<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:blogger='http://schemas.google.com/blogger/2008' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd="http://schemas.google.com/g/2005" xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085</id><updated>2024-11-01T03:33:44.230-07:00</updated><title type='text'>COMPUTER</title><subtitle type='html'>ALL ABOUT COMPUTER</subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default?redirect=false'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><link rel='next' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default?start-index=26&amp;max-results=25&amp;redirect=false'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>44</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>25</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-9167373382692599641</id><published>2012-02-16T08:21:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:21:23.548-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Work Anywhere—and Everywhere</title><content type='html'>Laptop, notebook, desktop, kiosk—any place that gives you an on-ramp to the Internet is&lt;br /&gt;a potential workplace in Office 2010. Office 2010 Web Apps let you work with the familiar&lt;br /&gt;Office 2010 interface and work with your Word 2010, Excel 2010, PowerPoint 2010, and&lt;br /&gt;OneNote 2010 files. You can share files with other users by using Windows Live or SharePoint&lt;br /&gt;Workspace 2010 and then open and work with the files on your PC when you get back to the&lt;br /&gt;office.&lt;br /&gt;If you are a gadget lover, you might already have a smartphone with all the bells and whistles&lt;br /&gt;you can get. Office Mobile 2010 gives you another way to work on the go, using your&lt;br /&gt;Windows Mobile smartphone. You can write up an idea before breakfast, create a new document,&lt;br /&gt;and share it with the team—all before you get into work in the morning. Later, on the&lt;br /&gt;way to meet a vendor, you can add a few more details, insert a picture, and send the file for&lt;br /&gt;review—all from your phone.&lt;br /&gt;Office Mobile works with Word, Excel, Outlook, PowerPoint, and SharePoint Workspace. The&lt;br /&gt;application windows have been customized to fit the small phone screen and browser so that&lt;br /&gt;you can find what you need easily and enjoy the familiarity of the Office 2010 interface.&lt;br /&gt;This flexibility in Office 2010 gives you the freedom to follow through on your creative ideas&lt;br /&gt;in real time—whenever and wherever they occur.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/9167373382692599641/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/work-anywhereand-everywhere.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/9167373382692599641'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/9167373382692599641'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/work-anywhereand-everywhere.html' title='Work Anywhere—and Everywhere'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-3409393432660873633</id><published>2012-02-16T08:20:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:20:54.769-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Collaborate Easily and Naturally</title><content type='html'>Unless you’ve been living off the grid for the last couple of years, you’ve probably noticed&lt;br /&gt;that the world has gotten substantially smaller, thanks to the continuing expansion of Web&lt;br /&gt;technologies. Blogs, social media, and new online publishing alternatives have steeped most&lt;br /&gt;of us in a culture that is always on, always connected, and always talking.&lt;br /&gt;An increasing number of people are now working in teams, and those teams might be spread&lt;br /&gt;throughout the office or located around the world. A writer in Omaha could be working with&lt;br /&gt;a software developer in India who might have been hired by an administrator in Scotland.&lt;br /&gt;This geographical diversity within a project team is no longer an unusual occurrence—an&lt;br /&gt;increasing number of Office 2010 users need to collaborate with peers and clients all over the&lt;br /&gt;globe.&lt;br /&gt;Office 2010 includes powerful tools to facilitate easy and successful team collaboration&lt;br /&gt;and management. Co-authoring features in Word 2010, Excel 2010, PowerPoint 2010,&lt;br /&gt;and OneNote 2010 enable you to work with a variety of teammates on a single project in&lt;br /&gt;real time. And, when you use these features, your changes are automatically tracked and&lt;br /&gt;coordinated.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/3409393432660873633/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/collaborate-easily-and-naturally.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3409393432660873633'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3409393432660873633'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/collaborate-easily-and-naturally.html' title='Collaborate Easily and Naturally'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-2639315933141507690</id><published>2012-02-16T08:19:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:20:23.426-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Changes in Office 2010</title><content type='html'>This section presents a look at the key ideas behind the development of the features you will&lt;br /&gt;find in Office 2010. Working independently or in a group, at your PC or on the road, you’ll&lt;br /&gt;find new tools and techniques that help you create great-looking documents, worksheets,&lt;br /&gt;presentations, and more, and enable you to share your work easily with others. Office 2010 shows that powerful programs don’t have to be difficult to use. Program designers&lt;br /&gt;know that users today need a great variety of powerful, flexible tools, and that it’s important&lt;br /&gt;that those tools and features be easy to find and use. For this reason, you’ll find quick&lt;br /&gt;access to style galleries, themes, and more that help you select professional designs, choose&lt;br /&gt;from color schemes that work, and create a professional look whether you’re creating documents,&lt;br /&gt;worksheets, presentations, notebooks, or database tables.&lt;br /&gt;To help you take your ideas to the next level, Office 2010 offers artistic effects and picture&lt;br /&gt;editing, video editing in PowerPoint, new data visualizations (including sparklines and slicers)&lt;br /&gt;in Excel, and the ability to manipulate fonts professionally in Word. And this is just the beginning—&lt;br /&gt;there’s much more, as you’ll see in the chapters in Part II, “Hit the Ground Running.”&lt;br /&gt;And not only will your output be better, but the whole document creation process is easier,&lt;br /&gt;thanks to enhanced search features, simplified navigation, the contextual spell checker,&lt;br /&gt;translation&lt;br /&gt;tools, and more.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/2639315933141507690/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/changes-in-office-2010.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/2639315933141507690'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/2639315933141507690'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/changes-in-office-2010.html' title='Changes in Office 2010'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-7921747169766919589</id><published>2012-02-16T08:18:00.002-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:19:29.280-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Features that Fit Your Work Style of MS office</title><content type='html'>For many of us, our long workdays of focusing on single projects have evolved into days with&lt;br /&gt;smaller blocks of time dedicated to one of many things we have going on. We are getting&lt;br /&gt;more done than ever—and Office 2010 can help you better enjoy the process. What’s exciting about Office 2010 is that it’s more than a set of powerful tools that help you&lt;br /&gt;meet and manage the demands of your fast-paced workday. For example, if you do most of&lt;br /&gt;your work at your desk, crunching numbers, answering e-mail, and preparing reports, Office&lt;br /&gt;2010 helps you work faster, manage huge worksheets, design effective documents easily, and&lt;br /&gt;present your work in new, visual, and flexible ways that help your diverse audience understand&lt;br /&gt;your ideas.&lt;br /&gt;If you work primarily in a team, you’ll find that Office 2010 makes collaboration easy with&lt;br /&gt;features that enable you to share files, co-author documents, and even contact teammates in&lt;br /&gt;real time.&lt;br /&gt;If you work predominantly on the road—and frequently need to get updates on projects,&lt;br /&gt;add items to the calendar, or approve new documents and strategies—Office 2010 gives you&lt;br /&gt;the flexibility to use the Office applications you know and love regardless of whether you’re&lt;br /&gt;logging in from your PC, your browser, or your phone.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/7921747169766919589/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/features-that-fit-your-work-style-of-ms.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/7921747169766919589'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/7921747169766919589'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/features-that-fit-your-work-style-of-ms.html' title='Features that Fit Your Work Style of MS office'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-8474817609675325147</id><published>2012-02-16T08:18:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:18:30.080-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Welcome to Office 2010</title><content type='html'>This is an exciting time to be working with technology. Changes are occurring with what feels&lt;br /&gt;like ever-increasing speed. The world is growing continually smaller, and far-away places are&lt;br /&gt;more and more within our reach. Today our coworkers are almost as likely to be working on&lt;br /&gt;a different continent as they are to be down the hall. Opportunities are possible now that we&lt;br /&gt;couldn’t envision a few years back—more of us are telecommuting, training by webinar, and&lt;br /&gt;planning projects virtually, all of which is accomplished through Web and phone access to&lt;br /&gt;the tools that make it all possible.&lt;br /&gt;Office 2010 was designed with evolving workplace trends in mind. With Office 2010, you&lt;br /&gt;can use familiar, reliable Office applications to work more efficiently, produce better-thanever&lt;br /&gt;results, collaborate in real time with peers in your office or around the world, and continue&lt;br /&gt;your work from any point on the globe with Web or phone access. And even though&lt;br /&gt;these are big changes, they fit easily into what you’re already doing. The tools you need to&lt;br /&gt;implement&lt;br /&gt;these changes in your work efforts don’t have a steep learning curve. By adding&lt;br /&gt;to the functionality of your favorite features (Print, Paste, and Picture Effects, to name a&lt;br /&gt;few examples), Office 2010 helps you get more done with less effort. And the collaboration&lt;br /&gt;and anywhere access features make working with anyone, anytime, a natural and intuitive&lt;br /&gt;process.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/8474817609675325147/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/welcome-to-office-2010.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/8474817609675325147'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/8474817609675325147'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/welcome-to-office-2010.html' title='Welcome to Office 2010'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-605226358155007908</id><published>2012-02-16T08:16:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:17:19.372-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Envision the Possibilities of ms office 2010</title><content type='html'>Office 2010 ushers in a new era in productivity software by making the reliable tools&lt;br /&gt;you’ve come to expect from Microsoft easier to use and more powerful than ever. In this&lt;br /&gt;part of the book, you’ll get the big picture view of how Office 2010 improves the way you&lt;br /&gt;work every day.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/605226358155007908/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/envision-possibilities-of-ms-office.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/605226358155007908'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/605226358155007908'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/envision-possibilities-of-ms-office.html' title='Envision the Possibilities of ms office 2010'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-4231869321839811802</id><published>2012-02-16T08:15:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:16:10.450-08:00</updated><title type='text'>4.Office Home and Business 2010</title><content type='html'>It streamlines the suite to the basic applications used&lt;br /&gt;by small business and home users: Word 2010, Excel 2010, PowerPoint 2010, OneNote&lt;br /&gt;2010, and Outlook 2010.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/4231869321839811802/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/4office-home-and-business-2010.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/4231869321839811802'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/4231869321839811802'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/4office-home-and-business-2010.html' title='4.Office Home and Business 2010'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-3730083954476875253</id><published>2012-02-16T08:14:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:15:25.835-08:00</updated><title type='text'>3.Office Standard 2010</title><content type='html'>It&#39;s removes Access 2010 from the mix. It offers users who work&lt;br /&gt;with documents, worksheets, marketing materials, presentations, notebooks, and—of&lt;br /&gt;course—e-mail and schedules just what they need: Word 2010, Excel 2010, PowerPoint&lt;br /&gt;2010, OneNote 2010, Outlook 2010, and Publisher 2010.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/3730083954476875253/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/3office-standard-2010.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3730083954476875253'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3730083954476875253'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/3office-standard-2010.html' title='3.Office Standard 2010'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-5488263925932218661</id><published>2012-02-16T08:13:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:14:39.673-08:00</updated><title type='text'>2, Office Professional 2010</title><content type='html'>It is designed for the business user who needs all the power&lt;br /&gt;of the traditional applications as well as access to data management tools. This version&lt;br /&gt;includes Word 2010, Excel 2010, PowerPoint 2010, OneNote 2010, Outlook 2010,&lt;br /&gt;Publisher 2010, and Access 2010.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/5488263925932218661/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/2-office-professional-2010.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/5488263925932218661'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/5488263925932218661'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/2-office-professional-2010.html' title='2, Office Professional 2010'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-308975749728076815</id><published>2012-02-16T08:12:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:13:43.465-08:00</updated><title type='text'>1. Office Professional Plus 2010</title><content type='html'>it is for the high-end user who collaborates with&lt;br /&gt;others, manages data, and needs flexibility, mobility, and coauthoring capabilities. This&lt;br /&gt;edition includes Word 2010, Excel 2010, PowerPoint 2010, OneNote 2010, Outlook&lt;br /&gt;2010, Publisher 2010, Access 2010, SharePoint Workspace 2010, InfoPath 2010, and&lt;br /&gt;Communicator 2010.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/308975749728076815/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/1-office-professional-plus-2010.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/308975749728076815'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/308975749728076815'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/1-office-professional-plus-2010.html' title='1. Office Professional Plus 2010'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-3092613528645681895</id><published>2012-02-16T08:10:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2012-02-16T08:12:10.147-08:00</updated><title type='text'>What’s in Microsoft Office 2010?</title><content type='html'>Similar to earlier releases, Microsoft Office 2010 is available in several versions, each designed&lt;br /&gt;with a specific group of users in mind, and each accessible via PC, browser, or phone. Here’s&lt;br /&gt;what you’ll find in each version of Microsoft Office 2010:</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/3092613528645681895/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/whats-in-microsoft-office-2010.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3092613528645681895'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3092613528645681895'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2012/02/whats-in-microsoft-office-2010.html' title='What’s in Microsoft Office 2010?'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-973482348117790995</id><published>2010-06-12T12:35:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:37:19.926-07:00</updated><title type='text'>The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965–1980)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The real explosion in computer use came with the integrated circuit generation.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit (IC) or &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;microchip&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;, made of germanium.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Six months later, Robert Noyce (who had also been working on integrated circuit&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;design) created a similar device using silicon instead of germanium. This is the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;silicon chip upon which the computer industry was built. Early ICs allowed&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;IC technology also allowed for the development of more powerful supercomputers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Seymour Cray took what he had learned while building the CDC 6600 and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;started his own company, the Cray Research Corporation. This company produced&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;a number of supercomputers, starting with the $8.8 million Cray-1, in&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;1976. The Cray-1, in stark contrast to the CDC 6600, could execute over 160 million&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;instructions per second and could support 8 megabytes of memory.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;dozens of transistors to exist on a single silicon chip that was smaller than a single&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;“discrete component” transistor. Computers became faster, smaller, and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;cheaper, bringing huge gains in processing power. The IBM System/360 family&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of computers was among the first commercially available systems to be built&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;entirely of solid-state components. The 360 product line was also IBM’s first&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;offering where all of the machines in the family were compatible, meaning they&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;all used the same assembly language. Users of smaller machines could upgrade to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;larger systems without rewriting all of their software. This was a revolutionary&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;new concept at the time.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The IC generation also saw the introduction of time-sharing and multiprogramming&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;(the ability for more than one person to use the computer at a time).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Multiprogramming, in turn, necessitated the introduction of new operating systems&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;for these computers. Time-sharing minicomputers such as DEC’s PDP-8 and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;PDP-11 made computing affordable to smaller businesses and more universities.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Helvetica;font-size:78%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Helvetica;font-size:78%;&quot;&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;N&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;N&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;P&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Collector&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Base&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;N&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;N&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;P&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/973482348117790995/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/third-generation-integrated-circuit_12.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/973482348117790995'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/973482348117790995'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/third-generation-integrated-circuit_12.html' title='The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965–1980)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-533728122527106838</id><published>2010-06-12T12:35:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:37:18.974-07:00</updated><title type='text'>The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965–1980)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The real explosion in computer use came with the integrated circuit generation.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit (IC) or &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;microchip&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;, made of germanium.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Six months later, Robert Noyce (who had also been working on integrated circuit&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;design) created a similar device using silicon instead of germanium. This is the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;silicon chip upon which the computer industry was built. Early ICs allowed&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;IC technology also allowed for the development of more powerful supercomputers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Seymour Cray took what he had learned while building the CDC 6600 and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;started his own company, the Cray Research Corporation. This company produced&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;a number of supercomputers, starting with the $8.8 million Cray-1, in&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;1976. The Cray-1, in stark contrast to the CDC 6600, could execute over 160 million&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;instructions per second and could support 8 megabytes of memory.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;dozens of transistors to exist on a single silicon chip that was smaller than a single&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;“discrete component” transistor. Computers became faster, smaller, and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;cheaper, bringing huge gains in processing power. The IBM System/360 family&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of computers was among the first commercially available systems to be built&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;entirely of solid-state components. The 360 product line was also IBM’s first&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;offering where all of the machines in the family were compatible, meaning they&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;all used the same assembly language. Users of smaller machines could upgrade to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;larger systems without rewriting all of their software. This was a revolutionary&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;new concept at the time.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The IC generation also saw the introduction of time-sharing and multiprogramming&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;(the ability for more than one person to use the computer at a time).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Multiprogramming, in turn, necessitated the introduction of new operating systems&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;for these computers. Time-sharing minicomputers such as DEC’s PDP-8 and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;PDP-11 made computing affordable to smaller businesses and more universities.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Helvetica;font-size:78%;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Helvetica;font-size:78%;&quot;&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;N&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;N&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;P&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Collector&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Base&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;N&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;N&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;P&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/533728122527106838/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/third-generation-integrated-circuit.html#comment-form' title='2 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/533728122527106838'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/533728122527106838'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/third-generation-integrated-circuit.html' title='The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965–1980)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>2</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-3465111594270956508</id><published>2010-06-12T12:32:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:35:18.677-07:00</updated><title type='text'>The Second Generation: Transistorized Computers (1954–1965)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The vacuum tube technology of the first generation was not very dependable. In&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;fact, some ENIAC detractors believed that the system would never run because&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the tubes would burn out faster than they could be replaced. Although system reliability&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;wasn’t as bad as the doomsayers predicted, vacuum tube systems often&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;experienced more downtime than uptime.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;In 1948, three researchers with Bell Laboratories—John Bardeen, Walter Brattain,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and William Shockley—invented the transistor. This new technology not only&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;revolutionized devices such as televisions and radios, but also pushed the computer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;industry into a new generation. Because transistors consume less power than vacuum&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;tubes, are smaller, and work more reliably, the circuitry in computers consequently&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;became smaller and more reliable. Despite using transistors, computers of this generation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;were still bulky and quite costly. Typically only universities, governments, and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;large businesses could justify the expense. Nevertheless, a plethora of computer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;makers emerged in this generation; IBM, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and Univac (now Unisys) dominated the industry. IBM marketed the 7094 for scientific&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;applications and the 1401 for business applications. DEC was busy manufacturing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the PDP-1. A company founded (but soon sold) by Mauchly and Eckert built the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Univac systems. The most successful Unisys systems of this generation belonged to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;its 1100 series. Another company, Control Data Corporation (CDC), under the supervision&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of Seymour Cray, built the CDC 6600, the world’s first supercomputer. The&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;$10 million CDC 6600 could perform 10 million instructions per second, used 60-bit&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;words, and had an astounding 128 kilowords of main memory.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/3465111594270956508/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/second-generation-transistorized.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3465111594270956508'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3465111594270956508'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/second-generation-transistorized.html' title='The Second Generation: Transistorized Computers (1954–1965)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-6755418456619854995</id><published>2010-06-12T12:30:00.003-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:32:11.976-07:00</updated><title type='text'>The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Although Babbage is often called the “father of computing,” his machines were&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;mechanical, not electrical or electronic. In the 1930s, Konrad Zuse (1910–1995)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;picked up where Babbage left off, adding electrical technology and other improvements&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;to Babbage’s design. Zuse’s computer, the Z1, used electromechanical&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;relays instead of Babbage’s hand-cranked gears. The Z1 was programmable and&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;cally to solve systems of linear equations, we cannot call it a general-purpose&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;computer. There were, however, some features that the ABC had in common with&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the general-purpose ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;which was invented a few years later. These common features caused considerable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;controversy as to who should be given the credit (and patent rights) for the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;invention of the electronic digital computer. (The interested reader can find more&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;details on a rather lengthy lawsuit involving Atanasoff and the ABC in Mollenhoff&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[1988].)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Mauchly (1907–1980) and J. Presper Eckert (1929–1995) were the two&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;principle inventors of the ENIAC, introduced to the public in 1946. The ENIAC&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;is recognized as the first all-electronic, general-purpose digital computer. This&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine used 17,468 vacuum tubes, occupied 1,800 square feet of floor space,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;weighed 30 tons, and consumed 174 kilowatts of power. The ENIAC had a memory&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;capacity of about 1,000 information bits (about 20 10-digit decimal numbers)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and used punched cards to store data.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Mauchly’s vision for an electronic calculating machine was born from&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;his lifelong interest in predicting the weather mathematically. While a professor&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of physics at Ursinus College near Philadelphia, Mauchly engaged dozens of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;adding machines and student operators to crunch mounds of data that he believed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;would reveal mathematical relationships behind weather patterns. He felt that if&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;he could have only a little more computational power, he could reach the goal&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;that seemed just beyond his grasp. Pursuant to the Allied war effort, and with&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;ulterior motives to learn about electronic computation, Mauchly volunteered for a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;crash course in electrical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;School of Engineering. Upon completion of this program, Mauchly accepted a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;teaching position at the Moore School, where he taught a brilliant young student,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;J. Presper Eckert. Mauchly and Eckert found a mutual interest in building an&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;electronic calculating device. In order to secure the funding they needed to build&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;their machine, they wrote a formal proposal for review by the school. They portrayed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;their machine as conservatively as they could, billing it as an “automatic&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;calculator.” Although they probably knew that computers would be able to function&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;most efficiently using the binary numbering system, Mauchly and Eckert&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;designed their system to use base 10 numbers, in keeping with the appearance of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;building a huge electronic adding machine. The university rejected Mauchly and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Eckert’s proposal. Fortunately, the United States Army was more interested.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;had a memory, an arithmetic unit, and a control unit. Because money and resources&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;were scarce in wartime Germany, Zuse used discarded movie film instead of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;punched cards for input. Although his machine was designed to use vacuum tubes,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Zuse, who was building his machine on his own, could not afford the tubes. Thus,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the Z1 correctly belongs in the first generation, although it had no tubes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Zuse built the Z1 in his parents’ Berlin living room while Germany was at&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;war with most of Europe. Fortunately, he couldn’t convince the Nazis to buy his&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine. They did not realize the tactical advantage such a device would give&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;them. Allied bombs destroyed all three of Zuse’s first systems, the Z1, Z2, and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Z3. Zuse’s impressive machines could not be refined until after the war and ended&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;up being another “evolutionary dead end” in the history of computers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Digital computers, as we know them today, are the outcome of work done by&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;a number of people in the 1930s and 1940s. Pascal’s basic mechanical calculator&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;was designed and modified simultaneously by many people; the same can be said&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of the modern electronic computer. Notwithstanding the continual arguments&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;about who was first with what, three people clearly stand out as the inventors of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;modern computers: John Atanasoff, John Mauchly, and J. Presper Eckert.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Atanasoff (1904–1995) has been credited with the construction of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;first completely electronic computer. The Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) was&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;a binary machine built from vacuum tubes. Because this system was built specifi&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/6755418456619854995/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/first-generation-vacuum-tube-computers_8332.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/6755418456619854995'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/6755418456619854995'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/first-generation-vacuum-tube-computers_8332.html' title='The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-3116087091546445339</id><published>2010-06-12T12:30:00.002-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:32:10.648-07:00</updated><title type='text'>The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Although Babbage is often called the “father of computing,” his machines were&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;mechanical, not electrical or electronic. In the 1930s, Konrad Zuse (1910–1995)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;picked up where Babbage left off, adding electrical technology and other improvements&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;to Babbage’s design. Zuse’s computer, the Z1, used electromechanical&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;relays instead of Babbage’s hand-cranked gears. The Z1 was programmable and&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;cally to solve systems of linear equations, we cannot call it a general-purpose&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;computer. There were, however, some features that the ABC had in common with&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the general-purpose ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;which was invented a few years later. These common features caused considerable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;controversy as to who should be given the credit (and patent rights) for the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;invention of the electronic digital computer. (The interested reader can find more&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;details on a rather lengthy lawsuit involving Atanasoff and the ABC in Mollenhoff&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[1988].)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Mauchly (1907–1980) and J. Presper Eckert (1929–1995) were the two&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;principle inventors of the ENIAC, introduced to the public in 1946. The ENIAC&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;is recognized as the first all-electronic, general-purpose digital computer. This&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine used 17,468 vacuum tubes, occupied 1,800 square feet of floor space,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;weighed 30 tons, and consumed 174 kilowatts of power. The ENIAC had a memory&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;capacity of about 1,000 information bits (about 20 10-digit decimal numbers)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and used punched cards to store data.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Mauchly’s vision for an electronic calculating machine was born from&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;his lifelong interest in predicting the weather mathematically. While a professor&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of physics at Ursinus College near Philadelphia, Mauchly engaged dozens of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;adding machines and student operators to crunch mounds of data that he believed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;would reveal mathematical relationships behind weather patterns. He felt that if&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;he could have only a little more computational power, he could reach the goal&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;that seemed just beyond his grasp. Pursuant to the Allied war effort, and with&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;ulterior motives to learn about electronic computation, Mauchly volunteered for a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;crash course in electrical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;School of Engineering. Upon completion of this program, Mauchly accepted a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;teaching position at the Moore School, where he taught a brilliant young student,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;J. Presper Eckert. Mauchly and Eckert found a mutual interest in building an&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;electronic calculating device. In order to secure the funding they needed to build&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;their machine, they wrote a formal proposal for review by the school. They portrayed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;their machine as conservatively as they could, billing it as an “automatic&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;calculator.” Although they probably knew that computers would be able to function&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;most efficiently using the binary numbering system, Mauchly and Eckert&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;designed their system to use base 10 numbers, in keeping with the appearance of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;building a huge electronic adding machine. The university rejected Mauchly and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Eckert’s proposal. Fortunately, the United States Army was more interested.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;had a memory, an arithmetic unit, and a control unit. Because money and resources&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;were scarce in wartime Germany, Zuse used discarded movie film instead of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;punched cards for input. Although his machine was designed to use vacuum tubes,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Zuse, who was building his machine on his own, could not afford the tubes. Thus,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the Z1 correctly belongs in the first generation, although it had no tubes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Zuse built the Z1 in his parents’ Berlin living room while Germany was at&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;war with most of Europe. Fortunately, he couldn’t convince the Nazis to buy his&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine. They did not realize the tactical advantage such a device would give&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;them. Allied bombs destroyed all three of Zuse’s first systems, the Z1, Z2, and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Z3. Zuse’s impressive machines could not be refined until after the war and ended&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;up being another “evolutionary dead end” in the history of computers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Digital computers, as we know them today, are the outcome of work done by&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;a number of people in the 1930s and 1940s. Pascal’s basic mechanical calculator&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;was designed and modified simultaneously by many people; the same can be said&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of the modern electronic computer. Notwithstanding the continual arguments&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;about who was first with what, three people clearly stand out as the inventors of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;modern computers: John Atanasoff, John Mauchly, and J. Presper Eckert.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Atanasoff (1904–1995) has been credited with the construction of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;first completely electronic computer. The Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) was&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;a binary machine built from vacuum tubes. Because this system was built specifi&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/3116087091546445339/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/first-generation-vacuum-tube-computers_1129.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3116087091546445339'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3116087091546445339'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/first-generation-vacuum-tube-computers_1129.html' title='The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-3429124424559109432</id><published>2010-06-12T12:30:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:32:07.673-07:00</updated><title type='text'>The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Although Babbage is often called the “father of computing,” his machines were&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;mechanical, not electrical or electronic. In the 1930s, Konrad Zuse (1910–1995)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;picked up where Babbage left off, adding electrical technology and other improvements&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;to Babbage’s design. Zuse’s computer, the Z1, used electromechanical&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;relays instead of Babbage’s hand-cranked gears. The Z1 was programmable and&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;cally to solve systems of linear equations, we cannot call it a general-purpose&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;computer. There were, however, some features that the ABC had in common with&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the general-purpose ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;which was invented a few years later. These common features caused considerable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;controversy as to who should be given the credit (and patent rights) for the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;invention of the electronic digital computer. (The interested reader can find more&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;details on a rather lengthy lawsuit involving Atanasoff and the ABC in Mollenhoff&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[1988].)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Mauchly (1907–1980) and J. Presper Eckert (1929–1995) were the two&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;principle inventors of the ENIAC, introduced to the public in 1946. The ENIAC&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;is recognized as the first all-electronic, general-purpose digital computer. This&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine used 17,468 vacuum tubes, occupied 1,800 square feet of floor space,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;weighed 30 tons, and consumed 174 kilowatts of power. The ENIAC had a memory&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;capacity of about 1,000 information bits (about 20 10-digit decimal numbers)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and used punched cards to store data.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Mauchly’s vision for an electronic calculating machine was born from&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;his lifelong interest in predicting the weather mathematically. While a professor&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of physics at Ursinus College near Philadelphia, Mauchly engaged dozens of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;adding machines and student operators to crunch mounds of data that he believed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;would reveal mathematical relationships behind weather patterns. He felt that if&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;he could have only a little more computational power, he could reach the goal&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;that seemed just beyond his grasp. Pursuant to the Allied war effort, and with&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;ulterior motives to learn about electronic computation, Mauchly volunteered for a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;crash course in electrical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;School of Engineering. Upon completion of this program, Mauchly accepted a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;teaching position at the Moore School, where he taught a brilliant young student,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;J. Presper Eckert. Mauchly and Eckert found a mutual interest in building an&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;electronic calculating device. In order to secure the funding they needed to build&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;their machine, they wrote a formal proposal for review by the school. They portrayed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;their machine as conservatively as they could, billing it as an “automatic&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;calculator.” Although they probably knew that computers would be able to function&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;most efficiently using the binary numbering system, Mauchly and Eckert&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;designed their system to use base 10 numbers, in keeping with the appearance of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;building a huge electronic adding machine. The university rejected Mauchly and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Eckert’s proposal. Fortunately, the United States Army was more interested.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;had a memory, an arithmetic unit, and a control unit. Because money and resources&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;were scarce in wartime Germany, Zuse used discarded movie film instead of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;punched cards for input. Although his machine was designed to use vacuum tubes,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Zuse, who was building his machine on his own, could not afford the tubes. Thus,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the Z1 correctly belongs in the first generation, although it had no tubes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Zuse built the Z1 in his parents’ Berlin living room while Germany was at&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;war with most of Europe. Fortunately, he couldn’t convince the Nazis to buy his&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine. They did not realize the tactical advantage such a device would give&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;them. Allied bombs destroyed all three of Zuse’s first systems, the Z1, Z2, and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Z3. Zuse’s impressive machines could not be refined until after the war and ended&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;up being another “evolutionary dead end” in the history of computers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Digital computers, as we know them today, are the outcome of work done by&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;a number of people in the 1930s and 1940s. Pascal’s basic mechanical calculator&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;was designed and modified simultaneously by many people; the same can be said&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of the modern electronic computer. Notwithstanding the continual arguments&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;about who was first with what, three people clearly stand out as the inventors of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;modern computers: John Atanasoff, John Mauchly, and J. Presper Eckert.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Atanasoff (1904–1995) has been credited with the construction of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;first completely electronic computer. The Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) was&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;a binary machine built from vacuum tubes. Because this system was built specifi&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/3429124424559109432/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/first-generation-vacuum-tube-computers_12.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3429124424559109432'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/3429124424559109432'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/first-generation-vacuum-tube-computers_12.html' title='The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-2709006865536845149</id><published>2010-06-12T12:30:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:31:12.459-07:00</updated><title type='text'>The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Although Babbage is often called the “father of computing,” his machines were&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;mechanical, not electrical or electronic. In the 1930s, Konrad Zuse (1910–1995)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;picked up where Babbage left off, adding electrical technology and other improvements&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;to Babbage’s design. Zuse’s computer, the Z1, used electromechanical&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;relays instead of Babbage’s hand-cranked gears. The Z1 was programmable and&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;cally to solve systems of linear equations, we cannot call it a general-purpose&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;computer. There were, however, some features that the ABC had in common with&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the general-purpose ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;which was invented a few years later. These common features caused considerable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;controversy as to who should be given the credit (and patent rights) for the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;invention of the electronic digital computer. (The interested reader can find more&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;details on a rather lengthy lawsuit involving Atanasoff and the ABC in Mollenhoff&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[1988].)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Mauchly (1907–1980) and J. Presper Eckert (1929–1995) were the two&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;principle inventors of the ENIAC, introduced to the public in 1946. The ENIAC&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;is recognized as the first all-electronic, general-purpose digital computer. This&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine used 17,468 vacuum tubes, occupied 1,800 square feet of floor space,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;weighed 30 tons, and consumed 174 kilowatts of power. The ENIAC had a memory&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;capacity of about 1,000 information bits (about 20 10-digit decimal numbers)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and used punched cards to store data.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Mauchly’s vision for an electronic calculating machine was born from&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;his lifelong interest in predicting the weather mathematically. While a professor&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of physics at Ursinus College near Philadelphia, Mauchly engaged dozens of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;adding machines and student operators to crunch mounds of data that he believed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;would reveal mathematical relationships behind weather patterns. He felt that if&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;he could have only a little more computational power, he could reach the goal&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;that seemed just beyond his grasp. Pursuant to the Allied war effort, and with&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;ulterior motives to learn about electronic computation, Mauchly volunteered for a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;crash course in electrical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;School of Engineering. Upon completion of this program, Mauchly accepted a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;teaching position at the Moore School, where he taught a brilliant young student,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;J. Presper Eckert. Mauchly and Eckert found a mutual interest in building an&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;electronic calculating device. In order to secure the funding they needed to build&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;their machine, they wrote a formal proposal for review by the school. They portrayed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;their machine as conservatively as they could, billing it as an “automatic&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;calculator.” Although they probably knew that computers would be able to function&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;most efficiently using the binary numbering system, Mauchly and Eckert&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;designed their system to use base 10 numbers, in keeping with the appearance of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;building a huge electronic adding machine. The university rejected Mauchly and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Eckert’s proposal. Fortunately, the United States Army was more interested.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;had a memory, an arithmetic unit, and a control unit. Because money and resources&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;were scarce in wartime Germany, Zuse used discarded movie film instead of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;punched cards for input. Although his machine was designed to use vacuum tubes,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Zuse, who was building his machine on his own, could not afford the tubes. Thus,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the Z1 correctly belongs in the first generation, although it had no tubes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Zuse built the Z1 in his parents’ Berlin living room while Germany was at&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;war with most of Europe. Fortunately, he couldn’t convince the Nazis to buy his&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine. They did not realize the tactical advantage such a device would give&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;them. Allied bombs destroyed all three of Zuse’s first systems, the Z1, Z2, and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Z3. Zuse’s impressive machines could not be refined until after the war and ended&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;up being another “evolutionary dead end” in the history of computers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Digital computers, as we know them today, are the outcome of work done by&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;a number of people in the 1930s and 1940s. Pascal’s basic mechanical calculator&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;was designed and modified simultaneously by many people; the same can be said&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of the modern electronic computer. Notwithstanding the continual arguments&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;about who was first with what, three people clearly stand out as the inventors of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;modern computers: John Atanasoff, John Mauchly, and J. Presper Eckert.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;John Atanasoff (1904–1995) has been credited with the construction of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;first completely electronic computer. The Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) was&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;a binary machine built from vacuum tubes. Because this system was built specifi&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/2709006865536845149/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/first-generation-vacuum-tube-computers.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/2709006865536845149'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/2709006865536845149'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/first-generation-vacuum-tube-computers.html' title='The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-2978590532857798277</id><published>2010-06-12T12:29:00.003-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:30:30.710-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Prior to the 1500s, a typical European businessperson used an abacus for calculations&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and recorded the result of his ciphering in Roman numerals. After the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;decimal numbering system finally replaced Roman numerals, a number of people&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;invented devices to make decimal calculations even faster and more accu&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;rate. Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635) has been credited with the invention of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;first mechanical calculator, the Calculating Clock (exact date unknown). This&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;device was able to add and subtract numbers containing as many as six digits. In&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;1642, Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) developed a mechanical calculator called the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Pascaline to help his father with his tax work. The Pascaline could do addition&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;with carry and subtraction. It was probably the first mechanical adding device&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;actually used for a practical purpose. In fact, the Pascaline was so well conceived&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;that its basic design was still being used at the beginning of the twentieth&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;century, as evidenced by the Lightning Portable Adder in 1908, and the Addometer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;in 1920. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716), a noted mathematician,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;invented a calculator known as the Stepped Reckoner that could add,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;subtract, multiply, and divide. None of these devices could be programmed or&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;had memory. They required manual intervention throughout each step of their&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Although machines like the Pascaline were used into the twentieth century,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;new calculator designs began to emerge in the nineteenth century. One of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;most ambitious of these new designs was the Difference Engine by Charles Babbage&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;(1791–1871). Some people refer to Babbage as “the father of computing.”&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;By all accounts, he was an eccentric genius who brought us, among other things,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the skeleton key and the “cow catcher,” a device intended to push cows and other&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;movable obstructions out of the way of locomotives.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Babbage built his Difference Engine in 1822. The Difference Engine got its&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;name because it used a calculating technique called the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;method of differences&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;. The&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine was designed to mechanize the solution of polynomial functions and was&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;actually a calculator, not a computer. Babbage also designed a general-purpose&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine in 1833 called the Analytical Engine. Although Babbage died before he&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;could build it, the Analytical Engine was designed to be more versatile than his&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;earlier Difference Engine. The Analytical Engine would have been capable of performing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;any mathematical operation. The Analytical Engine included many of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;components associated with modern computers: an arithmetic processing unit to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;perform calculations (Babbage referred to this as the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;mill&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;), a memory (the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;store&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and input and output devices. Babbage also included a conditional branching&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;operation where the next instruction to be performed was determined by the result&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of the previous operation. Ada, Countess of Lovelace and daughter of poet Lord&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Byron, suggested that Babbage write a plan for how the machine would calculate&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;numbers. This is regarded as the first computer program, and Ada is considered to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;be the first computer programmer. It is also rumored that she suggested the use of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;the binary number system rather than the decimal number system to store data.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/2978590532857798277/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/generation-zero-mechanical-calculating_2661.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/2978590532857798277'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/2978590532857798277'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/generation-zero-mechanical-calculating_2661.html' title='Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-898379101863102321</id><published>2010-06-12T12:29:00.002-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:30:29.792-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Prior to the 1500s, a typical European businessperson used an abacus for calculations&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and recorded the result of his ciphering in Roman numerals. After the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;decimal numbering system finally replaced Roman numerals, a number of people&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;invented devices to make decimal calculations even faster and more accu&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;rate. Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635) has been credited with the invention of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;first mechanical calculator, the Calculating Clock (exact date unknown). This&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;device was able to add and subtract numbers containing as many as six digits. In&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;1642, Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) developed a mechanical calculator called the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Pascaline to help his father with his tax work. The Pascaline could do addition&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;with carry and subtraction. It was probably the first mechanical adding device&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;actually used for a practical purpose. In fact, the Pascaline was so well conceived&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;that its basic design was still being used at the beginning of the twentieth&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;century, as evidenced by the Lightning Portable Adder in 1908, and the Addometer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;in 1920. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716), a noted mathematician,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;invented a calculator known as the Stepped Reckoner that could add,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;subtract, multiply, and divide. None of these devices could be programmed or&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;had memory. They required manual intervention throughout each step of their&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Although machines like the Pascaline were used into the twentieth century,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;new calculator designs began to emerge in the nineteenth century. One of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;most ambitious of these new designs was the Difference Engine by Charles Babbage&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;(1791–1871). Some people refer to Babbage as “the father of computing.”&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;By all accounts, he was an eccentric genius who brought us, among other things,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the skeleton key and the “cow catcher,” a device intended to push cows and other&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;movable obstructions out of the way of locomotives.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Babbage built his Difference Engine in 1822. The Difference Engine got its&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;name because it used a calculating technique called the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;method of differences&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;. The&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine was designed to mechanize the solution of polynomial functions and was&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;actually a calculator, not a computer. Babbage also designed a general-purpose&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine in 1833 called the Analytical Engine. Although Babbage died before he&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;could build it, the Analytical Engine was designed to be more versatile than his&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;earlier Difference Engine. The Analytical Engine would have been capable of performing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;any mathematical operation. The Analytical Engine included many of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;components associated with modern computers: an arithmetic processing unit to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;perform calculations (Babbage referred to this as the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;mill&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;), a memory (the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;store&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and input and output devices. Babbage also included a conditional branching&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;operation where the next instruction to be performed was determined by the result&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of the previous operation. Ada, Countess of Lovelace and daughter of poet Lord&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Byron, suggested that Babbage write a plan for how the machine would calculate&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;numbers. This is regarded as the first computer program, and Ada is considered to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;be the first computer programmer. It is also rumored that she suggested the use of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;the binary number system rather than the decimal number system to store data.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/898379101863102321/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/generation-zero-mechanical-calculating_4570.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/898379101863102321'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/898379101863102321'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/generation-zero-mechanical-calculating_4570.html' title='Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-4450211009864274119</id><published>2010-06-12T12:29:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:30:18.272-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Prior to the 1500s, a typical European businessperson used an abacus for calculations&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and recorded the result of his ciphering in Roman numerals. After the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;decimal numbering system finally replaced Roman numerals, a number of people&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;invented devices to make decimal calculations even faster and more accu&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;rate. Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635) has been credited with the invention of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;first mechanical calculator, the Calculating Clock (exact date unknown). This&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;device was able to add and subtract numbers containing as many as six digits. In&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;1642, Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) developed a mechanical calculator called the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Pascaline to help his father with his tax work. The Pascaline could do addition&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;with carry and subtraction. It was probably the first mechanical adding device&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;actually used for a practical purpose. In fact, the Pascaline was so well conceived&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;that its basic design was still being used at the beginning of the twentieth&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;century, as evidenced by the Lightning Portable Adder in 1908, and the Addometer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;in 1920. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716), a noted mathematician,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;invented a calculator known as the Stepped Reckoner that could add,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;subtract, multiply, and divide. None of these devices could be programmed or&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;had memory. They required manual intervention throughout each step of their&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Although machines like the Pascaline were used into the twentieth century,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;new calculator designs began to emerge in the nineteenth century. One of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;most ambitious of these new designs was the Difference Engine by Charles Babbage&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;(1791–1871). Some people refer to Babbage as “the father of computing.”&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;By all accounts, he was an eccentric genius who brought us, among other things,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the skeleton key and the “cow catcher,” a device intended to push cows and other&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;movable obstructions out of the way of locomotives.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Babbage built his Difference Engine in 1822. The Difference Engine got its&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;name because it used a calculating technique called the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;method of differences&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;. The&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine was designed to mechanize the solution of polynomial functions and was&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;actually a calculator, not a computer. Babbage also designed a general-purpose&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine in 1833 called the Analytical Engine. Although Babbage died before he&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;could build it, the Analytical Engine was designed to be more versatile than his&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;earlier Difference Engine. The Analytical Engine would have been capable of performing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;any mathematical operation. The Analytical Engine included many of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;components associated with modern computers: an arithmetic processing unit to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;perform calculations (Babbage referred to this as the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;mill&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;), a memory (the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;store&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and input and output devices. Babbage also included a conditional branching&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;operation where the next instruction to be performed was determined by the result&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of the previous operation. Ada, Countess of Lovelace and daughter of poet Lord&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Byron, suggested that Babbage write a plan for how the machine would calculate&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;numbers. This is regarded as the first computer program, and Ada is considered to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;be the first computer programmer. It is also rumored that she suggested the use of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;the binary number system rather than the decimal number system to store data.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/4450211009864274119/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/generation-zero-mechanical-calculating_12.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/4450211009864274119'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/4450211009864274119'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/generation-zero-mechanical-calculating_12.html' title='Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-2122784734697654590</id><published>2010-06-12T12:29:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:30:04.655-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Prior to the 1500s, a typical European businessperson used an abacus for calculations&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and recorded the result of his ciphering in Roman numerals. After the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;decimal numbering system finally replaced Roman numerals, a number of people&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;invented devices to make decimal calculations even faster and more accu&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;rate. Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635) has been credited with the invention of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;first mechanical calculator, the Calculating Clock (exact date unknown). This&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;device was able to add and subtract numbers containing as many as six digits. In&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;1642, Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) developed a mechanical calculator called the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Pascaline to help his father with his tax work. The Pascaline could do addition&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;with carry and subtraction. It was probably the first mechanical adding device&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;actually used for a practical purpose. In fact, the Pascaline was so well conceived&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;that its basic design was still being used at the beginning of the twentieth&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;century, as evidenced by the Lightning Portable Adder in 1908, and the Addometer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;in 1920. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716), a noted mathematician,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;invented a calculator known as the Stepped Reckoner that could add,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;subtract, multiply, and divide. None of these devices could be programmed or&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;had memory. They required manual intervention throughout each step of their&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;calculations.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Although machines like the Pascaline were used into the twentieth century,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;new calculator designs began to emerge in the nineteenth century. One of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;most ambitious of these new designs was the Difference Engine by Charles Babbage&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;(1791–1871). Some people refer to Babbage as “the father of computing.”&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;By all accounts, he was an eccentric genius who brought us, among other things,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;the skeleton key and the “cow catcher,” a device intended to push cows and other&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;movable obstructions out of the way of locomotives.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Babbage built his Difference Engine in 1822. The Difference Engine got its&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;name because it used a calculating technique called the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;method of differences&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;. The&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine was designed to mechanize the solution of polynomial functions and was&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;actually a calculator, not a computer. Babbage also designed a general-purpose&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;machine in 1833 called the Analytical Engine. Although Babbage died before he&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;could build it, the Analytical Engine was designed to be more versatile than his&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;earlier Difference Engine. The Analytical Engine would have been capable of performing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;any mathematical operation. The Analytical Engine included many of the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;components associated with modern computers: an arithmetic processing unit to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;perform calculations (Babbage referred to this as the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;mill&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;), a memory (the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;store&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;),&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and input and output devices. Babbage also included a conditional branching&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;operation where the next instruction to be performed was determined by the result&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of the previous operation. Ada, Countess of Lovelace and daughter of poet Lord&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Byron, suggested that Babbage write a plan for how the machine would calculate&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;numbers. This is regarded as the first computer program, and Ada is considered to&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;be the first computer programmer. It is also rumored that she suggested the use of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;the binary number system rather than the decimal number system to store data.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/2122784734697654590/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/generation-zero-mechanical-calculating.html#comment-form' title='3 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/2122784734697654590'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/2122784734697654590'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/generation-zero-mechanical-calculating.html' title='Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>3</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-5249513165451037358</id><published>2010-06-12T12:27:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:29:22.280-07:00</updated><title type='text'>HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;During their 50-year life span, computers have become the perfect example of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;modern convenience. Living memory is strained to recall the days of steno&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;pools, carbon paper, and mimeograph machines. It sometimes seems that&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;these magical computing machines were developed instantaneously in the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;form that we now know them. But the developmental path of computers is&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;paved with accidental discovery, commercial coercion, and whimsical fancy.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;And occasionally computers have even improved through the application of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;solid engineering practices! Despite all of the twists, turns, and technological&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;dead ends, computers have evolved at a pace that defies comprehension. We&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;can fully appreciate where we are today only when we have seen where we’ve&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;come from.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;In the sections that follow, we divide the evolution of computers into generations,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;each generation being defined by the technology used to build the machine.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;We have provided approximate dates for each generation for reference purposes&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;only. You will find little agreement among experts as to the exact starting and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;ending times of each technological epoch.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Every invention reflects the time in which it was made, so one might wonder&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;whether it would have been called a computer if it had been invented in the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;late 1990s. How much computation do we actually see pouring from the mysterious&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;boxes perched on or beside our desks? Until recently, computers served us&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;only by performing mind-bending mathematical manipulations. No longer limited&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;to white-jacketed scientists, today’s computers help us to write documents,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;keep in touch with loved ones across the globe, and do our shopping chores.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Modern business computers spend only a minuscule part of their time performing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;accounting calculations. Their main purpose is to provide users with a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;bounty of strategic information for competitive advantage. Has the word &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;computer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;now become a misnomer? An anachronism? What, then, should we call&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;them, if not computers?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;We cannot present the complete history of computing in a few pages. Entire&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;books have been written on this subject and even they leave their readers wanting&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;for more detail. If we have piqued your interest, we refer you to look at some of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;the books cited in the list of references at the end of this chapter.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/5249513165451037358/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/historical-development_12.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/5249513165451037358'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/5249513165451037358'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/historical-development_12.html' title='HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-672452961814974756</id><published>2010-06-12T12:27:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:28:16.454-07:00</updated><title type='text'>HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;During their 50-year life span, computers have become the perfect example of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;modern convenience. Living memory is strained to recall the days of steno&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;pools, carbon paper, and mimeograph machines. It sometimes seems that&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;these magical computing machines were developed instantaneously in the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;form that we now know them. But the developmental path of computers is&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;paved with accidental discovery, commercial coercion, and whimsical fancy.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;And occasionally computers have even improved through the application of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;solid engineering practices! Despite all of the twists, turns, and technological&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;dead ends, computers have evolved at a pace that defies comprehension. We&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;can fully appreciate where we are today only when we have seen where we’ve&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;come from.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;In the sections that follow, we divide the evolution of computers into generations,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;each generation being defined by the technology used to build the machine.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;We have provided approximate dates for each generation for reference purposes&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;only. You will find little agreement among experts as to the exact starting and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;ending times of each technological epoch.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Every invention reflects the time in which it was made, so one might wonder&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;whether it would have been called a computer if it had been invented in the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;late 1990s. How much computation do we actually see pouring from the mysterious&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;boxes perched on or beside our desks? Until recently, computers served us&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;only by performing mind-bending mathematical manipulations. No longer limited&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;to white-jacketed scientists, today’s computers help us to write documents,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;keep in touch with loved ones across the globe, and do our shopping chores.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Modern business computers spend only a minuscule part of their time performing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;accounting calculations. Their main purpose is to provide users with a&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;bounty of strategic information for competitive advantage. Has the word &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;computer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;now become a misnomer? An anachronism? What, then, should we call&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;them, if not computers?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;We cannot present the complete history of computing in a few pages. Entire&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;books have been written on this subject and even they leave their readers wanting&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;for more detail. If we have piqued your interest, we refer you to look at some of&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;the books cited in the list of references at the end of this chapter.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/672452961814974756/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/historical-development.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/672452961814974756'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/672452961814974756'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/historical-development.html' title='HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8296127358286256085.post-5365386921000123915</id><published>2010-06-12T12:26:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2010-06-12T12:27:41.425-07:00</updated><title type='text'>STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS</title><content type='html'>&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt; &lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Suppose you decide that you’d like to have one of those nifty new .28mm dot&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;pitch AG monitors. You figure that you can shop around a bit to find the best&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;price. You make a few phone calls, surf the Web, and drive around town until you&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;find the one that gives you the most for your money. From your experience, you&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;know that you can buy your monitor anywhere and it will probably work fine on&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;facturers have agreed to comply with connectivity and operational specifications&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;established by a number of government and industry organizations.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Some of these standards-setting organizations are ad-hoc trade associations&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;or consortia made up of industry leaders. Manufacturers know that by establishing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;common guidelines for a particular type of equipment, they can market their&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;found in excruciating detail on the Web site of the organization responsible for&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;establishing the standard cited. As an added bonus, many standards contain “normative”&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;and informative references, which provide background information in&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;areas related to the standard.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;products to a wider audience than if they came up with separate—and perhaps&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;incompatible—specifications.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Some standards organizations have formal charters and are recognized internationally&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;as the definitive authority in certain areas of electronics and computers.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;As you continue your studies in computer organization and architecture, you&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;will encounter specifications formulated by these groups, so you should know&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;something about them.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;IEEE&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;) is an organization&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;dedicated to the advancement of the professions of electronic and computer engineering.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The IEEE actively promotes the interests of the worldwide engineering&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;community by publishing an array of technical literature. The IEEE also sets standards&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;for various computer components, signaling protocols, and data representation,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;to name only a few areas of its involvement. The IEEE has a democratic, albeit convoluted,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;procedure established for the creation of new standards. Its final documents&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;are well respected and usually endure for several years before requiring revision.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;International Telecommunications Union &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;ITU&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;) is based in Geneva,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Switzerland. The ITU was formerly known as the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;Comité Consultatif International&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Télégraphique et Téléphonique&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Bold;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Bold;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Bold;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;, &lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;or the International Consultative Committee on&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Telephony and Telegraphy. As its name implies, the ITU concerns itself with the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;interoperability of telecommunications systems, including telephone, telegraph, and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;data communication systems. The telecommunications arm of the ITU, the ITU-T,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;has established a number of standards that you will encounter in the literature. You&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;will see these standards prefixed by ITU-T or the group’s former initials, CCITT.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Many countries, including the European Community, have commissioned&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;umbrella organizations to represent their interests within various international&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;groups. The group representing the United States is the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;American National Standards&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Institute &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;ANSI&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;). Great Britain has its &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;British Standards Institution &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;BSI&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;) in&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;addition to having a voice on &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;CEN &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;Comite Europeen de Normalisation&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;), the&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;European committee for standardization.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;The &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;International Organization for Standardization &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;ISO&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;) is the entity that&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;coordinates worldwide standards development, including the activities of ANSI&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;with BSI among others. ISO is not an acronym, but derives from the Greek word,&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Times-Italic;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;isos, &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;JA&quot;    style=&quot;font-family:Times-Roman;font-size:100%;color:#272526;&quot;&gt;meaning “equal.” The ISO consists of over 2,800 technical committees, each&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;of which is charged with some global standardization issue. Its interests range&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;from the behavior of photographic film to the pitch of screw threads to the complex&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;world of computer engineering. The proliferation of global trade has been&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;facilitated by the ISO. Today, the ISO touches virtually every aspect of our lives.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Throughout this book, we mention official standards designations where&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;appropriate. Definitive information concerning many of these standards can be&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p&gt;your system. You can make this assumption because computer equipment manu&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/feeds/5365386921000123915/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/standards-organizations.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/5365386921000123915'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8296127358286256085/posts/default/5365386921000123915'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://allcomp1.blogspot.com/2010/06/standards-organizations.html' title='STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS'/><author><name>computer</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/06714194153606397750</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry></feed>