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COMPUTER GUIDE: DEFINITION, TYPES, SPECIFICATIONS, EXAMPLES, COMPONENTS & FULL DETAILS.

2020-12-07T23:47:00.001-08:00

COMPUTER GUIDE: DEFINITION, TYPES, SPECIFICATIONS, EXAMPLES, COMPONENTS & FULL DETAILS.

A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out various of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming.

Now a days, Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks.

A "complete" computer including the hardware, the operating system (main software), and peripheral equipment required and used for "full" operation can be referred to as a computer system.

This term may as well be used for a group of computers that are connected and work together, in particular a computer network or computer cluster.

Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of industrial and consumer devices.

This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer-aided design and also general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones.

The Internet is run on computers and it connects hundreds of millions of other computers and their users every single day.

Peripheral devices include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, printers, etc.), and input/output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s-era touchscreen).

Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.

Types

Analog Computers

During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation.

However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.

The first modern analog computer was a tide-predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872.

The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.

Digital computers

· Electromechanical

Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation.

These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes.

The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.

In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world's first working electro-mechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz.

· Colossus

Colossus was the world's first electronic digital programmable computer.

It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes).

It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete.

Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.

· ENIAC

The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the U.S. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing-complete.

The programmers of the ENIAC were six women, often known collectively as the "ENIAC girls".

It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems.

It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root.

High speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945.

The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Hybrid computers

The above picture is Polish Hybrid computer WAT 1001.

Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit features of analog computers and digital computers.

The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical and numerical operations, while the analog component often serves as a solver of differential equations and other mathematically complex equations.

The first desktop hybrid computing system was the Hycomp 250, released by Packard Bell in 1961. Another early example was the HYDAC 2400, an integrated hybrid computer released by EAI in 1963.

Supercomputer

A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance as compared to a general-purpose computer.

The performance of a supercomputer is commonly measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second (MIPS).

Since 2017, there are supercomputers which can perform over 10¹⁷ FLOPS (a hundred quadrillion FLOPS, 100 petaFLOPS or 100 PFLOPS).

Since November 2017, all of the world's fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based operating systems.

Additional research is being conducted in the United States, the European Union, Taiwan, Japan, and China to build faster, more powerful and technologically superior exascale supercomputers.

Mainframe computer

A mainframe computer, informally called a mainframe or big iron, is a computer used primarily by large organizations for critical applications, bulk data processing such as the census and industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and large-scale transaction processing.

A mainframe computer is larger and has more processing power than some other classes of computers, such as minicomputers, servers, workstations, and personal computers.

Mainframe computers are more often used as servers.

Minicomputer

Above picture is A PDP-11, model 40, an early member of DECs 16-bit minicomputer family, on display at the Vienna Technical Museum.

A minicomputer, or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that was developed in the mid-1960s.

minicomputer as a machine costing less than US $25,000 with an input-output device such as a teleprinter and at least four thousand words of memory, that is capable of running programs in a higher level language, such as Fortran or BASIC.

Microcomputer

Above picture is Raspberry Pi, a popular microcomputer.

A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit (CPU).

It includes a microprocessor, memory and minimal input/output (I/O) circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit board (PCB).

Microcomputers became popular in the 1970s and 1980s with the advent of increasingly powerful microprocessors.

Home computers

Home computers were a class of microcomputers that entered the market in 1977 and became common during the 1980s.

They were marketed to consumers as affordable and accessible computers that, for the first time, were intended for the use of a single nontechnical user.

These computers were a distinct market segment that typically cost much less than business, scientific or engineering-oriented computers of the time such as those running CP/M or the IBM PC, and were generally less powerful in terms of memory and expandability.

However, a home computer often had better graphics and sound than contemporary business computers.

Their most common uses were playing video games, but they were also regularly used for word processing, doing homework, and programming.

Other types of Computer

Desktop computer

A desktop computer is a personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on or near a desk or table due to its size and power requirements.

Desktop computer Types

Full-sized

Full-sized desktops are characterized by separate display and processing components.

These components are connected to each other by cables or wireless connections.

They often come in a tower form factor.

These computers are easy to customize and upgrade per user requirements, e.g. by expansion card.

All-in-one desktop

The above picture is kayro II all-in-one computer.

An all-in-one desktop computer integrates the system's internal components into the same case as the display, thus occupying a smaller footprint (with fewer cables) than desktops that incorporate a tower.

The all-in-one form factor was popular during the early 1980s for personal computers intended for professional use such as the Kaypro II, Osborne 1, TRS-80 Model II and Compaq Portable.

Compact

The above picture is Acer AspireRevo nettop compact desktop.

Compact desktops are reduced in physical proportions compared to full-sized desktops.

They are typically small-sized, inexpensive, low-power computers designed for basic tasks such as web browsing, accessing web-based applications, document processing, and audio/video playback.

Hardware specifications and processing power are usually reduced and hence make them less appropriate for running complex or resource-intensive applications.

A nettop is an example of a compact desktop.

Home theater

These desktops are connected to home entertainment systems and typically used for amusement purpose.

They come with high definition display, video graphics, surround sound and TV tuner systems to complement typical PC features.

Personal computer

The three personal computers referred to by Byte Magazine as the "1977 Trinity" of home computing: The Commodore PET, the Apple II, and the TRS-80 Model I.

A personal computer (PC) is a multi-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and price make it feasible for individual use.

Personal computers are intended to be operated directly by an end user, rather than by a computer expert or technician.

Unlike large, costly minicomputers and mainframes, time-sharing by many people at the same time is not used with personal computers.

Multimedia computer

The above picture is Amiga 1000(1985) first multimedia & personal computer..

A multimedia computer is a computer that is optimized for high multimedia performance.

The Amiga 1000 from Commodore International has been called the first multimedia computer.

Gaming computer

A gaming computer, also known as a gaming PC or gaming rig, is a personal computer designed for playing video games that require a high amount of computing power.

Keyboard Computer

The above picture is Sinclair zx spectrum keyboard computer.

A keyboard computer is a computer which contains all of the regular components of a personal computer, except for a screen, in the same housing as the keyboard.

The power supply is typically external and connects to the computer via an adapter cable.

The motherboard is specially designed to fit inside, and the device is larger than most standard keyboards.

Additional peripheral components such as a monitor are connected to the computer via external ports. Usually a minimum of storage devices, if any, is built in.

Most home computers of the late 1970s and during the 1980s were keyboard computers, the Sinclair ZX Spectrum and most models of the Atari ST, Commodore 64 and Amiga being prime examples.

Portable computer

The above picture is The Compaq Portable, one of the first portable IBM PC compatible systems.

A portable computer is a computer designed to be easily moved from one place to another and included a display and keyboard.

The first commercially sold portable was the 50-pound (23 kg) IBM 5100, introduced 1975.

Wearable computer ( Smart Watch)

The above Pictures are of LunaTik, a machined wristband attachment for the 6th-generation iPod Nano and Google Glass, Google's head-mounted display, which was launched in 2013.

A wearable computer, also known as a wearable or body-borne computer, is a computing device worn on the body.

Wearables are typically worn on the wrist (e.g. fitness trackers), hung from the neck (like a necklace), strapped to the arm or leg (smartphones when exercising), or on the head (as glasses or a helmet), though some have been located elsewhere (e.g. on a finger or in a shoe).

Devices carried in a pocket or bag – such as smartphones.

Mobile computer

Mobile computing is human–computer interaction in which a computer is expected to be transported during normal usage, which allows for the transmission of data, voice, and video. Mobile computing involves mobile communication, mobile hardware, and mobile software.

Communication issues include ad hoc networks and infrastructure networks as well as communication properties, protocols, data formats, and concrete technologies.

Hardware includes mobile devices or device components. Mobile software deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications.

Tablet computer

The above picture is of Apple's iPad (left) and Amazon's Fire (right), two popular tablet computers.

A tablet computer, commonly shortened to tablet, is a mobile device, typically with a mobile operating system and touchscreen display processing circuitry, and a rechargeable battery in a single, thin and flat package.

Tablets, being computers, do what other personal computers do, but lack some input/output (I/O) abilities that others have.

Modern tablets largely resemble modern smartphones, the only differences being that tablets are relatively larger than smartphones, with screens 7 inches (18 cm) or larger, measured diagonally, and may not support access to a cellular network.

Single-board computer (SBC)

The Raspberry Pi is a low-cost single-board computer used to teach computer science.

A single-board computer (SBC) is a complete computer built on a single circuit board, with microprocessor(s), memory, input/output (I/O) and other features required of a functional computer.

Single-board computers are commonly made as demonstration or development systems, for educational systems, or for use as embedded computer controllers.

Plug computer

A plug computer is an external device, often configured for use in the home or office as a compact computer.

The name is derived from the small configuration of such devices; they are often enclosed in an AC power plug or AC adapter.

Quantum Computer

The above picture is ibm quantum computer 4.

Computers that perform quantum computations are known as quantum computers.
Quantum computing is the use of quantum phenomena adapter superposition and entanglement to perform computation.

Quantum computers are believed to be able to solve certain computational problems, such as integer factorization (which underlies RSA encryption), substantially faster than classical computers.

Desktop replacement computer (DTR)

The above picture is A Clevo x7200 desktop replacement computer.

A desktop replacement computer (DTR) is a personal computer that provides the full capabilities of a desktop computer while remaining mobile.

Rugged Computer

A rugged, or ruggedized computer is a computer specifically designed to operate reliably in harsh usage environments and conditions, such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures and wet or dusty conditions.

This type of computer mostly used by Militry soldiers.

They are designed from inception for the type of rough use typified by these conditions, not just in the external housing but in the internal components and cooling arrangements as well.

Hyperloop| 5 mode of transportation| All you need to know

2020-11-09T01:13:00.004-08:00

Hyperloop| 5 mode of transportation| All you need to know

The Hyperloop is a proposed mode of passenger and freight transportation, first used to describe an open-source vactrain design released by a joint team from Tesla and SpaceX.

Hyperloop is a sealed tube or system of tubes with low air pressure through which a pod may travel substantially free of air resistance or friction.

The Hyperloop could convey people or objects at airline or hypersonic speeds while being very energy efficient.

This would drastically reduce travel times versus trains as well as planes over distances of under approximately 1,500 kilometres (930 miles).

Origin

Elon Musk first publicly introduced the concept of Hyperloop in 2012.

His initial concept incorporated reduced-pressure tubes in which pressurized capsules ride on air bearings driven by linear induction motors and axial compressors.

The Hyperloop Alpha concept was first published in August 2013, proposing and examining a route running from the Los Angeles region to the San Francisco Bay Area, roughly following the Interstate 5 corridor.

The Hyperloop concept has been explicitly "open-sourced" by Musk and SpaceX, and others have been encouraged to take the ideas and further develop them and few companies have been formed, and several interdisciplinary student-led teams are working to advance the technology.

Musk first mentioned that he was thinking about a concept for a "fifth mode of transport", calling it the Hyperloop, in July 2012 at a PandoDaily event in Santa Monica, California.

The name Hyperloop was chosen because it would go in a loop.

Musk envisions the more advanced versions will be able to go at hypersonic speed.

In May 2013, Musk likened the Hyperloop to a "cross between a Concorde and a railgun and an air hockey table".

Theoretical Concept and early Difficulties

Developments in high-speed rail have historically been impeded by the difficulties in managing friction and air resistance, both of which become substantial when vehicles approach high speeds.

The vactrain concept theoretically eliminates these obstacles by employing magnetically levitating trains in evacuated (airless) or partly evacuated tubes, allowing for speeds of thousands of miles per hour.

However, the high cost of maglev and the difficulty of maintaining a vacuum over large distances has prevented this type of system from ever being built.

The Hyperloop resembles a vactrain system but operates at approximately one millibar (100 Pa) of pressure.

Hyperloop Pros

Hyperloop following pros are:

1.Immunity to weather

2.collision free

3.twice the speed of a plane

4.low power consumption

5.energy storage for 24-hour operations.

Hyperloop Pod Competition

In June 2015, SpaceX announced that it would build a 1-mile-long (1.6 km) test track to be located next to SpaceX's Hawthorne facility. The track would be used to test pod designs supplied by third parties in the competition.

The MIT Hyperloop team developed the first Hyperloop pod prototype, which they unveiled at the MIT Museum on 13 May 2016. Their design uses electrodynamic suspension for levitating and eddy current braking.

On 29 January 2017, approximately one year after phase one of the Hyperloop pod competition, the MIT Hyperloop pod demonstrated the first ever low-pressure Hyperloop run in the world.

Within this first competition the Delft University team from the Netherlands achieved the highest overall competition score, winning the prize for "best overall design".

The award for the "fastest pod" was won by the team WARR Hyperloop from the Technical University of Munich (TUM), Germany.

The second Hyperloop pod competition took place from 25–27 August 2017. The only judging criteria was top speed, provided it was followed by successful deceleration.

WARR Hyperloop from the Technical University of Munich won the competition by reaching a top speed of 324 km/h (201 mph) and therefore breaking the previous record of 310 km/h for Hyperloop prototypes set by Hyperloop One on their own test track.

A third Hyperloop pod competition took place in July 2018. The defending champions, the WARR Hyperloop team from the Technical University of Munich, beat their own record with a top speed of 457 km/h (284 mph) during their run.

The fourth competition in August 2019 saw the team from the Technical University of Munich, now known as TUM Hyperloop (by NEXT Prototypes e.V.), again winning the competition and beating their own record with a top speed of 463 km/h (288 mph).

Hyperloop Companies

1.Virgin Hyperloop one

Virgin Hyperloop One (formerly Hyperloop One, and before that, Hyperloop Technologies) was incorporated in 2014 and has built a team of 280+, including engineers, technicians, welders, and machinists.

It has raised more than US$160 million in capital from investors including DP World, Sherpa Capital, Formation 8, 137 Ventures, Caspian Venture Capital, Fast Digital, GE Ventures, and SNCF.

Hyperloop One was founded by Shervin Pishevar and Brogan BamBrogan, BamBrogan left the company in July 2016, along with three of the other founding members of Arrivo.

Hyperloop One then selected co-founder Josh Giegel, a former SpaceX engineer, to be CTO.

On 11 May 2016, Hyperloop One conducted the first live trial of Hyperloop technology,

In July 2016, Hyperloop One released a preliminary study that suggested a Hyperloop connection between Helsinki and Stockholm would be feasible, reducing the travel time between the cities to half an hour.

The construction costs were estimated by Hyperloop One to be around €19 billion (US$21 billion at 2016 exchange rates).

On 12 May 2017, Hyperloop One performed its first full-scale Hyperloop test, becoming the first company in the world to test a full-scale Hyperloop.

In February 2018, Richard Branson of Virgin Hyperloop One announced that he had a preliminary agreement with the Maharashtra State government of India to build the Mumbai-Pune Hyperloop.

In July 2019, the Government of Maharashtra and Hyperloop One set a target to create the first hyperloop system in the world between Pune and Mumbai.

2.Hyperloop Transportation Technologies

Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT) is the first Hyperloop company created (founded in 2013), with a current workforce of more than 800 engineers and professionals located around the world.

Some collaborate part-time; others are full-time employees and contributors. Some members are full-time paid employees; others work in exchange for salary and stock options.

In December 2016, Hyperloop Transportation Technologies and the government of Abu Dhabi announced plans to conduct a feasibility study on a Hyperloop link between the UAE capital and Al Ain, reducing travel time between Abu Dhabi and Al Ain to just under 10-minutes.

In September 2017, HTT announced and signed an agreement with the Andhra Pradesh state government of India to build a track from Amaravathi to Vijayawada in a public-private partnership, and suggested that the more than one hour trip could be reduced to 5 minutes through the project.

In June 2018, Ukraine's Infrastructure Ministry reached an agreement with Hyperloop Transportation Technologies to develop its high-speed vacuum transport technology in Ukraine.

Later in 2018, the company signed an agreement with the Guizhou province of China to build a Hyperloop.

3.DGWHyperloop

Established in 2015, DGWHyperloop is a subsidiary of Dinclix GroundWorks, an engineering company based in Indore, India.

DGWHyperloop's initial proposals include a Hyperloop-based corridor between Delhi and Mumbai called the Delhi Mumbai Hyperloop Corridor (DMHC).

The company has partnered with many government agencies, private companies, and institutions for its research on Hyperloop.

DGWHyperloop is the only Indian company working on implementing the Hyperloop system across the nation.

4.Hyper Poland

Hyper Poland is a Polish company founded in 2017 by engineers who graduated from the Warsaw University of Technology.

In the summer of 2017, acting as the Hyper Poland University Team, they built a hyperloop model which took part in the SpaceX Pod Competition II in California.

In March 2018, the company was recognized as one of the best startups in the mobility sector in Europe.

Unlike other companies in the Hyperloop sector, Hyper Poland develops a system aimed at offering a low-cost upgrade to existing conventional railway corridors.

The system - dubbed ‘magrail’ - is based on magnetic levitation, linear motor and autonomous control systems and can be transformed into a full-fledged, vacuum Hyperloop at a later stage.

Key differentiator of Hyper Poland’s magrail technology is its interoperability with conventional railway systems which allows for the functionality of both the magrail system and conventional trains on the same tracks and promises reduced infrastructure costs and faster implementation by using existing and regulatorily approved railway corridors.

In its initial implementation stage, the system is designed for speeds comparable to today’s conventional High-speed rail (300-415 kph), but at significantly lower implementation costs.

The system allows a subsequent upgrade into a vacuum system with speeds of up to 600 kph on conventional tracks and 1,000 kph on HSR lines.

In the first half of 2019, Hyper Poland it secured a EUR 3.8 million grant from the Polish National Center for Research and Development and two pre-seed rounds on a UK equity crowdfunding platform of EUR 820k total.

In October 2019, Hyper Poland presented its ‘magrail’ prototype vehicle and a track in 1:5 scale.

Note: Many another companies also in race of making hyperloop transportation true in reality in future. E.g- TransPod, Arrivo, Hardt Global Mobility, Zeleros. Now more companies take a step forward in this field.

Critics of Hyperloop

Some critics of Hyperloop focus on the experience—possibly unpleasant and frightening—of riding in a narrow, sealed, windowless capsule inside a sealed steel tunnel, that is subjected to significant acceleration forces; high noise levels due to air being compressed and ducted around the capsule at near-sonic speeds; and the vibration and jostling.

Even if the tube is initially smooth, ground may shift with seismic activity.

At high speeds, even minor deviations from a straight path may add considerable buffeting.

This is in addition to practical and logistical questions regarding how to best deal with safety issues such as equipment malfunction, accidents, and emergency evacuations.

Other maglev trains are already in use, which avoid much of the added costs of Hyperloop.

The SCMaglev in Japan has demonstrated 603 km/h (375 mph) without a vacuum tube, by using an extremely aerodynamic train design.

It also avoids the cost and time required to pressurize and depressurize the exit and entry points of a Hyperloop tube.

There is also the criticism of design technicalities in the tube system.

John Hansman, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at MIT, has stated problems, such as how a slight misalignment in the tube would be compensated for and the potential interplay between the air cushion and the low-pressure air.

He has also questioned what would happen if the power were to go out when the pod was miles away from a city.

UC Berkeley physics professor Richard Muller has also expressed concern regarding "[the Hyperloop's] novelty and the vulnerability of its tubes, [which] would be a tempting target for terrorists", and that the system could be disrupted by everyday dirt and grime

The solar panels Musk plans to install along the length of the Hyperloop system have been criticized by engineering professor Roger Goodall of Loughborough University, as not being feasible enough to return enough energy to power the Hyperloop system, arguing that the air pumps and propulsion would require much more power than the solar panels could generate.

Cost estimates of the Hyperloop

A number of economists and transportation experts have expressed the belief that the US$6 billion price tag dramatically understates the cost of designing, developing, constructing, and testing an all-new form of transportation.

Michael Anderson, a professor of agricultural and resource economics at UC Berkeley, predicted that costs would amount to around US$100 billion.

The Hyperloop white paper suggests that US$20 of each one-way passenger ticket between Los Angeles and San Francisco would be sufficient to cover initial capital costs, based on amortizing the cost of Hyperloop over 20 years with ridership projections of 7.4 million per year in each direction and does not include operating costs

Hyperloop on Mars

According to Musk, Hyperloop would be useful on Mars as no tubes would be needed because Mars' atmosphere is about 1% the density of the Earth's at sea level.

For the Hyperloop concept to work on Earth, low-pressure tubes are required to reduce air resistance.

However, if they were to be built on Mars, the lower air resistance would allow a Hyperloop to be created with no tube, only a track.

Insurance types in the United States| All you need to know

2020-09-18T00:29:00.032-07:00

Insurance types in the United States| All you need to know

Insurance is a contract in which the insurer agrees to compensate or pay another party (the insured, the policyholder or a beneficiary) for specified loss or damage to a specified thing (e.g., an item, property or life) from certain perils or risks in exchange for a fee (the insurance premium).

For example, a property insurance company may agree to bear the risk that a particular piece of property (e.g., a car or a house) may suffer a specific type or types of damage or loss during a certain period of time in exchange for a fee from the policyholder who would otherwise be responsible for that damage or loss. That agreement takes the form of an insurance policy.

The US has a joint federal & state system for regulating insurance, with the federal government ceding primary responsibility to the states under the McCarran-Ferguson Act. States regulate the content of health insurance policies and often require coverage of specific types of medical services or health care providers.

As of 2018, there were 5,965 health insurance companies in the United States, although the top 10 company account for about 53% of revenue and the top 100 account for 95% of revenue.

Important Terms

Parties to Contract

The person responsible for making payments for a policy is the policy owner, while the insured is the person whose death will trigger payment of the death benefit. The owner and insured may or may not be the same person.

The beneficiary receives policy proceeds upon the insured person's death. The owner designates the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is not a party to the policy. The owner can change the beneficiary unless the policy has an irrevocable beneficiary designation.

Contract Terms

Insurance Contract terms and Conditions should be clearly read by the policy holders to avoid insurance fund claim problems.

Special exclusions may apply, such as suicide clauses, whereby the policy becomes null and of no value, if the insured dies by suicide within a specified time (usually two years after the purchase date; some states provide a statutory one-year suicide clause).

Any misrepresentations by the insured on the application may also be grounds for nullification.

The face amount of the policy is the initial amount that the policy will pay at the death of the insured or when the policy matures.

Although the actual death benefit can provide for greater or lesser than the face amount.

The Insurance policy matures when the insured dies or reaches a specified age (such as 100 years old).

Cost

The insurance company calculates the policy prices (premiums) at a level sufficient to fund claims, cover administrative costs, and provide a profit. The cost of insurance is determined using mortality tables calculated by actuaries.

Mortality tables are statistically based tables showing expected annual mortality rates of people at different age-groups.

Insurance Vs Assurance

The specific uses of the terms “insurance” and “assurance” are sometimes confused. In general, in jurisdictions where both terms are used, “insurance” refers to providing coverage for an event that might happen (fire, theft, flood, etc.), while “assurance” is the provision of coverage for an event that is certain or surely to happen.

Taxation

In USA Premiums paid by the policy owner are normally not deductible for federal and state income tax purposes, and proceeds paid by the insurer upon the death of the insured are not included in gross income for federal and state income tax purposes.

History of Insurance

The first insurance company in the United States underwrote fire insurance and was formed in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1735.

In 1752, Benjamin Franklin helped form a mutual insurance company called the Philadelphia Contributionship, which is the nation's oldest insurance carrier still in operation.

The first stock insurance company formed in the United States was the Insurance Company of North America in 1792

Types of Insurance

a. Health (dental, vision, medications, others)

b. Life (long-term care, accidental death and dismemberment, hospital indemnity)

c. Annuities (securities)

d. Life and Annuities

e. Property and Casualty (P & C)

f. Property (flood, earthquake, home, auto, fire, boiler, title, pet)

g. Casualty (errors and omissions, workers' compensation, disability, liability)

Reinsurance is usually treated as a separate category from the above types.

Some of them are:

Home Insurance

Home insurance, also commonly called homeowner's insurance (Also known as real estate industry in the US as HOI), is a type of property insurance that covers a private residence.

It is an insurance policy that combines various personal insurance protections, which can include losses occurring to one's home, its contents, loss of use (additional living expenses), or loss of other personal possessions of the homeowner, as well as liability insurance for accidents that may happen at the home or at the hands of the homeowner within the policy territory.

In the United States, most home buyers borrow money in the form of a mortgage loan, and the mortgage lender often requires that the buyer purchases homeowner's insurance as a condition of the loan, in order to protect the bank if the home is destroyed. Anyone with an insurable interest in the property should be listed on the policy.

Covered Perils

Home insurance offers coverage on a "named perils" and "open perils" basis. A "named perils" policy is one that provides coverage for a loss specifically listed on the policy; if it's not listed, then it's not covered.

An "open perils" policy is broader in the sense that it will provide coverage for all losses except those specifically excluded on your policy.

Basic-form covered perils:

this is the least comprehensive of the three coverage options. It provides protection against perils most likely to result in a total loss. If something happens to your home that's not on the list below, you are not covered. This type of policy is most common in countries with developing insurance markets and as protection for vacant or unoccupied buildings.

· Fire

· Lightning

· Windstorm or hail

· Explosion

· Smoke

· Vandalism

· Aircraft or vehicle collision

· Riot or civil commotion

Broad-form covered perils:

this form expands on the "basic form" by adding 6 more covered perils. Again, this is a "named perils" policy. The loss must specifically be listed to receive coverage. Fortunately, the "broad form" is designed to cover the most common forms of property damage.

· All basic-form perils

· Burglary, break-in damage

· Falling objects (e.g. tree limbs)

· Weight of ice and snow

· Freezing of plumbing

· Accidental water damage

· Artificially generated electricity

Special-form excluded perils:

special-form coverage is the most inclusive of the three options. The difference with "special form" policies is that they provide coverage to all losses unless specifically excluded. Unlike the prior forms, all unlisted perils are covered perils. However, if something happens to your home, and the event is on the exclusions list, the policy will not provide coverage.

· Ordinance of law

· Earthquake

· Flood

· Power failure

· Neglect

· War

· Nuclear hazard

· Intentional acts

Life insurance

Life insurance (or life assurance, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations) is a contract between an insurance policy holder and an insurer or assurer, where the insurer promises to pay a designated beneficiary a sum of money (the benefit) in exchange for a premium, upon the death of an insured person (often the policy holder).

Depending on the contract, other events such as terminal illness or critical illness can also trigger payment. The policy holder typically pays a premium, either regularly or as one lump sum. Other expenses, such as funeral expenses, can also be included in the benefits.

Life policies are legal contracts and the terms of the contract describe the limitations of the insured events.

Specific exclusions are often written into the contract to limit the liability of the insurer; common examples are claims relating to suicide, fraud, war, riot, and civil commotion.

Term assurance

Term assurance provides life insurance coverage for a specified term. The policy does not accumulate cash value.

Term insurance is significantly less expensive than an equivalent permanent policy but will become higher with age. Policy holders can save to provide for increased term premiums or decrease insurance needs (by paying off debts or saving to provide for survivor needs).

Group life insurance

Group life insurance (also known as wholesale life insurance or institutional life insurance) is term insurance covering a group of people, usually employees of a company, members of a union or association, or members of a pension or superannuation fund.

Permanent Life Insurance

Permanent life insurance is life insurance that covers the remaining lifetime of the insured. A permanent insurance policy accumulates a cash value up to its date of maturation. The owner can access the money in the cash value by withdrawing money, borrowing the cash value, or surrendering the policy and receiving the surrender value.

The three basic types of permanent insurance are whole life, universal life, and endowment.

Whole life.

Accidental death

Accidental death insurance is a type of limited life insurance that is designed to cover the insured should they die as the result of an accident.

Health insurance

Health insurance in the United States is any program that helps pay for medical expenses, whether through privately purchased insurance, social insurance, or a social welfare program funded by the government.

Synonyms for this usage include "health coverage", "health care coverage", and "health benefits".

In a medical sense, the term "health insurance" is used to describe any form of insurance providing protection against the costs of medical services

"health insurance" may also refer to insurance covering disability or long-term nursing or custodial care needs.

History

Accident insurance was first offered in the United States by the Franklin Health Assurance Company of Massachusetts. This firm, founded in 1850, offered insurance against injuries arising from railroad and steamboat accidents. Sixty organizations were offering accident insurance in the US by 1866, but the industry consolidated rapidly soon thereafter.

Public health care Programs

Public programs provide the primary source of coverage for most seniors and also low-income children and families who meet certain eligibility requirements.

The primary public programs are Medicare, a federal social insurance program for seniors (generally persons aged 65 and over) and certain disabled individuals.

Medicaid, funded jointly by the federal government and states but administered at the state level, which covers certain very low income children and their families.

CHIP(Children health insurance program), also a federal-state partnership that serves certain children and families who do not qualify for Medicaid but who cannot afford private coverage.

Health Maintenance Organizations

A health maintenance organization (HMO) is a type of managed care organization (MCO) that provides a form of health care coverage that is fulfilled through hospitals, doctors, and other providers with which the HMO has a contract.

The Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973 required employers with 25 or more employees to offer federally certified HMO options.

Blue Cross Blue Shield Association

The Blue Cross Blue Shield Association (BCBSA) is a federation of 38 separate health insurance organizations and companies in the United States. Combined, they directly or indirectly provide health insurance to over 100 million Americans

BCBSA insurance companies are franchisees, independent of the association (and traditionally each other), offering insurance plans within defined regions under one or both of the association's brands.

Blue Cross Blue Shield insurers offer some form of health insurance coverage in every U.S. state, and also act as administrators of Medicare in many states or regions of the United States.

And also provide coverage to state government employees as well as to federal government employees under a nationwide option of the Federal Employees Health Benefit Plan.

Health Care Markets & Pricing

The US health insurance market is highly concentrated, as leading insurers have carried out over 400 mergers from the mid-1990s to the mid-2000s (decade).

In 2000, the two largest health insurers (Aetna and UnitedHealth Group) had total membership of 32 million.

By 2006 the top two insurers, WellPoint (now Anthem) and UnitedHealth, had total membership of 67 million. The two companies together had more than 36% of the national market for commercial health insurance.

In 90% of markets, the largest insurer controls at least 30% of the market, and the largest insurer controls more than 50% of the market in 54% of metropolitan areas.

Most provider markets (especially hospitals) are also highly concentrated—roughly 80%, according to criteria established by the FTC and Department of Justice.

Military Health System

Health benefits are also provided to active duty service members, retired service members and their dependents by the Department of Defense Military Health System (MHS).

The MHS consists of a direct care network of Military Treatment Facilities and a purchased care network known as TRICARE.

Vehicle Insurance

Vehicle insurance, in the United States and elsewhere, is designed to cover the risk of financial liability or the loss of a motor vehicle that the owner may face if their vehicle is involved in a collision that results in property or physical damage.

Most states require a motor vehicle owner to carry some minimum level of liability insurance.

States that do not require the vehicle owner to carry car insurance include Virginia, where an uninsured motor vehicle fee may be paid to the state, New Hampshire, and Mississippi, which offers vehicle owners the option to post cash bonds.

Insurance companies provide a motor vehicle owner with an insurance card for the particular coverage term, which is to be kept in the vehicle in the event of a traffic collision as proof of insurance. Recently, states have started passing laws that allow electronic versions of proof of insurance to be accepted by the authorities.

Insurance Provider in USA

In the United States in 2017, the largest private passenger vehicle insurance providers in terms of market share were State Farm (18.1%), GEICO (12.8%), Progressive Corporation (9.8%), Allstate (9.3%), and USAA (5.7%).

Insurance is secured either by working with an independent insurance agent or with an insurance broker who is authorized to sell insurance policies. Some can represent from several agencies, or a growing number of online brokers who provide policy purchases through online sites.

Liability coverage

Liability coverage, sometimes known as Casualty insurance, is offered for bodily injury (BI) or property damage (PD) for which the insured driver is deemed responsible. The amount of coverage provided (a fixed dollar amount) will vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction

An example of property damage is where an insured driver (or 1st party) drives into a telephone pole and damages the pole; liability coverage pays for the damage to the pole. In this example, the drivers insured may also become liable for other expenses related to damaging the telephone pole, such as loss of service claims (by the telephone company), depending on the jurisdiction. An example of bodily injury is where an insured driver causes bodily harm to a third party and the insured driver is deemed responsible for the injuries.

Combined single limit

A combined single limit combines property damage liability coverage and bodily injury coverage under one single combined limit.

For example, an insured driver with a combined single liability limit strikes another vehicle and injures the driver and the passenger. Payments for the damages to the other driver's car, as well as payments for injury claims for the driver and passenger, would be paid out under this same coverage.

Split limit liability

A split limit liability coverage policy splits the coverages into property damage coverage and bodily injury coverage. In the example given above, payments for the other driver's vehicle would be paid out under property damage coverage, and payments for the injuries would be paid out under bodily injury coverage.

Bodily injury liability coverage is also usually split into a maximum payment per person and a maximum payment per accident.

The limits are often expressed separated by slashes in the following form: "bodily injury per person"/"bodily injury per accident"/"property damage". For example, California requires this minimum coverage:

· $15,000 for injury/death to one person

· $30,000 for injury/death to more than one person

· $5,000 for damage to property

This would be expressed as "$15,000/$30,000/$5,000".

Collision Coverage

Collision coverage provides coverage for vehicles involved in collisions. Collision coverage is subject to a deductible.

This coverage is designed to provide payments to repair the damaged vehicle, or payment of the cash value of the vehicle if it is not repairable or totaled.

Collision coverage is optional, however if you plan on financing a car or taking a car loan, the lender will usually insist you carry collision for the finance term or until the car is paid off. Collision Damage Waiver (CDW) or Loss Damage Waiver (LDW) is the term used by rental car companies for collision coverage.

Impact with a pedestrian has been ruled in prior court cases as a collision with an object and is considered a collision claim.

Comprehensive Coverage

Comprehensive coverage, also known as other-than-collision coverage, is subject to a deductible and covers cars damaged by incidents that are not considered collisions.

For example, fire, theft (or attempted theft), vandalism, damage from weather such as wind or hail, or impacts with non-human animals are types of comprehensive losses.

Full coverage

Full coverage is the term commonly used to refer to the combination of comprehensive and collision coverages (liability is generally also implied.)

Fire Insurance

The term fire insurance refers to a form of property insurance that covers damage and losses of property caused by the fire.

Most policies come with some form of fire protection, but home owners may be able to purchase additional coverage in case their property is lost or damaged because of fire.

Purchasing additional fire coverage helps to cover the cost of replacement, repair, or reconstruction of property above the limit set by the property insurance policy.

Fire insurance policies typically contain general exclusions such as war, nuclear risks, and similar perils.

Mutual Fire Insurance

The first fire Insurance Company in USA

When fire insurance first appeared in Britain after the Great London Fire of 1666, mutual societies, in which each policyholder owned a share of the risk, predominated. The earliest American fire insurers followed this model as well.

In 1735 Charleston residents formed the first American mutual insurance company, the Friendly Society of Mutual Insuring of Homes against Fire. It only lasted until 1741, when a major fire put it out of business.

1871-1906

Chicage-Boston Fire

The Great Chicago Fire of October 9 and 10, 1871 destroyed over 2,000 acres (nearly 3½ square miles) of the city. With close to 18,000 buildings burned, including 1,500 “substantial business structures,” 100,000 people were left homeless and thousands jobless. Insurance losses totaled between $90 and $100 million. Many firms’ losses exceeded their available assets.

About 200 fire insurance companies did business in Chicago at the time. The fire bankrupted 68 of them. At least one-half of the property in the burnt district was covered by insurance but as a result of the insurance company failures, Chicago policyholders recovered only about 40 percent of what they were owed.

Some Other Insurance

Employer Sponsored

Employer-sponsored health insurance is paid for by businesses on behalf of their employees as part of an employee benefit package.

Most private (non-government) health coverage in the US is employment-based. Nearly all large employers in America offer group health insurance to their employees.

Typically, employers pay about 85% of the insurance premium for their employees, and about 75% of the premium for their employees' dependents. The employee pays the remaining fraction of the premium, usually with pre-tax/tax-exempt earnings.

Small employer group coverage

According to a 2007 study, about 59% of employers at small firms (3–199 workers) in the US provide employee health insurance.

The percentage of small firms offering coverage has been dropping steadily since 1999. The study notes that cost remains the main reason cited by small firms who do not offer health benefits.

The types of coverage available to small employers are similar to those offered by large firms, but small businesses do not have the same options for financing their benefit plans.

States regulate small group premium rates, typically by placing limits on the premium variation allowable between groups (rate bands).

Insurance brokers play a significant role in helping small employers find health insurance, particularly in more competitive markets. Average small group commissions range from 2 percent to 8 percent of premiums. Brokers provide services beyond insurance sales, such as assisting with employee enrollment and helping to resolve benefits issues.

College-sponsored health insurance for students

Many colleges, universities, graduate schools, professional schools and trade schools offer a school-sponsored health insurance plan.

Many schools require that you enroll in the school-sponsored plan unless you are able to show that you have comparable coverage from another source.

COBRA Coverage

The Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985 (COBRA) enables certain individuals with employer-sponsored coverage to extend their coverage if certain "qualifying events" would otherwise cause them to lose it.

Employers may require COBRA-qualified individuals to pay the full cost of coverage, and coverage cannot be extended indefinitely.

COBRA only applies to firms with 20 or more employees, although some states also have "mini-COBRA" laws that apply to small employers.

Cyber-Insurance

Cyber-insurance is a specialty lines insurance product intended to protect businesses, and individuals providing services for such businesses, from Internet-based risks, and more generally from risks relating to information technology infrastructure, information privacy, information governance liability, and activities related thereto.

Claims process

After a loss, the insured is expected to take steps to reduce or lighten the loss. Insurance policies typically require that the insurer be notified within a specific and resonable time period. After that, a claims adjuster will investigate the claim and the insured may be required to provide various information.

Filing a claim may result in an increase in rates, or in non renewal or cancellation. In addition, insurers may share the claim data in an industry database (the two major ones are CLUE and A-PLUS), with Claim Loss Underwriting Exchange (CLUE) by Choice point receiving data from 98% of U.S. insurers.

Insurance Institution

Various associations, government agencies, and companies provide insurance to peoples of USA serve as the insurance industry in the United States. The National Association of Insurance Commissioners provides models for standard state insurance law, and provides services for its members, which are the state insurance departments or divisions.

Many insurance providers use the Insurance Services Office, which produces standard policy forms and rating loss costs and then submits these documents on the behalf of member insurers to the state insurance departments or divisions.

2020 United States presidential election| All You Need to Know

2020-09-12T06:44:00.006-07:00

2020 United States presidential election| All You Need to Know

The 2020 United States presidential election is scheduled for Tuesday, November 3, 2020. It will be the 59th quadrennial presidential election.

As part of the 2020 United States elections in which all 50 states plus the District of Columbia will participate.

New Jersey voters will choose electors to represent them in the Electoral College via a popular vote. The state of New Jersey has 14 electoral votes in the Electoral College.

A total of 538 electoral college votes are up for grabs, so a candidate needs to hit 270 to win.

Voters will select presidential electors who in turn will vote on December 14, 2020, to either elect a new president and vice president or re-elect the incumbents Donald Trump and Mike Pence respectively.

The winner of the 2020 presidential election is scheduled to be inaugurated on January 20, 2021.

Primary elections

The primary elections were originally scheduled for June 2, 2020. In April, they were moved to July 7 due to concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic.

On May 15, 2020, Governor Phil Murphy signed an executive order declaring that the primary election to become a primarily vote-by-mail election.

Democratic and Republican voters will automatically receive a vote-by-mail ballot while unaffiliated and inactive voters will get a vote-by-mail application.

Those who are unaffiliated voters must declare their party in the application and send in to their respective county board of elections in order to vote and receive their primary election ballot.

A limited number of polling stations in each county will be available on primary day for those who prefer to vote in person (including with provisional ballots if they're unable to obtain one) and for voters with disabilities.

Foreign interference

U.S. officials have accused China, Russia and Iran of trying to influence the 2020 United States elections.

On October 4, 2019, Microsoft announced that a group of hackers "Phosphorus" , linked to the Iranian government, had attempted to compromise e-mail accounts belonging to journalists, U.S. government officials and the campaign of a U.S. presidential candidate.

The Voice of America reported in April 2020 that "Internet security researchers say there have already been signs that China-allied hackers have engaged in "spear-phishing" attacks on American political targets ahead of the 2020 vote.

Voting by mail

Voting by mail has become an increasingly common & familiar practice in the United States, with 25% of voters nationwide mailing their ballots in 2016 and 2018.

The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has been predicted to cause a large increase in mail voting because of the possible danger of congregating at polling places.

For the 2020 election, a state-by-state analysis concluded that 76% of Americans are eligible to vote by mail in 2020, which is a record number.

The analysis predicted that 80 million ballots could be cast by mail in 2020 - more than double the number in 2016.

However, President Trump has repeatedly condemn mail voting, even though he himself votes by mail in Florida, a form of absentee voting.

Party convention

Democratic National Convention

The 2020 Democratic National Convention was originally scheduled to be on July 13–16 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, but was delayed to August 17–20 due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.

On June 24, 2020, it was announced that the convention would be held in a mixed online-in person format, with most delegates attending remotely but a few still attending the physical convention site.

On August 5, the in-person portion of the Convention was scaled down even further, with major speeches including Biden's being switched to a virtual format.

Republican National Convention

The 2020 Republican National Convention took place from August 24–27 in Charlotte, North Carolina and various remote locations.

Originally, a 3-day convention was planned to be held in North Carolina, but due to North Carolina's demand that the convention follow COVID-19 social distancing rules, the speeches and celebrations were moved to Jacksonville, Florida.

However, due to the worsening situation with regards to COVID-19 in Florida, the plans there were cancelled, and the convention was moved back to Charlotte in a scaled-down capacity.

Nominee

Nominee	Donald Trump	Joe Biden
Party	Republican	Democratic
Home state	Florida	Delaware
Running mate	Mike Pence	Kamala Harris

Republican Party nomination

On January 25, 2019, the Republican National Committee unofficially endorsed Trump.

Former Massachusetts governor Bill Weld became Trump's first major challenger in the Republican primaries following an announcement on April 15, 2019.

In addition, businessman Rocky De La Fuente also entered the race, but was not widely recognized as a major candidate.

On September 8, 2019, former South Carolina governor and representative Mark Sanford officially announced that he would be another Republican primary challenger to Trump. He dropped out of the race 65 days later on November 12, 2019, after failing to gain support in Republican circles.

Former Illinois representative Joe Walsh launched a primary challenge on August 25, 2019, saying, "I'm going to do whatever I can. I don't want Trump to win. The country cannot afford to have him win. If I'm not successful, I'm not voting for him."

Walsh ended his presidential bid on February 7, 2020. Walsh declared that "nobody can beat Trump in a Republican primary" because the Republican Party was now a craze of Trump. According to Walsh, Trump supporters had become "followers" who think that Trump "can do no wrong".

Trump won every race, and having won enough delegates to ensure his nomination at the convention, became the presumptive nominee on March 17, 2020.

Weld suspended his campaign the next day.

Democratic Party nomination

In August 2018, the Democratic National Committee voted to disallow super delegates from voting on the first ballot of the nominating process, beginning with the 2020 election.

This required a candidate to win a majority of pledged delegates from the assorted primary elections in order to win the party's nomination.

Overall, the 2020 primary field had 29 major candidates, breaking the record for the largest field under the modern presidential primary system previously set during the 2016 GOP primaries with 17 major candidates.

Several female candidates entered the race, increasing the likelihood of the Democrats nominating a woman for the second time in a row.

Entering the Iowa caucuses on February 3, 2020, however, the field had decreased to 11 major candidates. Pete Buttigieg narrowly defeated Bernie Sanders in Iowa.

Then Sanders edged out Buttigieg in the February 11, New Hampshire primary. Following Michael Bennet, Deval Patrick, and Andrew Yang dropping out, Sanders won the Nevada caucuses on February 22.

Joe Biden then won the South Carolina primary, causing Buttigieg, Amy Klobuchar, and Tom Steyer to abandon their campaigns.

Buttigieg and Klobuchar then immediately endorsed Biden.

After Super Tuesday, March 3, Michael Bloomberg and Elizabeth Warren quit the race, leaving three candidates left: Biden and Sanders, the main contenders, and Tulsi Gabbard, who remained in the race despite facing high-on insuperable odds.

Gabbard then dropped out and endorsed Biden after the March 17, Arizona, Florida, and Illinois races.

On April 8, 2020, Sanders dropped out, reportedly after being convinced by former president Barack Obama, leaving Biden as the only major candidate remaining, and the presumptive nominee.

Biden then gained endorsements from Obama, Sanders and Warren.

By June 5, 2020, Biden had officially gained enough delegates to ensure his nomination at the convention, and proceeded to work with Sanders to develop a joint policy task force.

Senator Kamala Harris was announced as former vice president Joe Biden's running mate on August 11, 2020.

If elected and inaugurated, Harris would be the second person of color to be vice-president (after Herbert Hoover's vice president Charles Curtis), first woman, first African-American, and first Asian-American vice president of the United States.

She is the third female vice presidential running mate after Geraldine Ferraro in 1984 and Sarah Palin in 2008. She is the first person representing the Western United States to appear on the Democratic Party presidential ticket.

Demographic trends

The age group of what will then be people in the 18-to-45-year-old bracket is expected to represent just under 40 percent of the United States' eligible voters in 2020.

It is expected that more than 30 percent of eligible American voters will be nonwhite.

A bipartisan report indicates that changes in voter demographics since the 2016 election could impact the results of the 2020 election.

African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and other ethnic minorities, as well as "whites with a college degree", are expected to all increase their percentage of national eligible voters by 2020, while "whites without a college degree" will decrease.

Generation Z, those born after 1996, will more than double to 10% of the eligible voters.

Other parties and independent candidates

Libertarian Party nomination

Jo Jorgensen, who was the running mate of author Harry Browne in 1996, received the Libertarian nomination at the national convention on May 23, 2020.

She achieved ballot access in all 50 states and the District of Columbia on September 8, 2020, when her Rhode Island petition was verified by the Secretary of State.

Green Party nomination

Howie Hawkins became the presumptive nominee of the Green Party on June 21, 2020, and was officially nominated by the party on July 11, 2020.

Hawkins has also been nominated by the Socialist Party USA, Solidarity, Socialist Alternative, and the Legal Marijuana Now Party.

Hawkins has ballot access to 381 electoral votes as of August 25, 2020, with an additional 41 pending.

Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic

Several events related to the 2020 presidential election have been altered or postponed due to the ongoing coronavirus pandemic.

On March 10, following primary elections in six states, Democratic candidates Joe Biden and Bernie Sanders cancelled their planned campaign night events and further in-person campaigning and campaign rallies.

On March 12, President Trump also stated his intent to postpone further campaign rallies.

The 11th Democratic debate was held on March 15 without an audience at the CNN studios in Washington, D.C.

Some presidential primary elections were severely disrupted by corona virus-related issues, including long lines at polling places, greatly increased requests for absentee ballots, and technology issues.

The number of polling places was often greatly reduced due to a shortage of election workers able or willing to work during the pandemic.

Most states expanded or encouraged voting by mail as an alternative, but many voters complained that they never received the absentee ballots they had requested.

General Election Debates

On October 11, 2019, the Commission on Presidential Debates announced that three general election debates would be held in the fall of 2020.

The first is scheduled to take place on September 29, and is being co-hosted by Case Western Reserve University and the Cleveland Clinic in Cleveland, Ohio.

The debate was originally to be hosted at the University of Notre Dame in Notre Dame, Indiana, but the university decided against holding the debate as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The second is scheduled to take place on October 15 at the Adrienne Arsht Center for the Performing Arts in Miami.

The third is scheduled to take place on October 22 at Belmont University in Nashville, Tennessee.

The second debate was initially set to be held at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, but the university withdrew in June 2020, reportedly over concerns regarding the COVID-19 pandemic.

Additionally, one vice presidential debate is scheduled for October 7, 2020, at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City.

Win prediction by states

This model combines the national prediction with polls and political-economic factors at the state level. We take into account that states that are similar are likely to move with each other.

Estimated electoral college votes

This model is updated every day and combines state and national polls with economic indicators to predict a range of outcomes. The midpoint is the estimate of the electoral-college vote for each party on election day.

Right now, according to this model thinks Joe Biden is very likely to beat Donald Trump in the electoral college.

NDA & NA 2020:ADMIT CARD, RESULT, INTERVIEW, MEDICAL, TRAINING, MERIT-LIST & FULL DETAILS.

2020-07-10T01:09:00.002-07:00

NATIONAL DEFENCE ACADEMY & NAVAL ACADEMY EXAMINATION(NDA & NA).

NDA & NA exam is conducted by the union public service commission (UPSC).The recruitment of students for all the 3 wings Army,Navy and Air-force is through National Defence Entrance
Exam which is held twice a year,probably in the month of April and september.
Official website: https://upsc.gov.in/

ADMIT CARD:

The eligible candidates shall be issued an e-Admit Card three weeks before the commencement of the examination.
The tentative dates for downloading admit cards is 20 august 2020 for both NDA 1 and NDA 2 exams.
The e-Admit Card will be made available on the UPSC website (upsconline.nic.in) for being downloaded by candidates.
No Admit Card will be sent by post.

NOTE:- All the applicants are required to provide valid & active e-mail id while filling up online application form as the Commission may use electronic mode for contacting them.

RESULT:

The Union Public Service Commission shall prepare a list of candidates who obtain the minimum qualifying marks in the written examination as fixed by the Commission at their discretion.
The result is in PDF format.

INTERVIEW:

The SSB procedure consists of two stage Selection process - stage I and stage II.
Only those candidates who clear the stage I are permitted to appear for stage II.
The details are :Stage I comprises of Officer Intelligence Rating (OIR) tests are Picture Perception and Description Test (PP&DT).
The candidates will be shortlisted based on combination of performance in OIR Test and PP&DT.
Stage II Comprises of Interview, Group Testing Officer Tasks, Psychology Tests and the Conference.
These tests are conducted over 4 days.
The details of these tests are given on the website joinindianarmy.nic.in.
The personality of a candidate is assessed by three different assessors viz. The Interviewing Officer (IO), Group Testing Officer (GTO) and the Psychologist.
There are no separate weightage for each test.
The marks are allotted by assessors only after taking into consideration the performance of the candidate holistically in all the test.
Marks for Conference are also allotted based on the initial performance of the Candidate in the three techniques and decision of the Board.
All these have equal weightage.
The pattern of SSB interview given below:

MEDICAL FITNESS:

To be deemed ‘Medically fit’, a candidate must be in good physical and mental health and free from any disease/syndrome/disability likely to interfere with the efficient performance of military duties in any terrain, climate, season incl sea and air, in remote areas, in austere conditions with no medical aid.
There should be no evidence of weak constitution, imperfect development of any system, any congenital deformities/ diseases/syndrome or malformation.
No swelling/s including tumours/cyst/swollen lymph node/s anywhere on the body. No sinus/es or fistula/e anywhere on the body.
No hyper or hypo pigmentation or any other disease/syndrome/disability of the skin.
No hernia anywhere on the body.
No scars which can impair the functioning and cause significant disfigurement.
No arterio-venous malformation anywhere in/on the body.
No malformation of the head and face including asymmetry, deformity from fracture or depression of the bones of the skull
No scars indicating old operative interference and malformation like sinuses and fistulae etc.
No impairment of vision including colour perception and field of vision.
No hearing impairment, deformities/disabilities in ears vestibule-cochlear system.
No impediment of speech due to any aetiology.
No disease/disability/ congenital anomaly/syndrome of the bones or cartilages of the nose, or palate, nasal polyps or disease of the naso-Pharynx, uvula and accessory sinuses.
There should be no nasal deformity and no features of chronic tonsillitis.
No disease /syndrome/disability of the throat, palate tonsils or gums or any disease or injury affecting the normal function of either mandibular joint.
No disease /syndrome/disability of the heart and blood vessels incl congenital, genetic, organic incl hypertension, and conduction disorders.
No evidence of pulmonary tuberculosis or previous history of this disease or any other disease/syndrome/disability chronic disease of the lungs and chest including allergies/immunological conditions, connective tissue disorders, musculoskeletal deformities of chest.
No disease of the digestive system including any abnormality of the liver, pancreas incl endocrinal, congenital, hereditary or genetic diseases /syndromes and disabilities.
No diseases/syndrome/disability of any endocrinal system, reticuloendothelial system.
No diseases/ syndrome/ disability of genito-urinary system including malformations, atrophy/hypertrophy of any organ or gland.
No active, latent or congenital venereal disease.
No history or evidence of mental disease, epilepsy, incontinence of urine or enuresis.
No disease/deformity/syndrome of musculo-skeletal system and joints incl skull, spine and limbs.
There is no congenital or hereditary disease/ syndrome/disability.

Based on the above mentioned guidelines usual medical conditions which lead to rejection are:-

Musculo-skeletal deformities of spine, chest and pelvis, limbs e.g. scoliosis, torticollis, kyphosis, deformities of vertebrae, ribs, sternum, clavicle, other bones of skeleton, mal-united fractures, deformed limbs, fingers, toes and congenital deformities of spine.
Deformities of Limbs: Deformed limbs, toes and fingers, deformed joints like cubitus valgus, cubitus varus, knock knees, bow legs, hyper mobile joints, amputated toes or fingers and shortened limbs.
Vision and eye: Myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism, lesions of cornea, lens, retina, squint and ptosis.
Hearing, ears, nose and throat: Sub standard hearing capability, lesions of pinna, tympanic membranes, middle ear, deviated nasal septum, and congenital abnormalities of lips, palate, peri-auricular sinuses and lymphadenitis/ adenopathy of neck.
Hearing capacity should be 610 cm for Conversational Voice and Forced Whispering for each ear.
Dental conditions:- Significant jaw discrepancies between upper and lower jaw which may hamper efficient mastication and/or speech will be a cause for rejection.
Symptomatic Temporo-Mandibular Joint clicking and tenderness. A mouth opening of less than 30 mm measured at the incisal edges, Dislocation of the TMJ on wide opening.
All potentially cancerous conditions.
Clinical diagnosis for sub mucous fibrosis with or without restriction of mouth opening.
Poor oral health status in the form of gross visible calculus, periodontal pockets and/or bleeding from gums.
Loose teeth: More than two mobile teeth will render the candidate unfit.
Cosmetic or post-traumatic maxillofacial surgery/trauma will be UNFIT for at least 24 weeks from the date of surgery/injury whichever is later.
If malocclusion of teeth is hampering efficient mastication, maintenance of oral hygiene or general nutrition or performance of duties efficiently.
Chest: Tuberculosis, or evidence of tuberculosis, lesions of lungs, heart, musculo skeletal lesions of chest wall.
Abdomen and genitor-urinary system: Hernia, un-descended testis, varicocele, organomegaly, solitary kidney, horseshoe kidney & cysts in the kidney/liver, Gall bladder stones, renal and ureteric stones, lesions/deformities of urogenital organs, piles, sinuses and lymphadenitis/pathy.
Nervous system: Tremors, speech impediment and imbalance.
Skin: Vitiligo, haemangiomas, warts, corns, dermatitis, skin infections growths and hyperhydrosis.
Body Mass Index should be below 25.
Waist Hip ratio should be below 0.9 for males and 0.8 for females.
Waist Circumference should be less than 90 cm for males and 80 cm for females.
All biochemical metabolic parameters should be within normal limits.Few of such commonly found defects/ailments are listed below:

(a) Wax (Ears)
(b) Deviated Nasal Septum
(c) Hydrocele/Varicocele/Phimosis
(d) Overweight/Underweight
(e) Piles
(f) Gynaecomastia

NOTE: Permanent body tattoos are only permitted on inner face of forearm i.e. from inside of elbow to the wrist and on the reverse side of palm/back (dorsal) side of hand. Permanent body tattoos on any other part of the body are not acceptable and candidate will be barred from further selection. Tribes with tattoo marks on the face or body as per their existing custom and traditions will be permitted on a case to case basis.

The minimum acceptable height is 157 cms. However, relaxation in height is permissible to candidates holding domicile of areas as mentioned below:

There is different height & Weight standards for Army, Navy and Air-Force. Click here

Chest should be well developed. The minimum range of expansion after full inspiration should be 5 cms.X-Ray of the chest is compulsory and will be taken to rule out any disease of the chest.
There should be no mal-development or impairment of function of the bones or joint.

The candidates with the following conditions will be disqualified for entry to Navy:-

Granulomatous disease of spine.
Arthritis – Rheumatoid arthritis & allied disorders and ankylosing spondylitis
Scoliosis more than 10 degree as measured as Cobb’s Method.
More than mild Kyphosis / Lordosis
Spondylolisthesis / Spondylosis / Spondylolysis
Herniated nucleus pulposes
Compression fracture of Vertebra.
Sacralisation Disease
Cervical ribs with demonstrable neurological or circulatory deficit
Presence of Schmorl’s node at more than one level.
Atlanto-occipital and atlanto-axial anomalies
Incomplete Sacralisation- Unilateral or Bilateral
Spina Bifida other than SV 1 and LV 5 if completely Sacralised
Any other abnormality, if so considered by specialist.
The hearing should be normal. A candidate should be able to hear a forced whisper with each ear at a distance of 610 cms in a quiet room.
There is no impediment of speech.
There should be no signs of functional or organic disease of the heart and blood vessels.
Blood pressure should be normal.
There should be no enlargement of liver or spleen. Any evidence of disease of internal organs of the abdomen will be a cause for rejection.

Un-operated hernias will make a candidate unfit. In case of Hernia which has been operated, a minimum of six months must have passed prior to final medical examination

There should be no hydrocele, varicocele or piles.

Urine examination will be done and any abnormality if detected will be a cause for rejection.

Any disease of skin which is likely to cause disability or disfigurement will also be a cause for rejection.

Vision Standards

(i) Uncorrected without glass 6/6, 6/9
(ii) Corrected with glass 6/6, 6/6
(iii) Limits of Myopia -0.75 D
(iv) Limits of Hypermetropia +1.5 D
(v) Binocular Vision III
(vi) Limits of ColourPerception I

USG abdomen examination will be carried out and any congenital structural anomaly or disease of the abdominal organs will be a cause for rejection.
The candidates should have sufficient number of natural and sound teeth. A minimum of 14 dental points will be acceptable. When 32 teeth are present, the total dental points are 22.
A candidate should not be suffering from severe pyorrhea.
Physical Conditioning. Prospective candidates are advised to keep themselves in good physical condition, by following the undermentioned routine:-

(a) Running : 2.4 km in 15 minutes
(b) Skipping
(c) Pushups & Sit-ups : Minimum 20 each
(d) Chin ups : Minimum 08
(e) Rope Climbing : 3.4 mtrs

MEDICAL STANDARDS FOR NDA (FLYING & GROUND DUTY BRANCHES) :-

Asymmetry of the face and head, which will interfere with proper fitting of oxygen mask and helmet, will be a cause for rejection for flying duties.
Minor scars and Birth Marks for e.g. as resulting from the removal of tuberculous glands do not, per se, indicate unsuitability for employment on flying duties.
Cervical rib without any neurovascular compromise will be accepted. This will be recorded in the medical board proceedings.
Height, Sitting Height, Leg Length and Thigh Length
The minimum height for entry into ground duty branches will be 157.5 cm.
Gorkhas and individuals belonging to North Eastern regions of India and hilly regions of Uttarakhand, the minimum acceptable height will be 5 cm less (152.5 cm).
In case of candidates from Lakshadweep, the minimum acceptable height can be reduced by 2 cm (155.5 cm).
Minimum height for Flying Branch will be 162.5 cm.
Acceptable measurements of leg length, thigh length and sitting height for such aircrew will be as under: -

(i) Sitting height: Minimum- 81.5 cm Maximum- 96.0 cm
(ii) Leg Length: Minimum- 99.0 cm Maximum- 120.0 cm
(iii) Thigh Length: Maximum- 64.0 cm

The normal pulse rate varies from 60-100 bpm.

Persistent sinus tachycardia (> 100 bpm), after emotional factors and fever are excluded as causes, as well as persistent sinus bradycardia (< 60 bpm), will be referred for specialist opinion to exclude organic causes. Sinus arrhythmia and vagotoniawill also be excluded.

An individual with BP consistently greater than or equal to 140/90 mm of Hg will be rejected.

Pleurisy with Effusion. Any evidence of significant residual pleural thickening will be a cause for rejection.

History of repeated attacks of bronchial asthma/ wheezing/ allergic rhinitis will be a cause for rejection.

Any past surgical procedure involving partial or total loss of an organ (other than vestigial organs/gall bladder) will entail rejection.

Candidates suffering from viral hepatitis or any other form of jaundice will be rejected.

Splenomegaly of any degree is a cause for rejection.

liver Unfit:

(aa) Hepatomegaly more than 15 cm in midclavicular line.

(ab) Fatty liver

(ac) Solitary cyst > 2.5 cm

(ad) Solitary cyst of any size with thick walls, septations and debris

(ae) Any calcifications more than 03 mm in size.

(af) More than three calcifications even if each is less than 03 mm in size.

(ag) Multiple hepatic cysts of any size.

(ah) Hemangioma> 02cm.

(aj) Portal vein thrombosis.

(ak) Evidence of portal hypertension (PV >13 mm, collaterals, ascites).

Galbladder Unfit:

(aa) Cholelithiasis or biliary sludge.

(ab) Choledocolithiasis.

(ac) Polyp of any size and number.

(ad) Choledochal cyst.

(ae) Gall bladder mass.

(af) Gall bladder wall thickness > 05 mm.

(ag) Septate gall bladder.

(ah) Persistently contracted gall bladder on repeat USG.

(ai) Incomplete Cholecystectomy.

Spleen more than 13 cm in longitudinal axis (or if clinically palpable), any Space Occupying Lesion and Asplenia will be considered Unfit.

Any structural abnormality of the Pancreas, Space Occupying Lesion/Mass Lesion, Features of chronic pancreatitis (calcification,ductular abnormality, atrophy) will be considered Unfit. (n) Peritoneal Cavity. Ascites, Solitary mesenteric or retroperitoneal lymph node >1 cm and Two or more lymph nodes of any size will be considered Unfit.

The following congenital structural abnormalities of kidneys will be declared unfit.

(aa) Unilateral renal agenesis.

(ab) Unilateral or bilateral hypoplastic/contracted kidney of size less than 08 cm.

(ac) Malrotation.

(ad) Horseshoe kidney.

(ae) Ptosed kidney.

(af) Crossed fused/ ectopic kidney.

Major Abdominal Vasculature (Aorta/ IVC). Any structural abnormality, focal ectasia, aneurysm and calcification will be considered Unfit.

Scrotum and Testis

(i) Unlilateralintrabdominal testes, provided the other testes is completely descended will be declared fit.

(ii) Bilateral undescended testes or bilateral atrophied testis will be declared unfit.

(iii) Unilateral undescended testis if it lies in the inguinal canal, at the external ring or in the abdominal wall will be declared unfit. (iv) Varicocele will be unfit.

Urine Examination

Proteinuria will be a cause for rejection, unless it proves to be orthostatic.

When glycosuria is detected, a blood sugar examination (fasting and after 75 g glucose) and glycosylated Hb is to be carried out, and fitness decided as per results. Renal glycosuria is not a cause for rejection. 54

When the candidate has history or evidence of urinary infection it will entail full renal investigation. Persistent evidence of urinary infection will entail rejection.

Candidate with chronic glomerulonephritis will be rejected.

Renal Colic and Renal Calculi. Complete renal and metabolicevaluation is required.

Candidates with renal calculi will be rejected.

Crossed ectopia, unascended or malrotated kidney(s), unilateral congenital hypoplasia will be a cause for rejection.

Bilateral undescended testis /atrophied testis will be a cause for rejection

Sexual Transmitted Diseases and Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV). Seropositive HIV status and/ or evidence of STD will entail rejection.

Extensive Pityriasis Versicolor may be considered unfit

Any sign of Leprosy will be a cause for rejection.

Individuals who have chronic or frequently recurring attacks of a skin disease of a serious or incapacitating nature e.g. eczema will be assessed as permanently unfit and rejected.

Those having extensive degree of skin involvement and especially, when the exposed parts are affected, even to a minor degree, will not be accepted.

Psoriasis is a chronic skin condition known to relapse and/or recur and hence will be considered unfit. candidates with multiple common warts or diffuse palmoplantar mosaic warts, large callosities on pressure areas of palms and soles and multiple corns will be rejected.

The following conditions detected radiologically will disqualify a candidate for Air Force Service:-

Granulomatous disease of spine

Arthritis/Spondylosis

(aa) Rheumatoid arthritis and allied disorders.

(ab) Ankylosing Spondylitis.

(ac) Osteoarthrosis, spondylosis and degenerative joint disease.

(ad) Non-articular rheumatism (e.g. lesions of the rotator cuff, tennis elbow, recurrent lumbago etc.).

(ae) Misc disorders including SLE, Polymyositis, and Vasculitis.

(af) Spondylolisthesis/ Spondylolysis.

(ag) Compression fracture of vertebra.

(ah) Scheuerman‘s Disease (Adolescent Kyphosis).

(aj) Loss of cervical lordosis when associated with clinically restricted movements of cervical spine.

(ak) Unilateral/Bilateral cervical ribs with demonstrable neurological or circulatory deficit.

Fixed (rigid) deformity or hammer toe associated with corns, callosities, mallet toes or hyperextension at metatarsophalangeal joint (claw toe deformity) will be rejected.

Loss of any digit of the toes entails rejection.

Extra digits will entail rejection if there is bony continuity with adjacent digits.

Cases of syndactyly or loss of toes/fingers will be rejected.

All cases of Talipes (Club Foot) will be rejected.

If the distance between the two internal malleoli is more than 5 cm, candidatewill be declared unfit.

True lesions of the hip joint will entail rejection.

A candidate giving a history of mental illness/ psychological afflictions requires detailed investigation and psychiatric referral. Such cases will be rejected.

History of insomnia, nightmares or frequent sleepwalking or bed-wetting, when recurrent or persistent, will be a cause for rejection.

Candidates who are suffering from psychosis will be rejected. Drug dependence in any form will also be a cause for rejection.

Any septal perforation will entail rejection.

Atrophic rhinitis will entail rejection.

Cases of allergic rhinitis will entail rejection for flying duties.

Multiple polyposis will be a cause for rejection.

Candidates where tonsillectomy is indicated will be rejected.

The presence of a cleft palate will be a cause for rejection.

Any disabling condition of the pharynx or larynx including persistent hoarseness of voice will entail rejection.

Obstruction or insufficiency of eustachian tube function will be a cause for rejection.

Free field hearing loss is a cause for rejection.

Cases of chronic otitis externa accompanied by exostoses or unduly narrow meatiiwill be rejected.

Exaggerated tortuosity of the canal, obliterating the anterior view of the tympanic membrane will be a cause for rejection.

The following middle ear conditions will entail rejection:-

Attic, central or marginal perforation.

Tympanic membrane scar with marked retraction.

Tympanoplasty Type II onward but not Type I.

Calcareous plaques (tympanosclerosis) if occupying more than 1/3 of pars tensa.

Middle ear infections.

Granulation or polyp in external auditory canal.

Stapedectomy operation.

Miscellaneous Ear Conditions. The following ear conditions will entail rejection:-

(i) Otosclerosis.
(ii) Meniere‘s disease.
(iii) Vestibular dysfunction including nystagmus of vestibular origin.
(iv) Bell‘s palsy following ear infection.

Visual defects and medical ophthalmic conditions are amongst the major causes of rejection for flying duties.

TRAINING:

Before a candidate joins the Academy, the parent or guardian will be required to sign :—

A certificate to the effect that he fully understands that he or his son or ward shall not be entitled to claim any compensation or other relief from the Government in respect of any injury which his son or ward may sustain in the course of or as a result of the training or where bodily infirmity or death results in the course of or as a result of a surgical operation performed upon or anesthesia administered to him for the treatment of any injury received as aforesaid or otherwise.
A bond to the effect that if, on account of his dismissal or discharge or withdrawal from National Defence Academy for knowingly furnishing false particulars or suppressing material information in his application for admission to the said National Defence Academy
In the event of his being dismissed or discharged or withdrawn on disciplinary grounds from the said, National Defence Academy
For any reason not beyond the control of the cadet, he does not complete the prescribed period of training
The cadet, does not accept a Commission if offered as conventated above, then the Guarantors and the cadet shall jointly and severally be liable to pay forthwith to Government in cash sums as the Government shall fix but not exceeding such expenses as shall have been incurred by the Government on account of the Cadet on his training and all the money received by the Cadets as pay and allowance from the Government together with interest on the said money calculated at the rate in force for Government loans.
The cost of training including accommodation, books, uniforms, boarding and medical treatment will be borne by the Government. Parents or guardians of cadets, will, however, be required to meet their pocket and other private expenses. Normally these expenses are not likely to exceed Rs. 3000.00 p.m.
If in any case a cadets’s parents or guardian is unable to meet wholly or partly even this expenditure financial assistance of Rs. 1000.00 p.m. for the period of training may be granted by the Government whose parents income is less than Rs. 21,000/- per month.
Cadet whose parent’s or guardian’s income exceeds Rs. 77 21,000/- per month will not be liable for the assistance.
If more than one son/ward simultaneously undergoing training at NDA, IMA, OTA and corresponding training establishment in the Navy and Air Force, then BOTH would be eligible for the financial assistance.
The parent/guardian of a candidate desirous of having financial assistance from the Government should immediately after his son/ward having been finally selected for training at the National Defence Academy submit an application through the District Magistrate of his District who will forward the application with his recommendation to the Commandant, National Defence Academy, Khadakwasla, Pune-411023.

Candidates finally selected for training at the Academy will be required to deposit the following amount with the Commandant, National Defence Academy, on their arrival there :—

(a) Pocket allowance for five months @ Rs. 3000.00 per month. Rs. 15000.00
(b) For items of clothing and equipment Rs. 21831.00
(c) Army Group Insurance Fund Rs. 7200.00
(d) Clothing items required at the time of joining Rs. 8681.00
(e) Incidental Expenditure during 1st Semester Rs. 7138.00 Total Rs. 59850.00

Out of the amount mentioned above the following amount is refundable to the candidates in the event of financial aid being sanctioned to them :—

(a) Pocket allowance for five months Rs. 2000.00 at Rs. 400.00 per month (Corresponding to Govt. Financial Assistance)
(b) For items of clothing and equip- Rs. 13935.00 ment approximately

The following Scholarships/Financial Assistance are tenable at the National Defence Academy:-

PARASHURAM BHAU PATWARDHAN SCHOLARSHIP—This Scholarship is granted to cadets overall first in Academics of Passing out Course. One time scholarship amount is Rs. 5000/-.

COLONEL KENDAL FRANK MEMORIAL SCHOLARSHIP—This scholarship is of the value of Rs. 4800.00 per annum and awarded to a MARATHA cadet who should be the 78 son of an ex-serviceman. The scholarship is in addition to any financial assistance from the Government.

KAUR SINGH MEMORIAL SCHOLARSHIP—Two scholarships are awarded to cadets who obtain the highest position amongst candidates from BIHAR. The value of each scholarship is Rs. 37.00 per mensem tenable for a maximum period of 4 years during the training at the National Defence Academy, Khadakwasla and thereafter at the Indian Military Academy, Dehra Dun and the Air Force Flying College; and Indian Naval Academy, Ezhimala where the cadets may be sent for training on completion of their training at the National Defence Academy. The scholarship will, however, be continued subject to maintaining good progress at the above institution.

ASSAM GOVERNMENT SCHOLARSHIP—Two scholarships will be awarded to the cadets from ASSAM. The value of each scholarship is Rs. 30.00 per mensem and is tenable for the duration of a cadet’s stay at the National Defence Academy. The scholarships will be awarded to the two best cadets from ASSAM without any reference to the income of their parents. The cadets who are granted this scholarship will not be entitled to any other financial assistance from the Government.

UTTAR PRADESH GOVERNMENT SCHOLARSHIPS— Two scholarships each of the value of Rs. 30.00 per month and an outfit stipend of Rs. 400.00 are awarded to two cadets who belong to UTTAR PRADESH on merit-cum-means basis and are tenable for a period of three years subject to satisfactory performance by the cadets at National Defence Academy. Cadets who are granted these Scholarships are not entitled to any other financial assistance from Government.

KERALA GOVERNMENT SCHOLARSHIPS—One merit scholarship of the value of Rs. 480/- per annum for the entire period of training at NDA, will be awarded by the State Government of Kerala to a Cadet who is domiciled resident of the State of KERALA and who secures the first position in the All India UPSC Entrance Examination to NDA irrespective of the fact whether he has passed out from RIMC or from any of the Sainik Schools in India. The financial position of a Cadet’s father/guardian is not taken into consideration.

BIHARI LAL MANDAKINI PRIZE—This is cash prize of Rs. 500.00 available for the best BENGALI boy in each Course of the Academy. Application Forms are available with the Commandant, National Defence Academy.

ORISSA GOVERNMENT SCHOLARSHIPS—These scholarships, one for the Army, one for the Navy and the other for the Air Force of the value of Rs. 80.00 each per month will be awarded by the Government of Orissa to the cadets who are 79 permanent residents of the State of ORISSA. Two of these scholarships will be awarded on the basis of merit-cum-means of the cadets whose parent’s or guardian’s income does not exceed Rs. 5,000/- per annum and the other one will be given to the best cadet irrespective of his parent’s or guardian’s income.

The selected candidates for the three services viz, Army, Navy and Air Force are given preliminary training both academic and physical for a period of 3 years at the National Defence Academy which is an Inter-Service Institution.
The training during the first two and half years is common to the cadets of three wings.
All the cadets on passing out will be awarded degrees from Jawaharlal Nehru University Delhi as under:-
(a) Army Cadets - B.Sc/ B.Sc (Computer)/ B.A
(b) Naval Cadets - B. Tech Degree*
(c) Air Force Cadets - B. Tech Degree*/ B.Sc/B.Sc (Computer)

Note* : All the cadets undergoing B.Sc/B.SC(Computer)/BA Degree programme shall be awarded the degree on the successful completion of Academics, Physical and Service Training at NDA. All the cadets undergoing B Tech programme shall be awarded the B.Tech degree on the subsequent Pre Commissioning Training Academies/ Institutions/ Ships/ Air Craft.

The selected candidates of the Naval Academy will be given preliminary training both academic and physical, for a period of 04 years at Indian Naval Academy, Ezhimala.
The cadets of 10+2 Cadet Entry Scheme will be awarded a B. Tech Degree on successful completion of training.
On passing out from the National Defence Academy, Army Cadets go to the Indian Military Academy, Dehra Dun, Naval Cadets to Indian Naval Academy, Ezhimala and Air Force cadets and Ground Duty-Non Tech streams to Air Force Academy, Hyderabad and Air Force cadets of Ground Duty–Tech stream to Air Force Technical College, Bengaluru.
At the I.M.A. Army Cadets are known as Gentlemen Cadets and are given strenuous military training for a period of one year aimed at turning them into officer capable of leading infantry Subunits. On successful completion of training Gentlemen Cadets are granted Permanent Commission in the rank of Lt subject to being medically fit in "SHAPE" one.
The Naval cadets are selected for the Executive Branch of the Navy, on passing out from the National Defence Academy and are given further training at Indian Naval Academy, Ezhimala for a 83 period of one year on successful completion of which they are promoted to the rank of Sub Lieutenants.
Selected candidates for the Naval Academy under (10+2 Cadet Entry Scheme) will be inducted as Cadets for four year B.Tech course in Applied Electronics & Communication Engineering (for Executive Branch), Mechanical Engineering (for Engineering Branch including Naval Architect specialization) or Electronics & Communication Engineering (for Electrical Branch) as per Naval requirements. On completion of the course, B. Tech Degree will be awarded by Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU).
Air Force Cadets receive flying training for a period of 1½ years. However, at the end of 1 year of training they are given provisional Commission in the rank of Flying Officer. After successful completion of further training of six months they are absorbed as permanent commissioned officers on probation for a period of one year.
Air Force Ground Duties Branch Cadets receive stream wise specialist training for a period of one year. At the end of one year of training they are given provisional commission in the rank of Flying Officer. Subsequently, they are absorbed as permanent commissioned officers on probation of one year.

Merit-List:

The final merit list is released by (UPSC) at official website https://www.upsc.gov.in. in the pdf format containing the name of the students and their roll numbers and marks obtained in the written exam and SSB interview and final total score
But the status of medical exam not be shown in this list.
The merit list is released after 15 days (approx.) of the final result released which contains only qualified candidate's name and roll numbers.

Conclusion:

NDA/ NA is a Grade -A type job. And job Profile is very good. But you have limited attempts and limited age to apply. I cover all related details and I hope it will help you.

NDA & NA 2020: DATES, APPLY, ELIGIBILITY, VACANCY, SELECTION PROCESS, SALARY& FULL INFORMATION

2020-07-10T01:06:00.001-07:00

NATIONAL DEFENCE ACADEMY & NAVAL

ACADEMY EXAMINATION (NDA & NA).

NDA & NA exam is conducted by the union public service commission (UPSC).The recruitment of students for all the 3 wings Army,Navy and Air-force is through National Defence Entrance
Exam which is held twice a year, probably in the month of April and september.
Official website: https://upsc.gov.in/

APPLICATION & REGISTRATION DATES:

1. The Online Applications for NDA 1 can be filled From 8 january to 28th January, 2020 till 6:00 PM.
2. The online Applications can be withdrawn from 04.02.2020 to 11.02.2020 till 6:00 PM.
3. NDA 1 new exam date is 6 september 2020.
4. Admit card of NDA 1 is released on UPSC website 3 weeks before exam.
5. NDA 1 and NDA 2 both exam will held on same day i.e. 6 september 2020.
6. Results of both exam will release separately.
7. Candidate's who already applied for NDA 1 can also apply for NDA 2 exam.

HOW TO APPLY:

Candidates are required to apply online by using the website upsconline.nic.in.
The applicants are advised to submit only single application, however if due to any unavoidable situation, if he submits another/multiple applications, then he must ensure that application with the higher RID is complete in all respects like applicants' details, examination centre, photograph, signature, photo identity card document, fee etc.
The applicants who are submitting multiple applications should note that only the applications with higher RID (Registration ID) shall be entertained by the Commission and fee paid against one RID shall not be adjusted against any other RID.
Candidate should also have details of one photo ID viz. Aadhar Card/ Voter Card/ PAN Card/ Passport/ Driving License/ School Photo ID/Any other photo ID Card issued by the State/Central Government.
The details of this photo ID will have to be provided by the candidate while filling up the online application form.
The same photo ID card will also have to be uploaded with the Online Application Form.
This photo ID will be used for all future referencing and the candidate is advised to carry this ID while appearing for examination/ SSB.
While filling in the application form, the candidate should carefully decide about his choice for the centre for the examination.
If any candidate appears at a centre other than the one indicated by the commission in his admission certificate, the paper of such a candidate will not be valued and his candidature will be liable for cancellation.
Applications without the prescribed fee or incomplete applications shall be summarily rejected.
No representation or correspondence regarding such rejection shall be entertained under any circumstances.
candidates are not required to submit along with their applications any certificate in support of their claims regarding age, educational qualifications, scheduled castes/scheduled tribes/other backward classes and fee remission etc except the photo id card.
Their admission to the examination will also therefore be purely provisional. if on verification at any later date it is found that they do not fulfil all eligibility conditions, their candidature will be cancelled.
All the candidates who have successfully qualified in the written examination are required to register themselves online on Directorate General of Recruiting website www.joinindianarmy.nic.in, with the same Email ID as provided to UPSC while filling UPSC online application.
Candidates must ensure that their e-mail IDs given in their online applications are valid and active.
These candidates would then be allotted Selection Centres through the aforesaid website.
In case of any problems/queries, candidates should contact Directorate General of Recruiting on the telephone numbers given on their website or through feedback / query module after logging on to their profile.
Candidates who have passed written test are not required to submit their original certificate of age and educational qualification either to directorate general of recruiting, army hq, west block-iii, rk puram, new delhi-110066 or to naval headquarters, dmpr, oi&r section, 'c' wing, sena bhawan, new delhi-110011.
All candidates called for ssb interview must carry their original matriculation certificate or equivalent examination certificate to the services selection board (ssb).
Originals will have to be produced by the candidates who qualify at the ssb interview soon after the interview.
The originals will be returned after verification.
Those candidates who have already passed 10+2 examination must carry their original 10+2 pass certificate or marks sheet for the ssb interview.

CONDITION OF ELIGIBILITY:

(a) Nationality :

A candidate must be unmarried male and must be :

A citizen of India
A subject of Bhutan.
A subject of Nepal.
A Tibetan refugee who came over to India before the 1st January, 1962 with the intention of permanently settling in India.
A person of Indian origin who has migrated from Pakistan, Burma, Sri Lanka and East African Countries of Kenya, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zaire and Ethiopia or Vietnam with the intention of permanently settling in India. Provided that a candidate belonging to categories discuss above shall be a person in whose favour a certificate of eligibility has been issued by the Government of India.
Certificate of eligibility will not, however, be necessary in the case of candidates who are Gorkha subjects of Nepal.

(b)Age Limits, Sex and Marital Status :

Only unmarried male candidates born not earlier than 02nd July, 2001 and not later than 1st July, 2004 are eligible.
The date of birth accepted by the Commission is that entered in the Matriculation or Secondary School Leaving Certificate or in a certificate recognised by an Indian University as equivalent to Matriculation or in an extract from a Register of Matriculates maintained by a University which must be certified by the proper authority of the University or in the Secondary School Examination or an equivalent examination certificates.
These certificates are required to be submitted only after the declaration of the result of the written part of the examination.
No other document relating to age like horoscopes, affidavits, birth extracts from Municipal Corporation, service records and the like will be accepted.

(c) Educational Qualifications:

For Army Wing of National Defence Academy :—12th Class pass of the 10+2 pattern of School Education or equivalent examination conducted by a State Education Board or a University.
For Air Force and Naval Wings of National Defence Academy and for the 10+2 Cadet Entry Scheme at the Indian 6 Naval Academy :—12th Class pass of the 10+2 pattern of School Education or equivalent with Physics and Mathematics conducted by a State Education Board or a University. Candidates who are appearing in the 12th Class under the 10+2 pattern of School Education or equivalent examination can also apply for this examination.
Such candidates who qualify the SSB interview but could not produce Matriculation/10+2 or equivalent certificate in original at the time of SSB interview should forward duly self attested Photocopies to ‘Directorate General of Recruiting, Army HQ, West Block.III, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110066’ and for Naval Academy candidates to ‘Naval Headquarters, DMPR, OI&R Section, Room No. 204, ‘C’ Wing, Sena Bhavan, New Delhi-110011’ by 24th December, 2020 failing which their candidature will be cancelled.
All other candidates who have produced their Matriculation and 10+2 pass or equivalent certificates in original at the time of attending the SSB interview and have got the same verified by the SSB authorities are not required to submit the same to Army HQ or Naval HQ as the case may be.
Certificates in original issued by the Principals of the Institutions are also acceptable in cases where Boards/Universities have not yet issued certificates.
Certified true copies/photostate copies of such certificates will not be accepted.

VACANCY:

(UPSC) has released the notification for NDA I 04/2020 for the 418 vacancies in Army, Navy, Air-force Recruitment.

SCHEME OF EXAMINATION:

The subjects of the written examination, the time allowed and the maximum marks allotted to each subject will be as follows:—

Exam mode is Offline pen & paper based.
The papers in all the subjects will consist of objective type questions only.
The question papers (Test booklet of mathematics) and part “B” of General ability test will be set Bilingualy hindi as well as english.
The candidates are not permitted to use calculator or Mathematical or logarithmic table for answering objective type papers (Test Booklets). They should not therefore, bring the same inside the Examination Hall.
Marking scheme and negative marking is given below:
The Exam time of mathematics paper generally from 10:00am to 12:30pm and for (GAT) paper is from 2:00 pm to 4:30pm.
The distribution of (GAT) paper is given below:

SYLLABUS:

PAPER-I

MATHEMATICS (Code No. 01)

(Maximum Marks-300)

1. ALGEBRA

Concept of set, operations on sets
Venn diagrams.
De Morgan laws
Cartesian product
relation, equivalence relation.
Representation of real numbers on a line.
Complex numbers—basic properties.
modulus, argument, cube roots of unity.
Binary system of numbers.
Conversion of a number in decimal system to binary system and vice-versa.
Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic progressions.
Quadratic equations with real coefficients.
Solution of linear inequations of two variables by graphs.
Permutation and Combination.
Binomial theorem and its applications.
Logarithms and their applications.

2. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS :

Types of matrices, operations on matrices.
Determinant of a matrix, basic properties of determinants.
Adjoint and inverse of a square matrix
Applications-Solution of a system of linear equations in two or three unknowns by Cramer’s rule and by Matrix Method.

3. TRIGONOMETRY :

Angles and their measures in degrees and in radians.
Trigonometrical ratios.
Trigonometric identities Sum and difference formulae.
Multiple and Sub-multiple angles.
Inverse trigonometric functions.
Applications-Height and distance, properties of triangles.

4. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS:

Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate system.
Distance formula.
Equation of a line in various forms.
Angle between two lines.
Distance of a point from a line.
Equation of a circle in standard and in general form.
Standard forms of parabola, ellipse and hyperbola.
Eccentricity and axis of a conic.
Point in a three dimensional space, distance between two points.
Direction Cosines and direction ratios.
Equation two points.
Direction Cosines and direction ratios.
Equation of a plane and a line in various forms.
Angle between two lines and angle between two planes.
Equation of a sphere.

5. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS :

Concept of a real valued function–domain, range and graph of a function.
Composite functions, one to one, onto and inverse functions.
Notion of limit, Standard limits—examples.
Continuity of functions—examples, algebraic operations on continuous functions.
Derivative of function at a point, geometrical and physical interpretation of a derivative—applications.
Derivatives of sum, product and quotient of functions, derivative of a function with respect to another function, derivative of a composite function.
Second order derivatives.
Increasing and decreasing functions.
Application of derivatives in problems of maxima and minima.

6. INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS :

Integration as inverse of differentiation, integration by substitution and by parts, standard integrals involving algebraic expressions, trigonometric, exponential and hyperbolic functions.
20 Evaluation of definite integrals—determination of areas of plane regions bounded by curves—applications.
Definition of order and degree of a differential equation, formation of a differential equation by examples.
General and particular solution of a differential equations, solution of first order and first degree differential equations of various types—examples.
Application in problems of growth and decay.

7. VECTOR ALGEBRA :

Vectors in two and three dimensions, magnitude and direction of a vector.
Unit and null vectors, addition of vectors, scalar multiplication of a vector, scalar product or dot product of two vectors.
Vector product or cross product of two vectors.
Applications—work done by a force and moment of a force and in geometrical problems.

8. STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY :

Statistics :

Classification of data, Frequency distribution, cumulative frequency distribution—examples.
Graphical representation—Histogram, Pie Chart, frequency polygon— examples.
Measures of Central tendency—Mean, median and mode.
Variance and standard deviation—determination and comparison.
Correlation and regression. Probability : Random experiment, outcomes and associated sample space, events, mutually exclusive and exhaustive events, impossible and certain events.
Union and Intersection of events.
Complementary, elementary and composite events.
Definition of probability—classical and statistical—examples.
Elementary theorems on probability—simple problems.
Conditional probability, Bayes’ theorem—simple problems.
Random variable as function on a sample space.
Binomial distribution, examples of random experiments giving rise to Binominal distribution.

PAPER-II

GENERAL ABILITY TEST (Code No. 02)

(Maximum Marks—600)

Part ‘A’—ENGLISH

(Maximum Marks—200)

The question paper in English will be designed to test the candidate’s understanding of English and workman like use of words. The syllabus covers various aspects like : Grammar and usage, vocabulary, comprehension and cohesion in extended text to test the candidate’s proficiency in English.

Part ‘B’—GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

(Maximum Marks—400)

The question paper on General Knowledge will broadly cover the subjects : Physics, Chemistry, General Science, Social Studies, Geography and Current Events. - The syllabus given below is designed to indicate the scope of these subjects included in this paper. The topics mentioned are not to be regarded as exhaustive and questions on topics of similar nature not specifically mentioned in the syllabus may also be asked. Candidate’s answers are expected to show their knowledge and intelligent understanding of the subject.

Section ‘A’ (Physics)

Physical Properties and States of Matter, Mass, Weight, Volume, Density and Specific Gravity, Principle of Archimedes, Pressure Barometer.
Motion of objects, Velocity and Acceleration, Newton’s Laws of Motion, Force and Momentum, Parallelogram of Forces, Stability and Equilibrium of bodies, Gravitation, elementary ideas of work, Power and Energy.
Effects of Heat, Measurement of Temperature and Heat, change of State and Latent Heat, Modes of transference of Heat.
Sound waves and their properties, Simple musical instruments. Rectilinear propagation of Light, Reflection and refraction.
Spherical mirrors and Lenses, Human Eye.
Natural and Artificial Magnets, Properties of a Magnet, Earth as a Magnet.
Static and Current Electricity, conductors and Nonconductors, Ohm’s Law, Simple Electrical Circuits, Heating, Lighting and Magnetic effects of Current, Measurement of Electrical Power, Primary and Secondary Cells, Use of X-Rays.
General Principles in the working of the following: Simple Pendulum, Simple Pulleys, Siphon, Levers, Balloon, Pumps, Hydrometer, Pressure Cooker, Thermos Flask, Gramophone, Telegraphs, Telephone, Periscope, Telescope, Microscope, Mariner’s Compass.
Lightening Conductors, Safety Fuses.

Section ‘B’ (Chemistry)

Physical and Chemical changes.
Elements, Mixtures and Compounds, Symbols, Formulae and simple Chemical Equations, Law of Chemical Combination (excluding problems).
Properties of Air and Water.
Preparation and Properties of Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Carbondioxide, Oxidation and Reduction.
Acids, bases and salts.
Carbon—different forms. Fertilizers—Natural and Artificial.
Material used in the preparation of substances like Soap, Glass, Ink, Paper, Cement, Paints, Safety Matches and GunPowder.
Elementary ideas about the structure of Atom, Atomic Equivalent and Molecular Weights, Valency.

Section ‘C’ (General Science)

Difference between the living and non-living.
Basis of Life—Cells, Protoplasms and Tissues.
Growth and Reproduction in Plants and Animals.
Elementary knowledge of Human Body and its important organs.
Common Epidemics, their causes and prevention.
Food—Source of Energy for man.
Constituents of food, Balanced Diet.
The Solar System—Meteors and Comets, Eclipses.
Achievements of Eminent Scientists.

Section ‘D’(History, Freedom Movement etc.)

A broad survey of Indian History, with emphasis on Culture and Civilisation.
Freedom Movement in India.
Elementary study of Indian Constitution and Administration.
Elementary knowledge of Five Year Plans of India.
Panchayati Raj, Co-operatives and Community Development.
Bhoodan, Sarvodaya, National Integration and Welfare State, Basic Teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.
Forces shaping the modern world.
Renaissance, Exploration and Discovery.
War of American Independence.
French Revolution, Industrial Revolution and Russian Revolution.
Impact of Science and Technology on Society.
Concept of one World, United Nations, Panchsheel, Democracy, Socialism and Communism.
Role of India in the present world.

Section ‘E’ (Geography)

The Earth, its shape and size.
Lattitudes and Longitudes, Concept of time. International Date Line.
Movements of Earth and their effects.
Origin of Earth.
Rocks and their classification.
Weathering—Mechanical and Chemical, Earthquakes and Volcanoes.
Ocean Currents and Tides Atmosphere and its composition.
Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure, Planetary Winds, Cyclones and Anti-cyclones; Humidity; Condensation and Precipitation;
Types of Climate, Major Natural regions of the World.
Regional Geography of India—Climate, Natural vegetation.
Mineral and Power resources.
location and distribution of agricultural and Industrial activities.
Important Sea ports and main sea, land and air routes of India.
Main items of Imports and Exports of India.

Section ‘F’ (Current Events)

Knowledge of Important events that have happened in India in the recent years.
Current important world events.
Prominent personalities—both Indian and International including those connected with cultural activities and sports.

NOTE : Out of maximum marks assigned to part ‘B’ of this paper, questions on Sections ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’, ‘E’ and ‘F’ will carry approximately 25%, 15%, 10%, 20%, 20% and 10% weightages respectively.

INTERVIEW:

The SSB procedure consists of two stage Selection process - stage I and stage II. Only those candidates who clear the stage I are permitted to appear for stage II.
The details are :

Stage I comprises of Officer Intelligence Rating (OIR) tests are Picture Perception and Description Test (PP&DT). The candidates will be shortlisted based on combination of performance in OIR Test and PP&DT.
Stage II Comprises of Interview, Group Testing Officer Tasks, Psychology Tests and the Conference. These tests are conducted over 4 days. The details of these tests are given on the website joinindianarmy.nic.in.
The personality of a candidate is assessed by three different assessors viz. The Interviewing Officer (IO), Group Testing Officer (GTO) and the Psychologist. There are no separate weightage for each test.
The pattern of SSB interview is given below:

SSB Selection Procedure Five Days:

Reporting Day:

On today, candidates need to report back to the selection center.
The candidate’s original documents alongside photocopies are going to be verified.
When the documents verification, Personal info questionnaire (PIQ) Forms are going to be filled.

PIQ Forms:

During this form, candidates got to fill their personal details relating to academic profile, family background, etc. This manner is incredibly necessary. It forms a base of queries, which could be placed to an aspirant at the individual interview round. The responses are going to be analyzed by the psychologist of the Board.

Screening Test Day 1:

On the following day, it’s Stage one.
Candidates got to offer an IQ test (Verbal & Non-Verbal) Perception test.
In PP test, slide (hazy or clear) is shown for thirty seconds & candidates got to write the story. Once finishing this test, the give-and-take round takes place. This sequence is often referred to like the picture Perception and Discussion Test (PPDT).

Intelligence Test:

It includes both; verbal and non-verbal queries. It’s a written exam which incorporates multiple selection queries. The time assigned to responsive every question is thirty seconds.

Picture Perception and Discussion test (PP & DT):

This exam includes story writing and discussion. an image is going to be shown to the candidates for thirty seconds and candidates got to write a story supported the image in three minutes. NDA SSB Interview…..

Psychology Test Day 2:

It is a collection of written tests, organized by a psychologist. In these tests, the candidate’s psychological quality is checked to be an official. These tests include:

Thematic apperception test (TAT):

It’s known as image Story writing. This test is extremely just like PPDT.
During this test, concerning eleven photos are shown.
Every image is displayed only for thirty seconds at that time candidates got to write a story supported the picture among four minutes.
Once four minutes another image are displayed and also the same procedure is followed until the last slide.
The twelfth slide is blank wherever a candidate is meant to put in writing any story of their own selection.

Word Association Test (WAT):

It’s the second psychological test of SSB choice procedure. During this test, sixty words are shown back to back for an amount of fifty seconds. Candidates got to write the primary thought that involves their minds for those words.

Situation Reaction Test (SRT):

During this test, candidates can get a book with sixty things written thereon. Candidates got to write their responses supported those sixty things.

Self Description Test (SD):

During this test, candidates got to write their opinion concerning their folks, themselves, friends, lecturers & others. The time is assigned quarter-hour.

Group Testing Office Task Day 3 & Day 4:

These Tests are interactive indoor and outside activities as a mix of mental and physical work. These tests are as follows:

Group Discussion:

During this round, a particular scenario or topic (mostly current affairs) is given to a gaggle of candidates. They’re expected to debate the varied aspects of the difficulty. Group Task Officer observes every candidate throughout the course of the conference.

Group coming up with Exercise (Military coming up with Exercise):

During this round, a model of real-world sensible circumstances is given to a bunch of candidates. They need to write down their own set up of activities for the mentioned downside.

Progressive group Tasks (PGT):

During this round, the cluster of candidates needs to cross some obstacles with the assistance of supporting materials like rope, plank, wood log, etc.

Half group Tasks:

This round is the same as PGT however the numbers of group members will half. Candidates get a lot of probability to indicate their potential.

Individual Obstacles:

During this round, candidates are needed to aim ten obstacles on an individual basis.

Group Obstacles Race or Snake Race:

During this round, all cluster members can contend to the opposite teams. Candidates are needed to cross sure obstacles with the snake-like rope.

Command Task:

During this task, an aspirant is a commander. He is needed to cross some obstacles with the assistance of 2-3 subordinates.

Lecturette:

During this spherical, every individual needs to provide a lecture for three minutes on a subject elect by them.

Final GroupTask:

It’s the same as PGT. Candidates have another likelihood to indicate their potential.
On a constant day, the candidate’s interview is conducted. It involves a private spoken communication with Associate in Nursing Interviewing Officers.

Conference Day 5:

On the ultimate day, candidates & all the SSB members sit along and have a talk to the candidates to raise a couple of general queries.
The conference is simply to determine whether or not you suggest as an official in Indian defense forces or not. Candidates are needed to return before the whole Board of Examiners, which consists of President, Deputy President, all the GTOs, all the psychologists, and Technical Officer.
Within an hour, the SSB result is declared when completion of the committee meeting.

Medical & Merit List:

Elect candidates to endure medical tests for any three or five days. When qualifying the candidate’s medical test, the ultimate merit list is declared.

FEE:

The candidates are required to pay a fee of Rs. 100/- (Rupees one hundred only) either by depositing the money in any branch of SBI by cash or by using net banking facility of State Bank of India or by using any Visa/MasterCard/Rupay Credit/Debit Card.
SC/ST candidates who are exempted from payment of fee.

SALARY:

On successful commissioning, the pay in the Pay matrix of the Officer commissioned shall be fixed in first Cell of Level 10 and the period of training shall not be treated as commissioned service and arrears on account of admissible allowances, as applicable, for the training period shall be paid to cadets.

Pay-scale

MSP to the officer is as follows:- Military Service Pay(MSP) to the officers from the rank of Lt to Brig Rs 15,500 p.m. fixed
Flying Allowance: The Army Aviators (Pilots) serving in the Army Aviation Corps are entitled to flying allowance at Rs 25,000/- p.m.

Other allowance:-

Dearness Allowance Admissible at the same rates and under the same conditions as are applicable to the civilian personnel from time to time.
Para Allowance Rs 10,500/- pm
Para Reserve Allowance Rs 2,625/- pm
Para Jump Instructor Rs 10,500/- pm
Project Allowance Rs 3,400/- pm
Special Forces Allce Rs 25,000/- pm
Technical Allowance (Tier-I) Rs 3,000/- pm
Technical Allowance (Tier-II) Rs 4,500/- pm
Depending upon rank and area of posting, officer posted to Field Areas will be eligible for the following Field Area allowances:-

Note:Here Allce means Allowance.

High Altitude Allowance:

Counter Insurgency Allowance:

Note:Here Allce means Allowance

Siachen Allowance Rs 42,500/- per month.
Uniform allowance Rs 20,000/- per year.
Ration in Kind In peace and Field areas
Transport Allowance (TPTA):

Children Education Allowance. Rs. 2250/- per month per child for two eldest surviving only. CEA is admissible from Nursery to 12th Class. 86
Hostel Subsidy. Rs. 6,750/- per month per child for two eldest surviving only. CEA is admissible from Nursery to 12th Class.

The following monetary benefits are available to the Cadets (Direct)/NoKs in the event of invalidment on medical grounds/death of a Cadet (Direct) due to causes attributable to or aggravated by military training :

(I) IN CASE OF DISABLEMENT:

Monthly Ex-gratia amount of Rs. 9,000/- per month. (ii) Ex-gratia disability award @ Rs. 16200/- per month shall be payable in addition for 100% of disability during period of disablement subject to prorate reduction in case the degree of disablement is less than 100%. No disability award shall be payable in cases where the degree of disablement is less than 20%. (iii) Constant Attendant Allowance (CCA) @ Rs 6750/- per month for 100% disable on the recommendation of Invaliding Medical Board (IBM).

(II) IN CASE OF DEATH:

Ex-gratia amount of Rs. 12.5 lakhs to the NoK.
The Ex-gratia amount of Rs. 9000/- per month to the NoK.
The Ex-gratia awards to Cadets (Direct) / NoK, shall be sanctioned purely on ex-gratia basis and the same shall not be treated as pension for any purpose.
Dearness relief at applicable rates shall be granted on monthly ex-gratia as well as ex-gratia disability award.
Army Group Insurance Fund provides insurance cover of Rs. 15 lakh on payment of one time non-refundable premium of Rs. 7,200/- by cadets from the date of joining for pre-commission training i.e. for 3 years. If a cadet is relegated an additional premium of Rs. 1,355/- per relegated term is charged.
Cadets who are invalidated out by IMB on account of disability and not entitled to any pension will be provided Rs. 15 lakhs for 100 percent. This will be proportionately reduced to disability upto 20 percent. However, for less than 20 percent disability, an Ex-Gratia Grant of Rs. 50,000/- for initial years of training and Rs. 1 lakh during the last year of training will be paid.
The Gentlemen Cadets at IMA when in receipt of stipend are insured for Rs. 75 lakh as applicable to officers of regular Army.
Those who are invalidated out by IMB on account of disability and not entitled to any pension will be provided Rs. 25 Lakhs for 100 percent disability. This will be proportionately reduced to Rs. 5 lakhs for 20 percent disability. However, for less than 20% disability, an Ex-Gratia Grant of Rs. 50,000/- for initial year of training and Rs 1 lakh during the last year of training will be paid.

Conclusion:

NDA/ NA is a Grade -A type job. And job Profile is very good. But you have limited attempts and limited age to apply. I cover all related details and I hope it will help you.

15 EMAIL ACCOUNTS GUIDE:DEFINITION, PROVIDERS, TYPES, COMPARISON, BEST-ONE & FULL DETAILS.

2020-07-10T00:54:00.002-07:00

Definition:

The full form of E-Mail is the Electronic mail.
E-Mail is fast and efficient method to exchange of messages between two or more persons.E-Mail can be defined as the exchange of messages through a computer network.

It is defined as the transmission of messages over the communications network.

ADVANTAGES:

E-Mail can be sent any time of the day 24x7 and 365 days a year.
people don't have to be present to receive the E-Mail.
It very easy to send E-Mail to someone.
It free to use but you have a internet connection to send e-mail.
We can send multiple copies of a message to group of peoples.
We can send carbon copy of a message to people.
We can save the e-mail as draft until we are ready to send it.
E-mails are usually received in a couple of seconds.
we can access it through wed or through a smartphone app.click here

DISADVANTAGES:

To use e-mail you should have an email- account and the receiver e-mail id.
Electronic gadget (e.g. computer,mobile etc) is necessary to use it.
Internet connection is must.
E-mails may contain virus.
Now-a-days there are lot of e-mail scam running and it's easy to be get fooled.
E-mail activity made easy to track person location.
we can send limited files size of 25MB and receive files up to 50 MB.
Many e-mail providers blocks messages that may spread viruses,like messages that include their compressed form (like .gz or .bz2 files) or when found within archives (like .zip or .tgz files).

TYPES AND COMPARISON:

1.Gmail:

PC credit:Gmail

Gmail is a free email service created by Google.
Users can access gmail on the web and using third-party programs that syncronize email content through POP or IMAP protocols.
Gmail started as a limited beta release on april 1,2004 and ended its testing phase on july 7,2009.
Available in 105 languages.
It created by Paul Buchheit.
It currently have more than 1.5 billion users.
At launch, Gmail had an initial storage capacity of 1 gigabyte per user.Today Gmail offers 15 gigabyte of storage.
It gives spam filtering feature to it users for ease use.
Gmail"Basic HTML"version works on almost all browsers.The moder AJAX version is officialy supported in the current and previous major releases of Google chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer, Microsoft Edge and Safari web browsers.
In August 2011,Google introduced Gmail offline, an HTML5-powered app for providing access to the offline services.
In November 2014, Google introduced functionality in the Gmail Android App that enabled sending and receiving emails from non gmail addresses through POP or IMAP.
In may 2017,Google updated Gmail on android to feature protection from Phishing attacks.
Third party programs can be used to access Gmail using the POP or IMAP protocols.
For full list of blocked files extension by Gmail.

2.Outlook Mail:

PC credit:Outlook Mail

Outlook is an emailing program developed by Microsoft Corporation.
It is written in C++.
Windows and Mac OS X is the supported platforms of Outlook.
It inludes extra features e.g. Calender,Contact manager and Journal.
It allows users to send/receive emails through free POP3/IMAP and SMTP email server.
.PST (Personal storage table file) and .OST extensions is the primary file format of MS Outlook to store files(e.g. notes,messages,tasks,contacts,calendars etc).
MS Outlook is part of the microsoft Office suite of applications.It stores entire mail system in an data file(.pst or .ost).
You can add email signature to messages e.g.

You can download Outlook Application for iOS or Android.
You can create calender appointment.
You can set a reminder.
You can set schedule of meeting.
You can create, view, assign & print a task.

3.Zoho Mail:

PC Credit: Zoho Mail

It is an free mail services created by Zoho corporations.
It has access of POP 3 and IMAP protocols.
With upto 1TB storage and 5GB Free on a personal account.
It has basic functions of Filters,labels and search.
Zoho mail includes Zoho chat instant messaging and offers some Zoho apps and Google Docs for attachments.
Zoho mail provides the Email service for business accounts to get custom based email addresses for all the users in the organisation.
GDPR compliances and enhanced security measures,like 2FA, EAR, S/MIME and TLS, add extra protective layers to your data.
For 24x7 support reach out to at support@zohomail.com!

4.Mail.com:

PC Credit: Mail.Com

Mail.com is free, advertising email service.
It has unlimited Storage as well as up to 2GB of olline file storage for emails.
It offers choices over 200 domains for personal email address.
It gives Facebook integration.
It gives spam and virus protection.
It is available in English, Spanish, French, Ryssian, Portuguese, Romanian languages.
It is launced in 1995;25 years ago.
For collecting of emails from other accounts(which is now a paid service).
This gives greater privacy to use emails from new devices,this means any user who logs in to their email account from new device will require a specific code.
You can import and export data to and from the *.ics and *.csv formats.
Mail.com closes and deletes free accounts that have been inactive for 6 months.
Mail.com also offers premium service which includes additional features,such as telephone support,ad-free inbox and access POP3/IMAP.

5.Yahoo! Mail:

PC Credit: Yahoo! Mail

Yahoo! mail is launced in 1997 by the american company Yahoo!.
As of january 2020, Yahoo! Mail had crossed 225 million users.
It is available in 27 multilingual languages.
It's Alexa rank of february 2019 is 363,265.
It also support the use of standard mail protocols (POP3 and SMTP).
Users were able to open accounts using either "@yahoo.com" or a national domain ("@yahoo.fr" in france,"@yahoo.it" in italy,etc.).
You can download its application for iOS and Android.
Yahoo! terminates accounts connected with spam-related activities causing spammers lose access to any other yahoo! services.
Yahoo! mail provides free unlimited storage.
Yahoo! owner is verizon media (verizon communications).
It offers 4 different plans:3 for personal use(Basic,plus and ad-free) and another for businesses.

6.Proton Mail:

PC Credit: Proton Mail

Proton mail is owned by Proton technologies.
It's created by Dr.Andy Yen, Wei Sun and Jason stockman.
It's Alexa rank is 1,791.
It launced in 16 May 2014; 5 Years ago.
It is written in Javascript and PHP.
It available in English, Spanish, German, French, Italian, Japanese, Dutch, Polish ,Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Turkish, Ukrainian.
Proton Mail uses a combination of public-key cryptography and symmetric encryption protocols to offer end-to-end encryption.
When a user creates a proton mail account,their browser generates a pair of public and private RSA keys:

(i)The public key is used to encrypt the user's emails and other user data.

(ii)The private key capable of decrypting the user's data is symmetrically encyrpted with the user's mailbox password.

Proton mail offers 2-password mode which requires a login password and a mailbox password.
Proton mail supports 2-Factor authentication with TOTP tokens for its login process.
Proton Mail offers different multiple plans given below:

7.iCloud Mail:

PC Credit: iCloud Mail

iCloud mail is free email-service, especially for apple & mac users.
You can also send and read messages from Windows computers and android cell phones after activate the email.
To activate your iCloud email can be done only Mac device such as a laptop,iphone or ipad.
iCloud mail doesn't have any in-program ads which helps the interface look clean and makes it easier to find tools and functions.
Attachment size limits is only 20 MB.
iCloud has spam filters.
iCloud limits your inbox storage to 5 GB.
It took iCloud an avearge of 2 seconds to upload a 640 KB file,which is faster than most services reviewed.
iCloud Mobile app is also very convenient to use because it's very basic and easy , but you can attach only 1 file at time.
It is the only online email provider that provides customer service through live day.

8.Yandex Mail:

PC Credit: Yandex Mail

Yandex Mail is free email service.
It provides unlimited online storage of messages.
It lets you attach any files up to 22 MB individually and 30 MB in total per email.
You can use simple HTML version of Yandex Mail by select light version in your inbox.
It possible to forward your yandex mail messages to other email programs.
You can connect your account to other email clients via POP3 or IMAP.
You can also send bigger size file upto 2 GB via insert a link and upload to the Yandex.Disk cloud service.
There is built-in translator that automatically convert your messages to other languages.
You can download Yandex.Mail mobile app for android and ios for easy and convenient use.
Some functions such as message templates, reminders, e-cards, keyboard shortcuts, filter,scanning forspam, phising and malware.
But it doesn't offers 2-factor authentication for enhanced security.

9.GMX Mail:

PC Credit: GMX Mail

GMX which was founded in 1997.
GMX is owned by global mail exchange, a subsidary of united enternet AG.
It has more than 19 million active users.
It offers GMX Freemail which is advertising supported.
It also offers Paid options-TOPMail and ProMail which provides additional storage and email addresses for members residing in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.
Users can check emails via the Webmail client and POP/IMAP.
It offers iOS, Android and windows phone apps.
GMX Freemail users are granted two email addresses with the domain of @gmx.de(Germany), @gmx.at(Austria), @gmx.ch(Switzerland), or @gmx.net. Both email adderesses can be linked up within one interface,so users can acess of their mail-personal and business within one app.
Those who paying Promail and Topmail accounts, they are granted more email addresses, as well as wider variety of domains to choose from.
GMX supports HTML and CSS basics but does not support HTML5 video.
It supports GIFs and Symbols to send messages.

10.Mozilla Thunderbird:

PC Credit: Mozilla Thunder Bird

Mozila Thunderbird is a free and Open source, Cross-platform email client,news client,RSS and Chat (XMPP,IRC,Twitter) client.
It developed by Mozilla Foundation.
It released in july28,2003; 16 years ago.
It is written in C,C++,Javascript,CSS,Rust,XUL,XBL.
It available in 56 languages.
It update system automatically to see if you're running the latest version which generally small (usually 200 KB-700 KB) in size.
It offers Thunderbird's leading-edge junk mail filters.
It offers Robust privacy for user privacy and remote image protection.
It also provides phishing protection to protect you from email scams.
It has Tabbed Email,Quick filter toolbar,search tools,add on manager for its convenient use.
It has built-in Do Not track facility.
It offers Junk-filtering,Extensions and Themes via the add-ons website.
It supports industry standards for Email-POP, IMAP, LDAP, S/MIME, OpenPGP and for web feeds(e.g. news aggregators) there is ATOM and RSS.
It can run on a various platforms such as Linux, Windows and macOS.

11.AOL:

PC Credit: AOL Mail

AOL Mail is free web based email service.
It is owned by AOL.
It is available in 54 languages.
Email attachment limit: 25 MB.
Max mailbox size: 1,000 new messages, 4,000 old messages old messages and 4,000 sent messages per screen name.
Max 250 GB if all messages have 25 MB attachments.
supported protocols: POP3, SMTP, IMAP.
Link to other email accounts from other service providers.( such as Gmail and HotMail).
Ads are displayed while using mail.
Spam Protection.
Virus Protection.
Spell Checking.
It supports SSL/HTTPS after login.
If AOL Mail account is inactive for 90 Days, it may become deactivated, at which oint any emails not be delivered and may be returned to sender.
After 180 days of inactivity, the account may be deleted.
This service is also referred to as AIM Mail where "AIM" stands for AOL instant messenger.

12.Fast Mail:

PC Credit: Fast Mail

Fast Mail is an email service offering paid email accounts for individuals and organisations.
It is provided in 36 languages.
It is owned by Fastmail pty Ltd.
It is launched in 1999; 21 years ago.
It is founded by Rob Mueller, Bruce Davey, and Jeremy Howard.
On October 23, 2014, Fastmail moved their primary domain from fastmail.fm to fastmail.com.
It offers 113 domains.
It also supports the U2F and TOTP protocol as a secondary sign in factor,allowing users to sign in factor,allowing users to sign in with their password and a security token as an extra security feature.
It supports "2FA" or "two factor authentication".
You can write emails using with the rich HTML Formatting in Fast mail.
It is independent of javascripts, cookies and any other technology that can slow the mail interface down.
It has speed but has very few apps like Sanebox.
Fast Mail has no native app for Android and iOS.
Fast mail doesn't have chat function.
A professional plan with Fast Mail gives you 15 GB email storage and 6 GB file storage at $60 per user, For 5 users, that's $315 per year.

13.Pobox Email:

PC Credit: Pobox Mail

Pobox mail is launched in 1995.
It is founded by Meng Wong.
It has 50 GB of storage.
You can access it with Webmail, IMAP or POP.
It offers 3 plans with each have a 30 day free trial.if you pay for 5 years on an individual pobox account,your sixth year will be free.
Pobox Basic plan: $20/year, freedom of choosing domain, with 2 aliases, forward up to 5 places and custom spam filtering, 20 total addresses and 1000 messages per day with 1 GB traffic volume.
Pobox Plus plan: $35/year, forward emails by an alias, server-side email filters to CC, redirect, block, auto reply, 40 total addresses , 2000 messages per day with 2 GB traffic volume.
Mailstore: $50/year. 50 GB of storage,fastmail with IMAP/POP access, 100 total adderesses, 4000 messages per day with 3 GB traffic volume.
Native iOS and Android apps make yhe experience even better on your mobiles.
You can buy your own domain for $17 per year.
For any query, suggestion, help you can contact them via Snail mail, Fax, and email but they don't use chat for solving complaints of customers.
It offers Email filters and Spam protection for your security.
Pobox SMTP access is available to all accounts, and accepts messages with sizes up to 25 MB and SMTP access is for individual correspondence, and cannot be used to send mass emails, newsletters or transactional messages.

14.Rackspace Email:

PC Credit: Rackspace Mail

Rackspace is founded in 1998; 22 years ago.
It is owned by Apollo global management.
You can access it from IMAP, POP3 protocols and Outgoing server SMTP.
It is fully compatible with Outlook email client.
Unlimited aliases and group lists.
Huge 25 GB mailboxes.
50 MB attachments.
100% uptime guarantee.
24x7x365 expert support.
It provides instant messaging(chat).
It provides advanced message-filtering.
You can store your data (files) in rackspace cloud drive.
You're protected against issues like ransomeware, theft, or dead hard drives.
Desktop apps for Windows & Mac.
Online editors for (WORD) documents and (EXCEL) spreadsheets.
256-bit encryption in transit.
You can access it from anywhere from any device.
Premium spam & virus prottection.
You can easily recover deleted emails.

15.Tutanota Email:

PC Credit: Tutanota Mail

Tutanota email is free secure email provider without Ads.
It available in iOS and Android apps for easily access.
It is available in multilingual .
It is with end-to-end encryption and 2FA.
It's Alexa rank is 21,171 (September 2018).
It is written in Javascript.
It is founded in 2011 in hannover,Germany.
As of march 2017, Tutanota's owner claimed to have over 2 million users of the product.
In august 2018, Tutanota become the first email provider to release their app on F-droid.
It also encrypted all emails and contacts.
It is easy to migrate ( Who wants to change email address ).

Conclusion:

Now it's all up to you to choose which one is suitable for you as per as your needs, ease and comfort.

I had already discussed all the top 15 emails accounts by their total public users with main features but all of them have cons too.

From my point of view none of them is bad because all of them gives the special kind of features for their type of odience, this is actually good for you bcoz all email service provider will fight each other to provide the best facilities they can do to maintain their positions in battlefield.

I personally use the Gmail and outlook mail for last 5 years becouse they give the best services with no bug fixes, easy to handle & understand, simple to send mails . Gives notification very quickly and many more .

I hope u can also choose the best email provider which fulfill your all needs.

DELHI METRO (DMRC): LENGTH, ROUTE & FARE, LINES, RANK, MAP, SPEED, FUTURE EXPANSION & FULL DETAILS.

2020-07-09T01:02:00.003-07:00

Delhi Metro

PC CREDIT: Wikipedia

INTRODUCTION :

The Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited (DMRC) was registered on 3^rd May 1995 under the Companies Act, 1956 with equal equity participation of the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi (GNCTD) and the Central Government to implement the dream of construction and operation of a world- class Mass Rapid Transport System (MRTS).

The Delhi Metro has been instrumental in ushering in a new era in the sphere of mass urban transportation in India. The swanky and modern Metro system introduced comfortable, air conditioned and eco-friendly services for the first time in India and completely revolutionized the mass transportation scenario not only in the National Capital Region but the entire country

The DMRC opened its first corridor between Shahdara and Tis Hazari on 25^th December, 2002.

Presently, the Delhi Metro network consists of about 389 Km with 285 stations. The network has now crossed the boundaries of Delhi to reach NOIDA and Ghaziabad in Uttar Pradesh, Gurgaon, Faridabad, Bahadurgarh and Ballabhgarh in Haryana.

A company under the name DELHI METRO RAIL CORPORATION was registered on 03-05-95 under the Companies Act, 1956. DMRC has equal equity participation from GOI and GNCTD.

Delhi Metro Map:

To view DMRC metro map: click here

DMRC Fares:

PC CREDIT:DMRC:Route & Fare

LINES:

· Line 1 (Dilshad Garden - Shaheed Sthal (New Bus Adda)) - Red Line

Line - 1 (Dilshad Garden - Rithala) was made operational for commercial services in five stages:

(1) Shahdara - Tis Hazari : with effect from 25^th December, 2002 (Phase - I).

(2) Tis Hazari - Inderlok : with effect from 4^th October, 2003 (Phase - I).

(3) Inderlok - Rithala : with effect from 1^st April, 2004 (Phase - I).

(4) Dilshad Garden - Shahdara : with effect from 3^rd June 2008 (Phase - II).

(5) Dilshad Garden - Shaheed Sthal (New Bus Adda) : with effect from 9^th March 2019 (Phase - III).

· Line 2 ( HUDA City Centre - Samaypur Badli ) - Yellow Line

Line - 2 (HUDA City Centre - Jahangirpuri) was made operational for commercial services in six stages:

(1) Vishwavidyalaya - Kashmere Gate : with effect from 20^th December, 2004 (Phase - I).

(2) Kashmere Gate - Central Secretariat : with effect from 3^rd July, 2005 (Phase - I).

(3) Vishwavidyalaya - Jahangirpuri : with effect from 3^rd February 2009 (Phase - II).

(4) HUDA City Centre - Qutab Minar : with effect from 21^st June 2010 (Phase - II).

(5) Central Secretariat - Qutab Minar : with effect from 3^rd September 2010 (Phase - II).

(6) Jahangirpuri - Samaypur Badli ( extension of Line-2 ) with effect from 10th November, 2015 Phase III

· Line 3 (Dwarka Sector 21 - Noida Electronic City) - Blue Line

Line - 3 (Dwarka Sector 21 - Noida City Centre) was made operational for commercial services in seven stages:

(1) Barakhamba - Dwarka : with effect from 31^st December 2005 (Phase - I)

(2) Dwarka - Dwarka Sector 9 : with effect from 1^st April 2006 (Phase - I).

(3) Barakhamba - Indraprastha : with effect from 11^th November 2006 (Phase - I).

(4) Indraprastha - Yamuna Bank : with effect from 10^th May 2009 (Phase - II).

(5) Yamuna Bank - Noida City Centre : with effect from 13^th November 2009 (Phase - II).

(6) Dwarka sector 9 - Dwarka Sector 21 : with effect from 30^th October 2010 (Phase - II).

(7) Noida City Centre - Noida Electronic City : with effect from 9^th March 2019 (Phase - III).

· Line 4 (Yamuna Bank - Vaishali) - Blue Line

Anand Vihar ISBT - Vaishali : with effect from 27^th January 2010 (Phase - II).

· Line 5 (Inderlok - Mundka) - Green Line

Kirti Nagar- Ashok Park main : with effect from 27^th August 2011.

City Park (Bahadurgarh) to Mundka: with effect from 24^th June 2018.

Line 6 (Kashmere Gate- Raja Nahar Singh ) - VioletLine

Central Secretariat - Sarita Vihar : with effect from 3^rd October 2010 (Phase - II).

Central Secretariat - Kashmere Gate (Line-6 Extension)

Central Secretariat - Janpath- Mandi House : with effect from 28^th June 2014 (Phase - III).

Sarita Vihar to Badarpur : With effect from 14^th January 2011 (phase-II).

ITO station : With effect from 8^th June 2015 (phase-III).

Sarai-Escorts Mujesar(Faridabad section : with effect from 6th september 2015) Phase III

Delhi Gate –Kashmere Gate with effect from 28th May 2017 Phase III

· Line 6 (Escorts Mujesar to Raja Nahar Singh (Ballabhgarh) Section) - Violet Line

With Effect from 19^th November 2018 (Phase - III) .

· Line 7 (Majlis Park to Durgabhai Deshmukh South Campus Section) - Pink Line

With Effect from 14^th March 2018 (Phase - III) .

· Line 7 (Durgabhai Deshmukh South Campus to Lajpat Nagar Section) - Pink Line

With Effect from 06^th August 2018 (Phase - III)
.

· Line 7 (Trilokpuri-Sanjay Lake to Shiv Vihar Section) - Pink Line

With Effect from 31^th October 2018 (Phase - III) .

· Line 7 (Lajpat Nagar to Mayur Vihar Pocket-1) - Pink Line

With Effect from 31^th December 2018 (Phase - III) .

· Line 8 (Botanical Garden- Kalkaji Mandir Section) - Magenta Line

With Effect from 25^th December 2017 (Phase - III) .

· Line 8 (Kalkaji Mandir - Janakpuri West Section) - Magenta Line

With Effect from 28^th May 2018 (Phase - III)

· Line 9(Dwarka - Najafgarh) - Grey Line

With Effect from 04^th October 2019 (Phase - III) .

· AirportMetro Express Line or Orange line

New Delhi - IGI Airport(T-3)- Dwarka Sector-21 With Effect from 23^rd February 2011 (Phase - II)

PHASES:

Phase 1 & 2:

Screen shot from official website of DMRC

PHASE 3:

The 162.495 km of Phase 3 of the Delhi Metro system began in 2011. As of October 2019 – barring 3 x 1.5 km sections, this phase’s lines are commercially operational. The first section (Violet Line) opened in 2014 while the last (Grey Line) opened in October 2019. for more details click links given below.

§ Majlis Park - Shiv Vihar

§ JanakpuriWest - Kalindi Kunj

§ Centralsecretariat - Kashmere Gate

§ Jahangirpuri- Samaypur Badli

§ Badarpur- Escorts Mujesar

§ Dwarka- Najafgarh

§ Mundka- Bahadurgarh

§ DilshadGarden - Shaheed Sthal (New Bus Adda)

§ Extensionof Metro to Ballabhgarh

§ Kalindikunjto Botanical Garden

§ Najafgarhto Dhansa Bus Stand

§ Extensionof Metro from Noida 32-Noida 62

PHASE 4:

Phase 4 approved corridors:

Screen shot from official website of DMRC

FUNDING:

The Funding of Phase 1 is:

Screenshot of Official website data

The Funding of Phase 2 is:

Screenshot of Official website data

The Funding of Phase 3 is:

Screenshot of Official website data

DMRC RANK:

Delhi metro ranks 2nd best in the world according to customer satisfaction.
Reference:

https://trak.in/tags/business/2014/09/29/delhi-metro-ranks-2nd-best-world-customer-satisfaction/

Delhi Metro ranks 7th busiest Metro Rail Network in the World.
Reference:

https://www.metrorailnews.in/delhi-metro-rank-seventh-busiest-metro-rail-network-world/

Delhi Metro with Total Length of 389 km ranks 7th in the World by Total length because top 6's are:

1. Beijing Metro: 699.3 km
2. Shanghai Metro: 676
3. Guangzhou Metro: 514.8 km
4. Moscow Metro: 408.1 km
5. London Metro: 402 km
6. Newyork Subway : 394 km

For More info check this out.

latest by 5 may 2020.

USEFUL INFORMATION FOR PASSENGERS:

1. Cycle sharing facility: See Pdf

2. Parking facility:

The revised commuters parking charges are given below:

The parking charges of New delhi Airport line are given below:

The parking charges at basements are given below:

Check the list of station with parking facility

3. Facilities for differently abled-persons.

Extra wide flap-gates for wheelchaires.
Tactile path for the visually empaired.
Provision of wheel chairs at station and reserved spaces for wheelchairs in metro train.
Toilets for persons with disabilities.
Ramps are provided where there is change in the level.
Provision of hand-rails alongside stairs.
Lifts have been provided with wide access doors, hand-rails, call-buttons in braille & at low height, audio & video indications & telephone buttons to comunicate with CCC in emergency.
Signage at prominant locations are provided for disabled and mobility restricted persons.
Seats in trains have been reserved for diifferently abled / senior citizens.

List of hassle free access at metro station for differently abled persons

Note: DMRC received national award for outstanding work in creation of barrier free environment for disabled persons in year 2008.

4.Feeder buses:

PC CREDIT:TimesofIndia.indiatimes.com

For full information regarding the feeder buses click here

5. Facility for women passengers:

Delhi Metro is fully committed towards safety and security of Women Passengers. Delhi Metro understands the needs of women passengers and In pursuit to provide safe and convenient travelling experience to Women Passengers, Delhi Metro has made following provisions;

· Women only coach in every train.

· Reserved seats for women in every coach.

· Fine of Rs. 250/- on male passengers for travelling in women coach

· Zero tolerance for drunkards and trouble makers.

· CCTV surveliance at stations, platforms and in train coaches.

· Patrolling of the platform after sunset hours have been intensified by security forces(CISF).

· Quick reaction teams has been deployed to nab the offenders.

· Ladies CISF staff has been deployed at stations for frisking of lady passengers.

· Teams are deployed for checking male commuters travelling in Ladies Coach.

· Special drive in first week of every month has been launched.

6. DMRC Mobile Application: DMRC releases mobile application to users for easy & convenient access & to avoid hassle during journey, It has all information regarding the customers choices and needs. It's easy to use & u can download it from below:
To download application For android users Click here

To download application For iOS / Apple users Click here

The interface of mobile look like this

PC CREDIT : www.metrorailnews.in

TOP SPEED OF DELHI METRO:

DMRC Metro top feasible speed is 80 Km/h and average speed is between 32 km/h-35 km/h and highest acheived speed is 100 km/h..

New Delhi Airport Express Line top speed is 120 km/h and average speed is about 55km/h. It is the fastest metro train in India and highest acheived speed is 132 km/h.

Sources:

1. https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-speed-of-metro-trains-in-India

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_Metro

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_Airport_Metro_Express

FUTURE EXPANSION:

DELHI METRO PHASE IV:

Delhi government had approved all 6 proposed corridors which are of the 103.95 km length in december 2018.

But the Union Cabinet's on March 7 ,2019 had approved only 3 out of 6 proposed routes which are Majlis Park-Maujpur, RK Ashram- Janakpuri West and Aerocity-Tuglakabad corridor with expected completion date of 2026.

Now the phase IV will only be 61.679 km with 46 metro stations of which 17 will be elevated.

The total cost is pegged around 25,000 crore, which will be partially shared by the Delhi Government.

After completion of Phase IV total length of Delhi Metro would be exceed 450 km and this may make Delhi Metro the 4th longest metro system by route after Beijing subway, Shanghai metro, Guangzhou metro in the world.

Proposed Phase V:

Former Managing Director of DMRC Shreedharan stated that by the time Phase IV is completed, the city will need Phase V to cope with rising population and transport needs.

Planning work for Phase V has not started. However the following corridors, while not specifically tied or approved to any expansion phase have been suggested to be constructed in the near future:

Western Peripheral Expressway metro in Haryana along the existing road expressway.
Yamuna Bank – Loni Border: 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) long, dropped from Phase IV expansion.
Najafgarh – Narela : proposed for inclusion during the planning of Phase III to be constructed in either Phase III or Phase IV but subsequently dropped for both. A similar line was proposed again during the later stages of planning for Phase IV, this time it was proposed to run between Dwarka – Prem Piao with the rest of the corridor to Narela transferred over to an extension of the Red Line.
The Red Line extension to Narela was approved for Phase IV but the remaining section between Dwarka – Prem Piao was subsequently dropped from Phase IV. Rithala to Narela portion has been approved and included in the phase-IV.
Raja Nahar Singh – Rundh: Southern extension the Violet Line.
Kashmere Gate – Wazirabad Surghat: Northern extension the Violet Line.

Metrolite:

PC CREDIT: www.metrorailnews.in

Delhi government started the first metrolite concept in india.

The maximum speed Operational speed of metrolite is 60 km/h but it's speed is restricted to 25 km/h. The train capacity is to carry around 300 passengers according to sources.

Two light rail lines have been approved: between Kirti Nagar – Dwarka ECC (Sector 25) (19 km) and between Narela and Rithala (21.7 km).

According to the sources, The Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs is planning to starts metrolite system for the remainning 3 corridors which are Inderlok-Indraprastha, Lajpat Nagar-Saket G-Block and Rithala-Bawana-Narela corridors covering of 42.28 km.

For full details about Metrolite in Delhi Click here

Haryana & UP Conectivity:

Haryana projects

Narela to Sonipat – approved:
An extension of Red Line. In June 2017, the Government of Haryana's cabinet approved the investment of INR 968.20 crore (US$150 million), as its share on the 80:20 equity ratio with the union Government, for the 4.86 kilometres (3.02 mi) extension of Delhi Metro from the existing Rithala metro station to Sonipat via Bawana with three elevated stations at Sector 5 of Narela in Delhi, on Delhi border at Kundli Industrial Area and Nathupur Industrial Area in Sonipat, which are planned to be built as part of Phase IV.
HUDA City Centre to Gurgaon railway station – approved 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) long line that is envisioned to be a metro ring around Gurugram. The proposal was prepared in November 2017 for the two routes: one is Yellow Line extension from HUDA City Centre to Gurgaon railway station and another from IFFCO Chowk – Dwarka Sector 21.
HUDA City Centre to Manesar City – approved: An extension of Yellow Line, included in the Gurugram Masterplan 2031, approved by the Haryana govt will go up to Panchgaon Chowk in Manesar,
City Park – Rohtak City: A Green Line extension. As of July 2017, proposed only and not yet approved.
Ballabhgarh – Palwal City – Jewar International Airport: An extension of Violet Line. As of July 2017, proposed only and not yet approved.
Dhansa Bus Stand – Jhajjar City: A Grey Line extension, proposed only and not yet approved.
Old Gurgaon – Old Faridabad via HUDA City Centre – Greater Noida Not yet approved.

Uttar Pradesh (UP) projects

Shiv Vihar – Baghpat: Pink Line extension. Proposed only, not approved.
Noida – Noida International Airport: a 35 kilometres (22 mi) long surface running line along the Yamuna Expressway serving the proposed new Noida International Airport. The line is envisioned to be completed by 2025 and will connect with the Noida Metro.

Note: Delhi government also planning to built RRTS (rapid rail transit system) to connect Neighbour cities which are Delhi-Meerut , Delhi-Alwar, Delhi-Panipat corridor.
& the construction work of Delhi-Meerut corridor is already started with expected completion date december 2025.

Conclusion: I hope all the mentioned details would be helpful to you and Delhi metro running from last 18 years and best performing metro in india. It is pride of india and I hope you gotta chance to ride & experienced it

PARLIAMENT OF INDIA:STRUCTURE, PURPOSE, MEMBERS, FACTS, SEATS, ELIGIBILITY & FULL DETAILS.

2020-07-09T00:41:00.000-07:00

PC Credit: Livemint.com

What is Parliament of India?

The supreme legislative body of the union of india is called the Parliament.

Parliament is the legislative body of India.
The Indian parliament comprises The President and 2 houses named as

(i) Rajya Sabha (Council of states).
(ii) Lok Sabha (House of the people).

It is founded in 26 January 1950.
The opening ceremony was performed on 18 January 1927.
The President has the power to summon and prorogue either House of Parliament or to dissolve Lok Sabha.
The Constitution of India came into force on January 26, 1950.
The first general elections under the new Constitution were held during the year 1951-52 .
As per the Constitution, Parliament shall consist of 300 members to be elected directly
50 reserved seats for women to be allotted to parties based on their proportional representation in the House.
A total of 131 seats (24.16%) are Reserved or blocked for Representatives from Scheduled Castes (84) and Scheduled Tribes (47) only.
The new Parliament building completed likely by 2022.
Official Website: https://parliamentofindia.nic.in/

Who is President and his Work?

The present President of India is Shri Ram Nath Kovind.

Source: https://india.gov.in/

Shri Ram Nath Kovind

Father's Name: Late Shri Maiku Lal

Mother's Name: Late Smt. Kalavati

Date of Birth: October 01, 1945

Place of Birth: Kanpur Dehat, Uttar Pradesh

Marital Status: Married

Spouse's Name: Smt. Savita Kovind

Children: Prashant Kumar and Swati

Educational Qualifications: B.Com, L.L.B.

Permanent Address: Kanpur Dehat, UP

Countries Visited: Widely travelled

Present Address: Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi, 110004, Tel: 011-23015321

Profession: Advocate, Politician and Activist

Positions Held:

Member, Rajya Sabha, 1994-2006. (Elected from Uttar Pradesh)
Permanent Advocate at Hon'ble Supreme Court of India for Central Govt. (1980-93).
Member, Parliamentary Committees for SC/ST Welfare, Home Ministry, Petroleum & Natural Gas, Social Justice and Rights, Law & Justice, Chairman of Rajya Sabha Housing Committee.
Member, Management Board for Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University, Lucknow.
Member, Board of Governors, Indian Institute of Management, Kolkata.
Represented India at United Nations (New York) and addressed the General Assembly during Oct, 2002.
Governor of Bihar from 16-08-2015 to 21-06-2017

To see the full list of Presidents From Independence: Click here

To see former presidents list: Click Here

Power & Resposibilities:

The Indian President has to appoint the Prime Minister of India. The President also appoints the Council of Ministers and with the Prime Minister's advice he/she distributes the portfolios to the Council of Ministers.

The President of India has Executive, Judicial and Legislative powers. Some of the powers of the Indian President are:

The Indian President can award a person or decrease the verdict of an offended person, chiefly in cases concerning punishment of death.
The president can assign governors of States, Attorney General, Chief Justice, Chief Election Commissioner, Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries
The President is also the chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
He / She commands both the Houses of the Parliament and also can postpone the same.
The Lok Sabha an be dissolved at any time by the President acting under the advice of the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers.
A bill passed by the parliament becomes a law only when it is passed by the President
The President can dissolve the Lok Sabha
If it becomes necessary to have a law then the President can promote ordinances when the parliament is not in session
State Emergency: It is declared when there is failure of constitutional machinery in the state
National Emergency: It can be declared at the time of war, armed rebellion or external aggression
Financial Emergency: It can be declared if the Indian President gets the belief that the financial stability of the country is threatened.

Official Website: https://presidentofindia.nic.in/

What is Rajya Sabha?

PC Credit: The Economics Times

The Rajya Sabha is to consist of not more than 250 members - 238 members representing the States and Union Territories, and 12 members nominated by the President.
Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution.
One third of the members retire every second year, and are replaced by newly elected members.
It also Called as Upper House.
Each member is elected for a term of six years.
The minimum age requirement for this house is 30 years old.
All the MLAs of a state together elect the Rajya MPs of their state.
The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assembly of each State.
This house can't be dissolved for any reason.
The Vice-President of India is ex- officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
Rajya sabha voting system is through single transferable vote
Rajya sabha last election is on 5 july 2019.
Rajya sabha next election is on april 2020. but not totally done right now because of Covid-19 epidemic. Accoding to news Rajya Sabha elections will be held throughout 2020, to elect the retiring members of the Rajya Sabha, Indian Parliament's upper chamber. The elections are held to elect 73 members of which 55 of them will be elected on March 26 and the rest in June and November 2020. See Source
The members of the Rajya Sabha elect their own Deputy Chairman.

Official Website: https://rajyasabha.nic.in/

What is Lok Sabha?

PC Credit: ThePrint

The Lok-Sabha is composed of representatives of peoples chosen by direct election on the basis of Universal Adult Suffrage.
Maximum Strength of the House is 552 members -530 members to represent the States, 20 members to represent the union territories and 2 members to be nominated by the president from the Anglo-indian community.
It is also Called as Lower House.
The Lower House currently contains 543 members; however, it can have up to 552 members.
The age of each member has to be over 25 years old.
The Lok sabha voting system is through First-past-the-post voting
Lok sabha last election is on 11 april to 19 may 2019.
Lok sabha next election is on may 2024.
The members of the Lok Sabha elect two of their members as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
The Lok Sabha can cause the fall of the government by passing a direct vote of no-confidence against the Prime Minister or his ministry.
The money bills can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha. After getting passed, a money bill goes to the Rajya Sabha.
131 Lok Sabha seats stand reserved for the people belonging to SCs and STs.

Official Website: https://loksabha.nic.in/

Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Parliament:

The current Speaker of Lok Sabha is Om Birla Since 19 June 2019.
The Speaker of the Lok Sabha is the presiding officer of the Lok Sabha (House of the People).
Om Birla is From Bharatiya Janata Party.
Newly elected Members of Parliament from the Lok Sabha choose the Speaker among themselves after that Rajaya Sabha Members discussed and give permission Then President elect Speaker.
They maintain discipline and decorum in the house and can punish a member for unruly behaviour by suspending them.
He can interrupt ,argue and stop the on-going discussion & his decision take as final Decision.
He decides whether a bill is a money bill or a non-money bill.
The Speaker Term Length is During the life of the Lok Sabha (five years maximum).
His Salary is about 1,25,877 rupees.
Speaker can be removed by the Lok Sabha by a resolution passed by an effective majority (>50% of total strength excluding vacancies) of the house as per Articles 94 and 96.
Speaker of Lok Sabha Official Website: https://speakerloksabha.nic.in/

To check full List of Speakers of Lok Sabha From Independence till now Click here

Om Birla
Source: Wikipedia

The Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha is the vice-presiding officer of the Lok Sabha
But There is no Current Deputy Speaker in India.
From Lok Sabha 2019 Election till now Modi Government has created a record for not having Deputy Speaker.
The Last Deputy Speaker is Munisamy Thambidurai from 13 Aug 2014 to 25 May 2019 and he is from Anna Dravida munnetra kazhagham Party.
the Deputy speaker is also elected by the members of Lok Sabha.
The Deputy Speaker Term Length is maximum 5 years.
In case of the absence of the Speaker, the Deputy Speaker presides over the sessions of the Lok Sabha and conducts the business in the house.
He decides whether a bill is a money bill or a non-money bill.

To check full List of Deputy Speakers of Lok Sabha From Independence till now Click here

Purpose & Power:

The parliament as a whole has a selection of joint functions and powers. Some of the major functions of the parliament are as follows: 1) Legislative Functions 2) Financial Control 3) Providing and exercising control over Cabinet 4) Critical Assessment of the Work of the Cabinet 5) Role of opposition 6) An organ of information 7) Constitutional Functions 8) Judicial Functions 9) Elective functions. Some Important functions are:

Impeach the president
Parliament participates in the election of the President and Vice-President of India.
Amend the constitution
Finding and Creating Processes to increase funds for Public Sector
Assessing the effectiveness of the government and making changes as needed.
Emposes Taxes
No tax can be levied and no money can be spent without the consent of Parliament
The Parliament makes laws on all subjects listed in the Union List as well as subjects listed under the Concurrent List.
In cases when an emergency has been declared, the Union Parliament can also make laws on subjects that fall within the State List.
Remove judges of the Supreme Court and the High Court’s through a prescribed procedure.
Parliament can also punish a person for contempt or defamation of the House.
The Parliament can also by legislation create new state or make changes in the existing state boundaries.
Parliament can extend the duration of Houses.
Every bill has to face scrutiny at the hands of an appropriate committee before it is finally passed by the Parliament.
The fiscal policies of the government can be enforced only after these get the approval of the Parliament.
The members of the Lok Sabha elect two of their members as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker. The members of the Rajya Sabha elect their own Deputy Chairman.
Establish or abolish the Legislative Council in any State.
Approve or disapprove an Emergency proclamation made by the President.
Provide for a common High Court for two or more States.
Pass laws required for the enforcement of International Treaties.
Act as board of directors for Public Sector Corporations.
Redress grievances of the people.

STRUCTURE:

PC CREDIT: Www.Pinterest.Com

Source :wikipedia

If you Want to see Detailed Information See Video

Members of Parliament:

Officers of rajya sabha

President: Shri Ram Nath Kovind
Chairman: Venkaiah Naidu
Deputy Chairman: Harivansh Narayan Singh, JD(U)
Leader of the House: Thawar Chand Gehlot, BJP
Leader of the Opposition: Ghulam Nabi Azad, INC

Officers of Lok Sabha

Speaker: Om Birla, BJP
Deputy Speaker: Vacant
Secretary General: Snehlata Shrivasatava
Leader of the House; Narendra Modi, BJP
Leader of the Opposition: None, as no opposition party received 10% membership of the House. The single largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha is the Indian National Congress with 52 seats (two seats below the required 54).

To see Alphabetical list of Rajya Sabha members showing their party Affiliation, State, Permanent and Delhi Addresses and Telephone numbers. See Pdf

To see State-Wise List of Rajya Sabha Members showing there State, Party-Affiliation. See Pdf

To see List of Council of Ministers See Pdf

To See Members of Loksabha and other Related information Click here or you can visit Wikipedia.

To see Map of India with Winning party in states and Union Territories 2019 Click Here

Eligibility:

Qualifications to Become an MP

As per article 84 of the constitution, a person is qualified to be a member of parliament provided he:

is a citizen of India
has completed 30 years of age in case of Rajya Sabha and 25 years in case of Lok Sabha.
possesses such other qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by Parliament.
Only an elector can be elected. Thus, the candidate must be registered as a voter in a parliamentary constituency and must be eligible to vote.
It is not necessary that a person should be registered as a voter in the same constituency. This is applicable for both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
A person from reserved category only can contest election if the Lok Sabha seat is reserved for these categories. However, an SC/ST person can contest election on an unreserved seat also.

Disqualifications:

The constitution of India has provided (in article 102) that a member of parliament will be disqualified for membership if:

He holds any office of profit under the Union or state government (except that of a minister or any other office exempted by Parliament)
He is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a court.
He is an undischarged insolvent.
He has ceased to be a citizen of India.
He is disqualified under any other law by parliament

The last condition above led the parliament to include some other conditions for disqualification in Representation of People Act (1951). These are as follows:

He must not have been found guilty of certain election offences and corrupt practices
He must not have been convicted for any offence that results in imprisonment for two or more years. However, detention under preventive detention law is not disqualification.
He must not have failed to lodge an account of election expenses within stipulated time.
He must not have any interest in government contracts, works and services.
He must not be a director or managing personnel in a company / organization in which government has at least 25% share.
He must not have been dismissed from government service due to corruption or disloyalty to state.
He must not have been convicted for promoting enmity between groups.
He must not have been punished for supporting social crimes such as untouchability, sati, dowry etc.

Disqualification on Ground of Defection

Apart from article 102, the Tenth Schedule to Constitution provides for disqualification of the members on ground of defection. Defection refers to desertion of one’s party in favor of an opposing one. As per the provisions of the Tenth Schedule, a member may be disqualified if he:

Voluntarily gives up the membership of his political party which gave him ticket to contest and win
Votes or abstains from voting in the House contrary to any direction issued by the political party to which he belongs, unless such voting or abstention has been condoned by the political party within fifteen days.
A member elected as an independent candidate shall be disqualified if he joins any political party after his election.
However, a nominated member is allowed to join a political party provided he joins such political party of his choices within a period of six months. After that period, joining a political party would lead to defection and disqualification.

Who decides the question of disqualification?

The question whether a member is subject to disqualification in all other matters except under 10th schedule (disqualification) is decided by President. However, President should obtain the opinion of the election commission before taking such decision.
The question of disqualification under Anti-defection / Tenth Schedule is decided by the Chairman in the case of Rajya Sabha {i.e. Vice-President} and Speaker in the case of Lok Sabha.
The decision of Chairman / Speaker in this condition is subject to judicial review.

Facts About Parliament Building, Members, Sessions:

The Indian parliament is circular in shape with 170 meter diameter and it covers an area of 6 acres.
A rare fact about Indian Parliament is that it has striking similarities with 64 Yogini temple of Morena , Madhya Pradesh . This temple was built in 11th century.
The Parliament Building was designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker and was inaugurated by Lord Irvin.
The construction of the building took 6 years and total cost of construction was 8.3 million indian rupees.
There are 12 Main Gates to enter in the parliament house, but gate 1 which opens at Sansad marg is used as main gate.
At the time of British era, the name of the building was Council House.
Central Hall is located at the centre of the parliament House building, which is circular in shape and there is dome on its top with a diameter of 30 meter.
Parliament library is the second largest library in india after National library of Belvedre Estate, Kolkata. Parliament library was founded in year 1921.
There is Parliament museum in Parliament library building close to Sansad bhavan.
Oldest member ever served the Indian Parliament was Rishang keishing. he was Rajya sabha member from congress party from Manipur state.
Dushyant Chautala is the youngest ever Member in the history of Indian Parliament. he was born in Daroli, Hisar District, Haryana, on 3 April 1988.
First Female Speaker in Indian Parliament was Meira Kumar.
First Visually impaired person to become member of parliament was Sadhan Gupta. he belonged to CPI(M) From West Bengal.
The First Hour of every Session of either House is called as Question hour.
The time-slot just after question hour is called as zero hour.
Normally, in both houses Question hour starts at 11 AM and zero hour starts at 12 Noon.
During Winter Sessions, Sometimes Rajya sabha has started zero hour first at 11 am and then question hour at 12 noon.
There Must not be a gap of More than 6 months between 2 sessions.
In general, there are 3 sessions of the parliament :-i) Budget session, ii) Monsoon session, iii) winter sessionn.
Budget session is between February to March; Monsoon session is between july to september; winter sesssion is between november to december.
Monsoon session is the longest session and winter session is the shortest session.
There is also another sessions e.g.- i) Special Session, ii) Joint Session both is called by the President as per the constitution.
The colour of carpet in Rajya sabha and Lok sabha is red and green Respectively.
The president addresses the first session of parliament from central hall after fresh election.

For more info check this out

Conclusion:

Indian Parliament runs longer than 93 years and from independence till now it's created many laws, bills and regulations to make life easier of Indians. and make india world's largest democracy in the world.
I Cover all related details but if you want to know more about it then you can go to the official website. and I hope its helpful to you

20 INTERNET TERMS U SHOULD KNOW: DNS, HTML, FTP, URL, HTTPS, PORT, BIT & MANY MORE.

2020-03-30T08:39:00.137-07:00

20 INTERNET TERMS U SHOULD KNOW: DNS, HTML, FTP, URL, HTTPS, PORT, BIT & MANY MORE.

1. URL

Full form of URL is Uniform Resource Locators.

URLs—are the web browser addresses of internet pages and files. With a URL, you can locate and bookmark specific pages and files in a web browser.

You can also download the offline page of the internet pages and share that page with social media.

The format of a URL can be written in these forms:

1.http://www.examplewebsite.com/mypage

2.https://www.examplewebsite.com/mypage

3.www.examplewebsite.com/mypage

4.https://examplewebsite.com/mypage

5.http://examplewebsite.com/mypage

This format is frequently shortened to this:

www.examplewebsite.com/mypage

Sometimes URLs are longer and more complicated, but all follow acknowledged rules for naming. URLs consist of three parts:

Protocol: The protocol is the portion before the symbol //:. Most web pages use the protocol http or https, but there are other protocols too.

Host: The host or top-level domain, which frequently ends in .com, .net, .edu, or .org but can also end in one of many others that have been officially recognized.

Filename: The filename or page name is the portion between protocol and host name.

2. HTTP

HTTP is the short form for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, the data communication standard of web pages. When a web page has this prefix, the links, text, and pictures should work correctly in a web browser.

It is initially developed by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989 and introduced in 1991; 29 years ago.

Different versions of HTTP present today are:

Year	HTTP Version
1991	0.9
1996	1.0
1997	1.1
2015	2.0
2018	3.0

3. HTTPS

HTTPS is the short form for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. This indicates that the web page has added an additional layer of encryption to hide your personal information and passwords from hackers.

HTTPS creates a secure channel over an insecure network.

Whenever you log in to your online bank account or a shopping site there mostly https presents in website.

When you use a e-commerce website and enter credit card information into, look for https in the URL for security.

The protocol is also called as HTTP over TLS, or HTTP over SSL.

Usage in websites

As of April 2018, 33.2% of Alexa top 1,000,000 websites use HTTPS as default, 57.1% of the Internet's 137,971 most popular websites have a secure implementation of HTTPS, and 70% of page loads (measured by Firefox Telemetry) use HTTPS.

4. HTML

Hypertext Markup Language is full form of (HTML).

HTML is the programming language of web pages. HTML commands a web browser to display text and graphics in a unique and specific way.

HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML elements you can constructs graphs, add images and other objects such as interactive forms into the rendered page.

HTML provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items.

The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called "HTML Tags", first mentioned on the Internet by Tim Berners-Lee in late 1991.

The initial version of HTML describes 18 elements which make relatively simple design of HTML.

HTML versions timeline

HTML 2

November 24, 1995

HTML 2.0 was published as RFC 1866. Supplemental RFCs added capabilities:

· November 25, 1995: RFC 1867 (form-based file upload)

· May 1996: RFC 1942 (tables)

· August 1996: RFC 1980 (client-side image maps)

· January 1997: RFC 2070 (internationalization)

HTML 3

January 14, 1997

HTML 3.2 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It was the first version developed and standardized exclusively by the W3C, as the IETF had closed its HTML Working Group on September 12, 1996.

HTML 4

December 18, 1997

HTML 4.0 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers three variations:

· Strict, in which deprecated elements are forbidden

· Transitional, in which deprecated elements are allowed

· Frameset, in which mostly only frame related elements are allowed.

April 24, 1998

HTML 4.0was reissued with minor edits without incrementing the version number.

December 24, 1999

HTML 4.01was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers the same three variations as HTML 4.0 and its last errata were published on May 12, 2001.

HTML 5

October 28, 2014

HTML5 was published as a W3C Recommendation.

November1,2016

HTML 5.1was published as a W3C Recommendation.

December14,2017

HTML 5.2 was published as a W3C Recommendation.

5.XML

XML is extensible Markup Language, related to HTML.

XML focuses on cataloging and databasing the text content of a web page.

XHTML is a combination of HTML and XML.

For many office-productivity tools, including Microsoft Office (Office Open XML), OpenOffice.org and LibreOffice (Open Document), and Apple's iWork XML-based formats have become the default.

XML has also provided the base language for communication protocols such as XMPP. Applications for the Microsoft .

NET Framework built configuration and property lists on XML files.

The characters making up an XML document are divided into markup and content.

However, in a CDATA section, the delimiters <![CDATA[ and ]]> are classified as markup, and the text between them is classified as content. In addition, whitespace before and after the outermost element is classified as markup.

XML documents may begin with an XML declaration that describes some information about themselves. An example is <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>.

6. IP Address

Every electronic device that connects to the internet uses an Internet Protocol address for identification and tracking purpose.

In most cases, IP addresses are assigned automatically.

An IP address can look something like this:

202.3.104.55

Or, like this:

21DA:D3:0:2F3B:2AA:FF:FE28:9C5A

It may be a permanently assigned IP address, or the IP address may change occasionally, but it is always a unique identifier.

Wherever you browse or send an email or instant message, and whenever you download a file, your IP address serves as the equivalent of an automobile license plate to enforce accountability and traceability.

7. ISP ( Internet Service providers)

You need an internet service provider (ISP) to use the internet.

You may access a free ISP at school or at college, or at work, or you may pay for a private ISP at home.

An ISP is the company or government organization that provide you the internet services instead of paying monthly fee.

An ISP offers a variety of services for a variety of prices: web page access, email, web page hosting, and so on.

Most ISPs provide various internet connection speeds for a different monthly fee i.e. for cheaper plan your internet services may be for few days or internet speed will be low contrary for premium plans number of days of plan and internet speed will be high .

You may choose to pay more for a higher-speed internet connection if you like to stream movies or select a less expensive package if you use the internet mostly for light browsing and email.

In 1989, the first Internet service providers, companies offering the public direct access to the Internet for a monthly fee, were established in Australia and the United States.

In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US. Its first customer was served in November 1989.

ISP Classified into the following categories:

· Hosting ISPs

· Transit ISPs

· Virtual ISPs

· Free ISPs

· Wireless ISPs

8. File Transfer Protocol

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files between a client and server on a computer network.

FTP is built on a client-server model architecture using separate control and data connections between the client and the server.

Data transfer modes

Data transfer can be done in any of three modes:

· Stream mode (MODE S): Data is sent as a continuous stream, relieving FTP from doing any processing. Rather, all processing is left up to TCP. No End-of-file indicator is needed, unless the data is divided into records.

· Block mode (MODE B): Initially it designed for transferring record-oriented files (STRU R), although can also be used to transfer stream-oriented (STRU F) text files. FTP puts each record (or line) of data into several blocks (block header, byte count, and data field) and then passes it on to TCP.

· Compressed mode (MODE C): Extends MODE B with data compression using run-length encoding.

Most contemporary FTP clients and servers do not implement MODE B or MODE C.

File structure

File organization is specified using the STRU command. The following file structures are defined in section 3.1.1 of RFC959:

· F or FILE structure (stream-oriented). Files are viewed as an arbitrary sequence of bytes, characters or words. This is the usual file structure on Unix systems and other systems such as CP/M, MSDOS and Microsoft Windows. (Section 3.1.1.1)

· R or RECORD structure (record-oriented). Files are viewed as divided into records, which may be fixed or variable length. This file organization is common on mainframe and midrange systems, such as MVS, VM/CMS, OS/400 and VMS, which support record-oriented filesystems.

· P or PAGE structure (page-oriented). Files are divided into pages, which may either contain data or metadata; each page may also have a header giving various attributes. This file structure was specifically designed for TENEX systems, and is generally not supported on other platforms. RFC1123 section 4.1.2.3 recommends that this structure not be implemented.

Most contemporary FTP clients and servers only support STRU F. STRU R is still in use in mainframe and minicomputer file transfer applications.

9. Router

A router or router-modem combination is the hardware device that acts as the mediator and coordinator for network signals arriving at your home or business from your ISP.

A router can be wired or wireless or both.

A router provides a defense against hackers and directs content to the specific computer, device, streaming device, or printer that should receive it.

A router may have interfaces for different types of physical layer connections, such as copper cables, fiber optic, or wireless transmission.

Routers may provide connectivity within enterprises, between enterprises and the Internet, or between internet service providers' (ISPs') networks.

The largest routers (such as the Cisco CRS-1 or Juniper PTX) interconnect the various ISPs, or may be used in large enterprise networks.

Smaller routers usually provide connectivity for typical home and office networks.

Installation

Wired and wireless both networks have variety in their connection setup or installation process.

On wired networks, connections are simple than wireless ones.

Your computer just needs to connect to the modem or router through a cable. Some network settings may be needed to identify the networks and that’s it. On the other hand, wireless networks you have to setup connection on connections settings.

Compatibility

Wired connections are suitable for almost all the devices having Ethernet or Home PNA compatibility.

An actual Ethernet port is required for establishing a wired network connection.

Ethernet is the most used wired connection for computers and Some computer doesn’t have that port then additional Ethernet adapter cards are used.

Wireless networks don’t require any sort of ports to get connected. Devices that are wireless compatible with the signals from the router can get connected with it.

But multiple users at a time can cause the reduce in data transferring speed of wireless connections.

Security

Wired connections are visible to only those devices that are connected with the computer directly.

But wireless connections are most of the time visible to every nearby wireless compatibility Device.

As it is being broadcast in the public areas, wireless networks are riskier than wired networks. Though signal encryption provides some kind of security to wireless connections, but wired networks are definitely less vulnerable than wireless.

It is easily clear that wired connections are more safe than wireless due to easy installation, wider compatibility and less security threat .

10. Bit

The bit is a basic and smallest unit of information in computing and digital communications. The name is a portmanteau of binary digit.

The bit is not defined in the International System of Units (SI).

The bit represents a logical state with one of two possible values. These values are most commonly represented as either 0 or 1, but other representations such as true/false, yes/no, +/−, or on/off are also very common.

A bitwise operation optionally processes bits one at a time. Data transfer rates are usually measured in decimal SI multiples of the unit bit per second (bit/s), such as kbit/s.

one bit is the information entropy of a binary random variable that is 0 or 1 with equal probability.

11. Email

Full form of Email is electronic mail. It is the process of sending and receiving of typewritten messages from sender to receiver required both using mail services..

Email is usually handled by a webmail service—Gmail or Yahoo Mail, for example—or an installed software package such as Microsoft Outlook or Apple Mail.

You can send email to yourself or send mail via different mail services also i.e. from outlook to gmail.

Web-based email

Many email providers have a web-based email client (e.g. AOL Mail , Gmail , Outlook.com and Yahoo! Mail etc).

This allows users to log into the email account by using any compatible web browser to send and receive their email. Mail is typically not downloaded to the web client, so can't be read without a current Internet connection.

12. E-Commerce

E-commerce full form is electronic commerce—the transactions of buying and selling online.

Every day, billions of dollars exchange hands through the internet and the World Wide Web.

Some common applications related to electronic commerce are:

· B2B e-commerce (business-to-business)

· B2C e-commerce (business-to-consumer)

· Conversational commerce: e-commerce via chat

· Digital Wallet

· Document automation in supply chain and logistics

· Electronic tickets

· Enterprise content management

· Group buying

· Instant messaging

· Internet security

· Online auction

· Online banking

· Online office suites

· Online shopping and order tracking

· Online transaction processing

· Pre-tail

· Print on demand

· Shopping cart software

· Social networking

· Teleconference

· Usenet newsgroup

· Virtual assistant

· Domestic and international payment systems

Aside from traditional e-commerce, the terms m-Commerce (mobile commerce) and t-Commerce (online trade via smart, digital tv) have also been used.

M-commerce

M-commerce (mobile commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services through wireless handheld devices such as smartphones and tablets.

As a form of e-commerce, m-commerce enables users to access online shopping platforms without needing to use a desktop computer.

Examples of m-commerce include in-app purchasing, mobile banking, virtual marketplace apps like the Amazon mobile app or a digital wallet such as Apple Pay, Android Pay, google pay, Mi-pay,Paytm,paypal, UPI payments and Samsung Pay etc.

Over time, content delivery over wireless devices has become significantly faster, more secure and scalable and still increasing day by day.

As of 2017 the use of m-commerce accounted for 34.5% of e-commerce sales.

T-Commerce

T-Commerce is a term describing trade via a (smart) digital TV-set In which recharge of tv via tv, choosing packages and a marketing channel enabling interactive advertising and addressable advertising.

It is part of Electronic Business and e-Commerce which themselves are the most prominent parts of u-Commerce.

The promise of T-commerce is to enhance shopping channels as well as regular TV ads by offering consumers a "One-Click" "Buy It" possibility.

U-Commerce

Ubiquitous Commerce also known as U-Commerce refers to a variety of goods and/or services.

Sometimes, it is used to refer to the wireless, continuous communication and exchange of data and information between and among retailers, customers, and systems (e.g., applications) regardless of location, devices used, or time of day.

The origin and development of Ubiquitous Commerce is based on various information and communication technologies. These technologies were driving forces for the evolution to business transactions at any time and in any place and so they will be in the future.

Among them are the following examples:

· Internet as the fundamental technology and source

· mobile data services regarding M-Commerce which are especially Wireless LAN, UMTS, HSDPA and in the future 4G / WiMAX

· TV technologies/add-ons like Teletext and increasingly IPTV

· technologies enhancing the communication of devices (EDI, XML, Web service).

S-Commerce (Silent-Commerce )

Silent Commerce is an expression for the execution of business transactions b/w electronic devices.

It happens without assistance and in some cases even without awareness of the human owners of those devices.

13. Encryption

The process of converting information or data into a code, especially to prevent unauthorized access is called as encryption.

The simple information or data is known as Plaintext and the encrypted data or information is known as ciphertext. Only authorized parties can decipher or decrypt a ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information.

It is possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key, but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, computational resources, skills and experience are required.

Modern encryption techniques ensure security because modern computers are inefficient at cracking the encryption.

Modern encryption schemes utilize the concepts of public-key and symmetric-key.

Public-Key

In public-key encryption schemes, the encryption key is published for anyone to use and encrypt messages.

However, only the receiving party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read.

Symmetric key

It also known as private key. In symmetric-key schemes, the encryption and decryption keys are the same.

Communicating parties must have the same key in order to achieve secure communication.

14. Firewall

Firewall is a term to describe a barrier against destruction. In the case of computing, a firewall consists of software or hardware that protects a computer from hackers and viruses.

Firewalls are categorized as a network-based or a host-based system.

Network-based firewalls can be positioned anywhere within a LAN or WAN. Host-based firewalls are deployed directly on the host itself to control network traffic or other computing resources.

They are either a software appliance running on general-purpose hardware or a hardware appliance running on special-purpose hardware, or a virtual appliance running on a virtual host controlled by a hypervisor.

Firewall appliances may also offer non firewall functionality, such as DHCP (Dynamic host configuration protocol) or VPN (Virtual private network) services.

Packet filter

The first reported type of network firewall is called a packet filter, which inspect packets transferred between computers.

Three basic actions regarding the packet consist of a silent discard, discard with Internet Control Message Protocol or TCP reset response to the sender, and forward to the next hop.

Connection tracking Stateful Firewall

In computing, a stateful firewall is a network-based firewall that individually tracks sessions of network connections traversing it.

Stateful packet inspection, also referred to as dynamic packet filtering, is a security feature often used in non-commercial and business networks.

Application/ Layer 7

The key benefit of application layer filtering is that it can understand certain applications and protocols such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Domain Name System (DNS), or Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

This allows it to identify unwanted applications or services using a non-standard port or detect if an allowed protocol is being abused or not validated.

Endpoint specific

Endpoint based application firewalls function by determining whether a process should accept any given connection.

15. Malware

Malware is any software intentionally designed to cause damage to a computer, server, client, or computer network. Malware is a broad term that describes any malicious software designed by hackers.

A wide variety of malware types exist, including computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware , spyware, adware, rogue software, and scareware., and other software that seeks to do one of four things:

Vandalize your computer in some way.
Steal your private information.
Take remote control of your computer for other ends.
Manipulate you into purchasing something.

Grayware

Grayware is a term applied to unwanted applications or files that are not classified as malware, but can worsen the performance of computers and may cause security risks.

It describes applications that behave in an annoying or undesirable manner, and yet are less serious or troublesome than malware.

Rootkits

Once malicious software is installed on a system, it is essential that it stays concealed, to avoid detection. Software packages known as rootkits allow this concealment, by modifying the host's operating system so that the malware is hidden from the user.

Rootkits can prevent a harmful process from being visible in the system's list of processes, or keep its files from being read.

Backdoors

A backdoor is a method of bypassing normal authentication procedures, usually over a connection to a network such as the Internet.

Once a system has been compromised, one or more backdoors may be installed in order to allow access in the future, invisibly to the user.

16. Phishing

The fraudulent practice of sending emails purporting to be from reputable companies in order to induce individuals to reveal personal information, such as passwords and credit card numbers is called phishing.

Typically carried out by email spoofing,instant messaging, and text messaging, phishing often directs users to enter personal information at a fake website which matches the look and feel of the legitimate site.

Types

Spear phishing

Phishing attempts directed at specific individuals or companies is known as spear phishing.

In contrast to bulk phishing, spear phishing attackers often gather and use personal information about their target to increase their probability of success.

Whaling

The term whaling refers to spear phishing attacks directed specifically at senior executives level and other high-profile targets.

Catphishing and catfishing

Catphishing is a type of online deception that involves getting to know someone closely in order to gain access to information or resources about the persons. usually in the control of the mark, or to otherwise get control over the conduct of the target.

Catfishing is a similar but distinct concept, involves a person creating a social network profile on different platforms as a sock puppet or fictional person in order to finagle someone into a (usually) romantic relationship.

This usually begins online, with the hope or promise of it progressing to real-life romance. This is never the objective of the perpetrator; in general, he is seeking access to the mark's money or resources, or to receive gifts or other consideration from the victim.

Clone phishing

Clone phishing is a type of phishing attack whereby a legitimate, and previously delivered, email containing an attachment or link has had its content and recipient address(es) taken and used to create an almost identical or cloned email.

The attachment or link within the email is replaced with a malicious version and then sent from an email address spoofed to appear to come from the original sender.

It may claim to be a resend of the original or an updated version to the original.

Typically this requires either the sender or recipient to have been previously hacked for the malicious third party to obtain the legitimate email.

Vishing (Voice phishing)

Not all phishing attacks require a fake website. Messages that claimed to be from a bank told users to dial a phone number regarding problems with their bank accounts.

Once the phone number (owned by the phisher, and provided by a voice over IP service) was dialed, prompts told users to enter their account numbers and PIN.

Vishing (voice phishing) sometimes uses fake caller-ID data to give the appearance that calls come from a trusted organization.

SMS phishing

SMS phishing or smishinguses cell phone text messages to deliver the bait to induce people to divulge their personal information.

Smishing attacks typically invite the user to click a link, call a phone number, or contact an email address provided by the attacker via SMS message.

The victim is then invited to provide their private data; often, credentials to other websites or services.

17. DNS (Domain Name System)

DNS full form is Domain Name System.

DNS is an Internet service that translates domain names to IP addresses.

Domain Name System (DNS)

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical and decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network.

Domain names are alphabetic and therefore easy to remember, but the Internet is based on numeric IP addresses, so a DNS server is required for computers to communicate with one another.

DNS name server

A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain; a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database.

DNS database

The most common types of records stored in the DNS database are for Start of Authority (SOA), IP addresses (A and AAAA), SMTP mail exchangers (MX), name servers (NS), pointers for reverse DNS lookups (PTR), and domain name aliases (CNAME).

DNS has been expanded over time to store records for other types of data for either automatic lookups, such as DNSSEC records, or for human queries such as responsible person (RP) records.

As a general purpose database, the DNS has also been used in combating unsolicited email (spam) by storing a real-time blackhole list (RBL).

The DNS database is traditionally stored in a structured text file, the zone file, but other database systems are common.

Domain name space

The domain name space consists of a tree data structure. Each node or leaf in the tree has a label and zero or more resource records (RR), which hold information associated with the domain name.

DNS zone

A DNS zone may consist of only one domain, or may consist of many domains and sub-domains, depending on the administrative choices of the zone manager.

DNS resolvers

The client side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver.

A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address.

DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods, such as recursive, non-recursive, and iterative.

DNS Message Format

The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and replies; both have the same format.

Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space. A header field (flags) controls the content of these four sections.

The header section consists of the following fields: Identification, Flags, Number of questions, Number of answers, Number of authority resource records (RRs), and Number of additional RRs. Each field is 16 bits long,

18. WWW (world Wide Web)

The World Wide Web (WWW), commonly known as the Web, is an information system where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs, such as https://example.com/), which may be interlinked by hypertext, and are accessible over the Internet.

Origin

English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989. He wrote the first web browser in 1990 while employed at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland.

Static page

A static web page (sometimes called a flat page/stationary page) is a web page that is delivered to the user exactly as stored.

Dynamic web page

A server-side dynamic web page is a web page whose construction is controlled by an application server processing server-side scripts.

19. PORT

In computer networking, a port is a communication endpoint.

At the software level, within an operating system, a port is a logical construct that identifies a specific process or a type of network service.

Port Numbers

Ports are identified for each transport protocol and address combination by 16-bit unsigned numbers, known as the port number.

A port number is a 16-bit unsigned integer, thus ranging from 0 to 65535. For TCP, port number 0 is reserved and cannot be used, while for UDP, the source port is optional and a value of zero means no port.

A port number is always associated with an IP address of a host and the type of transport protocol used for communication.

The lowest-numbered 1024 port numbers identify the historically most commonly used services and are called the well-known port numbers. Higher-numbered ports are available for general use by applications and are known as ephemeral ports.

The port numbers are divided into three ranges: the well-known ports, the registered ports, and the dynamic or private ports.

The well-known ports (also known as system ports) are those from 0 through 1023.

Port Scanning

The practice of attempting to connect to a range of ports in sequence on a single computer is commonly known as port scanning.

Port Use in URL

Port numbers are sometimes seen in web or other uniform resource locators (URLs).

By default, HTTP uses port 80 and HTTPS uses port 443, but a URL like http://www.example.com:8080/path/ specifies that the web browser connects instead to port 8080 of the HTTP server.

20. SSL Certificate

SSL stands for Secure Socket Layer.

SSL certificates validate your website's identity, and encrypt the information visitors send to, or receive from, your site. This keeps thieves away from spying on exchanges between you and your shoppers.

TLS/SSL client certificate

Client certificates are less common than server certificates, and are used to authenticate the client connecting to a TLS service, for instance to provide access control.

Client certificates are supported by many web browsers, but most services use passwords and cookies to authenticate users, instead of client certificates.

Client certificates are more common in RPC (Remote Procedure Call) systems, where they are used to authenticate devices to ensure that only authorized devices can make certain RPC calls.

TLS/SSL server certificate

Server certificates typically are issued to hostnames, which could be a machine name (such as ‘XYZ-SERVER-01’) or domain name (such as ‘www.digicert.com’).

A web browser reaching the server, and validates that an SSL server certificate is authentic. That tells the user that their interaction with the web site has no eavesdroppers and that the web site is exactly who it claims to be.

SSL certificates can be classified into three types:

· Domain Validation SSL

· Organization Validation SSL

· Extended Validation SSL.

Domain Validation (DV) SSL certificate

A Domain Validation (DV) SSL certificate is the most basic of the three types of SSL certificates. While Organization Validated (OV) and Extended Validated (EV) require multiple validation steps, DV SSL certificates require a single validation step.

DV SSL certificates are very beneficial for those who want to quickly get a certificate on their site to build trust and ensure their visitors are protected.

It is used for personal website.

Organization Validation SSL certificate

Organization Validation SSL certificate is a high assurance SSL certificate which is used to validated a company/business/organization.

The main purpose of OV SSL certificate is to encrypt website/business and user’s sensitive information which is being used for transactions.

It comes up with 2048-bit signature and powerful 256-bit encryption.

Extended Validation SSL Certificate

An Extended Validation SSL Certificate (also known as EV SSL for short) is the highest form of SSL Certificate on the market. It is used for E-commerce website.

All levels of SSL – provide encryption and data integrity, they vary in terms of how much identity verification layers is involved.

INDIAN MISSILE: NAME-LIST, HISTORY, TYPES, RANGE, FUTURE-PROJECTS, CLASSIFICATION & FULL DETAILS.

2020-03-30T08:22:00.184-07:00

INDIAN MISSILE: NAME-LIST, HISTORY, TYPES, RANGE, FUTURE-PROJECTS, CLASSIFICATION & FULL DETAILS.

History

Mysorean rockets were the first iron-cased rockets that were successfully deployed for military use.

It was the world's first use of rockets for fighting modern wars.

The British successfully reverse engineered and developed this rocket technology further.

After India was conquered, scientific research and development was constrained to further the British interests and military science in India naturally lagged.

In 1958, the government of India constituted a team of Indian scientists - called the Special Weapons Development Team - to research guided missile weapons development.

After the 1962 Sino-Indian War, the government of independent India renewed its focus on Indian missile technology development.

Initially, the scientists of the Special Weapons Development Team worked from MetCalfe House (New Delhi), but the establishment later shifted to Hyderabad after the state government granted them the former Nizam's army barracks.

This was the genesis of the Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) – earlier known as the Special Weapons Development Team – under DRDO, solely formed for missile technology research and development.

In the 1970s, SS-11B anti-tank missiles were manufactured under license from France at the BDL (Bharat Dynamic Limited).

Its first anti-tank missile was a totally indigenous product, which was successfully test-fired. The project laid the foundation of India's missile programme

Missile Projects of India

Project Devil

Project Devil was one of two early liquid-fuelled missile projects developed by India, along with Project Valiant, in the 1970s.

The goal of Project Devil was to produce a short-range surface-to-surface missile. Although discontinued in 1980 without achieving intended success, Project Devil, led to the later development of the Prithvi missile in the 1980s.

Project Valiant

Project Valiant was one of two early liquid-fuelled missile projects developed by India, along with Project Devil in the 1970s.

The goal of Project Valiant was to produce an ICBM.

Although discontinued in 1974 without achieving full success, Project Valiant, like Project Devil, helped in the development of the Prithvi missile in the 1980s.

IGMDP

The Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) was a Ministry of Defence (India) programme for the research and development of a comprehensive range of missiles.

The program was managed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Ordnance Factories Board in partnership with other Indian government research organisations.

The project started in early 1980s and ended in 2008 after these strategic missiles were successfully developed.

The last major missile developed under the program was the Agni 3 intermediate-range ballistic missile which was successfully tested on 9 July 2007.

On 8 January 2008, the DRDO formally announced the successful completion of the IGMDP.

It added that the strategic integrated guided missile program was completed with its design objectives achieved since most of the missiles in the program had been developed and inducted by the Indian armed forces.

Missile System of India
Akash

Akash is a medium-range mobile surface-to-air missile defence system developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Ordnance Factories Board and Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) in India.

The missile system can target aircraft up to 30 km away, at altitudes up to 18,000 m.

Trishul

Trishul— is a short range surface to air missile. The range of the missile is 12 km and is fitted with a 15 kg warhead. The weight of the missile is 130 kg

Nag

Nag is a third generation "Fire-and-forget" anti-tank missile developed in India.

It is one of five missile systems developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP).

Nag has been developed at a cost of ₹3 billion (US$42.1 million).

Shaurya

The Shaurya missile is a short-medium range hypersonic surface-to-surface hybrid ballistic-cruise missile developed for use by the Indian Army.

Capable of hypersonic speeds, it has a range of 700–1900 km and is capable of carrying a payload of 200 kg to 1-tonne conventional or nuclear warhead.

BrahMos

Mach 3 Supersonic Cruise Missile developed in collaboration with Russia. Land Attack and Anti-ship variants in service with the Indian Army and Indian Navy. Sub-Launched and Air Launched variants under development or testing.

BrahMos II

Mach 7 Hypersonic Cruise Missile in development collaboration with Russia.

Nirbhay

Long Range Sub-Sonic Cruise Missile under development and testing. It was successfully test fired for second time from balasore Orissa. Able to travel at speed of 0.6-0.88 mach.

Prahaar

Prahaar is a solid-fuelled Surface-to-surface guided short-range tactical ballistic missile that would be equipped with omni-directional warheads and could be used for hitting both tactical and strategic targets.

Astra

Astra is a 'Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air Missile' (BVRAAM) being developed for the Indian Air Force.

Helina

A variant of NAG Missile to be launched from Helicopter is being developed under the Project named HELINA (HELIcopter launched NAg). It will be structurally different from the Nag.

Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV)

Project HSTDV is a technology demonstrator aimed to demonstrate autonomous flight of a Scramjet Integrated Vehicle using ethylene.

Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme

Prithvi Air Defence (PAD)

The Prithvi Air Defence missile has been named as Pradyumna Ballistic Missile Interceptor.

It has a maximum interception altitude of 80 km and is capable of engaging the 300 to 2,000 km class of ballistic missiles at a speed of Mach 5.

DRDO is currently working on a missile for intercepting targets of 5,000+ km range and engaging them at altitudes of up to 150 km..

Advanced Air Defence (AAD)

Also known as Ashwin Ballistic Missile Interceptor.

The Advanced Air Defence (AAD)/ Ashvin Advanced Defence interceptor missile operates at endo-atmosphere at altitudes of 20-40 kilometres (12–24 miles).

Anti-Radiation Missile

India is developing an Anti-Radiation Missile (ARM) that will help to destroy enemy advance warning systems.

Production of the ARM is being done on a priority basis by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL), which specialises in missile development.

Such missiles can be mounted on the Sukhoi Su-30 MKI fighter planes.

Anti-Satellite Missile

India is developing anti satellite weapons. Following the successful Agni-V ICBM test, this looks all the more achievable.

Prithvi Missile Series

Prithvi Missiles are tactical surface-to-surface short-range ballistic missiles (SRBM)

Name	Type	Stage(s)	Range	Payload	User
Prithvi-I (SS-150)	SRBM	One	150 km	1000 kg	Army
Prithvi-II (SS-250)	SRBM	Two	250 km – 350 km	500 kg – 1000 kg	Air Force, Army
Prithvi-III (SS-350)	SRBM	Two	350 km – 600 km	250 kg – 500 kg	Army, Air Force, Navy

Dhanush is a system consisting of a stabilisation platform (Bow) and the Missile (Arrow). It is intended for the Indian Navy, to be fired from ships against other ships or land targets. Dhanush can fire modified versions of Prithvi-II or Prithvi-III.

Agni missile series

The Agni missile series started as a "Re-Entry Vehicle" project (later rechristened as Agni Technology Demonstrator) in the IGMDP. The missiles in this series include:

Name	Type	Stage(s)	Range
Agni-I	MRBM	One	700 km – 1,200 km
Agni-II	IRBM	Two	2,000 km – 2,500 km
Agni-III	IRBM	Two	3,000 km – 5,000 km
Agni-IV	IRBM	Two	2,500 km – 3,700 km
Agni-V	ICBM	Three	5,000 km – 8,000 km
Agni-VI	ICBM	Three	10,000 km – 12,000 km

The Agni-I, Agni-II and Agni-III missiles were developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program. (The Defence Research and Development Organisation formally announced the successful completion of the IGMDP after the third test of Agni-III on 7 May 2008.)

Agni-IV was tested on 15 November 2011 and has a range of 3,000 km (1,900 mi), and can carry a warhead of 1 tonnes. It is a two-stage missile powered by solid propellant.

It is 20 metres (66 feet) tall and has a launch weight of 17 tonnes.

A new missile Agni-V with 5,000 km (3,100 mi) range and MIRV is being developed and was tested on 26 December 2016.

Agni-V shares the similar design as Agni-III with an extra stage added to further increase the range by 1,500 km (930 mi).

Agni-V will be road mobile and it has been stated that all Indian missiles developed after this will be road mobile as well.

Agni-VI is an Intercontinental ballistic missile reported to be in rudimentary stages of development by India, and until May 2012 was not officially confirmed by either the Government of India or the DRDO.

Reportedly, it will be capable of being launched from submarines or from land and to strike a target of over 10,000 km (6,200 mi) with MIRV-ed warheads.

Top DRDO scientists have previously asserted that India has almost all the equipment and technology needed to develop ICBMs, "but where the warhead should go or what the range should be will have to be a political call".

K Missile series

TYPE	RANGE	Weight	Warhead	length	Status
K-15	750 km	10 tonnes	1 tonne	10 m	K-15/B-05 in series production. Land-based missile awaiting clearance.
K-4	3,500–5,000 km	17 tonnes	1 tonne – 2.5 tonnes	10 m	As of January 2011, at least six more tests to be performed before induction in 2017.
K-5	6,000 km	Unspecified	1 tonne	Unspecified	Under Development by DRDO

Air to air missiles

Family	Name	Type	Maximum range	Speed	Warhead	Introduction	Status
Astra (missile)	Astra Mk1	Active radar homing beyond-visual-range missile air-to-air missile	110 km (68 mi)	Mach 4.5+	High-explosive pre-fragmented warhead	2018	In user trials and production
Astra (missile)	Astra Mk2	Active radar homing beyond-visual-range missile air-to-air missile	160 km (99 mi)	Mach 4.5+	High-explosive pre-fragmented warhead	TBD	In development
Novator KS-172		Active radar homing and Inertial navigation	200 to 300 km (120 to 190 mi)	Mach 3.3	HE fragmentation directional warhead	2007	In use
Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet		Technology demonstration testbed for future beyond-visual-range missile air-to-air missile	120 to 300 km (75 to 186 mi)	Mach 2.5		TBD	Developmental trials

Anti-radiation missiles

Family	Name	Type	Maximum range	Warhead	Introduction	Status
DRDO Anti-Radiation Missile		Air to surface anti-radiation missile	125 km (78 mi)	Conventional	TBD	Developmental trials

Anti-satellite missiles

Family	Name	Type	Interception altitude	Warhead	Introduction	Status
Prithvi Defence Vehicle Mark II		Exo-atmospheric Hit-to-kill anti-ballistic missile	1,200 km (750 mi)	Kinetic kill vehicle	Unknown	Being tested

Anti-ship missiles

Family	Name	Type	Maximum range	Warhead	Introduction	Status
Prithvi (missile)	Dhanush (missile)	Ship based Anti-ship ballistic missile	750 km (470 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2018	In service
BrahMos		Multi-platform supersonic anti-ship cruise missile	290 to 600 km (180 to 370 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2004	In service
BrahMos-II		Multi-platform hypersonic anti-ship cruise missile	450 km (280 mi)-600 km (370 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	TBD	In development
DRDO NASM-SR		Short range naval anti-ship missile	TBA	TBA	TBD	In development

Anti-tank missiles

Family	Name	Type	Maximum range	Warhead	Introduction	Status
DRDO Anti Tank Missile		Wire guided first generation anti-tank missile	1.6 km (0.99 mi)	HEAT	-	Cancelled
Nag (missile)	Prospina	Third generation land-attack ATGM	4 km (2.5 mi)	Tandem-charge High-explosive anti-tank warhead	2016	In production
	HeliNa	Air-launched ATGM	10 km (6.2 mi)		TBD	In trials
	Stand off Anti-Tank missile	Standoff Air-launched ATGM	20 km (12 mi)		TBD	Developmental trials
	MPATGM	Man-portable anti-tank missile	2.5 km (1.6 mi)		TBD	Developmental trials
Amogha missile	Amogha-1	Second generation anti-tank guided missile	2.8 km (1.7 mi)	HEAT	TBD	Developmental trials
	Air launched Amogha	Air launched anti-tank missile		HEAT	TBD	Proposed
	Man portable Amogha	Man-portable anti-tank missile		HEAT	TBD	Proposed
SAMHO anti-tank missile		Laser guided Cannon launched anti-tank anti-helicopter missile	5 km (3.1 mi)	HEAT	TBD	Developmental trials

Ballistic missiles

Family	Name	Type	Maximum range	Warhead	Introduction	Status
Prithvi (missile)	Prithvi-I (SS-150)	tactical surface-to-surface short-range ballistic missile (SRBM)	150 km (93 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	1994	In service
	Prithvi-II (SS-250)	tactical surface-to-surface short-range ballistic missile (SRBM)	250 km (160 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2003	In service
	Prithvi-III (SS-350)	surface-to-surface short-range ballistic missile (SRBM)	350 to 750 km (220 to 470 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2004	In service
	Dhanush (missile)	Ship-based surface-to-surface SRBM Anti-ship ballistic missile	350 to 750 km (220 to 470 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2018	In service
Agni (missile)	Agni-I	MRBM	900 km (560 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2002	In service
	Agni-IP	MRBM	700 km (430 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	TBD	In development
	Agni-II	MRBM	2,000 to 3,500 km (1,200 to 2,200 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2010	In service
	Agni-III	IRBM	3,500 to 5,000 km (2,200 to 3,100 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2011	In service
	Agni-IV	IRBM	4,000 km (2,500 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2014	In service
	Agni-V	ICBM	5,500 to 8,000 km (3,400 to 5,000 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2018	Being deployed
	Agni-VI	ICBM	12,000 km (7,500 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	TBD	In development
Surya missile		ICBM	16,000 km (9,900 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	Unknown	Unconfirmed
K missile family	K-15/B-05	Medium range SLBM	750 km (470 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	2018	In service
	K-4 (missile)	Intermediate range SLBM	3,500 km (2,200 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	TBD	In trials
	K-5 (missile)	Intercontinental range SLBM	5,000 km (3,100 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	TBD	In development
	K-6 (missile)	Intercontinental range SLBM	6,000 km (3,700 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	TBD	In development
Prahaar	Prahaar (missile)	tactical surface-to-surface short-range ballistic missile (SRBM)	150 km (93 mi)	Conventional or nuclear	TBD	In trials
Prahaar	Pragati	tactical surface-to-surface short-range ballistic missile (SRBM)	170 km (110 mi)	Conventional	N/A (For export)	In development
Pralay (missile)		Tactical ballistic missile	500 km (310 mi)	Conventional	TBD	In development

Cruise missiles

Family	Name	Type	Maximum range	Speed	Warhead	Introduction	Status
BrahMos	BrahMos Block I	Supersonic Ship-launched anti-ship cruise missile	290 km (180 mi)	Mach 3	Conventional or nuclear	2006-07	Operational
		Supersonic Ship launched land-attack cruise missile	290 km (180 mi)			2006-07	Operational
		Supersonic Land launched land-attack cruise missile	290 km (180 mi)			2008	Operational
		Supersonic Land-launched anti-ship variant	290 km (180 mi)			2010	Operational
	BrahMos Block II	Suepersonic Ship/land launched land-attack/Anti-ship cruise missile	290 km (180 mi)			2012	Operational
	BrahMos Block III	Supersonic Land attack cruise missile	290 km (180 mi)			2013	Operational
	BrahMos-A	Supersonic Air launched land-attack cruise missile	400 km (250 mi)			TBD	Developmental trials
	BrahMos-A	Supersonic Air launched anti-ship cruise missile	400 km (250 mi)			TBD	Developmental trials
	Submarine launched BrahMos	Supersonic Submarine launched anti-ship cruise missile	290 km (180 mi)			2013	In service
	Submarine launched BrahMos	Supersonic Submarine launched land-attack cruise missile	290 km (180 mi)			2013	In service
	BrahMos ER	Multi-platform multirole supersonic cruise missile	600 km (370 mi)			TBD	In development
	BrahMos NG	Multi-platform multirole supersonic cruise missile	290 km (180 mi)			TBD	In development
BrahMos-II		Hypersonic cruise missile	450 km (280 mi)	Mach 7	Conventional or nuclear	No earlier than 2020	In development
Nirbhay (missile)		Subsonic land-attack cruise missile	1,500 km (930 mi)	Mach 0.7	Conventional or nuclear	2019	Being inducted

Surface to air missiles

Family	Name	Type	Maximum range	Interception altitude	Speed	Warhead	Introduction	Status
Trishul (missile)		Short range surface to air missile	9 km (5.6 mi)		Mach 1+	High explosive	1983	Retired
Akash (missile)	Akash Mk I	Medium range surface to air missile	30 km (19 mi)	18 km (11 mi)	Mach 2.8-3.5	High-explosive, pre-fragmented warhead	2009	In service
	Akash Mk II		35 km (22 mi)	20 km (12 mi)		High-explosive, pre-fragmented warhead	TBA	Developmental trials
	Akash-NG		50 km (31 mi)	20 km (12 mi)		High-explosive, pre-fragmented warhead	TBD	In development
Maitri (missile)		Quick reaction surface to air missile	30 km (19 mi)				TBD	In development
QRSAM		Quick reaction surface to air missile	30 km (19 mi)	10 km (6.2 mi)			TBA	In trials
Barak 8	MRSAM	Medium range surface to air missile	100 km (62 mi)	16 km (9.9 mi)	Mach 2	Proximity censor based	2017	Being inducted
Barak 8	LRSAM	Long range surface to air missile	150 km (93 mi)	16 km (9.9 mi)	Mach 2	Proximity censor based	2019	In trials
Phase I of Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme	Prithvi Air Defence	Exo-atmospheric anti-ballistic missile	300 km (190 mi)	80 km (50 mi)	Mach 5+	Proximity fuze	2006	Being inducted
	Advanced Air Defence	Endo-atmospheric anti-ballistic missile	150 km (93 mi)	30 km (19 mi)	Mach 4.5	Hit-to-kill	2007	Being inducted
	Prithvi Defence Vehicle	Exo-atmospheric anti-ballistic missile	2,000 km (1,200 mi)	150 km (93 mi)		Hit-to-kill	2019	In trials
Phase II of Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme	Prithvi Defence Vehicle Mark-II	Exo-atmospheric anti-ballistic missile		1,200 km (750 mi)		Hit-to-kill	TBD	Developmental trials
	AD-1	Anti-ballistic missile	TBA	TBA		Hit-to-kill	TBD	In development
	AD-2	Anti-ballistic missile	TBA	TBA		Hit-to-kill	TBD	In development
XR-SAM		Long range surface to air missile	350 km (220 mi)			High explosive	TBD	In development

Other systems

Family	Name	Type	Maximum range	Speed	Warhead	Introduction	Status
Pinaka multi-barrel rocket launcher	Pinaka Mk I	Multiple rocket launcher	40 km (25 mi)		Various	1998	In service
Pinaka multi-barrel rocket launcher	Pinaka Mk II/Guided Pinaka	Multiple rocket launcher	90 km (56 mi)		Various	TBA	In trials
Indian long range MRL		Multiple rocket launcher	120 km (75 mi)		Various	TBD	In development
K missile family	Shaurya (missile)	Hypersonic surface to surface tactical missile	700 km (430 mi)	Mach 7.5	Conventional or nuclear	2011	In service
Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle		Testbed for development of hypersonic systems		Mach 12	N/A	2019	Developmental trials

Research and development organisations of India

Current missile research and development in India happens under the Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL), and a group of laboratories collectively called the Missile Complex Laboratories namely:

· Interim Test Range

· Bharat Dynamics Limited Manufactures the missile and also has an associated R&D lab.

· Composite Products Development Centre

· Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory Develops materials for defence and space usage

· Defence Research and Development Laboratory Develops the mission control software among other missile technologies.

· Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Missile Complex Houses following 3 laboratories:

o Advanced Systems Laboratory Research and development on motors, jet vanes and structures for launch vehicles and missiles.

o Research Centre Imarat (Develops navigation and electromechanical actuation systems.)

o Defence Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL) famous for its contributions to IGMDP programme

· High Energy Materials Research Laboratory Propellant (missile fuel) research is done in HEMRL.

· Missile Complex Laboratories (These laboratories were earlier part of the DRDL or set up under them, but all are now independent entities.)

· Missile Systems Quality Assurance Agency

· Vehicle Research and Development Establishment Develops missile launchers.

· HTNP Industries Develops Hypersonic missile warheads (Nuclear capable and non nuclear capable).

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES: DEFINITION, ORIGIN, LIST, USES, POPULARITY & FULL DETAILS.

2020-03-30T08:11:00.025-07:00

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES: DEFINITION, ORIGIN, LIST, USES, POPULARITY & FULL DETAILS.

Definition

A programming language is a formal language comprising a set of instructions that genrate various kinds of output.

Programming languages are used in computer programming to implement the algorithms.

Most programming languages consist of instructions for computers to do things in a specific way.

For example Cobol, C++, SPSS, TORA, Python, Latex etc.

Most programming languages are not standardized by an international (or national) standard, even widely used ones, such as Perl or Standard ML .

Origin

Officially, the first programming language for a computer was Plankalkül , developed by Konrad Zuse for the Z3 between 1943 and 1945. However, it was not implemented until 1998.

In 1954, FORTRAN was invented at IBM by John Backus. It was the first widely used high-level general purpose programming language to have a functional implementation.

It is still a popular language for high-performance computing and is used for programs that benchmark and rank the world's fastest supercomputers.

Short Code, which was proposed by John Mauchly in 1949, is considered to be the first high-level programming language.

It was designed to represent mathematical expressions in a format readable by human beings.

However, because it had to be translated into machine code before it could be executed, it had relatively slow processing speeds.

Other early programming languages were developed in the 1950s and 1960s, including Autocode, COBOL, FLOW-MATIC, and LISP.

Early developments

Firstly Programming languages called as Machine languages.

They were later termed as first-generation programming languages (1GL).

The next step was development of so-called second-generation programming languages (2GL) or assembly languages, These served to make the program much more human-readable and relieved the programmer of tedious and error-prone address calculations.

The first high-level programming languages, or third-generation programming languages (3GL), were written in the 1950s.

Programming Language has 2 Elements:

1.Syntax

A programming language's surface form is known as its syntax.

Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages.

On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more graphical in nature, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program.

2.Semantics

The term semantics refers to the meaning of languages, as opposed to their form which called as syntax.

It also divided into Static Semantic and Dynamic Semantic.

Static Semantics: It means that your programming statement definitely have zero chance of generating more than one results according to the grammar rules.

Dynamic Semantics: It means that program will execute according to the meaning of a syntax of programming language has potential to update its context.

Dynamic semantics was originally developed by Irene Heim and Hans Kamp in 1981.

e.g.-(relative clause): Every farmer who owns a donkey beats it.

(conditional): If a farmer owns a donkey, he beats it.

Difference Between Natural and Programming Languages

· Programming languages differ from natural languages in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate with the machines.

· More than 7000 Natural languages currently in the world and Programming languages are currently around 500 to 2000 which very less in number as compared to Natural languages.

· All active computer languages is between 5,000 and 25,000.

· The first programming language for a computer was Plankalkül , developed by Konrad Zuse for the Z3 between 1943 and 1945 and Egyptian is may be the oldest natural language in world around 2690 B.C (because some people believe that Greek language is oldest and some say Chinese).

How Prgramming languages Work?

Firstly, Work of Programming languages depends on 3 Factors:

1.Function and target

For different targets there are different functions or programs to execute and get the results. For example PostScript programs are frequently created by another program to control a computer printer or display.

2. Abstractions

Programming languages usually contain abstractions for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution.

3. Expressive power

The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing. The ability to express any possible algorithm is called Turing Complete.

The Language with more expressive power is Turing Complete.

Turing-complete Language

In computability theory, a system of data-manipulation rules (such as a computer's instruction set, a programming language, or a cellular automaton) is said to be Turing-complete or computationally universal if it can be used to simulate any Turing machine.

This means that this system is able to recognize or decide other data-manipulation rule sets.

Turing completeness is used as a way to express the power of such a data-manipulation rule set.

Virtually all programming languages today are Turing-complete.

A related concept is that of Turing equivalence – two computers P and Q are called equivalent if P can simulate Q and Q can simulate P.

A programming language is Turing complete if you can implement any possible algorithm with it.

The concept is named after English mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing.

e.g.- C, Pascal, C#, C++, Java, Ada, Python, R, Lisp, Fortron, Prolog etc.

Markup Language

A markup language is a system for annotating a document in a way that is syntactically distinguishable from the text, meaning when the document is processed for display, the markup language is not shown, and is only used to format the text.

there is increasing use of markup languages in the presentation of other types of information, including playlists, vector graphics, web services, content syndication, and user interfaces.

e.g.- BBC, HTML, SGML, XML, Troff , nroff, Postscript, Latex, Scribe etc.

Classification of Languages according to Level

Low-Level Programming Language

A low-level programming language is a programming language that provides little or no abstraction from a computer's instruction set architecture—commands or functions in the language map closely to processor instructions.

Low level of language is near to the machine and far away from the programmer.

The low-level language is not easy to understand, and it is machine dependent language.

Because of the low (hence the word) abstraction between the language and machine language, low-level languages are sometimes described as being "close to the hardware".

Low-level language is divided into two parts: Machine language and Assembly Language.

Machine Language

The machine language is the mixture of binary digits or bits, which can be read and interpreted by the computer.

The machine language is the only language that is understood by the computer.

The language is in the form of 0’s, and 1’s so, no one can understand this language quickly.

The machine language is the hardware-dependent programming language.

The code in machine language is the only computer program which is understandable by the computer and directly executed by the Central processing unit (CPU).

Assembly Language

The assembly language lies in between the machine language and high-level language.

It is the low-level language for microprocessors and other programmable devices. An assembly language is a batch of languages, and it is not a single language.

This language implements the symbolic representation of the machine code. The assemblers use in assembly language, and these are similar to the compiler.

The assembler is capable of converting the assembly code into binary code with the help of the basic commands and the operations.

Middle-Level Language

The middle-level language lies in between the low level and high-level language.

C language is the middle-level language. Java and C++ are also middle-level languages.

The middle-level programming language interacts with the abstraction layer of a computer system.

It serves as the bridge between the raw hardware and programming layer of the computer system.

The middle-level language is also known as the intermediate programming language and pseudo-language.

High-Level Programming Language

A high-level programming language is a programming language with strong abstraction from the details of the computer.

In contrast to low-level programming languages, it may use natural language elements, be easier to use, or may automate (or even hide entirely) significant areas of computing systems (e.g. memory management), making the process of developing a program simpler and more understandable than when using a lower-level language.

Popular Programming Language

What makes Programming languages popular?

The following properties are key points that makes a programming language.

1. Easy of use

2. Versatileness

3. Basis of other Languages

4. Flexibility

5. Fastness or speed

6. Applicational Uses

7. Simple syntax languages

TIOBE Index

Since we will be ranking our most used programming languages on the Tiobe Index, we need to build at least a general understanding of how it works and what it takes into account.

The Tiobe Index takes data from hundreds of different sources, compiles it, and spits it out in list form. The Tiobe Index rankings are based on several metrics, including:

The number of experienced engineers in the language worldwide. More skilled developers in a language mean that the language is going to be more popular.
The number of courses available for a language. This indicates the demand for a particular language, the number of people who are learning it, and how widespread it is likely to be in the future.
The search engine popularity of the language. Again, this indicates how popular a language is to the general public. More popular languages are more likely to be used.

The Tiobe language rating is calculated by taking the percentage of programming search engine hits that belong to that language.

List of Programming Languages

A

· A.NET

· A-0 System

· A+

· ABAP

· ABC

· ABC ALGOL

· ACC

· Accent

· Ace DASL (Distributed Application Specification Language)

· Action!

· ActionScript

· Actor

· Ada

· Adenine

· Agda

· Agilent VEE

· Agora

· AIMMS

· Aldor

· Alef

· ALF

· ALGOL 58

· ALGOL 60

· ALGOL 68

· ALGOL W

· Alice

· Alma-0

· AmbientTalk

· Amiga E

· AMOS

· AMPL

· AngelScript

· Apache Pig latin

· Apex

· APL

· App Inventor for Android's visual block language

· AppleScript

· APT

· Arc

· ARexx

· Argus

· Assembly language

· AutoHotkey

· AutoIt

· AutoLISP / Visual LISP

· Averest

· AWK

· Axum

B

· Babbage

· Ballerina

· Bash

· BASIC

· Batch file (Windows/MS-DOS)

· bc

· BCPL

· BeanShell

· Bertrand

· BETA

· BLISS

· Blockly

· BlooP

· Boo

· Boomerang

· Bosque

C

· C – ISO/IEC 9899

· C-- (C minus minus)

· C++ (C plus plus) – ISO/IEC 14882

· C*

· C# (C sharp) – ISO/IEC 23270

· C/AL

· Caché ObjectScript

· C Shell (csh)

· Caml

· Cayenne

· CDuce

· Cecil

· Cesil

· Céu

· Ceylon

· CFEngine

· Cg

· Ch

· Chapel

· Charm

· CHILL

· CHIP-8

· chomski

· ChucK

· Cilk

· CL (IBM)

· Claire

· Clarion

· Clean

· Clipper

· CLIPS

· CLIST

· Clojure

· CLU

· CMS-2

· COBOL – ISO/IEC 1989

· CobolScript – COBOL Scripting language

· Cobra

· CoffeeScript

· ColdFusion

· COMAL

· Combined Programming Language (CPL)

· COMIT

· Common Intermediate Language (CIL)

· Common Lisp (also known as CL)

· COMPASS

· Component Pascal

· Constraint Handling Rules (CHR)

· COMTRAN

· Cool

· Coq

· Coral 66

· CorVision

· COWSEL

· CPL

· Cryptol

· Crystal

· Csound

· Cuneiform

· Curl

· Curry

· Cybil

· Cyclone

· Cypher Query Language

· Cython

· CEEMAC

D

· D

· Dart

· Darwin

· DataFlex

· Datalog

· DATATRIEVE

· dBase

· dc

· DCL

· DinkC

· DIBOL

· Dog

· Draco

· DRAKON

· Dylan

· DYNAMO

· DAX (Data Analysis Expressions)

E

· E

· Ease

· Easy PL/I

· EASYTRIEVE PLUS

· eC

· ECMAScript

· Edinburgh IMP

· EGL

· Eiffel

· ELAN

· Elixir

· Elm

· Emacs Lisp

· Emerald

· Epigram

· EPL (Easy Programming Language)

· EPL (Eltron Programming Language)

· Erlang

· es

· Escher

· ESPOL

· Esterel

· Etoys

· Euclid

· Euler

· Euphoria

· EusLisp Robot Programming Language

· CMS EXEC (EXEC)

· EXEC 2

· Executable UML

· Ezhil

F

· F

· F#

· F*

· Factor

· Fantom

· FAUST

· FFP

· fish

· Fjölnir

· FL

· Flavors

· Flex

· FlooP

· FLOW-MATIC

· FOCAL

· FOCUS

· FOIL

· FORMAC

· @Formula

· Forth

· Fortran – ISO/IEC 1539

· Fortress

· FP

· Franz Lisp

· FreeBasic

· Futhark

· F-Script

G

· Game Maker Language (Scripting language)

· GameMonkey Script

· GAMS

· GAP

· G-code

· GDScript

· Genie

· GDL

· GEORGE

· GLSL

· GNU E

· GNU Guile

· Go

· Go!

· GOAL

· Gödel

· Golo

· GOM (Good Old Mad)

· Google Apps Script

· Gosu

· GOTRAN

· GPSS

· GraphTalk

· GRASS

· Grasshopper

· Groovy

H

· Hack

· HAGGIS

· HAL/S

· Halide (programming language)

· Hamilton C shell

· Harbour

· Hartmann pipelines

· Haskell

· Haxe

· Hermes

· High Level Assembly

· HLSL

· Hollywood

· HolyC

· Hop

· Hopscotch

· Hope

· Hugo

· Hume

· HyperTalk

I

· Io

· Icon

· IBM Basic assembly language

· IBM HAScript

· IBM Informix-4GL

· IBM RPG

· IDL

· Idris

· Inform

J

· J

· J#

· J++

· JADE

· JAL

· Janus (concurrent constraint programming language)

· Janus (time-reversible computing programming language)

· JASS

· Java

· JavaFX Script

· JavaScript(Scripting language)

· Jess (programming language)

· JCL

· JEAN

· Join Java

· JOSS

· Joule

· JOVIAL

· Joy

· JScript

· JScript .NET

· Julia

· Jython

K

· K

· Kaleidoscope

· Karel

· KEE

· Kixtart

· Klerer-May System

· KIF

· Kojo

· Kotlin

· KRC

· KRL

· KRL (KUKA Robot Language)

· KRYPTON

· Korn shell (ksh)

· Kodu

· Kv

L

· LabVIEW

· Ladder

· LANSA

· Lasso

· Lava

· LC-3

· Legoscript

· LIL

· LilyPond

· Limbo

· Limnor

· LINC

· Lingo

· LINQ

· LIS

· LISA

· Language H

· Lisp – ISO/IEC 13816

· Lite-C

· Lithe

· Little b

· LLL

· Logo

· Logtalk

· LotusScript

· LPC

· LSE

· LSL

· LiveCode

· LiveScript

· Lua

· Lucid

· Lustre

· LYaPAS

· Lynx

M

· M2001

· M4

· M#

· Machine code

· MAD (Michigan Algorithm Decoder)

· MAD/I

· Magik

· Magma

· Máni

· Maple

· MAPPER (now part of BIS)

· MARK-IV (now VISION:BUILDER)

· Mary

· MATLAB

· MASM Microsoft Assembly x86

· MATH-MATIC

· Maude system

· Maxima (see also Macsyma)

· Max (Max Msp – Graphical Programming Environment)

· MaxScript internal language 3D Studio Max

· Maya (MEL)

· MDL

· Mercury

· Mesa

· MHEG-5 (Interactive TV programming language)

· Microcode

· MicroScript

· MIIS

· Milk (programming language)

· MIMIC

· Mirah

· Miranda

· MIVA Script

· ML

· Model 204

· Modelica

· Modula

· Modula-2

· Modula-3

· Mohol

· MOO

· Mortran

· Mouse

· MPD

· MSL

· MUMPS

· MuPAD

· Mutan

· Mystic Programming Language (MPL)

N

· NASM

· Napier88

· Neko

· Nemerle

· NESL

· Net.Data

· NetLogo

· NetRexx

· NewLISP

· NEWP

· Newspeak

· NewtonScript

· Nial

· Nickle (NITIN)

· Nim

· Nix (Systems configuration language)

· NPL

· Not eXactly C (NXC)

· Not Quite C (NQC)

· NSIS

· Nu

· NWScript

· NXT-G

O

· o:XML

· Oak

· Oberon

· OBJ2

· Object Lisp

· ObjectLOGO

· Object REXX

· Object Pascal

· Objective-C

· Objective-J

· Obliq

· OCaml

· occam

· occam-π

· Octave

· OmniMark

· Opa

· Opal

· OpenCL

· OpenEdge ABL

· OPL

· OpenVera

· OPS5

· OptimJ

· Orc

· ORCA/Modula-2

· Oriel

· Orwell

· Oxygene

· Oz

P

· P

· P4

· P′′

· ParaSail (programming language)

· PARI/GP

· Pascal – ISO 7185

· Pascal Script

· PCASTL

· PCF

· PEARL

· PeopleCode

· Perl

· PDL

· Pharo

· PHP

· Pico

· Picolisp

· Pict

· Pike

· PILOT

· Pipelines

· Pizza

· PL-11

· PL/0

· PL/B

· PL/C

· PL/I – ISO 6160

· PL/M

· PL/P

· PL/SQL

· PL360

· PLANC

· Plankalkül

· Planner

· PLEX

· PLEXIL

· Plus

· POP-11

· POP-2

· PostScript

· PortablE

· POV-Ray SDL

· Powerhouse

· PowerBuilder – 4GL GUI application generator from Sybase

· PowerShell

· PPL

· Processing

· Processing.js

· Prograph

· PROIV

· Prolog

· PROMAL

· Promela

· PROSE modeling language

· PROTEL

· ProvideX

· Pro*C

· Pure

· Pure Data

· PureScript

· Python

Q

· Q (programming language from Kx Systems)

· Q# (Microsoft programming language)

· Qalb

· Quantum Computation Language

· QtScript

· QuakeC

· QPL

· .QL

R

· R

· R++

· Racket

· Raku

· RAPID

· Rapira

· Ratfiv

· Ratfor

· rc

· Reason

· REBOL

· Red

· Redcode

· REFAL

· REXX

· Rlab

· ROOP

· RPG

· RPL

· RSL

· RTL/2

· Ruby

· Rust

S

· S

· S2

· S3

· S-Lang

· S-PLUS

· SA-C

· SabreTalk

· SAIL

· SAS

· SASL

· Sather

· Sawzall

· Scala

· Scheme

· Scilab

· Scratch

· Script.NET

· Sed

· Seed7

· Self

· SenseTalk

· SequenceL

· Serpent

· SETL

· SIMPOL

· SIGNAL

· SiMPLE

· SIMSCRIPT

· Simula

· Simulink

· Singularity

· SISAL

· SLIP

· SMALL

· Smalltalk

· SML

· Strongtalk

· Snap!

· SNOBOL (SPITBOL)

· Snowball

· SOL

· Solidity

· SOPHAEROS

· Source

· SPARK

· Speakeasy

· Speedcode

· SPIN

· SP/k

· SPS

· SQL

· SQR

· Squeak

· Squirrel

· SR

· S/SL

· Starlogo

· Strand

· Stata

· Stateflow

· Subtext

· SBL

· SuperCollider

· SuperTalk

· Swift (Apple programming language)

· Swift (parallel scripting language)

· SYMPL

· SystemVerilog

T

· T

· TACL

· TACPOL

· TADS

· TAL

· Tcl

· Tea

· TECO

· TELCOMP

· TeX

· TEX

· TIE

· TMG, compiler-compiler

· Tom

· Toi

· Topspeed

· TPU

· Trac

· TTM

· T-SQL

· Transcript

· TTCN

· Turing

· TUTOR

· TXL

· TypeScript

· Tynker

U

· Ubercode

· UCSD Pascal

· Umple

· Unicon

· Uniface

· UNITY

· Unix shell

· UnrealScript

V

· Vala

· Verilog

· VHDL

· Vim script

· Viper

· Visual DataFlex

· Visual DialogScript

· Visual FoxPro

· Visual J++

· Visual LISP

· Visual Objects

· Visual Prolog

W

· WATFIV, WATFOR

· WebAssembly

· WebDNA

· Whiley

· Winbatch

· Wolfram Language

· Wyvern

X

· X++

· X10

· xBase

· xBase++

· XBL

· XC (targets XMOS architecture)

· xHarbour

· XL

· Xojo

· XOTcl

· Xod

· XPL

· XPL0

· XQuery

· XSB

· XSharp

· XSLT

· Xtend

Y

· YAML

· Yorick

· YQL

· Yoix

· YUI

Z

· Zebra, ZPL, ZPL2

· Zeno

· ZetaLisp

· Zig

· ZOPL

· ZPL

· Z++

INDIAN HONOUR SYSTEM: MEDALS, TYPES, ORDERS, RECIPIENT LIST, PHOTOS & FULL DETAILS.

2020-03-30T02:13:00.134-07:00

INDIAN HONOUR SYSTEM: MEDALS, TYPES, ORDERS, ELIGIBILITY, SELECTION, PHOTOS & FULL DETAILS.

Post-independence, first three gallantry awards namely the Param Vir Chakra, the Maha Vir Chakra and the Vir Chakra were instituted by the Government of India on 26th January, 1950 which were deemed to have effect from the 15th August, 1947.

Thereafter, other three gallantry awards i.e. the Ashoka Chakra Class-I, the Ashoka Chakra Class-II and the Ashoka Chakra Class-III were instituted by the Government of India on 4th January, 1952, which were deemed to have effect from the 15th August, 1947.

These awards were renamed as the Ashoka Chakra, the Kirti Chakra and the Shaurya Chakra respectively in January, 1967.

These gallantry awards are announced twice in a year - first on the occasion of the Republic Day and then on the occasion of the Independence Day.

Order of precedence of these awards is the Param Vir Chakra, the Ashoka Chakra, the Mahavir Chakra, the Kirti Chakra, the Vir Chakra and the Shaurya Chakra.

Design of the medals and ribbons

PARAM VIR CHAKRA

Medal: Circular in shape, made of bronze, one and three eighth inches in diameter and shall have embossed on the obverse four replicas of "Indra's Vajra" with the State Emblem embossed in the centre.

On its reverse, it shall have embossed “PARAM VIR CHAKRA” both in Hindi and in English with two lotus flowers between the Hindi and the English inscriptions.

Ribbon: Plain purple coloured ribbon.

Bar: If any recipient of the Chakra shall again perform such an act of bravery as would have made him or her eligible to receive the Chakra, such further act of bravery shall be recorded by a Bar to be attached to the riband by which the Chakra is suspended, and for every such additional act of bravery, an additional Bar shall be added, and any such Bar or Bars may also be awarded posthumously. For every Bar awarded a replica of the "Indra's Vajra" in miniature shall be added to the riband when worn alone.

MAHAVIR CHAKRA

Medal: Circular in shape and of standard silver, one and three eighth inches in diameter, and shall have embossed on the obverse a five-pointed heraldic star with the points of the star just touching the rim.

The star shall have in the centre a domed gilded State Emblem. On the reverse, it shall have embossed “MAHA VIR CHAKRA” both in Hindi and in English with two lotus flowers between the Hindi and the English inscriptions.

Ribbon: The ribbon is of a half-white and half-orange colour.

For every Bar awarded a replica of the Chakra in miniature shall be added to the riband when worn alone.

VIR CHAKRA

The star shall have in the centre a Chakra and within the Chakra shall be a domed centre piece bearing the gilded State Emblem. On the reverse, it shall have embossed “VIR CHAKRA” both in Hindi and in English with two lotus flowers between the Hindi and the English inscriptions.

Ribbon: The ribbon is of half blue and half orange in colour.

For every Bar awarded a replica of the Chakra in miniature shall be added to the riband when worn alone.

ASHOKA CHAKRA

Medal: Circular in shape, one and three eighth inches in diameter, with rims on both sides. The medal shall be of gold gild. On the obverse of the medal shall be embossed a replica of Ashoka’s Chakra in the centre, surrounded by a lotus wreath.

Along the rim, on the inner side, shall be a pattern of lotus leaves, flowers and buds. On its reverse shall be embossed the words “Ashok Chakra” both in Hindi and English the two versions being separated by two lotus flowers.

Ribbon: Green colour ribbon divided into two equal segments by an orange vertical line.

Bar: If a recipient of the Chakra shall again perform such an act of gallantry as would have made him or her eligible to receive the Chakra, such further act of gallantry shall be recognised by a Bar to be attached to the riband by which the Chakra is suspended and, for every subsequent act of gallantry, an additional Bar shall be added and any such Bar or Bars may also be awarded posthumously.

For every Bar awarded a replica of the Chakra in miniature shall be added to the riband when worn alone.

KIRTI CHAKRA

Medal: Circular in shape and of standard silver, one and three-eighth inches in diameter, with rims on both sides. On the obverse of the medal shall be embossed a replica of Ashoka’s Chakra in the centre, surrounded by a lotus wreath.

Along the rim, on the inner side, shall be a pattern of lotus leaves, flowers and buds. On its reverse shall be embossed the words “KIRTI CHAKRA” both in Hindi and English, the two versions being separated by two lotus flowers.

Ribbon: Green colour ribbon divided into three equal parts by two orange vertical lines.

For every such Bar, a replica of the Chakra in miniature shall be added to the riband when worn alone.

SHAURYA CHAKRA

Medal: Circular in shape and made of bronze, one and three-eighth inches in diameter, with rims on both sides. On the obverse of the medal shall be embossed a replica of Ashoka’s Chakra in the centre, surrounded by a lotus wreath.

Along the rim, on the inner side, shall be a pattern of lotus leaves, flowers and buds. On its reverse shall be embossed the words “SHAURYA CHAKRA” both in Hindi and English, the two versions being separated by two lotus flowers.

Ribbon: Green colour ribbon divided into four equal parts by three vertical lines.

For every such Bar, a replica of the Chakra in miniature shall be added to the riband when worn alone.

IMPORTANT: The Param veer Chakra, Maha veer Chakra and vir chakra are War time gallantry award and Ashok Chakra, Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Chakra are peace time gallantry awards.

INVESTITURE CEREMONY

Gallantry awards along with some other Defence Distinguished Service awards are conferred to the awardees/Next-of-Kins (NoKs) by the President at the Defence Investiture Ceremony held every year at the Rashtrapati Bhawan.

However, the Param Vir Chakra and the Ashoka Chakra are conferred by the President to the awardees/NoKs on the occasion of the Republic Day Parade at the Rajpath.

PEOPLE WHO GET THIS GALLANTRY AWARDS FOR FIRST TIME

1.PARAMVEER CHAKRA (MAJ SOMNATH SHARMA)