Black History.

"Romare Bearden".(September 2, 1911-March 12,1988).

2010-12-18T08:55:00.000-08:00

Was an artist an a writer he worked in several media including cartoons, oils,and collage.Romare was born in Charlotte, North Carolina.In 1929 he graduated from Peabody High School in Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania.He completed his studies at New York University (NYU), graduating with a degree in science and education.After he started to focus on his art and less on athletics, he took courses in art that led to him being a lead cartoonist and art editor for the Eucleian(a secretive student society at NYU) monthly journal, The medley.Romare grew as an artist not by learning how to create new techniques and mediums,but by his life experiences,and the different decades he created art events that took place completely reshaped his vision of art.He studied under German artist George Grosz at the Art Student League in 1936 and 1937.At this time his paintings were often of scenes in the American South,and his style was strongly influenced by the Mexican muralists,especially Diego Rivera and Jose Clemente Orozco.Shortly thereafter he began the first of his stints as a case worker for the New York Department of Social Services.During World War II,Romare joined the United States Army,serving from 1942 until 1945.He would return to Europe in 1950 to study philosophy at the Sorbonne under the auspices of the GI Bill.This completely changed his style of art as he started producing abstract representations of what he deemed as human;specifically scenes from the Passion of the Christ.He had evolved from what Edward Alden Jewell,a reviewer for the New York times,called a debilitating focus on Regionalist and ethnic concerns"to what became known as his stylistic approach which participated in the post-war aims of avant-grade American art.His works were exhibited in Sam Koontz's until his work was deemed not abstract enough.During his success in the gallery,however,he produced Golgotha, a painting from his series of the Passion of the Christ Golgotha is an abstract representation of the Crucifixion.The eye of the viewer is drawn to the middle of the image first,where Romare has rendered Christ's body.The body parts are stylized into abstract geometric shapes,yet still too realistic to be concretely abstract; this work has a feel of early cubism.The body is in a central position and yet darkly contrasting with the highlighted crowds.The crowds of people are on the left and right,and are encapsulated within large spheres of bright colors of purple and indigo.The background of the painting is depicted in lighter jewel tones dissected with linear black ink.Romare use these colors and contrasts because of the abstract influence of the time,but also for their meanings.Romare intended to not focus on Christ but he wanted to emulate rather the emotions and actions of the crowds gathered around the Crucifixion.He worked hard to "depict myths in an attempt to convey universal human values and reactions"According to Romare himself Christ's life,death,and resurrection are the greatest expressions of man's humanism, not because of Christ's actual existence but the idea of him that lived on through other men.This is why Romare focuses on Christ's body first,to portray the idea of the myth,and then highlights the crowd,to show how the idea is passed on to men.While it may seem as if Romare was emphasizing the Biblical interpretations of Christ and the Crucifixion, he was actually focusing on the spiritual intent.He wanted to show ideas of humanism and though cannot be seen by the eye,but "must be digested by the mind"This is accordance with the time he produced this image,as other famous artist creating avant-grade abstract representations of historically significant events,such as Motherwell's commemoration of the Spanish Civil War,Pollock's investigation of the Northwest Coast Indian art,Rothko's and new Newman's interpretations of Biblical stories,etc.Romare used this form of art to depicthumanityduring a period of time when didn't see humanity in existence through the war.However,Romare stands out from these other artists as his works,including Golgotha,are a little too realistic for this time,and he was kicked out of Sam Kootz's gallery.Romare turned to music,co-writing the hit song Sea Breeze,which was recorded by Billy Eckstine and Dizzy Gillespie;it is still considered a jazz classic. In 1954, at age 42,he married Nanette (Rohan) Bearden, a 27 year old accomplished dancer and noted beauty who herself became an artist and critic.The couple eventually created the Bearden Foundation to assist young artists.Nanette Bearden was also instrumental in convincing her husband to return to visual art.In the late 1950s,Romare work became more abstract,using layers of oil paint to produce muted,hidden effects.In 1956 Romare began studying with a Chinese calligrapher,whom he credits with introducing him to new ideas about space and composition in painting.He also spent a lot of time studying famous European paintings he admired,particulary the work of the Dutch artists Johannes Vermeer, Pieter de Hooch,and Rembrandt.He began exhibiting again in 1960.About this time the couple established a second homein the caribbean island of St Maarten.Romare had struggled with two artistic sides of himself.His background as a"student and of artistic traditions,and being a black involves very real experiences,

"Major Charles B. Hall"

2010-12-16T16:44:00.001-08:00

He graduated from Eastern Illinois University in 1938.The former Sunday school teacher left for Tuskegee, Alabama in 1941 to become a pilot.After graduating in the forth class of Tuskegee pilots, 2nd lt earned his wings and commission.In April 1943,Lieutenant Hall and 27 other pilots in his unit were sent to North Africa for combat duty.They were joined by the 100th,301st,and 302nd African-American fighter squadrons.Together these squadrons formed the 332nd Fighter group.Lieutenant Hall was the first to score an aerial victory during a dog fight over Sicily,Italy,July 2,1943,and reward was an iced bottle of Coca Cola.The Lieutenant would score two more aerial victories while leading a fight of eight Curtiss p-40 Warhawks over Anzio, Italy,January 28, 1944.shortly after the mission he was promoted to captain and was the African American to be awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross.In the fall of 1944 Captain Hall return to the U.S. for a war bond touring lasting 105 days.He then returned to Tuskegee Army airfield to train fighter pilots.In 1946 Captain Hall separated from the service and became a member of the inactive reserve until 1958 when he attained the rank of major.After moving to Oklahoma,Maj,Hall worked in civil service until his death in 1971,he left behind a wife and two daughters.

"Elliott Sawyer Hall" 1938.

2010-12-16T12:28:00.000-08:00

Was Ford Motor Company's vice president of governmental of affairs in Washington D.C. a position he held since 1987 and one held as Ford's first African American vice president.Elliott was born in Detroit Michigan the son of Ethel B.Hall and steelworker Odis Hall the second youngest of eight children.Formerly married to Evelyn Hall and having two sons,Lannis and Frederick.He is married to Shirley Robinson Hall and has a daughter Tiffany.Educated at Wayne State University in Detroit with the B.A. and J.D. degrees, Elliott defended civil right cases in the mid-1960s.In 1972 he was elected head of the NAACP (Detroit chapter) and was president of the local United Black Coalition.Serving as the First African American Corporation Council for Detroit in 1974-1975, Elliott then entered private law practice from 1975-1983.From 1983-1985,he served the Wayne County Prosecutor's Office as the first African American chief assistant prosecutor and became a partner in the Detroit law firm Dykema,Gossett,Spencher, Goodnow and Trigg from 1985 until 1987,when he joined Ford Motor Company.Elliott has been honored with the Distinguished Alumnus Award from Wayne State University Law School and is past president of the Detroit Metopolitian Bar Association and Wolverine Bar Association.He was also a member of the board of the Washington Performing Arts Society.The National Symphony Orchestra,as well as the Federal City Council, a private group of prominent Washingtonians.Serving as board chairman of both the joint Center for Political and Economic studies in Washington D.C.and the Music Center for the Performing Arts in Detroit,Elliott is also a board member of Georgetown University,Clark Atlanta University,and the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation.Retiring after 15 years with Ford Motor Company,also as vice president of Dealer Development of minority-owned dealerships.He practices law With Dykema Gossett PLLC with offices in Detroit and Washington,D.C.,foucsing on government policy and automotive industry realted legislative issues as well as matters realting to municipalitives.

Vince T. Cullers.

2010-12-16T12:02:00.000-08:00

When Vince began knocking on doors of advertising agencies in the late 1940,he had a thick portfolio,experience as an artist,and training from the prestigious Art Institute of Chicago.He was young,eager, and talented.He was also black."He made the rounds of the ad agencies in Chicago,and what he ran into was that they did not hire blacks,"his wife Marian Cullers told Essence.By 1956 Vince had had enough and launched his own firm.Vince Cullers Advertising,Inc.was the first black-owned advertising agency in the United States and the first to actively target the African American market.It changed the face of advertising.Vincent T. Cullers was born in 1924 in Chicago to Samuel and Letitia Cullers.His mother was a deeply spiritual woman who inspired in Vincent a commitment to leaving the world better than he found it,After graduating from Dusable High School Vince studied art at the Art Institute of Chicago.When the United States entered World War II,Vince signed on with the Marines and became a combat artist in the South Pacific.While in the service another solider showed Vince a photo of his cousin,Marian Barnett,of Campaign Illinois.Vince was smitten.Upon returning to Illinois He sought Marian out, wooed her and eventually married her.They had two sons,Vincent Jr, and Jeffrey.By the time Vince married Marian, he had developed an impressive portfolio.He started sending it to various advertising agencies in Chicago and New York,hoping to get work as an illustrator.The agencies would see it and offer him a position but"when he showed up and the interviewer saw the color of his skin,he suddenly did"t have a job.Vince resorted to freelance art work.Finally, in 1953 he landed a position as a promotional art director for Ebony magazine.At the time,the Civil Rights Movement was gaining momentum. In 1954the Supreme court ruled in Brown v. the Board of Education that racially segregated education was unconstitutional. A year later Rosa Park's refusal to give up her bus seat prompted the Montgomery Bus Boycott.The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King,rose to national prominence.Black students faced furious mobs to attend school.Others

"Gullah"

2010-12-15T08:01:00.000-08:00

Are African Americans who live in the Lowcountry region of South Carolina,which includes both the coastal plain and the sea islands.Historically,the Gullah region once extended north to the Cape Fear area on the coast of North Carolina and south to the vicinity of Jacksonville on the coast of Florida;but today the Gullah are is confined to the South Carolina and Georgia Lowcountry.The Gullah people and their language are also called Geechee,which some scholars speculate to be related to the Ogeechee River near Savannah,Georgia.The term Geechee is an emic term used by speakers (and can have a derogatory connotation depending on usage) and "Gullah"is a term that was generally used by outsiders but that has become a way for speakers to formally identify themselves and their language.The Gullah are known for preserving more of their African linguistic and cultural heritage than any other African American community in the United States.They speak and English-based creole language containing many African loanwords and significant influences from African languages in grammar and sentence structure.The Gullah language is related to Jamaican Creole,Barbadian Dialect,and the Krio language of Sierra Leone in in West Africa..Gullah storytelling,cuisine,music,folk beliefs,crafts,farming and fishing traditions,all exhibits strong influences from West and central African cultures.The name "Gullah" may derive from Angola,where some Gullah people may have originated.Some scholars have also suggested it comes from Gola, an ethnic group living in the border area between Sierra Leone and Liberia in West Africa,another region where many of the Gullahs' ancestors originated.The name "Geechee," another common name for the Gullah people,may come from Kissi,an ethnic group living in the border area between Sierra Leone Guinea and Liberia.Some scholars have also suggested Native American orgins for these words.The Spanish called South Carolina and Georgia coastal region Guale after a Native American tribe.The Ogeechee River,a prominent geographical feature in coastal Georgia,takes its name from a Creek Native American word.Most of the Gullahs ancestors in what is now the United States were brought to the South Carolina and Georgia Lowcountry through the ports of Charleston and Savannah as slaves,making their way from Sierra Leone by way of Brazil.Charleston was one the most important in North America for the Transatlantic slave trade.Up to half of the enslaved Africans brought into what is now the United States came from that port. A great majority of the remaining flowed through Savannah,which was also active in the slave trade.The largest group of enslaved Africans brought into Charleston and Savannah from the West African rice-growing region,centered primarily in Sierra Leone through the most significant slave castle for the modern day United States called Bunce Island.The people had cultivated African rice in this section of west Africa for possibly up to 3,000 years.South Carolina and Georgia rice planters once called this region the "Rice Coast,' indicating its importance as a source of skilled African labor for the North American rice industry.Once it was discovered that rice would grow in the southern U.S. regions,it was assumed that enslaved Africans from rice-growing regions in Africa would be beneficial,due to their Knowledge of rice-growing techniques.In 1750 Henry Laurens and Richard Oswald opened the most significant slave castle just up the Sierra Leone river on what was then called Bance Island,and is now called Bance island.Here is where 80% of African Americans in the United States whose heritage comes from the slave trade are believed to have derived.The Gullah people have been able to preserve much of their African cultural heritage because of geography,climate,and patterns of importation of enslaved Africans.Taken from the western region of Africa as slaves ands transported to some areas of Brazil (including Bahia) the Gullah Gheechee slaves were then sold to slaves owners in what was then Charlesttowne, South Carolina.By the middle of the 18th century,the South Carolina and Georgia Lowcountry was covered by thousands of acres of rice fields.African farmers from the "Rice Coast"brought the skills for cultivation and tidal irrigation that made rice one of the most successful industries in early America.The semi-tropical climate that made the LowCountry such an excellent place for rice production also made it vulnerable to the spread of malaria and yellow fever.These tropical diseases,endemic in Africa,were carried by slaves transported to the colonies by slave ships.Mosquitoes in the swamps and inundated rice fields of the Lowcountry picked up and spread the diseases to English and European settlers,as well.Malaria and yellow fever soon became endemic in the region.Because of having built some immunity in their homeland,African were more resistant to tropical fevers than the Europeans.In addition,because planters devoted large areas of land to plantations for rice and indigo,the white population of the Lowcountry and sea islands grew at a slower rate than the black population.More and more enslaved Africans were brought as laborers onto the sea islands and into the Low-country as the rice industry expanded.By a bout 1708,South Carolina had a black majority.Coastal Georgia later acquired its own black majority after rice cultivation expanded there in the mid 18th century,and malaria and yellow fever became endemic.Fearing disease,many white planters left the Lowcountry during the rainy spring and summer months when fever rampant.Others lived in cities such as Charleston.They left their "rice drivers,"or overseers,in charge of the plantations.

"William Nelson Hall"(April 28 1827-August 25-1904)

2010-12-11T16:00:00.000-08:00

Was the first black person,in first Nova Scotian and third Canadian to receive the Victoria Cross.He receive the medal for his actions in the Siege of Lucknow.Robert was born at Horton Bluff, Nova Scotian,in 1827as the son of Jacob and Lucy Hall,who had escaped American slave owners in Maryland and were brought to freedom in Nova Scotian by the British Royal Navy.The Halls first lived in Summerville,NS where Jacob worked in a shipyard operated by Abraham Cunard until they bought a farm across the Avon River at Horton Bluff.William first worked in shipyards at nearby Hantsport,Nova Scotian,before going to sea at 17 he sailed first on merchant ships based out of the Minas Basin including the barque Kent of Kentville,Nova Scotia.William briefly served in the United States Navy from 1847-1849.He served for a time aboard the USS Ohio alongside John Taylor Wood who later supported William US Navy pension claim.William volunteered for the the British Royal Navy in February 1852,serving at first aboard HMS Rodney.William fought in the Crimean War serving ashore in a naval brigade from Rodney at the battles of Inkerman and Sebastapol in 1854.When the Indian Mutiny broke out in may 1857,William was on HMS Shannon en route to China.She was intercepted and ordered to Calcutta (since renamed Kolkata). A Shannon Brigade was formed of several gunners,sailors,and marines,under Captain William Peel.The ship was towed over 600 miles up to the Ganges River to Allahabad.Then the force fought across country to Campbell's headquarters at Cawnpore and were in time to take part the Siege of Lucknow.On November 16 1857 at Lucknow,India naval guns were brought up close to the Shah Nujeff mosque,and the gun crews kept up a steady fire in an attempt to breach and clear walls,while a hail of musket balls grenades from mutineers inside the mosque caused heavy casualties. Able Seaman Hall and Lieutenant Thomas James Young,the battery's commander,were eventually the only survivors,all the rest having been killed or wounded,and between them they loaded and served the last gun.His citation reads: Lieutenant (now Commander)Young,late Gunnery Officer of her Majesty's ship "Shannon," and William Hall, Captain of the Foretop,"of that Vessel,were recommended by the late Captain peel for the Victoria Cross,for their gallant conduct at a 24-pounder gun,brought up to the angle of the Shah Nujeff,at Lucknow,on the 16th of November 1857.William remained with the navy,rising to the rating Petty Officer First Class in HMS Royal Adelaide when he retired in 1876.He returned to his home village in Horton Bluff where he ran a small farm until his death in 1904.

"Lloyd Ray, Inventor"

2010-12-11T15:29:00.000-08:00

Ray invented the dustpan on August 3, 1897.

Before he patented his invention, anyone cleaning a room or a hallway simply swept dirt, dust or trash out of the door onto the ground outside or used a piece of paper in order to collect it.

"Joseph Lee" (1849-1905), Entrepreneur & Inventor

2010-12-11T13:55:00.001-08:00

Joseph Lee lived most of his life in Boston, MA. He was very prominent in the food services industry, having begun working as a boy at a bakery. He soon began preparing, cooking and serving food, eventually opening two successful restaurants in the Boston area in the late 1890s.

Lee owned and managed the Woodland Park Hotel in Newton, MA, for 17 years. In 1902, as a way of maintaining an involvement in the food services industry, Lee opened a catering business called the "Lee Catering Company" which served the wealthy population of Boylston Street in the Back Bay. At the same time he also operated the Squantum Inn, a summer resort in South Shores specializing in seafood.

The catering business was a great success and during this time he became interest in eliminating a situation that had become annoying to him. Joseph became very frustrated at what he saw as a waste of bread which would have to be thrown out if it was as much as a day old. Considered a master cook, Joseph had long believed that crumbs from bread was quite useful in preparing food, as opposed to cracker crumbs which many others favored. He decided that instead of simply throwing stale bread crumbs away, he would use it to make bread crumbs. He thus set out to invent a device that could automate tearing, crumbing and grinding the bread into crumbs. He was finally successful and patented the invention on June 4, 1895. He used the bread crumbs for various dishes including croquettes, batter for cakes, fried chops, fried fish and more.

He soon sold the rights to his bread crumbing machine and the Royal Worcester Bread Crumb Company of Boston, who quickly had devices in major restaurants around the world.

Joseph looked for another way of improving food preparation and invented and automatic bread making machine. The machine not only mixed the ingredients, but also kneaded the dough. The machine was so fast and efficient it was able to perform the tasks of five or six men and did so more hygienically and at a much cheaper cost. It also produced a higher quality product, with a much better taste and texture.

"Lloyd Hall" (1894-1971) Chemist and Inventor

2010-12-11T12:51:00.000-08:00

Lloyd Hall was a chemist who developed methods of food preservation.

Hall an honor student while attending West side High School in Auroa, IL, and captured the school debate team while competing in basketball, football and track. Lloyd graduated High School in the top 10 of his class and had to chose between four college scholarships offers. He decided to nearby Northwestern University, earning a Bachelors Degree in Pharmaceutical Chemistry in 1916. While at Northwestern, Lloyd attended classes with Carroll L. Griffith who would later go on to become the founder of Griffith Laboratories. After graduation, Hall earned a graduate degree from the University of Chicago.

Lloyd was soon hired by the Western Electic Company in a telephone interview. When he showed up for his first day, he was told by a personnel officer that "we don't take niggers." Recovering from this slight, he began working for the Chicago Department of Health as a chemist and was promoted in 1917 to senior chemist. The next year he moved to Ottumwa, Iowa, where he held the position of chief chemist at the John Morrell Company. During this time, World War I broke out, and Lloyd received an appointment as Chief Inspector of powder and explosives for the United States Ordance Department.

On September 23, 1919 Lloyd married Myrrhene Newsome, a teacher from Macomb, IL. Two years later, the couple moved to Chicago where Lloyd began working for the Boyer Chemical Laboratory as chief chemist. There he focused on the emerging field of food chemistry, and began looking at a way of preserving meats with Chemicals. In 1922 he moved on to Chemical Products Corporation where he served as President and Chemical director of their consulting laboratory and often consulted with Griffith Laboratories.

In 1925, Lloyd was offered a position with Griffith Laboratories, as chief chemist and director of research. Griffith Laboratories of course had been founded by Lloyd former classmate Carroll and after years of moving moving from company to company, Lloyd accepted the position and remained there for the next 34 years.

Lloyd had been working for a number of years exploring different areas of food chemistry an upon joining Griffith Laboratories began looking into methods for preserving foods. Up to that point, foods, and especially meats had been preserved by using sodium chloride (table salt). As well, nitrogen-contain chemicals were also used to preserve meats. It was found that nitrates chemically changed into nitrites and then into nitrous acid which caused the meats to maintain a healthy, red color (the process was referred to as curing meat). Lloyd found, however, that when sodium chloride, sodium nitrite and sodium nitrite were used in order to preserve and cure the meat, the nitrates and nitrites penetrated the meat much faster than did the sodium chloride. In doing so, the nitrates and nitrites adversely affected the meat by breaking it down before the sodium chloride had a chance to preserved it. In order to correct this, Lloyd found a way of encasing the nitrates and nitrites within within a sodium chloride "shell" by utilizing a process called "flash-drying"the crystals over heated rollers. This allowed the sodium nitrate to be introduced to the meats first and dissolved, and then the nitrates and nitrites were able to penetrate the "preserved"meat and therefore "cure" it.

Lloyd next addressed a problem which arose when meats were stored in containers. The sodium chloride/nitrate/nitrite combination tended to absorb the moisture from the air inside or the container and caused them to form a caked mass on top of the meat. Lloyd was able to determine that by adding glycerine and alkali metal tartrate to the original combination, the glycerine's and tartrate would effectively absorb the moisture without "caking" and thus preventing the chloride/nitrate/nitrite combination from absorbing it.

Lloyd also maintained an interest in sterilizing foods, utensils and tools. Although many people through that certain spices and flavorings also had the added benefits of preserving foods, Lloyd found that many of these agents actually exposed the foods to an abundance of germs, molds and bacteria. Lloyd set out to prevent this while at the same time allowing the spices and flavoring to retain the aroma and color (many of these lost their and aroma and flavor when exposed to high sterilizing temperatures.) He eventually found a gas called ethylene oxide, which he introduced to the foods with in a vacuumed environment which eliminated the germs and bacteria while maintaining appearances, taste and aroma.

Lloyd published more than 5 scientific papers and received more than 100 patents. He also served as an advisor to the United States during two World Wars, served on dozens of advisory panels and boards and received hundreds of awards and accolades.

In 1959 Lloyd retired from Griffith Laboratories and moved to Pasadena, CA, where he died.

"Black Seminoles."

2010-12-09T15:08:00.001-08:00

"Black Seminoles" is a term used by modern historians for the descendants of free blacks and some runaway slaves (maroons) and Gullahs who escaped from coastal South Carolina and Georgia rice plantations into the Spanish Florida wilderness beginning as early as the 17th century.

By the early 19th century, these people of African descent had often formed communities near the Seminoles Native Americans. Together, the group formed a multi-ethnic and bi-racial alliance.

Today, Black Seminoles descendants still live in Florida, rural communities in Oklahoma and Texas, and in the Bahamas and northern Mexico.

In the 19th century, the Florida "Black Seminoles" were called "Seminoles Negroes" by their white American enemies and "Estelusti" (Black People), by their Native American allies.

Modern Black Seminoles are Known as "Seminoes Freedmen" in Oklahoma, "Seminoes Scouts" in Texas, "Black Indians" in the Bahamas, and "Mascogos" in Mexico.

In 18-century Spanish Florida, Black Seminoes became a distinct group, as escaped slaves were welcomed by the Spanish Government. Spain gave land to some Muscogee (Creek) Native Americans. Over time the Creeks were joined by other groups of Native Americans, such as the Micosukee and the Apalachicola, and formed communities. By 1822, they had formed a new nation and took the name of Seminoes.

The Spanish strategy for defending Florida was based at first on organizing the indigenous Native Americans into a mission system. The mission Native Americans were to serve as militia to protect the colony from English incursions from the north. But a combination of raids by South Carolina colonists and new European diseases to which they did not have immunity decimated Florida's Native population.

After the local Native Americans had all but died out, Spanish authorities encouraged renegade Native Americans and runaway slaves from England's North American colonies to move south. The Spanish were hoping these traditional enemies of the English would prove effective in holding off English expansion. As early as 1689, African Slaves fled from the South Carolina lowcountry to Spanish Florida seeking freedom. Under an edict from King Charles II of Spain in 1693, the black fugitives received liberty in exchange for defending the Spanish settlers at St. Augustine.

The Spanish organized the black volunteers into a militia. Their settlement at Fort Mose,(pronounced "Moh-say"), founded in 1738, was the first legally sanctioned free black town in North American. Not all slaves escaping south found military service in St Augustine to their liking. It is more likely that many more runaway slaves sought refuge in wilderness areas in Northern Florida where there knowledge of tropical agriculture and resistance to tropical diseases serve them well.

Most of the blacks who pioneered Florida were Gullah people who escaped from the rice plantations in South Carolina (and later Georgia). As Gullahs, they had preserved much of their African language and culture heritage and their African leadership structure. These Gullah pioneers built their own settlements based on rice and corn agriculture. They were allies to Native Americans escaping into Florida at the same time.

Florida had been a refuge for runaway slaves for at least seventy years by the time of the American Revolution. Communities of Black Seminoes were established on the outskirts of major Seminoes towns. A new influx of freedom-seeking blacks reached Florida during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Several thousand American slaves agreed to fight for the British in exchange for liberty and were called black Loyalists. (Florida was under British control throughout the conflict). During the revolution, Seminole Native Americans also allied with the British, and Africans and Seminoes came into increased contact with each other.

Members of both communities sided again with the British against the US during the War of 1812, solidifying ties and earning the wrath of the wars American hero General Andrew Jackson. When Africans and Seminoes first started to interact, the Native Americans were also migrants to Florida. Their community evolved over the late 18 century and early as waves of Creek Native Americans left present-day George and Alabama. By the time the American naturalist William Bartram visited them in 1773, the Seminoes had their own tribal name, derived from "cimarron," the Spanish word for runaway, which connoted the tribe's breakaway status from the Creeks. Cimarron was also the source of the English word "maroon," used to describe the runaway slave communities of Florida, the Caribbean, and other parts of The New World.

The Black Seminoles culture took shape after 1800 was a dynamic mixture of African Native American, Spanish, and slave traditions. In the tradition of the Native Americans, maroons wore Seminole clothing, strained Koonti (a native root), and made sofkee, a paste created by mashing corn with a mortar and pestle.

Initially living apart from the Native Americans, however, the maroons developed their own unique African-American. Black Seminoes inclined toward a syncretic form christianty inherited from their lives on the plantations. Certain cultural practices, such as jumping the broom to celebrate marriage, hailed from the plantations; other customs such as the names used for black towns echoed Africa as time progressed Seminoes and Blacks intermixed at high rates. Seminoles King Phillip even married a black Seminole and had a half black child with her.

"Julian Francis Abele" (April 30,1881-April 23, 1950)

2010-12-09T14:50:00.000-08:00

Was a prominent African American Architect,and chief designer in the offices of architect Horace Trumbauer.He contributed to the design of the Philadelphia Museum of Art,and designed much of Duke University.Born in Philadelphia,Julian Abele attended the Quaker-run institute for colored youth,which later became Cheyney University,where he excelled in math and was chosen to deliver the commencement address.in 1898, he completed a two-year architectural drawing course at the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art (PMSIA).Following PMSIA,Abele became black architecture graduate of the University of Pennsylvania's Department of Architecture in 1902.After his formal education in the states,Julian travelled to Europe with the support of his future employer,Horace Trumbauer.While some contempories asserted that Julian studied at the Ecole Des Beaux Arts in Paris,there are no records of his attendance at the school.Regardless Julian spent significant in France and Italy,an influence that was to direct his design work throughout his life.Julian additionally listed travel to England,Germany,Switzerland,and Spain on his application for membership in the American institute of Architects.In 1906,Julian joined the firm of the Philadelphia architect Horace Trumbauer,as an assistant to the chief designer Frank Seeburger.When Frank left the firm in 1909,Julian advanced to chief designer,a position which he would until Horace death in 1938.Julian designed or contributed to the design of some 250 buildings,including Harvard's Widener Memorial Library,The Philadelphia Museum of Art,the central Branch of the Free Library of Philadelphia,the shadow Lawn Manison,and many Gilded Age manisons in Newport and New York City.Julian contribution to the Trumbauer firm was great,but the only building for which he claimed authorship during Trumbauer's lifetime was the Duke University Chapel in Durham,North Carolina.

"Robert Sengstacke Abbott" (1870-1940).

2010-12-08T11:45:00.000-08:00

Was an African American lawyer and newspaper publisher.Born on St. Simmons Island Georgia to a former slave parents,Robert was still a baby when his father, Thomas Abbott,died.Floria his mother,then met and married John Sengstacke,who came to Georgia,from Germany in 1869.John background was remarkable:his father,Herman was a wealthy German merchant immigrant who in 1847 had purchased the freedom of a slave woman,Tama,from the auction block and subsequently married her;John their child was sent to Germany to be raised there.John returned to the states and met the German speaking Floria,and raised Robert with a large family background in cross-race successes.John was a Congregationalist missionary who wrote:"There is but one church,and all who are born of god are members of it.God made a church,man made denominations.God gave us a Holy Bible,disputing men made different kinds of disciples.John went on and studied the printing trade at Hampton Institute (now Hampton University) from 1892 to 1896.He received a law degree from Kent College of law,Chicago in 1898,but because of racial prejudice was unable to practice,despite attempts to establish law offices in Gary,Indiana,and Chicago Illinois.In 1905 he founded The Chicago Defender with an initial investment of 25 cents.The Defender,which became the most widely circulated black newspaper in the country,came to be known as "American Black newspaper" and made Robert one of the self-made millionaires of African American descent.The unique point point in history when the Chicago Defender was becoming popular allowed it to be successful.Tension was building in the years surrounding World War 1 Blacks were migrating from the south to the industrial centers of the north that were in great need of workers to manufacture goods for the the war.Also stories from previous migrants to the north were tricking down to the south and giving hope to the people of the south.Robert,through his writings in the Chicago Defender captured those stories,encouraged people to leave the south for the north.In fact,he even set a date,May 15,1917,for when The great Northern Drive,a name he coined for the event to occur.In the weekly,he showed pictures of Chicago and gave plenty of space classifieds for housing and wrote how awful a place,the south was to live in comparison to the idealistic North,a place of prosperity and justice.This persuasive writing,"thereby made this journal probably the greatest stimulus that the migration had.Robert was a fighter,a defender of rights.He had ideas and expectations of his race that he fought his whole life to help them become a realty.In fact,he created a list of nine goals,of which created the Defender's Bible:1.American race prejudice must be destroyed 2.The opening up of all trade-unions to blacks as well as whites.3.Representation in the President's Cabinet.4.Engineers,fireman and conductors on surface,elevated and motor bus lines throughout American.5.Representation in all departments of the police forces over the the entire United States.6.Government schools open to all American citizens in preferences to foreigners.7.Motormen and conductors on surfaces,elevated and motor bus lines throughout America.8.Federal legislation to abolish lynching. 9.Full enfranchisement of all American citizens.The Chicago Defender not only encouraged people to migrate north for a better life,but to fight for an even better lifestyle once they got there.The slogan of the paper and number one of the Defender's bible,"American race prejudice must be destroyed,"is an excellent example of what he through the paper was capable of and what the ideal experience of an African American or any American should be.Using the Chicago Defender,Robert fought for his cause.He remembered the history of his nation,especially in his arguments concerning interracial marriage.He wrote,"Miscegenation began as soon the African slaves were introduced into the colonial population and continues unabated today...What's more,the opposition to interracial marriage has heightened the interest and solidified the feelings of those who resent the injunction of racial distinction in their private and personal affairs." (He believed that if laws were to restrict one's choice in a mate then in was in pure violations of the constitution and the "decision of two intelligent people to mutual love and self-sacrifice should not be a matter of public concern.Robert also published a short-lived periodical called Abbott's Monthly.The Defender actively promoted the northward migration of Black Southerners,particularly to Chicago;indeed,its columns not only reported on,but helped to bring a bout the Great Migration (African American).Defender circulation reached 50,000 by 1916;125,000by 1918; and more than 200,000by the early 1920s. A key distribution network for the newspaper were the African American railroad porters (who by 1925 came to organize as the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters).John met abdu I-Baha head of the Baha I Faith,in 1912 covering a talk of his during his stay in Chicago during his journey in the West and was listed as a frequenter of Baha I events in Chicago with his wife in 1924.After inventing the fictional character "Bud Billiken"with David Kellum,John established the Bud Billiken Club and in 1929 John and David founded the Bud Billiken Parade Picnic.After searching through several religious communities for an atmosphere free of race prejudice,even among "light skinned"African American,John officially joined the Baha I Faith in 1934 because of its freedom from such prejudice at the convention to elect its National Spiritual Assembly.John continued correspondence and economic aid to those that accepted his family history,and also assisted the owners of his birth father-the descendants of Captain Charles Stevens-whom John was able to assist during the Depression;even paying for the eduction of children.John died of Bright's diease (Kidney diease), in 1940 in Chicago Illinois.He was buried in Lincoln Cemetery on Blue Island in Illinois.His will left the newspaper in the control of his nephew, John Henry Sengstacke.