see in this report, this kind of investigation is far from being finished" [1]. In the United States, the DOE acknowledges much progress in addressing the waste problems of the industry, and successful remediation of some contaminated sites, yet also major uncertainties and sometimes complications and setbacks in handling the issue properly, cost effectively, and in the projected time frame.^[2] In other countries with lower ability or will to maintain environmental integrity the issue would be even more problematic.

The nature and significance of radioactive waste

Radioactive waste typically comprises a number of radioisotopes: unstable configurations of elements that decay, emitting ionizing radiation which can be harmful to human health and to the environment. Those isotopes emit different types and levels of radiation, which last for different periods of time.

Physics

Medium-lived fission products
Property: t^½ Unit: (a)		Yield (%)	Q * (KeV)	βγ *
¹⁵⁵Eu	4.76	.0803	252	βγ
⁸⁵Kr	10.76	.2180	687	βγ
^113mCd	14.1	.0008	316	β
⁹⁰Sr	28.9	4.505	2826	β
¹³⁷Cs	30.23	6.337	1176	βγ
^121mSn	43.9	.00005	390	βγ
¹⁵¹Sm	90	.5314	77	β

Long-lived fission products
Property: t^½ Unit: (Ma)		Yield (%)	Q * (KeV)	βγ *
⁹⁹Tc	.211	6.1385	294	β
¹²⁶Sn	.230	.1084	4050	βγ
⁷⁹Se	.295	.0447	151	β
⁹³Zr	1.53	5.4575	91	βγ
¹³⁵Cs	2.3	6.9110	269	β
¹⁰⁷Pd	6.5	1.2499	33	β
¹²⁹I	15.7	.8410	194	βγ

The radioactivity of all nuclear waste diminishes with time. All radioisotopes contained in the waste have a half-life - the time it takes for any radionuclide to lose half of its radioactivity and eventually all radioactive waste decays into non-radioactive elements. Certain radioactive elements (such as plutonium-239) in “spent” fuel will remain hazardous to humans and other living beings for hundreds of thousands of years. Other radioisotopes will remain hazardous for millions of years. Thus, these wastes must be shielded for centuries and isolated from the living environment for hundreds of millennia.^[4] Some elements, such as Iodine-131, have a short half-life (around 8 days in this case) and thus they will cease to be a problem much more quickly than other, longer-lived, decay products but their activity is much greater initially. The two tables show some of the major radioisotopes, their half-lives, and their radiation yield as a proportion of the yield of fission of Uranium-235.

The faster a radioisotope decays, the more radioactive it will be. The energy and the type of the ionizing radiation emitted by a pure radioactive substance are important factors in deciding how dangerous it will be. The chemical properties of the radioactive element will determine how mobile the substance is and how likely it is to spread into the environment and contaminate human bodies. This is further complicated by the fact that many radioisotopes do not decay immediately to a stable state but rather to a radioactive decay product leading to decay chains.

Chemistry

The chemical properties of the radioactive substance and the other substances found within (and near) the waste store has a great effect upon the ability of the waste to cause harm to humans or other organisms. For instance TcO₄^- tends to adsorb on the surfaces of steel objects which reduces its ability to move out of the waste store in water.

Pharmacokinetics

Exposure to high levels of radioactive waste may cause serious harm or death. Treatment of an adult animal with radiation or some other mutation-causing effect, such as a cytotoxic anti-cancer drug, may cause cancer in the animal. In humans it has been calculated that a 1 sievert dose has a 5% chance of causing cancer and a 1% chance of causing a mutation in a gamete which can be passed to the next generation. If a developing organism such as an unborn child is irradiated, then it is possible to induce a birth defect but it is unlikely that this defect will be in a gamete or a gamete forming cell.

Depending on the decay mode and the pharmacokinetics of an element (how the body processes it and how quickly), the threat due to exposure to a given activity of a radioisotope will differ. For instance Iodine-131 is a short-lived beta and gamma emitter but because it concentrates in the thyroid gland, it is more able to cause injury than cesium-137 which, being water soluble, is rapidly excreted in urine. In a similar way, the alpha emitting actinides and radium are considered very harmful as they tend to have long biological half-lives and their radiation has a high linear energy transfer value. Because of such differences, the rules determining biological injury differ widely according to the radioisotope, and sometimes also the nature of the chemical compound which contains the radioisotope.

Philosophy

The main objective in managing and disposing of radioactive (or other) waste is to protect people and the environment. This means isolating or diluting the waste so that the rate or concentration of any radionuclide returned to the biosphere is harmless. To achieve this the preferred technology to date has been deep and secure burial for the more dangerous wastes; transmutation, long-term retrievable storage, and removal to space have also been suggested. Management options for waste are discussed below.

Radioactivity by definition reduces over time, so in principle the waste needs to be isolated for a particular period of time until its components have decayed such that it no longer poses a threat. In practice this can mean periods of hundreds of thousands of years, depending on the nature of the waste involved.

Though an affirmative answer is often taken for granted, the question as to whether or not we should endeavor to avoid causing harm to remote future generations, perhaps thousands upon thousands of years hence, is essentially one which must be dealt with by philosophy.

Nuclear Weapons Tests (Part 4-End)

2008-06-17T17:06:00.001+08:00

Main article: List of nuclear tests

The nuclear powers have conducted at least 2,000 nuclear test explosions (numbers are approximated, as some test results have been disputed):

Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted, in over a dozen different sites around the world.

United States: 1,054 tests by official count (involving at least 1,151 devices, 331 atmospheric tests), most at Nevada Test Site and the Pacific Proving Grounds in the Marshall Islands, with ten other tests taking place at various locations in the United States, including Alaska, Colorado, Mississippi, and New Mexico (see Nuclear weapons and the United States for details).[1]
Soviet Union: 715 tests (involving 969 devices) by official count [2], most at Semipalatinsk Test Site and Novaya Zemlya, and a few more at various sites in Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine.
France: 210 tests by official count (50 atmospheric, 160 underground [3]), 4 atomic atmospheric tests at C.E.S.M. near Reggane, 13 atomic underground tests at C.E.M.O. near In Ekker in the then-French Algerian Sahara, and nuclear atmospheric tests at Fangataufa and nuclear undersea tests Moruroa in French Polynesia. Additional atomic and chemical warfare tests took place in the secret base B2-Namous, near Ben Wenif, other tests involving rockets and missiles at C.I.E.E.S, near Hammaguir, both in the Sahara.
United Kingdom: 45 tests (21 in Australian territory, including 9 in mainland South Australia at Maralinga and Emu Field, some at Christmas Island in the Pacific Ocean, plus many others in the U.S. as part of joint test series)
China: 45 tests (23 atmospheric and 22 underground, at Lop Nur Nuclear Weapons Test Base, in Malan, Xinjiang)
India: 6 underground tests(including the first one in 1974), at Pokhran.
Pakistan: 6 underground tests, at Ras Koh Hills, Chagai District and Kharan Desert, Kharan District in Balochistan Province.
North Korea: 1 test at Hwadae-ri.

Additionally, there may have been at least three alleged but unacknowledged nuclear explosions (see list of alleged nuclear tests). Of these, the only one taken seriously as a possible nuclear test is the Vela Incident, a possible detection of a nuclear explosion in the Indian Ocean in 1979, hypothesized to have been a joint Israeli/South African test.

From the first nuclear test in 1945 until tests by Pakistan in 1998, there was never a period of more than 22 months with no nuclear testing. June 1998 to October 2006, when North Korea reported a successful underground nuclear test, was the longest period since 1945 with no acknowledged nuclear tests.

Milestone nuclear explosions

The following list is of milestone nuclear explosions. In addition to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the first nuclear test of a given weapon type for a country is included, and tests which were otherwise notable (such as the largest test ever). All yields (explosive power) are given in their estimated energy equivalents in kilotons of TNT (see megaton).

Date	Name	Yield (kT)	Country	Significance
16 Jul 1945	Trinity	19	USA	First fission device test, first plutonium implosion detonation
6 Aug 1945	Little Boy	15	USA	Bombing of Hiroshima, Japan, first detonation of an enriched uranium gun-type device
9 Aug 1945	Fat Man	21	USA	Bombing of Nagasaki, Japan
29 Aug 1949	RDS-1	22	USSR	First fission weapon test by the USSR
3 Oct 1952	Hurricane	25	UK	First fission weapon test by the UK
1 Nov 1952	Ivy Mike	10,400	USA	First "staged" thermonuclear weapon test (not deployable)
12 Aug 1953	Joe 4	400	USSR	First fusion weapon test by the USSR (not "staged", but deployable)
1 Mar 1954	Castle Bravo	15,000	USA	First deployable "staged" thermonuclear weapon; fallout accident where some people were radiation-poisoned
22 Nov 1955	RDS-37	1,600	USSR	First "staged" thermonuclear weapon test by the USSR (deployable)
8 Nov 1957	Grapple X	1,800	UK	First (successful) "staged" thermonuclear weapon test by the UK
13 Feb 1960	Gerboise Bleue	70	France	First fission weapon test by France
31 Oct 1961	Tsar Bomba	50,000	USSR	Largest thermonuclear weapon ever tested
16 Oct 1964	596	22	PR China	First fission weapon test by the People's Republic of China
17 Jun 1967	Test No. 6	3,300	PR China	First "staged" thermonuclear weapon test by the People's Republic of China
24 Aug 1968	Canopus	2,600	France	First "staged" thermonuclear test by France
18 May 1974	Smiling Buddha	12	India	First fission nuclear explosive test by India
11 May 1998	Shakti I	43	India	First potential fusion/boosted weapon test by India (exact yields disputed, between 25kt and 45kt)
11 May 1998	Shakti II	12	India	First deployable fission weapon test by India
28 May 1998	Chagai-I	9-12	Pakistan	First fission weapon test by Pakistan.
9 Oct 2006	Hwadae-ri	<1	North Korea	First fission device tested by North Korea; resulted as a fizzle

"Deployable" refers to whether the device tested could be hypothetically used in actual combat (in contrast with a proof-of-concept device). "Staging" refers to whether it was a "true" hydrogen bomb of the so-called Teller-Ulam configuration or simply a form of a boosted fission weapon. For a more complete list of nuclear test series, see List of nuclear tests. Some exact yield estimates, such as that of the Tsar Bomba and the tests by India and Pakistan in 1998, are somewhat contested among specialists.

Nuclear Weapons Tests (Part 3)

2008-06-16T16:59:00.001+08:00

The first nuclear test was conducted in Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945, during the Manhattan Project, and given the codename "Trinity". The test was originally to confirm that the implosion-type nuclear weapon design was feasible, and to give an idea of what the
actual size and effects of a nuclear explosion would be before they were used in combat against Japan. While the test gave a good approximation of many of the explosion's effects, it did not give an appreciable understanding of nuclear fallout, which was not well understood by the project scientists until well after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The United States conducted six nuclear tests before the Soviet Union developed their first atomic bomb (Joe 1) and tested it on August 29, 1949. Neither country had very many nuclear weapons to spare at first, and so testing was relatively infrequent (when the U.S. used two weapons for Operation Crossroads in 1946, they were detonating over 20% of their current arsenal). However, by the 1950s the United States had established a dedicated test site on its own territory (Nevada Test Site) and were also using a site in the Marshall Islands (Pacific Proving Grounds) for extensive nuclear testing.

The early tests were used primarily to discern the military effects of nuclear weapons (Crossroads had involved the effect of nuclear weapons on a navy, and how they functioned underwater) and to test new weapon designs. During the 1950s these included new hydrogen bomb designs, which were tested in the Pacific, and also new and improved fission weapon designs. The Soviet Union also began testing on a limited scale, primarily in Kazakhstan. During the later phases of the Cold War, though, both countries developed accelerated testing programs, testing many hundreds of bombs over the last half of the twentieth century.

Nuclear tests can involve many hazards. A number of these were illustrated in the U.S. Castle Bravo test in 1954. The weapon design tested was a new form of hydrogen bomb, and the scientists underestimated how vigorously some of the weapon materials would react. As a result, the explosion — with a yield of 15 Mt — was over twice what was predicted. Aside from this problem, the weapon also generated a large amount of radioactive nuclear fallout, more than had been anticipated, and a change in the weather pattern caused the fallout to be spread in a direction which had not been cleared in advance. The fallout plume spread high levels of radiation for over a hundred miles, contaminating a number of populated islands in nearby atoll formations (though they were soon evacuated, many of the islands' inhabitants suffered from radiation burns and later from other effects such as increased cancer rate and birth defects), as well as a Japanese fishing boat (Daigo Fukuryū Maru). One member of the boat's crew died from radiation sickness after returning to port, and it was feared that the radioactive fish they had been carrying had made it into the Japanese food supply.

Bravo was the worst U.S. nuclear accident, but many of its component problems — unpredictably large yields, changing weather patterns, unexpected fallout contamination of populations and the food supply — occurred during other atmospheric nuclear weapons tests by other countries as well. Concerns over worldwide fallout rates eventually led to the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which limited signatories to underground testing. Not all atmospheric tests stopped, however, but because the United States and the Soviet Union in particular stopped testing above ground it cut the number of atmospheric tests down substantially, because about 86% of all nuclear tests were conducted by those two countries. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and People's Republic of China until 1980.

Almost all new nuclear powers have announced their possession of nuclear weapons with a nuclear test. The only acknowledged nuclear power which claims never to have conducted a test was South Africa (see Vela Incident), which has since dismantled all of its weapons. Israel is widely thought to possess a sizeable nuclear arsenal, though it has never tested. Experts disagree on whether states can have reliable nuclear arsenals — especially ones using advanced warhead designs, such as hydrogen bombs and miniaturized weapons — without testing, though all agree that it is very unlikely to develop significant nuclear innovations without testing. One other approach is to use supercomputers to conduct "virtual" testing, but the value of these simulations without actual test result data is thought to be slim.

Some nuclear testing has been for ostensibly peaceful purposes. These so-called peaceful nuclear explosions were used to evaluate whether nuclear explosions could be used for non-military purposes such as digging canals and artificial harbors, or to stimulate oil and gas fields. In most cases the results were too radioactive for use, and the programs proved neither economically sound or politically favorable.

Nuclear testing has also been used for clearly political purposes. The most explicit example of this was the detonation of the largest nuclear bomb ever created, the 50 megaton Tsar Bomba (with a maximum yield of 100 Mt), by the Soviet Union in 1961. This weapon was too large to be practically used against an enemy target, and it is not thought that any were manufactured except the one detonated in the test.

There have been many attempts to limit the number and size of nuclear tests; the most far-reaching was the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty of 1996, which was not ratified by the United States. Nuclear testing has since become a controversial issue in the United States, with a number of politicians saying that future testing might be necessary to maintain the aging warheads from the Cold War. Because nuclear testing is seen as furthering nuclear arms development, many are also opposed to future testing as an acceleration of the arms race.

Nuclear Weapons Tests (Part 2)

2008-06-15T16:58:00.002+08:00

Types of nuclear weapons tests

Nuclear weapons tests have historically been broken into categories (by treaties) reflecting the medium or location of the test: atmospheric, underwater, and underground.

Atmospheric testing designates explosions which take place in or above the atmosphere. Generally these have occurred as devices detonated on towers, balloons, barges, islands, or dropped from airplanes. A limited number of high altitude nuclear explosions have also been conducted, generally fired from rockets. Nuclear explosions which are close enough to the ground to draw dirt and debris into their mushroom cloud can generate large amounts of nuclear fallout due to irradiation of the debris. High altitude nuclear explosions can generate an electromagnetic pulse, and charged particles resulting from the blast can cross hemispheres to create an auroral display.

Underwater testing results from nuclear devices being detonated underwater, usually moored to a ship or a barge (which is subsequently destroyed by the explosion). Tests of this nature have usually been conducted to evaluate the effects of nuclear weapons against naval vessels (such as in Operation Crossroads), or to evaluate potential sea-based nuclear weapons (such as nuclear torpedoes or depth-charges). Underwater tests close to the surface can disperse large amounts of radioactive water and steam, contaminating nearby ships or structures.

Underground testing refers to nuclear tests which are conducted under the surface of the earth, at varying depths. Underground nuclear testing made up the majority of nuclear tests by the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War; other forms of nuclear testing were banned by the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963. When the explosion is fully contained, underground nuclear testing emits a negligible amount of fallout. However, underground nuclear tests can "vent" to the surface, producing considerable amounts of radioactive debris as a consequence. Underground testing can result in seismic activity depending on the yield of the nuclear device and the composition of the medium it is detonated in, and generally result in the creation of subsidence craters.^[1] In 1976, the United States and the USSR agreed to limit the maximum yield of underground tests to 150 kt with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty.

Separately from these designations, nuclear tests are also often categorized by the purpose of the test itself. Tests which are designed to garner information about how (and if) the weapons themselves work are weapons related tests, while tests designed to gain information about the effects of the weapons themselves on structures or organisms are known as weapons effects tests. Additional types of nuclear tests are possible as well (such as nuclear tests which are also part of anti-ballistic missile testing).

Nuclear-weapons-related testing which purposely results in no yield is known as subcritical testing, referring to the lack of a creation of a critical mass of fissile material. Additionally, there have been simulations of nuclear tests using conventional explosives (such as the Minor Scale U.S. test in 1985).

Nuclear Weapons Tests (Part 1)

2008-06-14T16:54:00.002+08:00

Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the twentieth century, most nations that have developed nuclear weapons have tested them. Testing nuclear weapons can yield information about how the weapons work, as well as how the weapons behave under various conditions and how structures behave when subjected to nuclear explosions. Additionally, nuclear testing has often been used as an indicator of scientific and military strength, and many tests have been overtly political in their intention; most nuclear weapons states publicly declared their nuclear status by means of a nuclear test.

The first atomic test was detonated by the United States at the Trinity site on July 16, 1945, with a yield approximately equivalent to 20 kilotons. The first hydrogen bomb, codenamed "Mike", was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1, 1952, also by the United States. The largest nuclear weapon ever tested was the "Tsar Bomba" of the Soviet Union at Novaya Zemlya on October 30, 1961, with an estimated yield of around 50 megatons.

In 1963, all nuclear and many non-nuclear states signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground nuclear testing. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, while China continued up until 1980. The last underground test by the United States was in 1992, the Soviet Union in 1990, the United Kingdom in 1991, and both France and China continued testing until 1996. After adopting the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996, all of these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing. Non-signatories India and Pakistan last tested nuclear weapons in 1998.

The most recent nuclear test was announced by North Korea on October 9, 2006. See 2006 North Korean nuclear test for more information.

Effects of nuclear explosions Part 2

2008-06-03T19:19:00.001+08:00

Indirect effects

Electromagnetic pulse

Gamma rays from a nuclear explosion produce high energy electrons through Compton scattering. These electrons are captured in the earth's magnetic field, at altitudes between twenty and forty kilometers, where they resonate. The oscillating electric current produces a coherent electromagnetic pulse (EMP) which lasts about one millisecond. Secondary effects may last for more than a second.

The pulse is powerful enough to cause long metal objects (such as cables) to act as antennas and generate high voltages when the pulse passes. These voltages, and the associated high currents, can destroy unshielded electronics and even many wires. There are no known biological effects of EMP. The ionized air also disrupts radio traffic that would normally bounce off the ionosphere.

One can shield electronics by wrapping them completely in conductive mesh, or any other form of Faraday cage. Of course radios cannot operate when shielded, because broadcast radio waves can't reach them.

Ionizing radiation

About 5% of the energy released in a nuclear air burst is in the form of ionizing radiation: neutrons, gamma rays, alpha particles, and electrons moving at incredible speeds, but with different speeds that can be still far away from the speed of light (beta particles). The neutrons result almost exclusively from the fission and fusion reactions, while the initial gamma radiation includes that arising from these reactions as well as that resulting from the decay of short-lived fission products.

The intensity of initial nuclear radiation decreases rapidly with distance from the point of burst because the radiation spreads over a larger area as it travels away from the explosion. It is also reduced by atmospheric absorption and scattering.

The character of the radiation received at a given location also varies with distance from the explosion. Near the point of the explosion, the neutron intensity is greater than the gamma intensity, but with increasing distance the neutron-gamma ratio decreases. Ultimately, the neutron component of initial radiation becomes negligible in comparison with the gamma component. The range for significant levels of initial radiation does not increase markedly with weapon yield and, as a result, the initial radiation becomes less of a hazard with increasing yield. With larger weapons, above fifty kt (200 TJ), blast and thermal effects are so much greater in importance that prompt radiation effects can be ignored.

The neutron radiation serves to transmute the surrounding matter, often rendering it radioactive. When added to the dust of radioactive material released by the bomb itself, a large amount of radioactive material is released into the environment. This form of radioactive contamination is known as nuclear fallout and poses the primary risk of exposure to ionizing radiation for a large nuclear weapon.

Earthquake

The pressure wave from an underground explosion will propagate through the ground and cause a minor earthquake. [3] Theory suggests that a nuclear explosion could trigger fault rupture and cause a major quake at distances within a few tens of kilometers from the shot point. [4]

Effects of nuclear explosions Part 1

2008-06-03T19:05:00.000+08:00

The energy released from a nuclear weapon detonated in the troposphere can be divided into four basic categories:

* Blast—40-50% of total energy
* Thermal radiation—30-50% of total energy
* Ionizing radiation—5% of total energy
* Residual radiation—5-10% of total energy

However, depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated the energy distributed to these categories can be increased or decreased to the point of nullification. The blast effect is created by immense amounts of energy, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, with the surroundings. Locations such as submarine, surface, airburst, or exo-atmospheric determine how much energy is produced as blast and how much as radiation. In general, denser mediums around the bomb, like water, absorb more energy, and create more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect.

The dominant effects of a nuclear weapon where people are likely to be affected (blast and thermal radiation) are identical physical damage mechanisms to conventional explosives. However the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more powerful per gram and the temperatures reached are briefly in the tens of millions of degrees.

Energy from a nuclear explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is a surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats it to an equilibrium temperature. This causes vaporization of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion. Kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave. When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level, much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere and creates a shockwave which expands spherically from the hypocenter. Intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a fireball and if the burst is low enough, its often associated mushroom cloud. In a burst at high altitudes, where the air density is low, more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and x-rays than an atmosphere displacing shockwave.

In 1945 there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons that there might be a possibility of igniting the Earth's atmosphere with a large enough nuclear explosion. This would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom, with release of energy. This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed. This was, however, quickly shown to be unlikely enough to be considered impossible [2]. Nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumour for many years.

Direct effects

Blast damage

The high temperatures and pressures cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, dense shell called "the hydrodynamic front." The front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding shock wave. At first, this shock wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball, which is created in a volume of air by the X-rays. However, within a fraction of a second the dense shock front obscures the fireball, causing the characteristic double pulse of light seen from a nuclear detonation. For air bursts at or near sea-level between 50-60% of the explosion's energy goes into the blast wave, depending on the size and the yield-to-weight ratio of the bomb. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield and/or high bomb mass. Furthermore, it decreases at high altitudes because there is less air mass to absorb radiation energy and convert it into blast. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30 km, corresponding to <1>

Thermal radiation

Nuclear weapons emit large amounts of electromagnetic radiation as visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light. The chief hazards are burns and eye injuries. On clear days, these injuries can occur well beyond blast ranges. The light is so powerful that it can start fires that spread rapidly in the debris left by a blast. The range of thermal effects increases markedly with weapon yield. Thermal radiation accounts for between 35-45% of the energy released in the explosion, depending on the yield of the device.

There are two types of eye injuries from the thermal radiation of a weapon:

Flash blindness is caused by the initial brilliant flash of light produced by the nuclear detonation. More light energy is received on the retina than can be tolerated, but less than is required for irreversible injury. The retina is particularity susceptible to visible and short wavelength infrared light, since this part of the electromagnetic spectrum is focused by the lens on the retina. The result is bleaching of the visual pigments and temporary blindness for up to 40 minutes.
Burns visible on a woman in Hiroshima during the blast, darker colors of her kimono at the time of detonation correspond to clearly visible burns on skin touching parts of the garment exposed to thermal radiation. Since kimonos are not form fitting attire, some parts were not directly touching her skin are visible as breaks in the pattern. As well as tighter fitting areas approaching the waistline where the pattern is much more defined.

A retinal burn resulting in permanent damage from scarring is also caused by the concentration of direct thermal energy on the retina by the lens. It will occur only when the fireball is actually in the individual's field of vision and would be a relatively uncommon injury. Retinal burns, however, may be sustained at considerable distances from the explosion. The apparent size of the fireball, a function of yield and range will determine the degree and extent of retinal scarring. A scar in the central visual field would be more debilitating. Generally, a limited visual field defect, which will be barely noticeable, is all that is likely to occur.

When thermal radiation strikes an object, part will be reflected, part transmitted, and the rest absorbed. The fraction that is absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. A thin material may transmit a lot. A light colored object may reflect much of the incident radiation and thus escape damage. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the temperature of the surface and results in scorching, charring, and burning of wood, paper, fabrics, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, the heat is confined to the surface of the material.

Actual ignition of materials depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture content of the target. Near ground zero where the energy flux exceeds 125 J/cm², what can burn, will. Farther away, only the most easily ignited materials will flame. Incendiary effects are compounded by secondary fires started by the blast wave effects such as from upset stoves and furnaces.

In Hiroshima, a tremendous fire storm developed within 20 minutes after detonation and destroyed many more buildings and homes. A fire storm has gale force winds blowing in towards the center of the fire from all points of the compass. It is not, however, a phenomenon peculiar to nuclear explosions, having been observed frequently in large forest fires and following incendiary raids during World War II.

Because thermal radiation travels more or less in a straight line from the fireball (unless scattered) any opaque object will produce a protective shadow. If fog or haze scatters the light, it will heat things from all directions and shielding will be less effective, but fog or haze would also diminish the range of these effects.

Soviet Atomic Bomb Project

2008-06-01T13:39:00.003+08:00

Nuclear physics in the Soviet Union

Soviet interest in nuclear physics had begun in the early 1930s, an era in which a variety of important nuclear discoveries and achievements were made (the identification of the neutron and positrons as fundamental particles, the operation of the first cyclotron to values of over 1 MeV, and the first splitting of the atomic nucleus by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton). The mineralogist Vladimir Vernadsky had made a number of public calls even before 1917 for a survey of Russia's uranium deposits. But such surveys were never made, as it was discovered that the main motivation for uranium ores at the time—radium, which had scientific as well as medical uses—could be retrieved from borehole water from the Ukhta oilfields.

Nuclear physics was not strong in the country, as much of the ideology of the Soviet Union revolved around science for primarily practical and industrial applications. Fearing the possibility of something like Lysenkoism in physics, Soviet physicists, led by Abram Ioffe, had attempted to emphasize their commitment to strengthening the Soviet economy and industry, and were purposefully avoiding lines of research which could be accused of being too "theoretical" and "impractical," which is what nuclear physics was generally perceived to be in the 1920s and early 1930s.

After the discovery of nuclear fission in the late 1930s, scientists in the Soviet Union, like scientists all over the world, realized that nuclear reactions could, in theory, be used to release large amounts of binding energy from the atomic nucleus of uranium. As in the West, the news of fission created great excitement amongst Soviet scientists and many physicists switched their lines of research to those involving nuclear physics in particular, as it was considered a promising field of research. Few scientists thought it would be possible to harness the power of nuclear energy for human purposes within the span of many decades. Soviet nuclear research was not far behind Western scientists: Yakov Frenkel did the first theoretical work on fission in the Soviet Union in 1940, and Georgii Flerov and Lev Rusinov concluded that 3±1 neutrons were emitted per fission only days after similar conclusions had been reached by the team of Frederic Joliot-Curie.

Beginnings of the program

Joseph Stalin was first informed of American nuclear research because of a letter sent to him in April 1942 by Georgii Flerov, who pointed out that nothing was being published in the physics journals by Americans, Britons, or Germans, on nuclear fission since the year of its discovery, 1939, and that indeed many of the most prominent physicists in Allied countries seemed not to be publishing at all. This nonevent was very suspicious, and accordingly Flerov urged Stalin to start a program. However, because the Soviet Union was still involved with the war with Germany on its home front, a large scale domestic effort could not yet be undertaken.

Administration and personnel

The administrative head of the project was Stalin's former chief of security Lavrentii Beria, and its scientific head was the physicist Igor Kurchatov. The project started outside Moscow and later moved to the village of Sarov, which then disappeared from the maps for forty-five years.

Other important figures were Yuli Khariton, Yakov Zeldovich and the future dissident and lead theoretical designer of their hydrogen bomb, Andrei Sakharov.

Espionage

The USSR got details of British initial research, from Klaus Fuchs and possibly John Cairncross, though Alan Nunn May was recruited later in Canada. Beria’s report to Stalin of March 1942 had the MAUD report and other British documents (Rhodes page 53, 58).

The project benefited from espionage information gathered from the Manhattan Project, which the Soviets code-named Enormoz. The intelligence obtained by Pavel Sudoplatov's agents under the control of Lavrentiy Beria from the Atomic Spies—Alan Nunn May, Klaus Fuchs, Theodore Hall and the Rosenbergs—was not however shared freely among the project's scientists, but was rather used as a "check" on the accuracy of their work. After the United States used its atomic weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in 1945, and published the Smyth Report outlining the basics of their wartime program, Beria had the scientists duplicate the American process as closely as possible in terms of development of resources and factories. The reason was expedience: the goal was to produce a working weapon as soon as possible, and after Hiroshima and Nagasaki they knew that the Allied design would work.

Beria largely distrusted the scientists working under him, which was why he rarely gave them direct access to intelligence information after 1945. He was fond of having multiple teams of scientists working on the same problems, who would only find out the existence of the other team of scientists when they were brought together before Beria to explain the differences in their results with one another. Though Beria was not the chief of security at this time, his reputation for ruthlessness was always present, and the Soviet atomic bomb project received status as the highest priority of national security after 1945.

Scholar Alexei Kojevnikov has estimated, based on newly released Soviet documents, that the primary way in which the espionage may have sped up the Soviet project was that it allowed Khariton to avoid dangerous tests to determine the size of the critical mass: "tickling the dragon's tail," as it were called in the U.S., consumed a good deal of time and claimed at least two lives; see Harry K. Daghlian, Jr. and Louis Slotin.

Logistical problems the Soviets faced

The single largest problem during the early Soviet project was the procurement of uranium ore, as it had no known domestic sources at the beginning of the project. The first Soviet nuclear reactor was fueled using uranium confiscated from the remains of the German atomic bomb project - eventually, however, large domestic sources were discovered.

Important Soviet nuclear tests

Joe One, the first Soviet atomic test.

First Lightning

The first Soviet atomic test was First Lightning (Первая молния) August 29, 1949, and was code-named by the Americans as Joe 1. It was a replica of the American Fat Man bomb whose design the Soviets knew from espionage.

The first (not "true") Soviet hydrogen ("Super") test, dubbed "Joe 4".

Joe Four

The first Soviet test of a hydrogen bomb was on August 12, 1953 and was nicknamed Joe 4 by the Americans; it was not a "true" fusion bomb (it was more like a "boosted" fission bomb than a staged thermonuclear device, and had a yield comparable to large fission weapons; around 90% of its yield was directly or indirectly from fission).

RDS-37

The mushroom cloud from the first "true" Soviet hydrogen bomb test in 1955.

The first Soviet test of a "true" hydrogen bomb in the megaton range was on November 22, 1955. It was dubbed RDS-37 by the Soviets. It was of the multi-staged, radiation implosion thermonuclear design called Sakharov's "Third Idea" in the USSR and the Teller-Ulam design in the USA.

A color image of RDS-37.

Joe 1, Joe 4, and RDS-37 were all tested at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan.

Tsar Bomba

The Tsar Bomba (Царь бомба) was the largest, most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated. It was a three-stage hydrogen bomb with a yield of about 50 megatons.^[1] This is equivalent to ten times the amount of all the explosives used in World War II combined.^[2] It was detonated on October 30, 1961, in the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, and was capable of approximately 100 megatons, but was purposely reduced shortly before the launch. Although weaponized, it was not entered into service; it was simply a demonstration of the capabilities of the Soviet Union's military technology at that time. The explosion was hot enough to induce third degree burns at 100 km.^{[citation needed]}

Chagan

Chagan nuclear test, photo not to be confused with Joe 1.

Chagan was shot in the Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy or Project 7, the Soviet equivalent of the US Operation Plowshare to investigate peaceful uses of nuclear weapons. It was a subsurface detonation (note the debris fallout in the photo), and was fired on January 15, 1965. The site was a dry bed of the Chagan River at the edge of the Semipalatinsk Test Site, and was chosen such that the lip of the crater would dam the river during its high spring flow. The resultant crater had a diameter of 408 meters and was 100 meters deep. A major lake (10,000,000 m³) soon formed behind the 20-35 m high upraised lip, known as Lake Chagan or Lake Balapan.^{[citation needed]}

The photo is sometimes confused with Joe 1 in literature.

Secret cities

During the Cold War the Soviet Union created at least ten closed cities, known as Atomgrads, in which nuclear weapons-related research and development took place. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, all of the cities changed their names (most of the original code-names were simply the oblast and a number). All are still legally "closed", though some have parts of them accessible to foreign visitors with special permits (Sarov, Snezhinsk, and Zheleznogorsk).