HISTORY OF INDIA

South India - Introduction

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Dateline: Circa 900AD-Circa 1600AD

After the decline of the Gupta empire the country had disintegrated into a number of smaller kingdoms. Soon certain kingdoms would emerge more dominant and control a greater area. In the north the new invaders set up the Delhi Sultanate. Southern India however remained unaffected by such developments and instead had its own set of warring kingdoms. South India would remain essentially unchanged during the period of Islamic rule in the country, since it was not exposed to the new culture in the way the North was. Hence it remains till today, an example of the pre-Sultanate ideas in India. In this section we shall look at South India economy, society, art etc. with special reference to two Southern kingdoms, Chola and Vijayanagar.

Dateline: Circa 900AD-Circa 1600AD

invaders set up the Delhi Sultanate. Southern India however remained unaffected by such developments and instead had its own set of warring kingdoms. South India would remain essentially unchanged during the period of Islamic rule in the country, since it was not exposed to the new culture in the way the North was. Hence it remains till today, an example of the pre-Sultanate ideas in India. In this section we shall look at South India economy, society, art etc. with special reference to two Southern kingdoms, Chola and Vijayanagar.

South India - Rise of the Cholas

South India - Chola Government

South India - Chola Economy

South India - Rise of Vijayanagar

South India - Vijayanagar Government

South India - Vijayanagar Economy

South India - Society

South India - Art and Architecture

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South India developed its own distinct architectural style which was essentially Indian for they had not been exposed to foreign techniques as North India had. The earlier system of carving temples out of rock had now ended and the trend was to build free standing structures. A Chola temple had a shrine which was approached by one or more halls. Outside there was a tall pyramidal structure known as the shikara , which was richly decorated. The temples was then surrounded by an enclosed courtyard. The entrance gates of these courtyards were also fine works of art in themselves, modelled after the shikara's ,they often were more elaborate then the shikhara . The temples of this period had a new floor plan, a star shaped one as opposed to their earlier rectangle. The star shaped floor plan gave more room for such artistic works then the earlier rectangular one, and this was perhaps the reason it was adopted. A temple consisted of the shrine room, ante chamber and various halls and aisles,
with the entire complex built on a raised platform.
Artistic work on the temples was fabulous, with elaborate sculptures and paintings on the exterior and interior. Sculpture, particularly in stone was frequently used in decorative friezes and in decorating the various parts of the temple. One area where the artisans excelled in was bronze sculpture which usually depicted deities or saints, and these were kept in the inner shrine of the temple. These sculptures are evidence of the genius of the South Indian craftsmen. Painting was also used in decoration and vast sequences of wall were decorated with paintings depicting various scenes from religious text as well as from day to day life.
South India developed its own distinct architectural style which was essentially Indian for they had not been exposed to foreign techniques as North India had. The earlier system of carving temples out of rock had now ended and the trend was to build free standing structures. A Chola temple had a shrine which was approached by one or more halls. Outside there was a tall pyramidal structure known as the shikara , which was richly decorated. The temples was then surrounded by an enclosed courtyard. The entrance gates of these courtyards were also fine works of art in themselves, modelled after the shikara's ,they often were more elaborate then the shikhara . The temples of this period had a new floor plan, a star shaped one as opposed to their earlier rectangle. The star shaped floor plan gave more room for such artistic works then the earlier rectangular one, and this was perhaps the reason it was adopted. A temple consisted of the shrine room, ante chamber and various halls and aisles, with the entire complex built on a raised platform.
Artistic work on the temples was fabulous, with elaborate sculptures and paintings on the exterior and interior. Sculpture, particularly in stone was frequently used in decorative friezes and in decorating the various parts of the temple. One area where the artisans excelled in was bronze sculpture which usually depicted deities or saints, and these were kept in the inner shrine of the temple. These sculptures are evidence of the genius of the South Indian craftsmen. Painting was also used in decoration and vast sequences of wall were decorated with paintings depicting various scenes from religious text as well as from day to day life.

South India - Society

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The centre of all social activity during the Chola period was the temple. A temple was either constructed by the king or else it was built by the village through revenue collection and donations from the trade guilds. The temple was where the assemblies were held and where schooling was done. A new concept of Devadasis (female servants of Gods) came about with women becoming actively involved in the running and management of the temple. They joined the temple at a very young age, and the more talented were selected for training in the dance form of Bharatanatyam, which involved very difficult training.

The caste system had by now become a marked feature of the society. The Brahmins (priests) had by now established themselves as the most privileged section of society. They had tremendous political influence and were exempt from tax. The remaining caste strictures were all essentially the same as before, although the concept of untouchable castes had further spread, they were not even allowed to enter the temples. The Brahmins in fact were strong supporters of the caste system, because they knew that their position depended on the disunity of the rests of the castes. Castes were also related to economic activity, and one could acquire privileges normally given to another caste by performing similar work.

Education continued to be obtained in temples or monasteries. Brahmins on completing their education would be absorbed by the temple itself. The language of instruction was usually Sanskrit and the course was laid out in a systematic manner requiring regular attendance. Vocational studies also continued for the trade guilds were still active and the hereditary tradition continued with them. While Sanskrit remained a language of education and religion, vernacular languages soon grew and in time literature for them was written. Religion was an important part of the society. The earlier sects of Hinduism, the Shaiva and the Vaishnava had strong following. New mystical cults like Tantrics, Shahka, Kapalika, Kalamukhas and Pashupatas also emerged with their own set of rituals and practices. These cults however had restricted following and the people who were involved in them were usually non conformists and opponents of the prevailing social system. Debates were often held in temples and schools and philosophy made some considerable progress during this time.

South India - Vijayanagar Economy

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The economy of the Viajaynagar empire was essentially unchanged from that of the Chola period. Blacksmiths and carpenters were now in great demand and hence occupied a higher social scale. Meanwhile the guilds continued to have a considerable influence on the economy. The guilds themselves were hierarchical with artists guilds working under merchant guilds, who were now powerful distributors who could influence the functioning of the artists guilds considerably. The economic power of the merchant guilds was considerable and they began commanding political influence as well. Any taxation policy would first have to be cleared with the guild leaders, who were also to some extent representatives of public opinion. The system of credit was controlled by temples who lent money to those who required it and often invested in various development project. Those who could not pay back their dues would have their land taken over by the temple. The temple was often the single largest land owner and consumer of a village, the hub of village economic activity, providing various employment opportunities. Their economic influence forged a closer link between them and the monarchy.

Trade continued to remain an important part of the economy, with both foreign and domestic trade doing extremely well. In fact so important was trade to the economy, and consequently to the stability of the empire, that one of the major concerns of all kings was to control as much of the trade as possible. The constant competition amongst the kingdoms led to many incentives given to early European traders who began establishing themselves in the country. They were charged lower duties and provided various facilities. The general prevailing customs duties at that time were around 2.5% to about 5%. Certain import goods were subjected to higher duties to discourage their import so as to boost the local industries in these sectors. The main imports were gold, silver, elephants, horses, spices and certain types of textiles. The main exports were rice, sugar, coconut, millet, dyes, sandalwood, teak, pepper, cloves and cotton textiles. However the south was no longer the facilitator of Asian-European trade, with the Portuguese and Arabs controlling most of this trade. Sea trade was active with ships visiting Indian ports regularly. The Indian shipping industry did not command as much of a influence in trade as it once did, with countries like China now leading with some of the finest and most reliable vessels.

South India - Vijayanagar Government

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The kingdom of Viajaynagar was ruled by a monarchy, which in theory was supposed to be hereditary. However the environment during the Viajaynagar empire was very turbulent, there was significant opposition to their rule in South India as well as from the Delhi Sultanate in North India. Hence only a strong king could survive who also possessed military and diplomatic skills. Weaker kings were almost always overthrown, as is evident from the fact that the Viajaynagar empire had three different ruling dynasties.

The king ruled as an autocrat and although he was advised by a council of ministers he was not bound to consult them or to accept their recommendations. He had complete authority and even the highest minister remained in power only as long as he commanded the kings favour. There was however an administrative machinery in order to govern the large empire. A central government with a number of departments was put in place and had a well organized secretariat with its own officer. The treasury was divided into two, one through which all the states income and expenditure was routed and the other which was a reserve, to which the kings continuously added and could fall back on in times of need. The major expenditure was in

the upkeep of the palace, the maintenance of the army and the charitable activities. Revenue was still essentially based on land, with different rates charged for fertile and no so fertile pieces of land. This was achieved after a careful survey to asses the quality of the land. The tax varied from 1/6th to sometimes as high as one half. Revenue was also collected from taxes on houses, certain professions, custom duties for goods passing through the empire, income generated from providing port services and fines collected by the judicial process. In theory the income was supposed to be allocated in the following way, with respect to the chief areas of expenditure mentioned earlier. One fourth should go to the palace for its upkeep and to look after the charitable concerns, one half to the army and the remaining half to the reserve treasury. This was mentioned in theory, and the real division varied depending on the economic situation of the empire.

The Viajaynagar empire was a military state and its political organization was based on military needs, Viajaynagar maintained a large standing army consisting of infantry, elephant corps and cavalry. The military was granted certain areas from which they were supposed to collect revenue. They were then expected to use this revenue to maintain the specified size of the army. Military schools were established where students were trained for archery, swordsmanship and other basic skills to prepare them for the army.

Some form of provincial government also existed, usually the earlier system of the region was carried on. However the autonomy the villages had enjoyed under the Cholas was now reduced and they were linked to the centre through a series of officials. Each province had an officer, who was a military officer and was responsible for the security and administration of his province. A system of forts was used as the primary defence mechanism with the forts placed under trusted captains. There was also an espionage system to keep the emperor informed about the developments within and outside his empire. This helped him keep a check on even the distant corners of his empire and gave him advance warnings of threats. The police system was also fairly efficient and was able to maintain law and order. Interestingly if a house was robbed then the police would reimburse the householder for his loss, which is why the police tried their best to maintain law and order! Regular patrolling at night was done in the major towns and cities and in rural or jungle areas troops were stationed to guard the area. The Judicial system was organized into a hierarchy of courts with the emperor's court being the highest. Minor cases would be handled in the village courts itself, where all cases began. The next level was the caste/guild courts and in rare circumstances the case reached the emperor's court. Witnesses could be forced to testify, just like in the Chola period. Punishments were harsh, and in extreme cases the convicts were mutilated or thrown to elephants.

older for his loss, which is why the police tried their best to maintain law and order! Regular patrolling at night was done in the major towns and cities and in rural or jungle areas troops were stationed to guard the area. The Judicial system was organized into a hierarchy of courts with the emperor's court being the highest. Minor cases would be handled in the village courts itself, where all cases began. The next level was the caste/guild courts and in rare circumstances the case reached the emperor's court. Witnesses could be forced to testify, just like in the Chola period. Punishments were harsh, and in extreme cases the convicts were mutilated or thrown to elephants.

South India - Rise of Vijayanagar

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After the decline of the Chola power, South India once again disintegrated into a number of smaller kingdoms. Among these, Viajaynagar emerged as the dominant power in South India. The Viajaynagar empire which would last for about 300 years would become a centre for Hindu culture and would result in its survival today in South India, for in North India a more composite culture would develop as a result of the blending elements of Hindu and Islamic ideas. The kingdom was founded by HariHara who built the magnificent city of Vijaynagara (City of Victory) in 1343, after which the kingdom was named.

The Viajaynagar era has often been described as a period of revival of Hinduism in Southern India, but this is not entirely correct. Viajaynagar was not a kingdom which attempted to spread Hinduism or check the spread of Islam. It did not form alliances with other Hindu kingdoms to defeat the new Islamic rulers of the North India. Viajaynagar kings were great patrons of religious institutions and the arts and as a result during their reign Hindu traditions continued undisturbed. They were able to instill in South Indians a tremendous sense of religion and values, which was instrumental in the survival of Hindu culture in South India even today, despite enduring 200 year of European rule.

South India - Chola Economy

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The Chola kingdom had a strong and well developed economy. Villages were completely self sufficient and were able to satisfy most of the needs of the villagers. They grew their own food, manufactured their own clothes and had their set of craftsmen and other professionals to full cater to the majority of their requirements. Hence there was no major surplus for everything was used within the village itself. This however began to change with the growth of towns and foreign trade. The demand for commodities went up and villages then began producing surplus goods for sale, with the monetary system entering the rural economy.

very prosperous and had tremendous influence on the economy. Interestingly however, they never aspired for political power, perhaps because they needed the support of the state in matters of trade and defence. It was essentially a symbiotic relationship, for the state too required the guilds, for they were instrumental in maintaining a healthy economy.

India had flourishing trade relations with many parts of the world during the time of the Cholas. The Chola kingdom was located in South India which had greater access to the sea and was the hub for sea trade. It had trade relations with many Asian and European countries. It was an important trading partner of China, which impressed by the revenue they were earning granted the Chola merchants a monopoly, a step that naturally was economically beneficial to the Chola merchants. South India also became instrumental in facilitating sea trade between Asia and Europe with many countries routing their goods through them. The main exports were elephants, horses, spices, perfumes, precious stones and superior quality textiles in addition to metalware, jewellery, pottery and salt. In fact the flourishing export trade, resulted in many industries producing solely for export purposes.

Guilds continued to be an important part of industry and were centered mainly In the towns. Besides manufacturing there was now the new concept of merchant guilds, who specialized in the procurement and distribution of goods. With the flourishing foreign trade of that time there was tremendous internal as well as external demand for goods and hence they formed a vital part of the economy. They were actively supported by the state, which would assist them if they faced difficulty in negotiations with a foreign country. The state however did not interfere directly with the functioning of the guilds. The guilds were very prosperous and had tremendous influence on the economy. Interestingly however, they never aspired for political power, perhaps because they needed the support of the state in matters of trade and defence. It was essentially a symbiotic relationship, for the state too required the guilds, for they were instrumental in maintaining a healthy economy.

South India - Chola Government

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The Chola system was headed by a king, who was the highest power in the state. Religion and culture played an important part in the Chola administration, with considerable energies of the state being used in building temples and patronizing priests. An interesting development was the cult of the god-king. Deceased Chola kings were often depicted on temples and were worshipped by the people. The king in the Chola form of government was assisted by an assembly of councillors and the rajguru (priest of the royal family). There does not appear to have been any regular ministerial councils.

Chola officials were present, their role was more of observers then of administrators, and their responsibilities were few, for the Chola philosophy was of letting the villages be ruled by the villagers themselves. A village would have a number of assemblies. The ur as composed of the tax paying members of the village. The sabha was for the Brahmins and the nagaram was for the trading community. These assemblies were able to cover almost the entire population of the village and hence the villagers were able to govern themselves quite effectively. The village government had some important central responsibilities as well. It was responsible for the collection of revenue and assessing the tax structure. Certain pieces of land or individuals were exempt from tax, and the village government was responsible for maintaining the accuracy of this list. Also since this was a period following the great cultural revival of the Gupta period, there was tremendous interest in temple building, and villages were supposed to supervise the building of these structures in their area. Land was either owned by the village as a whole or by individuals. Regular assessment of taxes was done and the tax was paid to an officer of the Chola administration.

The Chola had also developed a fairly well organized judicial system. Besides the existing village courts, the Cholas constituted royal courts as well to further increase the availability of justice. Evidence was presented and witnesses were heard. It was not uncommon for reluctant witnesses to be forced to testify. Punishments were harsh, and in many cases fines and imprisonment were imposed. Capital punishment was reserved for the worst of crimes and was usually carried out either by decapitation or by being trampled to death by an elephant

The administrative set up of the Chola period was a well organized one. Although the kings word was law, before it could be implemented it would have to be written down. The entire kingdom was divided into a number of provinces known as mandalams . These were divided into districts or valanadus . The districts were then further divided into groups of villages known as kurram, naddu or kettam . A big village would sometimes be administered as a single unit, and such a unit would be known as a taniyur . The Chola villages retained the administrative machinery as it was during the Gupta period, and in fact one remarkable feature of the Chola period was the amount of autonomy given to the village government. While Chola officials were present, their role was more of observers then of administrators, and their responsibilities were few, for the Chola philosophy was of letting the villages be ruled by the villagers themselves. A village would have a number of assemblies. The ur as composed of the tax paying members of the village. The sabha was for the Brahmins and the nagaram was for the trading community. These assemblies were able to cover almost the entire population of the village and hence the villagers were able to govern themselves quite effectively. The village government had some important central responsibilities as well. It was responsible for the collection of revenue and assessing the tax structure. Certain pieces of land or individuals were exempt from tax, and the village government was responsible for maintaining the accuracy of this list. Also since this was a period following the great cultural revival of the Gupta period, there was tremendous interest in temple building, and villages were supposed to supervise the building of these structures in their area. Land was either owned by the village as a whole or by individuals. Regular assessment of taxes was done and the tax was paid to an officer of the Chola administration.

South India - Rise of the Cholas

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After the decline of the Gupta empire, the main kingdoms vying for control over southern India were the Pallavas, Pandayas and the Cholas. The Cholas after years of bitter struggle emerged as the dominant force and set up a southern empire. Their rivals however would continue to be a source of trouble and the years in power are characterized by one of almost eternal conflict.

The Chola dynasty began in 1907, with Parantaka I coming to power and establishing their presence. During his reign the Cholas made some substantial gains as well as sustained some crushing defeats. During the next thirty years following his death there was further erosion of the Chola power. However soon luck began favoring them, and whilst the other southern powers were locked in conflict the Cholas once again recovered and in fact extended their empire, making them the dominant force of south India This was achieved by the Chola king Rajaraja I. He would be succeeded by his son Rajendra, and their reign stabilized and extended the empire. The Chola dynasty would remain a powerful kingdom until 1200AD when the decline of their empire, would pave the way for Mughal expansion into south India.

British India - Advent of the Europeans

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India's trade relations with European countries goes back all the way to the days of the Greeks. There was a thriving trade between the two countries along a number of routes. However there existed some monopolies. The Arabs controlled the goods on their way to Asia and the Italians controlled the goods en-route to Europe. Although there were so many middlemen in this trade, it still remained remarkably profitable.

kinds of profits were absolutely fabulous and the English too were keen to gain a foothold in this lucrative trade. The Dutch meanwhile had established a base in India as well as monopolized trade to Indonesia. A couple of English merchants got together and formed a company called Merchant Adventures later to become better known as the English East India Company. They received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth in 1600 to trade in the east. They set up a trading depot in 1608 and obtained Royal favours from the Mughal emperor Jehangir. They were then given permissions to open various trading depots along the west coast. In 1615 they succeeded in getting a farman which allowed them to trade within the entire Mughal Empire. The Portuguese eventually ceased to be a power in India and the English made a deal with the Dutch, whereby the English would not interfere in Indonesia and the Dutch would stay out of India. The English East Indian Company was now the supreme foreign trading power in India

The western European nations noticed this and were keen to get into the trade business. However, attempting to break the existing monopolies of the Arabs and the Italians proved to be very difficult. They began to search for another route to the spice islands of India and Indonesia. In 1492 Columbus set out to discover India but ended up discovering America instead. In 1498 Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a new route to India. He landed at Calicut and the goods he took back with him were sold for sixty times the cost of the trip. These kinds of profits were absolutely fabulous and the English too were keen to gain a foothold in this lucrative trade. The Dutch meanwhile had established a base in India as well as monopolized trade to Indonesia. A couple of English merchants got together and formed a company called Merchant Adventures later to become better known as the English East India Company. They received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth in 1600 to trade in the east. They set up a trading depot in 1608 and obtained Royal favours from the Mughal emperor Jehangir. They were then given permissions to open various trading depots along the west coast. In 1615 they succeeded in getting a farman which allowed them to trade within the entire Mughal Empire. The Portuguese eventually ceased to be a power in India and the English made a deal with the Dutch, whereby the English would not interfere in Indonesia and the Dutch would stay out of India. The English East Indian Company was now the supreme foreign trading power in India

Religion In Ancient India

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The predominant religion in ancient India was Hinduism. The roots of Hindu religion can be traced back to the Vedic period. Hinduism is believed to be the oldest of major religions and originated in northern India. Early Aryan, or Vedic, culture was the early Hinduism whose interaction with non-Aryan cultures resulted in what we call Classical Hinduism. It is interesting to note that much of ancient, classical and modern Indian culture has been greatly shaped by Hindu thought.

The Mahabharata and Ramayana, both sacred Hindu texts, served as India's main motivating base for a great deal of literary, artistic and musical creations in subsequent millennia. The Epic Period was a golden era in Indian philosophical thought because of the tolerance of different opinions and teachings. The most popular form of Indian medicine, Ayurveda, was developed by Vedic saints and Jyotish, Hindu astrology, is the most popular form of astrology in India today. Yoga, an internationally-famous system of meditation, is one of six systems of Hindu thought.

Besides Hinduism, other main religions during ancient India were Buddhism, and Jainism. Buddhism originated in northern India in what is today the state of Bihar. It rapidly gained adherents during the Buddha's lifetime. Up to the 9th century, Indian followers numbered in the hundreds of millions. Buddhism, known in ancient India as Buddha Dharma, originated in northern India in what is today the state of Bihar. It rapidly gained adherents during the Buddha's lifetime. Up to the 9th century, Indian followers numbered in the hundreds of millions.

There also developed many heterodox religious sects in ancient India. One such sect was Ajivika, founded by Mahavira's rival Goshala Maskariputra. Ajivikas did not believe in karma and thought that the destiny was predetermined and could not be changed. There were also several other religious contemporaries to Buddha and Mahavira during the 6th century B.C. Another preacher of the same period was Pakuda Katyayana, who also taught that the soul was superior to good and evil, thus unchanged or untouched by it. He classified everything into seven categories, i.e. earth, water, fire, air, pleasure, pain and soul, which were eternal. Ajita Kesakambalin, another contemporary of Buddha taught complete materialism. He did not believe in the afterlife and considered death as the final phase of all souls.

East India Company

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East India Company was formed by British traders to trade with India. They set up godowns to store the goods they traded in. The protection of these godowns served as a good excuse to build forts and maintain armies at such centers.
[Image] During this time disorganized kingdoms were fighting amongst themselves. The British took the golden opportunity to benefit from these internal quarrels and helped one king against another. In this bargain the British gained more power and wealth. The British trained Indian soldiers and employed them in their army. This army was far better trained and disciplined than the armies with small Indian kings who were just struggling to survive. Gradually the British succeeded in capturing very large parts of India. They made treaties with kings who accepted the authority of the British. They were kings only in name. The British very cleverly managed to collect huge wealth from the people and the kings.
[Image] Likewise, even the weavers of fine cottons and silks were compelled to see their cloth only to British traders at prices decided by them. Anybody found selling his cloth to a trader other than the British was severely punished. Also, no duty was charged on British goods coming to India. On the other hand, Indian exports to Britain were subjected to high imported duty. The India cottage industry also suffered at the hands of the British traders. India had a large handloom industry. But the British by now had started a very big cotton textile mills in England. They needed a lot of cotton for these mills, so cotton was purchased here at a very low price and sent to England and in return huge quantities of cloth was sold in India. The result was that the big weaver class in India became unemployed. People had to buy costlier British cloth. Such were the ways of the British to amass wealth in India to be sent back to England. Thus the Indian farmers, weavers, traders, kings, Nawabs, craftsmen were all unhappy and this discontent led to the mightiest revolts in 1857 which was also joined by Sanyasis, Fakirs, disbanded soldiers and British soldiers too.
[Image] The British conquered India with the help of Indian soldiers, but did not treat them properly. They were denied higher positions in spite of their abilities. The Indians were also traded as slaves to other British colonies. The company was indifferent to education and so the old system of education suffered under the British rule. After this revolt the Company’s place was taken by the British government directly which too was very harsh with Indians. In 1857, power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown and India became a British colony. India fought a total of 111 wars and with Indian money and troops, British-India finally saw peace.
[Image] The British introduced modern technology with the intention to sell manufactured goods like textiles and machines for profit. In the process of trying to make a profit and exploiting India, the British did of course benefit India. They built railways throughout India in order to make everything readily accessible. They established Law Courts, civil services and transport systems. They also established factories, schools and universities to introduce western ideas and to incorporate the idea of democracy. Missionaries came to India and spread Christianity. This was all done in the name of Britain’s economy.

The Mughal Empire - Introduction

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Dateline: 1526AD-1857AD

India had been without a major empire for almost a thousand years now, it had not been since the Gupta Dynasty that an all India empire had been created. The Mughal Dynasty was the last great empire of Indian history. Such was their greatness that not only did they leave a lasting impact on Indian history, the English word Mogul (derived from Mughal) means a powerful person. The Mughals were a remarkable dynasty, and at their peak they produced a successive set of capable rulers. It was also during their reign that some of the finest monuments of India were built, most notably one of the seven wonders of the world, the Taj Mahal.

conquer India, and he immediately grabbed the opportunity. He first conquered Afghanistan and then descended into India. His campaigns though initially faced some hiccups, turned out very successful and he captured a large section of North Western India. He then proceeded to Delhi where he fought the last remaining Sultanate ruler, Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat. Ibrahim Lodi possessed a much larger army, but Babur had greater amount of weapons and artillery as well as superb strategy and leadership. In just half a day, he defeated the Sultan and captured Delhi and its surrounding areas. The victory over Ibrahim Lodi however had only a nominal value, for the Sultanate was not a very powerful force in the country. Babur had to face many challenges from various Afghan, Turkish and native Indian rulers before finally he was able to assert his authority over a fairly large area, establishing the foundation of the Mughal empire. In the brief four years that he ruled he set the stage for the great empire. The Mughal empire was not firmly established in his time, in fact shortly after his son Humayun succeeded him, Sher Shah, temporarily threw out the Mughal power and set up his own empire. Upon his death however Humayun returned and re-established the Mughal empire. The greatest Mughal king, Akbar followed and he took the empire to its peak. When we talk of the Mugahl empire we usually refer to the reign of the greater Mughals: Babur, Humayaun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shah Jehan and Aurangzeb. The Mughal empire began to disintegrate during the reign of Aurangzeb and the Mughal emperors after him are collectively referred to as the later Mughals. The Mughal empire would be an important part of Indian history for the next two hundred years, before its disintegration would pave the way for the rise of the British in India.

Dateline: 1526AD-1857AD

The Mughal dynasty was founded by Babur, who was a ruler of a kingdom near Persia (modern day Iran). Babur a Turk, was related to the great Mongol conqueror, Chengiz Khan and the Turkish invader Timur. The increasing power of the Uzbeks of Central Asia, was a cause for Babur to want to leave his country. The Delhi Sultanate around this time existed merely in name, and the political scene was in total disarray. The Sultan in power was Ibrahim Lodi, but the nobles commanded a major portion of power. The entire system was very unstable, and finally it cracked. Daulat Khan, a powerful noble who was dissatisfied with Ibrahim Lodi actually requested Babur to come and invade India. Babur had long cherished a desire to conquer India, and he immediately grabbed the opportunity. He first conquered Afghanistan and then descended into India. His campaigns though initially faced some hiccups, turned out very successful and he captured a large section of North Western India. He then proceeded to Delhi where he fought the last remaining Sultanate ruler, Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat. Ibrahim Lodi possessed a much larger army, but Babur had greater amount of weapons and artillery as well as superb strategy and leadership. In just half a day, he defeated the Sultan and captured Delhi and its surrounding areas. The victory over Ibrahim Lodi however had only a nominal value, for the Sultanate was not a very powerful force in the country. Babur had to face many challenges from various Afghan, Turkish and native Indian rulers before finally he was able to assert his authority over a fairly large area, establishing the foundation of the Mughal empire. In the brief four years that he ruled he set the stage for the great empire. The Mughal empire was not firmly established in his time, in fact shortly after his son Humayun succeeded him, Sher Shah, temporarily threw out the Mughal power and set up his own empire. Upon his death however Humayun returned and re-established the Mughal empire. The greatest Mughal king, Akbar followed and he took the empire to its peak. When we talk of the Mugahl empire we usually refer to the reign of the greater Mughals: Babur, Humayaun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shah Jehan and Aurangzeb. The Mughal empire began to disintegrate during the reign of Aurangzeb and the Mughal emperors after him are collectively referred to as the later Mughals. The Mughal empire would be an important part of Indian history for the next two hundred years, before its disintegration would pave the way for the rise of the British in India.

The Mughal Empire - Economy

The Mughal Empire - Shah Jehan

The Mughal Empire - Society

The Mughal Empire - Government

The Mughal Empire - Art and Architecture

The Mughal Empire - Literature

The Mughal Empire - Akbar

The Mughal Empire - Aurangzeb

The Mughal Empire - Jehangir

The Mughal Empire - Sher Shah's Reign

The Mughal Empire - Humayun The Mughal Empire - Humayu

Decline of the Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire - Economy

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By the time of the Mughals, cities had grown in importance. The expanding economy now needed urbanization and a fixed market in order to succeed. Earlier, there were usually weekly markets where people from surrounding regions would congregate at a particular place on a particular day. Once the economy started growing, many trade centres developed which soon grew into prosperous cities. Many Indian cities of that time, according to travelling foreigners, were better than those in Asia and Europe. Communication and transport facilities had also improved during the time of the Mughals and Sher Shah. There were several metalled highways reaching various places of the empire. River transport was also important, especially those which were navigable throughout the year. River transport was a cheap and fast way of transporting goods over long distances. Bridges were also constructed to speed up the movement of land transport. Such initiatives and conditions were important contributing factors to the development of the economy.

Agriculture continued to remain an important part of the economy, but the crops and techniques still remained largely unchanged. Irrigation was largely absent although some areas did have access to canals and water works. A variety of food and cash crops were grown. The textile industry was booming and hence there was tremendous demand for cotton and silk which were important cash crops. Tobacco, introduced sometime in 1604 also became an important cash crop. One negative aspect of the Mughal administration was that they did not make any major efforts in agricultural development. Hence the citizens

were subject to various famines, which had devastating results. With no assistance from the centre, the situation was usually grim. Quite often severe famines led to large scale migration of the population within the empire, and in some cases they even left India. Some Mughal emperors did try initiatives to alleviate the problems, but most of the time it was a case of too little too late. These famines had a detrimental effect on the economy.

Industry had been developing and by the Mughal period was very diversified and involved a large number of people. The range and volume of products manufactured by Indian industries was very large, catering to not only a large domestic demand but also to a large international demand. The most important industry of this period was that of making cotton cloth. Several cotton manufacturing units were scattered across the country, catering to a huge demand. Bengal was renowned for its fine quality silk and cotton cloth. In fact it was said, that the amount of cloth produced in Bengal was more than most of the kingdoms of India and Europe put together. With the cloth industry so successful, the dyeing was also doing very well. Shawl and carpet weaving were also important industries, receiving major patronage during the time of Akbar. The ship building industry also remained important, although India was no longer a major maritime country. The State, while encouraging Industry did not directly support it financially, a task undertaken by various middlemen. This was regrettable, for the industrialists were often exploited by such middlemen. They were also exploited by corrupt nobles and officers who often forced them to sell goods at low prices. The irony of the situation was that although the craftsmen were being deprived of the fair value of their commodities, it was because of the nobles and officers that there was a demand for the work they produced. The nobles and officers having fine tastes encouraged the development of high quality work.

Currency also began to develop with the return of a stable power. Standardized coins were issued in gold, silver and copper. The coins were of superb quality and often had interesting artistic designs. The important matter ofcourse was that currency was now seen as a reliable method of exchange, with the Mughal coins being a respected unit of value.

India had flourishing trade relations with many parts of the world, with foreign trade being an important part of the Indian economy. The chief Indian imports of the time were, raw silks, gold, ivory, precious stones, perfumes, horses and slaves. Chief exports included textiles, spices, opium and indigo. The land routes usually went via Afghanistan, but land transportation was not very safe or reliable. River and sea transport were the popular choices. Customs duties during the period were very low, it was approximately 3.5% on all imports and exports. European traders were also beginning to play an important role in Indian trade, with many of them setting up warehouses and distribution points in the empire. Most European goods however were affordable only by the rich.

The economy flourished during the Mughal period, though it began to deteriorate after the death of Aurangzeb. After the decline of the Mughal empire the country was thrown back into chaos which caused much damage to the Indian economy. With the rise of the British in India, towards the 18th Century, and their conversion of India into a colony, the economy stagnated and in fact took several steps back.

work.

The Mughal Empire - Shah Jehan

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After the death of Jehangir, there was a power struggle amongst the sons of Jehangir, in which Shah Jehan emerged as the emperor. Shah Jehan was in South India at the time of his father's death and speedily rushed to the north and proclaimed himself the emperor. Shah Jehan had a fairly stable rule, with a few rebellions and conquests from which he emerged largely successful. He was able to expand the Mughal territories deep into the South. However, in some areas like the North West Frontier, the Mughal army was defeated repeatedly which lowered the prestige of the Mughal Empire. Shah Jehan's reign was a return to that of the great Mughal kings like Babur and Akbar. An able military commander and man of tremendous cultural ambition. Shah Jehan is perhaps best remembered as being the best builder of the Mughal period, creating some of the finest structures, which blended the distinct Indian and Persian styles into a coherent whole. His most famous building is the mausoleum he made for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, which is called the Taj Mahal.

Shah Jehan reign is described by many to be the golden age of the Mughal Empire, when the empire reached its climax. The empire prospered under his rule and was faced with very few external or internal threats, although the European influence was slowly beginning to increase, a fact that was tragically overlooked. The empire possessed a gentle and fair emperor, who could also be a strong,severe conqueror if the situation demanded. Shah Jehan was an able soldier as well as a fine administrator. He cared tremendously for the welfare of his people, and helped them out during a severe famine that struck during his rule. Shah Jehan was a strong believer in his religion, Islam, and took steps to promote it amongst the people. He was a loving father and a devoted husband. He married Mumtaz Mahal in 1612, with whom he had a happily married life for nineteen years. The two were a perfect couple, remaining close friends and confidants. Her death in 1631 devastated him, and to leave a lasting tribute to her, Shah Jehan built the exquisite Taj Mahal on her grave.

Shah Jehans reign while it lasted was a glorious period of the Mughal empire. However cracks had begun appearing, his policies of massive building had drained the resources of the state, which seriously threatened the empire. The military and administrative system grew weaker and weaker through his rule. The Mughal empire reached its height during his reign and then began a steady decline. Shah Jehan's last years were spent in shame and humiliation. Shah Jehan fell seriously ill in 1657, and a power struggle took place between his sons, with Aurangzeb after ruthlessly defeating his brothers, emerged successful and marched to the capital. Aurangzeb then imprisoned his father, extinguishing Shah Jehan's plan for one last great building, a mausoleum for himself, designed like the Taj but in black. Shah Jehan would die a dejected and saddened man.

The Mughal Empire - Society

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The society of the Mughal period can roughly be categorized into the rich, middle and poor class. The difference between the richest sections of society and the poorest was very wide. At the top of the social and economic ladder was the king followed by his nobles. This class lived in extraordinary luxury with abundant resources at their disposal. They lived a life of reckless festivity, grand banquets, lavish homes and often had inflated egos. Their food and dress was very costly, and their homes were huge palatial structures. Both indoor and outdoor games were popular with this class, for they had the time and resources to be able to indulge in them. An unfortunate aspect was that as a result of their tremendous wealth, many of them squandered away their money and lives in vice and temptations. Towards the close of the Mughal empire, many of the emperors were no longer interested in running the empire, instead they were more keen on enjoying the wealth they possessed as kings. The Mughal empire was very successful and hence very rich, and it took a strong king not to get tempted with all the luxuries and stay focussed on ruling the empire.

the middle class lay the poor class, the most oppressed and neglected part of the society. There was a major difference between their standard of living and that of the two preceding classes. They were usually without adequate clothing and in cases of famines even without food. They held very low paying jobs, where they were expected to put in long hours. Their condition can perhaps be described as voluntary slaves. They were often harassed by the officers of the king, who extorted money out of them by making false charges against them. The economic conditions of the peasants continuously declined, especially towards the close of the Mughal period when the tyranny of the provincial governors constantly troubled the peasants' lives.

The Mughal emperors were keen patrons of education, and there was considerable development in this area. In fact one of the duties of the public works department, Shuhra-I-Am was to build schools and colleges. Jahangir passed a law, whereby if a rich man was to die without an heir, his assets would be used by the State to help in the development and maintenance of educational institutes. Shah Jahan although more interested in building monuments, did take some significant educational initiatives like providing scholarships to assist students. Female education also existed in some form during the Mughal period. Girls from rich families were usually able to have an education, through private tuitions at home. The Middle class girls were usually able to attend the same schools as the boys.

Except for the rich, most people lived moderate lives. Abuse of alcohol was not very common, and people ate adequate quantities of food. Strangers were greeted and aided in a civil manner. The prominent social practices of the time were sati , child marriage and dowry. Widow re-marriage was usually not allowed. sati was a social evil that had been spreading through the ages, in which a widow was burned together with her husband on the funeral pyre. Some Mughal kings like Akbar did make attempts to reform society, but their efforts did not have much of an impact. The situation would get worse by the eighteen century, when social reformers exposed to western ideas by the European rulers, would rise against this and vigorously campaign for reform in society. However, before the arrival of these social reformers, Indian society would enter what some call its darkest hour, where even basic humans rights, especially of women would scarcely be observed. Perhaps the only redeeming feature of this time was that the Hindu and Muslim communities were living together in perfect harmony, the integration of the two cultures had taken place successfully

The middle class was a relatively new development, one that would grow and become an important force during British India. They were usually merchants, industrialists and various other professionals. While not being able to afford the extravagance of the rich class, they led comfortable and perhaps more sensible lives. Many middle class families were also very well off and were able to indulge in some luxuries. Below the middle class lay the poor class, the most oppressed and neglected part of the society. There was a major difference between their standard of living and that of the two preceding classes. They were usually without adequate clothing and in cases of famines even without food. They held very low paying jobs, where they were expected to put in long hours. Their condition can perhaps be described as voluntary slaves. They were often harassed by the officers of the king, who extorted money out of them by making false charges against them. The economic conditions of the peasants continuously declined, especially towards the close of the Mughal period when the tyranny of the provincial governors constantly troubled the peasants' lives.

The Mughal Empire - Government

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The Mughal empire provided a system of government that shared many ideas with the Sultanate as well as bringing in some new ideas of its own. It also incorporated many Indian ideas as well. The empire was essentially still military in nature, with every officer of the Mughal state a member of the army. The emperor was an autocrat and had unlimited freedom in making laws. Although he had a council of ministers, he was not bound to consult them, and his word was law. The only restriction was that he had to follow the guidelines set forth in the scriptures and Islamic traditions. However, a powerful emperor could often violate these as well. The great Mughal kings can best be described as benevolent despots, who ruled fairly and justly. Most of them did involve their ministers in decision making. They also attempted to improve the lives of their subjects, although there was no socialistic work in their times.

The administrative system of the Mughal Empire was largely the work of Akbar, for the early two Mughal kings (Babur and Humayun) did not really get the chance to implement much of a system. Akbar's task was simplified for he inherited some measure of Sher Shah's system of organization. During Akbar's time the system worked very well, but it began to deteriorate during the time of his successors. As mentioned earlier, all officers were members of the army. Each officer was assigned a specific responsibility, and was

paid a monthly salary. He was also required to maintain a certain strength of troops, with senior officers commanding larger units and drawing greater salaries. The system was very flexible and an officer could be assigned to any office. During Akbar's time, the system worked very well because of Akbar's remarkable ability to pick the right man for the right job, though such efficiency slowly deteriorated during the reign of his successors. The officers were either paid their salaries in cash or were granted land for short periods of time, on which they could obtain revenue.

The empire was administered by a number of departments with officers assigned to each of them. The main departments of the state were

-The Exchequer -Accounts and Salaries -Judiciary -Charities -Public morals

The highest officer was the Wazir (chief minister), followed by the Bakshi who was responsible for the salaries of all the employees of the state. He was also involved in recruitment for the army as well as recruiting officers for the administration. There were various other departments and officers like the Auditor General, the head of the Imperial workshop, the superintendent of forests, the news reporters etc.

The revenue system is an important part of any government and the Mughals had a fairly well organized system of revenue collection. Land revenue continued to remain an important source of income for the state. Other sources were trade, industry, transport etc Around the time Akbar ascended the throne the land revenue system was fairly disorganized with a mix of nobles, landlords etc. involved in land ownership and revenue collection. Akbar realized the importance of an efficient land revenue policy for an expanding empire. Initially he tried out a disastrous experiment which eventually had to be cancelled. He attempted a new system, in which he first abolished all current land holdings. The empire was then divided into a series of land holdings, each yielding a fixed amount of revenue every year. These areas were then allotted to an officer called a Krori , whose job was the collection of revenue and encourage cultivation (which in turn would boost revenue). However the Krori's turned out to be corrupt tyrants at whose hands the cultivators went through tremendous suffering. The system was quickly abolished and the earlier system restored. In 1852 AD an important new development took place in the re-organizational effort of land revenue. Todar Mall was appointed to the post Dian-I-Ashraf . A new system was established which had three divisions.

- A survey to measure land - The classification of the various types of land (degree of fertility etc) - An annual survey to determine the rate of taxation.

The system was essentially fair, as the land would be only assessed for the portion where cultivation was done. The tax was one third of the produce, and the landlords could pay the tax in either cash or kind. The monetary value of the crops varied depending on the type of crop and the prevailing market conditions.

To assist in the purposes of administration and revenue collection, the Mughal Empire was divided into a hierarchical system of areas. The empire was first divided into a number of subahs . The subahs were then divided into paraganas . A paraganas was a union of several villages. At each stage there were several officers who supervised operations like revenue assessment and collection etc. Their orders were to collect revenue in a just and efficient manner and not put undue pressure on villagers, especially if they had suffered a natural disaster. Apparently there was tremendous accountability, because we have records of even high ranking officials like provincial governors being dismissed after complaints were made against them by the citizens. The entire system worked fairly well, the landlords now had a sense of security with a developed system and were given a fair amount of flexibility in paying their dues. Although the tax rate was on the higher side (one third of the total produce) it was pretty reasonable considering the emperors abolished various other taxes.

During the time of the Mughal Empire there was no formal written law, but there was a keen interest amongst the Mughal emperors to deliver speedy justice to its citizens. The justice system placed even senior officers within the law, and perhaps the only person really above the law was the emperor himself. The Mughal emperors were very keen on justice, but for most of the Mughal period, appealing to the emperor was a complex procedure. Two notable exceptions were Akbar and Jehangir, who allowed subjects to directly petition them. In addition to the emperor there were other officers in charge of justice. The chief justice was known as the Quazi-ul-Quazat . He was in charge of maintaining the judicial system throughout the empire. For this purpose he was responsible for the appointment and management of Quazi's all over the empire. Under them there were no lower courts. Most villagers however resolved their cases in the village courts itself. The punishments were fairly severe, ranging from imprisonment to amputation, mutation and whipping. The approval of the emperor was however mandatory for capital punishment. In the Mughal judicial system, the emperor was the final court of appeal.

Whilst the Mughal empire was able to once again provide an organized government to India, it failed to recapture the effectiveness and efficiency of those governments from the time of the Mauryas and Guptas. Hence they were able to unite India only under an empire, not under a government. This proved to be a serious fatal flaw, because after the decline of the greater Mughals, the already autonomous regions of the empire declared themselves independent. This presented a fractured and divided country to the Europeans, which made their task of conquering India a much simpler one.

vernment. This proved to be a serious fatal flaw, because after the decline of the greater Mughals, the already autonomous regions of the empire declared themselves independent. This presented a fractured and divided country to the Europeans, which made their task of conquering India a much simpler one.

The Mughal Empire - Art and Architecture

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Art and Architecture flourished under the Mughals. The uncertainty of the Sultanate period was over, and the new ideas from that period had been successfully absorbed. Now under the patronage of the powerful Mughal emperors, great works in art and architecture began in all parts of the empire.

Painting made some significant advances during the Mughal period. Painting was a popular expression of art during the Mughal period, and in fact a Mughal school of painting developed during the time, since the Mughal period had a distinctive style. The finest painting of the Mughal period are the Padshanamth and the Khandan-i-Timura. The Mughal paintings often covered scenes from the court and help our understanding of how the court functioned. These paintings also provide us with information on what the emperors and their nobles looked like. Many famous artists came and took up residence in the court of Akbar, during whose time Mughal art reached its peak. A large number of artists were Hindus, which is an example of Akbar's cosmopolitan approach to the empire. The painters amongst that time excelled in portraits, painting of animals, book covers and illustrations as well as the art of miniature paintings amongst many others. Akbar was extremely fond of art and gave much support and encouragement. After his death, Mughal art continued to flourish under Jehangir who was a

fine connoisseur of art and paid handsomely for works he liked. His understanding of art was so good, that he was able to recognize the works of individual artists in a composite piece. Jehangir would often buy art from different parts of the country and world and show these samples to his artists to further their knowledge of different techniques. Hence he brought several influences into Indian art, which were once again able to integrate with prevailing styles and form exquisite work. Mughal art began declining after the period of Jehangir with Shah Jehan not particularly fond or knowledgeable of art. Aurangzeb was also not a patron of art, and soon the Mughal artists migrated to some of the other independent kingdoms in Rajasthan and various other places where they continued to produce their quality work. However they would never manage to find the sort of patronage that they had under the Mughals, and survived by selling their work to members of the public that could afford them. Bereft of patronage their art form began a steady decline, and the advent of the European rulers was the final blow, as these new rulers did not patronize or assist Indian artists.

All the greater Mughal emperors were great builders, even Babur in his short reign was able to put up a few monuments. The only exception was Aurangzeb whose puritan approach to life, did not support indulgences like building fine buildings. Hence architectural work in his time is almost absent, with the few monuments pale shadows of the greatness achieved by the earlier emperors. Shah Jehan was the most prolific Mughal builder, and built some of its greatest structures, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal. Major building work began only during the reign of Akbar, with a few monuments being constructed in the reign of Babur, Humayun and Sher Shah. From Babur's period, about three major monuments have survived. They are a mosque at Panipat, which was constructed to commemorate his victory at the battlefield there, for it was this battle which laid the foundations of the Mughal empire. In addition there are two other monuments, the Jami Masjid at Sambhal and a mosque within an old Lodi fort at Agra. Humayun unfortunately never got much of a chance at ruling the empire, and hence there are very few monuments from his time. Two structures remain, a mosque at Agra, and one massive and well made mosque in Fathbad, Punjab. Sher Shah who interrupted the Mughal rule for a short while also left behind some creditable structures. A mosque called the Qil-I- Kuhma Masjid , was a fine piece of work, one of the finest works of architecture in North India of the period. His tomb is built in the middle of a lake in Sassaram , combines exquisite design with a sense of dignity.

It was during the reign of Akbar when architecture began to really pick up. Akbar being fond of fine buildings, took tremendous interest in the field. Akbar thoroughly studied the different types of art, and with an open mind, accepted many other new ideas from a variety of sources. He would then formulate plans which would be implemented by the expert craftsmen that he had employed. Akbar did not restrict his brilliance only to building fine monuments, he also built forts, schools, tanks and wells. Akbar had an extremely open mind and allowed his craftsmen to bring in Hindu styles into his structures. One of the finest examples of this is the Jahangiri Mahal in the Agra fort, which has a number of Hindu architectural styles like square pillars and rows of small arches. Humayuns tomb in old Delhi is another example of the synthesis of styles. Akbar was a great builder, second only to Shah Jehan and built some of the finest work of the Mughal period. The greatest of Abkar's buildings are located in Fathepur Sikri, a city which was built near Agra. Over here there are many beautiful buildings like Jodh Bai's palace, Diwan-I-Am (hall for the general audience), Diwan-I-Khas(hall for private audience), the marble mosque known as the Jami Masjid, the Bulund Darwaza a massive archway and the Panch Mahal. Two other remarkable buildings of his period are the Palace of Forty Pillars at Allahabad and his tomb at Sikandara. Akbar was succeeded by Jehangir, who did not build many monuments, though he created beautiful Mughal gardens. One of the creditable buildings of his time was the tomb of Akbar, which however was merely executed (the designing had taken place during the time of Akbar). Another fine work is the white marble tomb of I'timad-ud-daulah.

Shah Jehan who succeeded Jehangir, was the most prolific builder amongst all the Mugahl emperors. He build many palaces, forts, mosques and gardens which are found all across the empire. A massive amount of money went into these structures which although lacking the originality of Akbar's time, are far superior in the field of lavish and skilful decoration. One of Shah Jehan's biggest projects was the construction of the city of Shah Jehanabad in Delhi. Inside this walled city, known today as the Red Fort are some marvellous buildings. The Diwan-I-Khas had at one time, a silver ceiling which was decorated by a mixture of marble, gold and precious stones. The stupendous beauty of this building is perhaps best described by an inscription found engraved in it:

Agar firdaus bar ru yi zamin ast Hamin ast, u hamin ast, u hamin ast

Translated it means, that if on earth there was ever a place as beautiful and blissful as Eden, then this and only this building could be such a place. Other fine buildings of Shah Jehan's time are the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) at Agra and the Masjif-I-Jahan Nama also at Agra. The tomb he built for Jehangir at Lahore is also another fine specimen. uildings of Shah Jehan's time are the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) at Agra and the Masjif-I-Jahan Nama also at Agra. The tomb he built for Jehangir at Lahore is also another fine specimen.

The Mughal Empire - Literature

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There was tremendous literary activity during the Mughal period, because with the return of a stable and prosperous empire, there was once again patronage for their work. Languages like Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi and Urdu saw tremendous creative activity as did many vernacular languages.

Persian literature received a lot of attention as it was the court language. A vast number of works were written during the period of the Mughals. Broadly one can divide them into three categories, historical works, translations ,poetry and novels. Our understanding of the Mughal period was greatly enhanced by these books, and most of the historical works of this period provide us with a fairly reliable source of information. The important historical works written in this time were Ain-I-Akbari , and Akbarnamath by Abul Fazl, the Ta'rikh-I-'Alfi by Mulla Daud. Jehangir possessed a keen interest in literature, and his autobiography is one of the finest amongst the Mughal emperors. During his reign important historical works like Ma'asir-I-Jahangir , the Igbalnamah-I-Jahangiri and the Zubud-ut-Tawaikh were written.

previous historical books were also translated. All this translation added to the wealth of Indian literature and spread ancient knowledge to a greater audience. This renewed interest in Indian literature would be an important tool used by the social reformers of the eighteenth century to educate the people about what the ancient texts really said as opposed to the distorted interpretations that were being followed.

The Mughal empire had a large number of poets and writers and hence there was a lot of work published in this era. Especially during the reign of Akbar, Jehangir and Shah Jahan they had tremendous patronage and many remarkable works were composed. Since the Mughal emperors had integrated themselves into Indian society, they patronized many Indian languages leading to some good quality literature being developed for these languages. The main themes of the period were essentially religious, covering most of the major religions of the period. One of the fine Hindu works composed during this time was Ramcharitmanasa (the pool of Rama's life) by Tulsidasa, which was a simplified version of the Ramayana. In Bengal there was a lot of work being created in Vaishnava literature. Writers like Krishnada and Kaviraj were popular authors of the time. Many biographies were written, especially of the great saint Chaitanya Deya.

The keen interest in literature that the Mughal emperors had led to the establishment of many great libraries which became repositories of tremendous knowledge. The works were properly filed and locating information was very easy. The art of calligraphy also reached a level of excellence. Literary activity did not decline with the Mughal empire and flourished even in the twilight years of the Mughal empire, in fact some of the later Mughals were better poets and writers than they were capable emperors.

Many important works in translation were also written during this period, with the translation of the epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana taking place. Many of the Vedas were also translated and several previous historical books were also translated. All this translation added to the wealth of Indian literature and spread ancient knowledge to a greater audience. This renewed interest in Indian literature would be an important tool used by the social reformers of the eighteenth century to educate the people about what the ancient texts really said as opposed to the distorted interpretations that were being followed.

The Mughal Empire - Akbar

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Akbar was one of the greatest emperors of the Mughal dynasty. It was during the reign of Akbar that the rule of the Mughals truly began, for both Babur and Humayun had ruled for extremely short and interrupted periods. Akbar was a minor at the time of his father's death, and was under the guardianship of Bairam Khan. Soon after succeeding to the throne Akbar had to firmly establish Mughal authority and regain the territories it had lost. His enemies challenged his rule and another historic battle was fought at Panipat, one in which Akbar emerged victorious and firmly established the Mughal power as the dominant power in India. Akbar was still under the guardianship of Bairam but now wished to become a full fledged king in his own right. Bairam while providing invaluable service had begun behaving in a high handed manner which had resulted in many enemies. In 1560 Akbar expressed his desire to take over, to Bairam, who reluctantly agreed and prepared to leave the empire. Akbar made the tactical mistake of appointing Pir Muhammad, an enemy of Bairam's to oversee his move out of Mughal territory. Bairam considered this an insult and rose against Akbar. He was however defeated but allowed to continue out of the empire by

Akbar, because of the tremendous services he had rendered. Tragically however Bairam was killed by an Afghan who held a personal grudge against him. Luckily his family escaped and his son Abdur Rahim was taken in by Akbar and rose later on to become an important noble of the empire. After assuming control from Bairam Akbar did not immediately get full control of the empire. His foster mother Maham Anaga and her son Adam Khan and some of her family were exercising an undue influence on the state. Adam Khan led some conquests which although successful were brutal. Akbar unable to tolerate their actions put Adam Khan to death in 1562. His foster mother died of grief forty days later. Akbar at the young age of fourteen was now finally in control of his empire.Akbar began a process of consolidation and expansion. He extended the empire's frontiers and they covered almost the entire country, even reaching deep into the south. < He set up the Mughal administration, drawing heavily on the institutions and concepts that Sher Shah had used. Under Akbar the Mughal empire reached its peak, with its influence extending to almost all parts of the country as well as major developments taking place in the arts and the economy. Akbar ruled for a period of 51 years which was the longest reign amongst the Mughal emperors.

Akbar was one of the most able rulers amongst the Mughals and one of the greatest emperors in Indian history. Akbar was a very wise and open minded ruler with a sound character. He was an able administrator as well as a capable soldier. He possesed tremendous courage, often risking his life and was also extremely strong. He was kind and just and despite being a great conqueror he was not cruel to those whom he had defeated. Akbar was not vengeful and usually forgave people who rebelled against him, except in certain cases when it was not possible. Akbar possessed tremendous self control and had excellent manners. He is said to have been very charming and was praised by all those who came into contact with him. Akbar had a wise and able courtier called Birbal, and there are many stories about the interactions between Akbar and Birbal, who would often provide sound insights into the various problems the emperor was facing. Akbar was also very popular amongst his subjects who considered him not only the ruler of Delhi but of the entire universe. Akbar also closely monitored his diet and ate moderately. While Akbar did not know how to read and write, one cannot say that he was not a learned man. He had a keen interest in literature and philosophy and was gifted with a brilliant mind and incredible memory. He maintained a large library of books and engaged people to read books to him. His understanding of what he heard was so great that it was said that he could talk so effortlessly on those subjects that one could never get the impression that he was illiterate. Akbar was also a keen patron of art and architecture and many such works flourished in his time.

Akbar was extremely tolerant to religion evident in the fact that he married a Hindu princess. He realized that it was foolish to ill-treat Hindus who formed a majority in his empire. He made significant efforts to treat them at par and soon they too were being appointed to high posts. Akbar treated religion with an extremely open mind and spent a lot of time studying the various beliefs of the different religions. This eventually resulted in the creation of a new religion of his own called Din-I-illahi . This combined features from various religions and stressed on the idea of that regardless of what religion you follow, God is one. Being a supreme believer in universal tolerance, Akbar made no attempt to force people to convert to his religion but tried to appeal to the inner feelings of each person.

Akbar's last years brought great grief to him. A beloved friend and notable poet Faizi died in 1595. Akbar's son Salim (later to be known as Jehangir) eager to take over the throne set himself up as an independent king and began plotting to overthrow Akbar. Salim caused much pain to his father when he got another close friend and poet, Abul Fazl murdered. Father and son spent the last couple of years see- sawing between peace and war but finally after Akbar died a natural death, Salim succeeded to the throne. Akbar was a great person and a great king. During his time the country reached a level of prosperity it had not seen and would not see for a long time. Being an able statesmen, he set an example for the other leaders that would follow.

, and there are many stories about the interactions between Akbar and Birbal, who would often provide sound insights into the various problems the emperor was facing. Akbar was also very popular amongst his subjects who considered him not only the ruler of Delhi but of the entire universe. Akbar also closely monitored his diet and ate moderately. While Akbar did not know how to read and write, one cannot say that he was not a learned man. He had a keen interest in literature and philosophy and was gifted with a brilliant mind and incredible memory. He maintained a large library of books and engaged people to read books to him. His understanding of what he heard was so great that it was said that he could talk so effortlessly on those subjects that one could never get the impression that he was illiterate. Akbar was also a keen patron of art and architecture and many such works flourished in his time.

The Mughal Empire - Aurangzeb

2011-10-05T07:24:00.000-07:00

Aurangzeb emerged as the successor after a violent power struggle in which he killed his brothers and imprisoned his father. During his long fifty year reign' the Mughal empire began declining, and despite his devotion to duty he could not prevent its fall.

Aurangzeb was a zealous Muslim. He implemented religious and administrative policies influenced largely by his religious leanings than by what was perhaps more appropriate for the situation. His love for his religion tended to get a bit extreme, and his efforts to spread the religion in India were often violent and militant. Aurangzeb was a completely different emperor then any of his predecessors had been. He was given to an austere and simple life. Aurangzeb brought several changes to the set up. He discontinued the practice of Jharoka-darshan followed by the earlier Mughals, in which the emperor would come out into the balcony of his palace every morning to receive the salute from his citizens. He also dismissed the court musicians and banned music, a ban that had limited effect. He prohibited the sale of alcohol and other artificial intoxicants. He also set up a department to look after public morals and make sure the people were living in strict accordance of the moral code from the holy books. Aurangzeb had hence moved towards a simple life, one that was perhaps unconventional for an emperor of such a vast dominion.

Aurangzeb's policies were immediately opposed by a vast section of the public. Soon large parts of the empire rebelled. Aurangzeb while maintaining high moral standards in his life, failed as a ruler. He failed to realize that the greatness of the empire lay in the support of its subjects. The Mughal empire had been built on a foundation of religious tolerance and just rule. Aurangzeb unfortunately however tried to impose by force his ideas and beliefs on the people of his empire, a fatal mistake that would irreparably damage the empire. In the final years of his reign, Aurangzeb saw before him the gradual destruction of his empire and the disastrous times that lay ahead. He realized that he had committed many mistakes and urged his sons to undo his mistakes and restore the Mughal empire to its earlier glory, a plea they ignored. Finally he died in 1707, and was buried in a very simple tomb in Daultabad. The rule of the puritan emperor, was unfortunately the biggest disaster of the Mughal empire.

The Mughal Empire - Jehangir

2011-10-05T07:20:00.001-07:00

After the death of Akbar, his son Salim succeeded to the throne at the age of thirty-six and took the title of Jehangir. Shortly after his succession he tried to win over the hearts of all his people and announced a series of concessions. Prisoners were given pardons and his opponents received an amnesty and were forgiven. Jehangir's rule was opposed in its early stages by his own son Khusrav. Khusrav had gotten along very well with his grand father Akbar and was a popular prince amongst the royal family. He became ambitious and began coveting the throne. Shortly after Jehangir's succession, Khusrav left the empire to prepare for his attack. He returned and attacked the empire, which was easily able to fend off the attack. Jehangir who personally marched to the battle with a large army was greatly disturbed by the whole episode. Khusrav was taken a prisoner and after being severely reproached and humiliated by Jehangir in the open court, he was imprisoned. In 1611 Jehangir married Nur Jehan, a woman of exquisite beauty with tastes for Persian literature, poetry and arts. Her entry into the life of Jehangir would have a tremendous impact on his rule. One of the dominating traits of her character was ambition, and soon she ensured that her father and brother became important nobles of the court.

The early part of Jehangir's rule achieved some notable military successes, which further extended the empire. However towards the later years, he faced one crisis or rebellion after the other, which plagued his life till the very end. In perhaps a classic example of divine justice, his own son Shah Jehan rebelled against him and attempted to seize the throne. Jehangir was able to hold on to the throne until his death, but such developments damaged the Mughal empire. Jehangir as a person was one of extreme contrasts. He could be exceeding cruel at times and surprisingly gentle at others. He was a man who would be at ease seeing men tortured and yet retain a passion for fair justice. Jehangir was a man who had orchestrated the murder of one of the closest friends of his father, Abul Fazl ,yet he would feel sorry for the royal elephants when in winter they shivered because of the cold water that was sprinkled on them. Over all he was perhaps a sensible and kind hearted man. Jehangir loved nature and was specially interested in flowers. He was a humane and considerate ruler, who attempted to rule justly and fairly. Jehangir perhaps combined two traits essential to being an effective emperor, ruthlessness and humaneness. He would handle his enemies with a tough hand, ordering the most brutal measures against them, but at the same time he did not behave irrationally and would not condemn somebody without a substantial reason. Whilst not as tolerant of religions as his father, he allowed his subjects the freedom to practice whatever religion they chose. He studied the beliefs of many religions and enjoyed conversations with their philosophers, but he did accept any of their practices, something which his father had done. Jehangir ruled for a relatively short period and upon his death was succeeded by his son, Shah Jehan. After the death of Akbar, his son Salim succeeded to the throne at the age of thirty-six and took the title of Jehangir. Shortly after his succession he tried to win over the hearts of all his people and announced a series of concessions. Prisoners were given pardons and his opponents received an amnesty and were forgiven. Jehangir's rule was opposed in its early stages by his own son Khusrav. Khusrav had gotten along very well with his grand father Akbar and was a popular prince amongst the royal family. He became ambitious and began coveting the throne. Shortly after Jehangir's succession, Khusrav left the empire to prepare for his attack. He returned and attacked the empire, which was easily able to fend off the attack. Jehangir who personally marched to the battle with a large army was greatly disturbed by the whole episode. Khusrav was taken a prisoner and after being severely reproached and humiliated by Jehangir in the open court, he was imprisoned. In 1611 Jehangir married Nur Jehan, a woman of exquisite beauty with tastes for Persian literature, poetry and arts. Her entry into the life of Jehangir would have a tremendous impact on his rule. One of the dominating traits of her character was ambition, and soon she ensured that her father and brother became important nobles of the court. The early part of Jehangir's rule achieved some notable military successes, which further extended the empire. However towards the later years, he faced one crisis or rebellion after the other, which plagued his life till the very end. In perhaps a classic example of divine justice, his own son Shah Jehan rebelled against him and attempted to seize the throne. Jehangir was able to hold on to the throne until his death, but such developments damaged the Mughal empire. Jehangir as a person was one of extreme contrasts. He could be exceeding cruel at times and surprisingly gentle at others. He was a man who would be at ease seeing men tortured and yet retain a passion for fair justice. Jehangir was a man who had orchestrated the murder of one of the closest friends of his father, Abul Fazl ,yet he would feel sorry for the royal elephants when in winter they shivered because of the cold water that was sprinkled on them. Over all he was perhaps a sensible and kind hearted man. Jehangir loved nature and was specially interested in flowers. He was a humane and considerate ruler, who attempted to rule justly and fairly. Jehangir perhaps combined two traits essential to being an effective emperor, ruthlessness and humaneness. He would handle his enemies with a tough hand, ordering the most brutal measures against them, but at the same time he did not behave irrationally and would not condemn somebody without a substantial reason. Whilst not as tolerant of religions as his father, he allowed his subjects the freedom to practice whatever religion they chose. He studied the beliefs of many religions and enjoyed conversations with their philosophers, but he did accept any of their practices, something which his father had done. Jehangir ruled for a relatively short period and upon his death was succeeded by his son, Shah Jehan.

Maratha Rulers

2011-10-05T07:17:00.001-07:00

The Marathas The tale of the Marathas' rise to power and their eventual fall contains all the elements of a thriller: adventure, intrigue, and romanticism. Maratha chieftains were originally in the service of Bijapur sultans in the western Deccan, which was under siege by the Mughals. Shivaji Bhonsle (1627-80), a tenacious and fierce fighter recognized as the "father of the Maratha nation," took advantage of this conflict and carved out his own principality near Pune, which later became the Maratha capital. Adopting guerrilla tactics, he waylaid caravans in order to sustain and expand his army, which soon had money, arms, and horses. Maratha Rulers : Shivaji led a series of successful assaults in the 1660s against Mughal strongholds, including the major port of Surat. In 1674 he assumed the title of "Lord of the Universe" at his elaborate coronation, which signaled his determination to challenge the Mughal forces as well as to reestablish a Hindu kingdom in Maharashtra, the land of his origin. Shivaji's battle cries were swaraj (translated variously as freedom, self-rule, independence), swadharma (religious freedom), and goraksha (cow protection). Aurangzeb relentlessly pursued Shivaji's successors between 1681 and 1705 but eventually retreated to the north as his treasury became depleted and as thousands of lives had been lost either on the battlefield or to natural calamities. In 1717 a Mughal emissary signed a treaty with the Marathas confirming their claims to rule in the Deccan in return for acknowledging the fictional Mughal suzerainty and remission of annual taxes. Yet the Marathas soon captured Malwa from Mughal control and later moved east into Orrisa and Bengal; southern India also came under their domain. Recognition of their political power finally came when the Mughal emperor invited them to act as auxiliaries in the internal affairs of the empire and still later to help the emperor in driving the Afghans out of Punjab.
The Maratha rulers, despite their military prowess and leadership, were not equipped to administer the state or to undertake socioeconomic reform. Pursuing a policy characterized by plunder and indiscriminate raids, they antagonized the peasants. They were primarily suited for stirring the Maharashtrian regional pride rather than for attracting loyalty to an all-India confederacy. They were left virtually alone before the invading Afghan forces, headed by Ahmad Shah Abdali (later called Ahmad Shah Durrani), who routed them on the blood-drenched battlefield at Panipat in 1761. The shock of defeat hastened the break-up of their loosely knit confederacy into five independent states and extinguished the hope of Maratha dominance in India.

The Mughal Empire - Sher Shah's Reign

2011-10-05T07:16:00.001-07:00

Although Babur had established the Mughal power as a dominant force in India, many of the left over forces from the Delhi Sultanate did not accept the Mughal as their ruler. Discontent began rising and soon they rallied around an Afghan known as Sher Shah. Sher Shah had a very humble background but rose to several important posts under various rulers. His father had been a landlord of a region called Sasaram which Sher Shah inherited upon his death. Originally known as Farid, he acquired the name Sher Khan, when under the service of Bahar Khan Lohani, a ruler of a kingdom in Bihar, he had single handedly killed a tiger. The king was so impressed that he also appointed Sher Shah, his deputy and the tutor of his minor son, Jalal Khan. Unfortunately for Sher Shah his enemies poisoned his master's mind against him and he was forced to leave his service. He also lost the Sasaram jagir of his father. Sher Shah however moved on and impressed by the success of the Mughals saw a future with them, and so joined Babur. He was of valuable assistance to Babur and as a reward for his services Babur got the Sasaram jagir restored to Sher Shah. Shortly afterwards Sher Shah left the Mughal service and returned to Bihar and went back to the kingdom where he had worked earlier, becoming the deputy governor and guardian of the minor heir Jalal Khan. Sher Shah soon became the effective head of the government and began winning over the support of the army. After a few years he was completely independent and the attempts of Jalal Khan and the rest of the royal family to dislodge him proved unsuccessful. Sher Shah then went on to win an important battle at Surajgarh against the combined forces of the Bengal Sultan and the Lohanis. This victory had important political implications, it made Sher Shah the undisputed ruler of Bihar and a contender for the crown of Delhi. Through a series of cleverly planned and well timed military strikes he defeated Humayun and took over Delhi, making him the ruler of most of the Mughal territories. Now an important emperor he bestowed upon himself the title Shah, and came to be known as Sher Shah. Humayun tried a year later to regain his territories, but without any support from his brothers and a demoralized army he was comprehensively defeated, barely managing to escape with his life. Thus the work of Babur was temporarily interrupted as Sher Shah restored India to the Afghans once again. Sher Shah spent the next few years consolidating his position and then settled down to give the country a brief (five years) but excellent government
Sher Shah was a gifted administrator and created a remarkable adminstrative setup. Perhaps his rule was more beneficial to India then Humayun's could ever have been, for his organization of the state made Akbar's task much easier. His government included many traditional features of the earlier administrative systems of India as well as adding some new original ideas. Although his system was highly centralized with tremendous power at the hands of emperor he ruled as a benevolent autocrat and attempted to the best of his ability to give his citizens a good government based on their wishes. To aid in administration he divided his empire into forty seven units called sarkars . These were then further divided into several paraganas . Each paragana had its own set of officers who had many responsibilities, which included maintaining records. A sarkar had two officers, a Shiqdar-I-Shiqdaran and a Munsif-I- Munsifan who would be in charge of the officers of the paraganas . To ensure that no officer could begin to become influential in an area, Sher Shah had a policy of transferring them every 2-3 years, which because of his short reign he was not able to fully implement. Sher Shah took a keen interest in administration, similar to Ashoka of the Mauryan period, believing that the greatest kings are also the most involved kings. This was a clear departure from the more detached approach followed by the Sultanate kings. Sher Shah also instituted reforms in the land revenue system, to make the system more in tune with the needs of the people. He conducted careful surveys and evolved the system of the state dealing directly with the cultivators. The states demands were fixed at one fourth or one third the total produce, which could be paid in either cash or kind. He appointed various officials to oversee revenue assessment and collection, and ensured that the system worked efficiently with prompt revenue collection. Tenants had certain rights and liabilities and these were clearly explained to him when he signed a deed of agreement with the state. Sher Shah had set up such a fine administration that the great Mughal king Akbar retained most of it, and Sher Shah's administrative set up was largely how the Mughal empire's administration remained for a long time. Sher Shah also re-organized tariffs and duties to facilitate the development of commerce. He also made significant developments in communications. He constructed several roads to aid in administration and defence but also to help link people. The longest road of these, the Grand Trunk Road survives today as National Highway 1 and extends for 1500 Km linking East India to North India. Sher Shah planted trees along the highways giving travellers shade, and also constructed rest houses. These also served the purpose of post offices and outposts and provided a method of speedily delivering important news to the government. An established system of espionage kept Sher Shah informed of the developments in all parts of his empire. Sher Shah also put in place an effective judicial system. In a paragana a civil suit was handled by an Amin , while criminal cases went to the Quazi and the Mir-I-Adal . The Munsif- I-Munsifan was like a chief justice for the paraganas. The chief justice of the empire was referred to as the Chief Quazi . The highest court of appeal remained the emperor. This set up was continued by Akbar and the Mughals. Sher Shah also worked on re-organizing the army, realizing that an efficient army was essential for a stable empire. Sher Shah did not delegate the control of troops to feudatories but instead kept a large section of the army under his direct control. He maintained units all across the empire, which had their own commander who reported to him. Sher Shah ensured there was strict discipline and took precautions to prevent corruption amongst soldiers. He supervise the recruitment of soldiers and the fixing of their salaries. Sher Shah is one of the most striking personalities of Medieval India. His dazzling rise from a humble beginning to that of emperor of India is indeed incredible. The organization that he put in place, was invaluable to Akbar in stabilizing and expanding the Mughal empire. In fact some of the greatest achievements of Akbar, were essentially completing work started by Sher Shah. Sher Shah ruled justly and always kept the interests of his subjects in mind. His untimely death due to an accident paved the way for the restoration of the Mughal empire, but his capable rule paved the way for the Mughals to reach the heights that they did. of the paraganas . To ensure that no officer could begin to become influential in an area, Sher Shah had a policy of transferring them every 2-3 years, which because of his short reign he was not able to fully implement. Sher Shah took a keen interest in administration, similar to Ashoka of the Mauryan period, believing that the greatest kings are also the most involved kings. This was a clear departure from the more detached approach followed by the Sultanate kings. Sher Shah also instituted reforms in the land revenue system, to make the system more in tune with the needs of the people. He conducted careful surveys and evolved the system of the state dealing directly with the cultivators. The states demands were fixed at one fourth or one third the total produce, which could be paid in either cash or kind. He appointed various officials to oversee revenue assessment and collection, and ensured that the system worked efficiently with prompt revenue collection. Tenants had certain rights and liabilities and these were clearly explained to him when he signed a deed of agreement with the state. Sher Shah had set up such a fine administration that the great Mughal king Akbar retained most of it, and Sher Shah's administrative set up was largely how the Mughal empire's administration remained for a long time. Sher Shah also re-organized tariffs and duties to facilitate the development of commerce. He also made significant developments in communications. He constructed several roads to aid in administration and defence but also to help link people. The longest road of these, the Grand Trunk Road survives today as National Highway 1 and extends for 1500 Km linking East India to North India. Sher Shah planted trees along the highways giving travellers shade, and also constructed rest houses. These also served the purpose of post offices and outposts and provided a method of speedily delivering important news to the government. An established system of espionage kept Sher Shah informed of the developments in all parts of his empire. Sher Shah also put in place an effective judicial system. In a paragana a civil suit was handled by an Amin , while criminal cases went to the Quazi and the Mir-I-Adal . The Munsif- I-Munsifan was like a chief justice for the paraganas. The chief justice of the empire was referred to as the Chief Quazi . The highest court of appeal remained the emperor. This set up was continued by Akbar and the Mughals. Sher Shah also worked on re-organizing the army, realizing that an efficient army was essential for a stable empire. Sher Shah did not delegate the control of troops to feudatories but instead kept a large section of the army under his direct control. He maintained units all across the empire, which had their own commander who reported to him. Sher Shah ensured there was strict discipline and took precautions to prevent corruption amongst soldiers. He supervise the recruitment of soldiers and the fixing of their salaries. Sher Shah is one of the most striking personalities of Medieval India. His dazzling rise from a humble beginning to that of emperor of India is indeed incredible. The organization that he put in place, was invaluable to Akbar in stabilizing and expanding the Mughal empire. In fact some of the greatest achievements of Akbar, were essentially completing work started by Sher Shah. Sher Shah ruled justly and always kept the interests of his subjects in mind. His untimely death due to an accident paved the way for the restoration of the Mughal empire, but his capable rule paved the way for the Mughals to reach the heights that they did.

British Empire in India

2011-10-05T07:14:00.001-07:00

India -Company Rule, 1757-1857 The British Empire in India - A multiplicity of motives underlay the British penetration into India: commerce, security, and a purported moral uplift of the people. The "expansive force" of private and company trade eventually led to the conquest or annexation of territories in which spices, cotton, and opium were produced. British investors ventured into the unfamiliar interior landscape in search of opportunities that promised substantial profits. British economic penetration was aided by Indian collaborators, such as the bankers and merchants who controlled intricate credit networks. British rule in India would have been a frustrated or half-realized dream had not Indian counterparts provided connections between rural and urban centers. External threats, both real and imagined, such as the Napoleonic Wars (1796-1815) and Russian expansion toward Afghanistan (in the 1830s), as well as the desire for internal stability, led to the annexation of more territory in India.Political analysts in Britain wavered initially as they were uncertain of the costs or the advantages in undertaking wars in India, but by the 1810s, as the territorial aggrandizement eventually paid off, opinion in London welcomed the absorption of new areas. Occasionally the British Parliament witnessed heated debates against expansion,

but arguments justifying military operations for security reasons always won over even the most vehement critics.
The British soon forgot their own rivalry with the Portuguese and the French and permitted them to stay in their coastal enclaves, which they kept even after independence in 1947 (see National Integration, this ch.). The British, however, continued to expand vigorously well into the 1850s. A number of aggressive governors-general undertook relentless campaigns against several Hindu and Muslim rulers. Among them were Richard Colley Wellesley (1798-1805), William Pitt Amherst (1823-28), George Eden (1836-42), Edward Law (1842-44), and James Andrew Brown Ramsay (1848-56; also known as the Marquess of Dalhousie). Despite desperate efforts at salvaging their tottering power and keeping the British at bay, many Hindu and Muslim rulers lost their territories: Mysore (1799, but later restored), the Maratha Confederacy (1818), and Punjab (1849). The British success in large measure was the result not only of their superiority in tactics and weapons but also of their ingenious relations with Indian rulers through the "subsidiary alliance" system, introduced in the early nineteenth century. Many rulers bartered away their real responsibilities by agreeing to uphold British paramountcy in India, while they retained a fictional sovereignty under the rubric of Pax Britannica. Later, Dalhousie espoused the "doctrine of lapse" and annexed outright the estates of deceased princes of Satara (1848), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Tanjore (1853), Nagpur (1854), and Oudh (1856). European perceptions of India, and those of the British especially, shifted from unequivocal appreciation to sweeping condemnation of India's past achievements and customs. Imbued with an ethnocentric sense of superiority, British intellectuals, including Christian missionaries, spearheaded a movement that sought to bring Western intellectual and technological innovations to Indians. Interpretations of the causes of India's cultural and spiritual "backwardness" varied, as did the solutions. Many argued that it was Europe's mission to civilize India and hold it as a trust until Indians proved themselves competent for self-rule. The British Parliament enacted a series of laws, among which the Regulating Act of 1773 stood first, to curb the company traders' unrestrained commercial activities and to bring about some order in territories under company control. Limiting the company charter to periods of twenty years, subject to review upon renewal, the 1773 act gave the British government supervisory rights over the Bengal, Bombay, and Madras presidencies. Bengal was given preeminence over the rest because of its enormous commercial vitality and because it was the seat of British power in India (at Calcutta), whose governor was elevated to the new position of governor-general. Warren Hastings was the first incumbent (1773-85). The India Act of 1784, sometimes described as the "half-loaf system," as it sought to mediate between Parliament and the company directors, enhanced Parliament's control by establishing the Board of Control, whose members were selected from the cabinet. The Charter Act of 1813 recognized British moral responsibility by introducing just and humane laws in India, foreshadowing future social legislation, and outlawing a number of traditional practices such as sati and thagi (or thugee, robbery coupled with ritual murder). As governor-general from 1786 to 1793, Charles Cornwallis (the Marquis of Cornwallis), professionalized, bureaucratized, and Europeanized the company's administration. He also outlawed private trade by company employees, separated the commercial and administrative functions, and remunerated company servants with generous graduated salaries. Because revenue collection became the company's most essential administrative function, Cornwallis made a compact with Bengali zamindars, who were perceived as the Indian counterparts to the British landed gentry. The Permanent Settlement system, also known as the zamindari system, fixed taxes in perpetuity in return for ownership of large estates; but the state was excluded from agricultural expansion, which came under the purview of the zamindars. In Madras and Bombay, however, the ryotwari (peasant) settlement system was set in motion, in which peasant cultivators had to pay annual taxes directly to the government. Neither the zamindari nor the ryotwari systems proved effective in the long run because India was integrated into an international economic and pricing system over which it had no control, while increasing numbers of people subsisted on agriculture for lack of other employment. Millions of people involved in the heavily taxed Indian textile industry also lost their markets, as they were unable to compete successfully with cheaper textiles produced in Lancashire's mills from Indian raw materials.The British Empire in India Beginning with the Mayor's Court, established in 1727 for civil litigation in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, justice in the interior came under the company's jurisdiction. In 1772 an elaborate judicial system, known as adalat , established civil and criminal jurisdictions along with a complex set of codes or rules of procedure and evidence. Both Hindu pandits (see Glossary) and Muslim qazis (sharia court judges) were recruited to aid the presiding judges in interpreting their customary laws, but in other instances, British common and statutory laws became applicable. In extraordinary situations where none of these systems was applicable, the judges were enjoined to adjudicate on the basis of "justice, equity, and good conscience." The legal profession provided numerous opportunities for educated and talented Indians who were unable to secure positions in the company, and, as a result, Indian lawyers later dominated nationalist politics and reform movements. The 1850s witnessed the introduction of the three "engines of social improvement" that heightened the British illusion of permanence in India. They were the railroads, the telegraph, and the uniform postal service, inaugurated during the tenure of Dalhousie as governor-general. The first railroad lines were built in 1850 from Howrah (Haora, across the Hughli River from Calcutta) inland to the coalfields at Raniganj, Bihar, a distance of 240 kilometers. In 1851 the first electric telegraph line was laid in Bengal and soon linked Agra, Bombay, Calcutta, Lahore, Varanasi, and other cities. The three different presidency or regional postal systems merged in 1854 to facilitate uniform methods of communication at an all-India level. With uniform postal rates for letters and newspapers--one-half anna and one anna, respectively (sixteen annas equalled one rupee)--communication between the rural and the metropolitan areas became easier and faster. The increased ease of communication and the opening of highways and waterways accelerated the movement of troops, the transportation of raw materials and goods to and from the interior, and the exchange of commercial information. The railroads did not break down the social or cultural distances between various groups but tended to create new categories in tra