security systems

Data center

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Wed, 12 Dec 2007 08:12:00 +0000

A data center is a facility used to house computer systems and associated components, such as telecommunications and storage systems. It generally includes redundant or backup power supplies, redundant data communications connections, environmental controls (air conditioning, fire suppression, etc.), and special security devices

History

Data centers have their roots in the huge computer rooms of the early ages of the computing industry. Early computer systems were complex to operate and maintain, and needed a special environment to keep working. A lot of cables were necessary to connect all the parts. Also, old computers required a lot of power, and had to be cooled to avoid overheating. Security was important; computers were expensive, and were often used for military purposes. For this reason, engineering practices were developed since the start of the computing industry. Basic design guidelines for controlling access to the computer room were devised. Elements such as standard racks to mount equipment, elevated floors, and cable trays (installed overhead or under the elevated floor) were introduced in this early age, and have modernized relatively little compared to the computer systems themselves.

During the boom of the microcomputer industry, and especially during the 1980s, computers started to be deployed everywhere, in many cases with little or no care about operating requirements. However, as IT operations started to grow in complexity, companies grew aware of the need to control IT resources. With the advent of client-server computing, during the decade of 1990, microcomputers (now called "servers") started to find their places on the old computer rooms. The availability of inexpensive networking equipment, coupled with new standards for network cabling, made it possible to use a hierarchical design which put the servers in a specific room inside the company. The use of the term "data center", as applied to specially design computer rooms, started to gain popular recognition about this time.

The boom of data centers came during the dot-com bubble. Companies needed fast Internet connectivity and non-stop operation to deploy systems and establish a presence on the Internet. Installing such equipment was not viable for many smaller companies. Many companies started building very large facilities, called "internet data centers", or IDCs, which provide businesses with a range of solutions for systems deployment and operation. New technologies and practices were designed to handle the scale and the operational requirements of such large scale operations. These practices eventually migrated towards the private data centers, and were largely adopted because of their practical results.

As of 2007, data center design, construction, and operation is a well-known discipline. Standard documents from accredited professional groups, such as the Telecommunications Industry Association, specify the requirements for data center design. Well-known operational metrics for data center availability can be used to evaluate the business impact of a disruption. There is still a lot of development being done in operation practice, and also in environmentally-friendly data center design.

Requirements for modern data centers

Racks of telecommunications equipment in part of a data center.

IT operations are a crucial aspect of most organizational operations. One of the main concerns is business continuity; companies rely on its informations systems to run its operations. If a system becomes unavailable, company operations may be impaired or stopped completely. It is necessary to provide a reliable infrastructure for IT operations, in order to minimize any chance of disruption. Information security is also a concern, and for this reason a data center has to offer a secure environment which minimizes the chances of a security breach. A data center must therefore keep high standards for assuring the integrity and functionality of its hosted computer environment.

Data center classification

The TIA-942:Data Center Standards Overview describes the requirements for the data center infrastructure. Four tiers The simplest is a Tier 1 data center, which is basically a computer room, following basic guidelines for the installation of computer systems. The most stringent level is a Tier 4 data center, which is designed to host mission critical computer systems, with fully redundant subsystems and compartmentalized security zones controlled by biometric access controls methods.

Physical layout

A typical server "cage", commonly seen in colocation.

A data center can occupy one room of a building, one or more floors, or an entire building. Most of the equipment is often in the form of servers racked up into 19 inch rack cabinets, which are usually placed in single rows forming corridors between them. This allows people access to the front and rear of each cabinet. Servers differ greatly in size from 1U servers to huge storage silos which occupy many tiles on the floor. Some equipment such as mainframe computers and storage devices are often as big as the racks themselves, and are placed alongside them.

The physical environment of the data center is usually under strict control:

Air conditioning is used to keep the room cool; it may also be used for humidity control. Generally, temperature is kept around 20-22 degrees Celsius (about 68-72 degrees Fahrenheit). The primary goal of data center air conditioning systems is to keep the server components at the board level within the manufacturer's specified temperature/humidity range. This is crucial since electronic equipment in a confined space generates much excess heat, and tends to malfunction if not adequately cooled. Air conditioning systems also help keep humidity within acceptable parameters. The humidity parameters are kept between 35% and 65% Relative Humidity. Too much humidity and water may begin to condense on internal components; too little and static electricity may damage components. ASHRAE recommends a temperature range of 20-25 °C and humidity range of 40 - 60% as optimal for data center conditions.^{[citation needed]}
Backup power is catered for via one or more uninterruptible power supplies and/or diesel generators.
To prevent single points of failure, all elements of the electrical systems, including backup system, are typically fully duplicated, and critical servers are connected to both the "A-side" and "B-side" power feeds. This arrangement is often made to achieve N+1 Redundancy in the systems. Static switches are sometimes used to ensure instantaneous switchover from one supply to the other in the event of a power failure.
Data centers typically have raised flooring made up of 60 cm (2 ft) removable square tiles. These provide a plenum for air to circulate below the floor, as part of the air conditioning system, as well as providing space for power cabling. Data cabling is typically routed through overhead cable trays in modern data centers. Smaller/less expensive data centers without raised flooring may use anti-static tiles for a flooring surface.
Data centers often have elaborate fire prevention and fire extinguishing systems. Modern data centers tend to have two kinds of fire alarm systems; a first system designed to spot the slightest sign of particles being given off by hot components, so a potential fire can be investigated and extinguished locally before it takes hold (sometimes, just by turning smoldering equipment off), and a second system designed to take full-scale action if the fire takes hold. Fire prevention and detection systems are also typically zoned, and high-quality fire-doors and other physical fire-breaks used, so that even if a fire does break out it can be contained and extinguished within a small part of the facility.
Using conventional water sprinkler systems on operational electrical equipment can do just as much damage as a fire. Originally Halon gas, a halogenated organic compound that chemically stops combustion, was used to extinguish flames. However, the use of Halon has been banned by the Montreal Protocol because of the danger Halon poses the ozone layer. Unlike fire extinguishing agents that displace oxygen, Halon did not pose a great risk to people caught in the data center when it was discharged. More environmentally-friendly alternatives include Argonite and FM-200, and even systems based on mists of tiny particles of ultra-pure water. There are also systems available which can control the gas mixture of the air so as to lower the oxygen content below the level at which combustion can take place but still high enough to support human life (similar to very high altitudes).
Physical security also plays a large role with data centers. Physical access to the site is usually restricted to selected personnel. Video camera surveillance and permanent security guards are almost always present if the data center is large or contains sensitive information on any of the systems within.

Network infrastructure

An example of "rack mounted" servers.

Communications in data centers today are most often based on networks running the IP protocol suite. Data centers contain a set of routers and switches that transport traffic between the servers and to the outside world. Redundancy of the Internet connection is often provided by using two or more upstream service providers (see Multihoming).

Some of the servers at the data center are used for running the basic Internet and intranet services needed by internal users in the organization: e-mail servers, proxy servers, DNS servers, etc.

Network security elements are also usually deployed: firewalls, VPN gateways, Intrusion detection systems, etc. Also common are monitoring systems for the network and some of the applications. Additional off site monitoring systems are also typical, in case of a failure of communications inside the data center.

Applications

Multiple racks of servers, and how a data center commonly looks.

The main purpose of a data center is running the applications that handle the core business and operational data of the organization. Such systems may be proprietary and developed internally by the organization, or bought from enterprise software vendors. Such common applications are ERP and CRM systems.

Often these applications will be composed of multiple hosts, each running a single component. Common components of such applications are databases, file servers, application servers, middleware and various others.

Data centers are also used for off site backups. Companies may subscribe to backup services provided by a data center. This is often used in conjunction with backup tapes. Backups can be taken of servers locally on to tapes., however tapes stored on site pose a security threat and are also susceptible to fire and flooding. Larger companies may also send their backups off site for added security. This can be done by backing up to a data center. Encrypted backups can be sent over the internet to data center where they can be stored securely.

Security-as-a-Service

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Wed, 12 Dec 2007 08:08:00 +0000

Security-as-a-Service refers to the practice of delivering traditional security applications as an Internet-based service, on-demand, to consumers and businesses.

Security-as-a-Service is analogous to the conventional Software-as-a-Service model, whereby security applications are delivered as a service using the Internet as the delivery mechanism. In the consumer market, the most common of these are the “anti-“ suite, including anti-virus, anti-spam and anti-spyware.

In the enterprise market, Security-as-a-Service refers to the delivery of second-tier infrastructure components, such as log management and asset tracking, in a service-oriented fashion, also leveraging the Internet as the delivery and access mechanism.

History

The term ‘Security-as-a-Service’ was first used in the consumer market in the year 2001. McAfee filed a controversial patent for delivering security software as a service over the Web in August 2001.

In the enterprise market, security services vendor Vigilar introduced the first enterprise security-as-a-service solution with the introduction of its ATLAS solution in June 2007.

Vendors in the SMB market who deliver “Security-as-a-Service solutions include McAfee, Watchfire, and Jamcracker. In the enterprise market, vendors who provide security-as-a-service solutions include ISS, Panda Software, Qualys, and Vigilar.

Why Security-as-a-Service

Certain aspects of security are uniquely designed to be optimized for delivery as a Web-based service. These include:

offerings that require constant updating to combat new threats, such as anti-virus and anti-spyware software for consumers
offerings that require a high level of expertise, often not found in-house, and which can be conducted remotely. These include ongoing maintenance, scanning, patch management and troubleshooting of security devices.
offerings that manage time and resource-intensive tasks, which may be cheaper to outsource and offshore, delivering results and findings via a Web-based solution. These include tasks such as log management, asset management and authentication management.

Key Characteristics

Security-as-a-Service applications are generally priced on a per-user basis on the consumer side, and a per-device basis on the enterprise side. Pricing may also depend on bandwidth and storage requirements. SaaS costs to the buyer and revenue streams to the vendor are therefore lower initially than traditional software license fees, but are also recurring, and therefore viewed as more predictable, much like maintenance fees for licensed software. In addition, because the functionality is delivered as a service, rather than a device or piece of software, fees fall under operating expenses, rather than capital expenditures, for most customers.

Security-as-a-Service vs. Managed Security Services

Unlike previous generations of Managed Security Services, security-as-a-service does not require the customer to give up complete control over their security posture. Instead, internal administrators can control their security policies, upgrade systems, etc. via a web-based interface. Internal administrators maintain control of their security policies and can change them without calling an outsourced provider, but at the same time gain useful information regarding a devices status and history (uptime, current and past patch levels, outstanding support issues) and other device-centric information on demand via a web interface.

Anti-theft system

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Wed, 12 Dec 2007 08:03:00 +0000

An anti-theft system is any device or method used to prevent or deter the unauthorized appropriation of items considered valuable. Theft is one of the most common and oldest criminal behaviours. Where the ownership of a physical possession can be altered without the rightful owner's consent, theft prevention has been introduced to assert the ownership whenever the rightful owner is physically present. Anti-theft systems have been around since individuals began stealing other people's property and have evolved accordingly to thwart increasingly complex methods of theft. From the invention of the first lock and key to the introduction of RFID tags and biometric identification, anti-theft systems have evolved to match the introduction of new inventions to society and the resulting theft of them by others.

Theft: Motive and Opportunity

Under normal circumstances, theft is prevented simply through the application and social acceptance of property law. Ownership is often indicated by means of visual marking (license plates, name tags). When clear owner identification is not possible and when there is a lack of social observance, people may be inclined to take possession of items to their own benefit at the expense of the original owner. Motive and opportunity are two enabling factors for theft. Given that motives for theft are varied and complex and are generally speaking not within the control of the victim, most methods of theft prevention rely on reducing opportunities for theft.

Motives for actively preventing theft

Items may require an anti-theft system for a variety of reasons, which may occur in combination depending on the type of item and its use:

the item is expensive and/or has sentimental value (prestigious car, family heirloom, birthday gift, war medals, coin collection)
the item is difficult/impossible to replace if lost (produced in low numbers, antiques, unique works of art)
the item is easy to steal (retail/supermarket products, office stationery)
the item may be left unattended in an unsafe environment (laptops in a library, cars in a carpark)
inappropriate use of the item may cause considerable damage or may enable further unauthorized acts (theft of car keys, stolen building access keys, identity theft)
the item is desirable to others (jewelry, mobile phones, rare collectibles, auto parts, industrial designs)

Use of Theft Prevention

Equally varied are the methods developed for theft prevention. Anti-theft systems have evolved to counter new theft techniques as they have appeared in society. The choice for a particular anti-theft system is dependent on several factors:

Financial Cost

In addition to the initial acquisition cost of an item, the cost of replacement or recovery from its theft is usually considered when considering the cost of installing an anti-theft system. This cost estimation usually determines the maximum cost of the anti-theft system and the need to secure it. Expensive items will generally be secured with higher-cost anti-theft systems, while low-cost items will generally be secured at low cost. Insurance companies will often mandate a minimum type of anti-theft system as part of the conditions for insurance.

Threshold for Theft

Anti-theft systems are designed to raise the difficulty of theft to an infeasible (but not necessarily impossible) level. The kind of system implemented often depends on the acceptable threshold for theft. For example, keeping money in an inside shirt pocket raises the difficulty of theft above that necessary if the pocket were on a backpack, since unauthorized access is made sufficiently more difficult. Methods of theft evolve to decrease the difficulty of theft, increased by newer anti-theft systems. Because of evolution on both sides and the social aspect of theft, the threshold for theft is very dynamic and heavily dependent on the environment. Doors in quiet suburban neighbourhoods are often left unlocked, as the perceived thresholds for theft are very high.

Ease of Use

Security is often compromised through the lax application of theft-prevention practices and human nature in general. The ideal anti-theft device requires no additional effort while using the secured item, without reducing the level of security. In practice, users of security systems may intentionally reduce the effectiveness of an anti-theft system to increase its usability (see passwords). For example, home security systems will often be enabled and disabled using easy-to-remember codes such as "1111" or "123", instead of more secure combinations.

Methods of Theft Prevention

There are a number of general categories of anti-theft systems:

Sequestering of valuable items

A very common method of preventing theft is the placement of valuables in a safe location. The definition of safe depends on the minimum threshold for theft as determined by the owner. Desk stationery is often considered secured if placed in an unlocked drawer away from view, while expensive jewelry might be placed in a safe behind a picture in a home.

Raising the awareness of theft

Another common method is the alerting of other individuals to the act of theft. This is commonly seen in department stores, where security systems at exits alert store employees of the removal of unpaid items. Older car alarms also fall into this category; newer systems also prevent the car from starting.

Preventing Removal of items

Yet another method is the attachment of items to a larger immobile object, usually furniture or walls.

Disabling the stolen item

Items with specific functionality can often be disabled to prevent the use of the item if it should be stolen. The anti-theft system can require disabling on every use, or enabling when the item needs to be secured. Disabling the anti-theft system is usually done by requiring identification of the owner at some stage of use. Identification can occur through physical or other means (physical keys, numerical codes, complex passwords, biometric identification). A passive immobilizer makes car theft almost impossible because the vehicle cannot be started without a computer chip that is found within the ignition key. This can work even retrospectively: as a stolen credit card can easily be invalidated with a phone call to the issuing bank, the motivation to steal one is reduced.

Security Tags

Security tags are devices that are attached to products to prevent shop-lifting. Often used in conjunction with an Electronic article surveillance system.

Tracking Software

Electronic items such as laptops, cell phones and even gadgets such as iPods now have software that enable them to "phone home" with information regarding their whereabouts and other information that can aid law enforcement to track the devices down.

Software Assurance

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Wed, 12 Dec 2007 08:01:00 +0000

Software Assurance (SwA) is: “the level of confidence that software is free from vulnerabilities, either intentionally designed into the software or accidentally inserted at anytime during its lifecycle, and that the software functions in the intended manner.”

— Source: Committee on National Security Systems (CNSS) Instruction No. 4009, “National Information Assurance Glossary”, Revised 2006 — http://www.cnss.gov/instructions.html-

Alternate definitions:

[1] From the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Software Assurance (SwA) addresses:

Trustworthiness - No exploitable vulnerabilities exist, either maliciously or unintentionally inserted;
Predictable Execution - Justifiable confidence that software, when executed, functions as intended;
Conformance - Planned and systematic set of multi-disciplinary activities that ensure software processes and products conform to requirements, standards/ procedures.

Contributing SwA disciplines, articulated in Bodies of Knowledge and Core Competencies: Software Engineering, Systems Engineering, Information Systems Security Engineering, Information Assurance, Test and Evaluation, Safety, Security, Project Management, and Software Acquisition.

- Source: DHS Build Security In web portal, https://buildsecurityin.us-cert.gov/portal

[2] From the Department of Defense (DoD), Software Assurance (SwA) relates to "the level of confidence that software functions as intended and is free of vulnerabilities, either intentionally or unintentionally designed or inserted as part of the software."

- Source: DoD Software Assurance Initiative, 13 September 2005 - https://acc.dau.mil/CommunityBrowser.aspx?id=25749

[3] From the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Software Assurance (SwA) is "the planned and systematic set of activities that ensures that software processes and products conform to requirements, standards, and procedures to help achieve:

Trustworthiness - No exploitable vulnerabilities exist, either of malicious or unintentional origin, and
Predictable Execution - Justifiable confidence that software, when executed, functions as intended."

- Source: NIST SAMATE project http://samate.nist.gov/

[4] From the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Software Assurance - "Planned and systematic set of activities that ensures that software processes and products conform to requirements, standards, and procedures. It includes the disciplines of Quality Assurance, Quality Engineering, Verification and Validation, Nonconformance Reporting and Corrective Action, Safety Assurance, and Security Assurance and their application during a software life cycle." The NASA Software Assurance Standard also states: "The application of these disciplines during a software development life cycle is called Software Assurance."

- Source: NASA-STD-2201-93 "Software Assurance Standard", 10 November 1992 - http://satc.gsfc.nasa.gov/assure/assurepage.html

[5] From the Object Management Group (OMG), Software Assurance (SwA) is “justifiable trustworthiness in meeting established business and security objectives.”

- Source: OMG Software Assurance (SwA) Special Interest Group (SIG) http://adm.omg.org/SoftwareAssurance.pdf and http://swa.omg.org/docs/softwareassurance.v3.pdf

[6] From Webopedia, "Software Quality Assurance, abbreviated as SQA, and also called software assurance, it is a level of confidence that software is free from vulnerabilities, either intentionally designed into the software or inserted at anytime during its lifecycle, and that the software functions in the intended manner."

- Source: Webopedia on-line encyclopedia - http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/Software_Quality_Assurance.html

[7] As indicated in the Webopedia definition, the term "software assurance" has been used as a shorthand for Software Quality Assurance (SQA) when not necessarily considering security or trustworthiness. SQA is defined in the Handbook of Software Quality Assurance as: "the set of systematic activities providing evidence of the ability of the software process to produce a software product that is fit to use." - Source: G. Gordon Schulmeyer and James I. McManus, Handbook of Software Quality Assurance, 3rd Edition (Prentice Hall PRT, 1998)

- - - - - - -

Software Assurance is a strategic initiative of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to promote integrity, security, and reliability in software. The SwA Program is based upon the National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace - Action/Recommendation 2-14: “DHS will facilitate a national public-private effort to promulgate best practices and methodologies that promote integrity, security, and reliability in software code development, including processes and procedures that diminish the possibilities of erroneous code, malicious code, or trap doors that could be introduced during development.” - https://buildsecurityin.us-cert.gov/portal

Software Assurance Metrics and Tool Evaluation (SAMATE) is a NIST project that supports the DHS Software Assurance Program in the identification, enhancement and development of software assurance tools. NIST is leading in (A) testing software evaluation tools, (B) measuring the effectiveness of tools, and (C) identifying gaps in tools and methods. - http://samate.nist.gov/

OMG Software Assurance (SwA) Special Interest Group (SIG), http://swa.omg.org, works with Platform and Domain Task Forces and other software industry entities and groups external to the OMG, to coordinate the establishment of a common framework for analysis and exchange of information related to software trustworthiness by facilitating the development of a specification for a Software Assurance Framework that will:

Establish a common framework of software properties that can be used to represent any/all classes of software so software suppliers and acquirers can represent their claims and arguments(respectively), along with the corresponding evidence, employing automated tools (to address scale)
Verify that products have sufficiently satisfied these characteristics in advance of product acquisition, so that system engineers/integrators can use these products to build (compose) larger assured systems with them
Enable industry to improve visibility into the current status of software assurance during development of its software
Enable industry to develop automated tools that support the common framework.

- - - - - - -

Software Security Assurance Publicly Available Resource: The Software Assurance Forum has provided a collaborative venue for stakeholders to share and advance techniques and technologies relevant to software security. The state-of-the-art report (SOAR) on "Software Security Assurance" (published by the Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center) is a free, publicly available resource at http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/download/security.pdf which represents an output of collaborative efforts of organizations and individuals in the SwA Forum and Working Groups. The SOAR provides an overview of the current state of the environment in which software must operate and surveys current and emerging activities and organizations involved in promoting various aspects of software security assurance. The report also describes the variety of techniques and technologies in use in government, industry, and academia for specifying, acquiring, producing, assessing, and deploying software that can, with a justifiable degree of confidence, be said to be secure. The report also presents observations about noteworthy trends in software security assurance as a discipline.

Biometrics

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Tue, 02 Oct 2007 15:40:00 +0000

At Walt Disney World, biometric measurements are taken from the fingers of guests to ensure that the person's ticket is used by the same person from day to day

For the use of statistics in biology, see Biostatistics.

Biometrics (ancient Greek: bios ="life", metron ="measure") is the study of methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon one or more intrinsic physical or behavioral traits.

Some researchers , have coined the term behaviometrics for behavioral biometrics such as typing rhythm or mouse gestures where the analysis can be done continuously without interrupting or interfering with user activities.

Overview

Biospecies are used to identify the identity of an input sample when compared to a template, used in cases to identify or specific objects by certain characteristics.

possession-based: using one specific "token" such as a security tag or a card
knowledge-based :the use of a code or password.

Standard validation systems often use multiple inputs of samples for sufficient validation, such as particular characteristics of the sample. This intends to enhance security as multiple different samples are required such as security tags and codes and sample dimensions.

Common Human biometric characteristics

Classification of some biometric traits

Biometric characteristics can be divided in two main classes, as represented in figure on the right:

physiological are related to the shape of the body. The oldest traits, that have been used for more than 100 years, are fingerprints. Other examples are face recognition, hand geometry and iris recognition.
behavioral are related to the behavior of a person. The first characteristic to be used, still widely used today, is the signature. More modern approaches are the study of keystroke dynamics and of voice.

Strictly speaking, voice is also a physiological trait because every person has a different pitch, but voice recognition is mainly based on the study of the way a person speaks, commonly classified as behavioral.

Other biometric strategies are being developed such as those based on gait (way of walking), retina, hand veins, ear recognition, facial thermogram, DNA, odor and palm prints.

Comparison of various biometric technologies

It is possible to understand if a human characteristic can be used for biometrics in terms of the following parameters:

Universality describes how commonly a biometric is found individually.
Uniqueness is how well the biometric separates individually from another.
Permanence measures how well a biometric resists aging.
Collectability ease of acquisition for measurement.
Performance accuracy, speed, and robustness of technology used.
Acceptability degree of approval of a technology.
Circumvention ease of use of a substitute.

The following table shows a comparison of existing biometric systems in terms of those parameters:

Comparison of various biometric technologies, according to A. K. Jain (H=High, M=Medium, L=Low)
Biometrics:	Universality	Uniqueness	Permanence	Collectability	Performance	Acceptability	Circumvention*
Face	H	L	M	H	L	H	L
Fingerprint	M	H	H	M	H	M	H
Hand geometry	M	M	M	H	M	M	M
Keystrokes	L	L	L	M	L	M	M
Hand veins	M	M	M	M	M	M	H
Iris	H	H	H	M	H	L	H
Retinal scan	H	H	M	L	H	L	H
Signature	L	L	L	H	L	H	L
Voice	M	L	L	M	L	H	L
facial thermograph	H	H	L	H	M	H	H
Odor	H	H	H	L	L	M	L
DNA	H	H	H	L	H	L	L
Gait	M	L	L	H	L	H	M
Ear recognition	M	M	H	M	M	H	M

* - circumventability listed with reversed colors because low is desirable here instead of high

A. K. Jain ranks each biometric based on the categories as being either low, medium, or high. A low ranking indicates poor performance in the evaluation criterion whereas a high ranking indicates a very good performance.

Biometric systems

The basic block diagram of a biometric system

The diagram on right shows a simple block diagram of a biometric system. When such a system is networked together with telecommunications technology, biometric systems become telebiometric systems. The main operations a system can perform are enrollment and test. During the enrollment, biometric information from an individual is stored. During the test, biometric information is detected and compared with the stored information. Note that it is crucial that storage and retrieval of such systems themselves be secure if the biometric system is be robust. The first block (sensor) is the interface between the real world and our system; it has to acquire all the necessary data. Most of the times it is an image acquisition system, but it can change according to the characteristics desired. The second block performs all the necessary pre-processing: it has to remove artifacts from the sensor, to enhance the input (e.g. removing background noise), to use some kind of normalisation, etc. In the third block features needed are extracted. This step is an important step as the correct features need to be extracted and the optimal way. A vector of numbers or an image with particular properties is used to create a template. A template is a synthesis of all the characteristics extracted from the source, in the optimal size to allow for adequate identifiability.

If enrollment is being performed the template is simply stored somewhere (on a card or within a database or both). If a matching phase is being performed, the obtained template is passed to a matcher that compares it with other existing templates, estimating the distance between them using any algorithm (e.g. Hamming distance). The matching programme will analyse the template with the input. This will then be output for any specified use or purpose (e.g. entrance in a restricted area).

Functions

A biometric system can provide the following two functions :

Verification does the template match the input sample? A pre-stored template is matched against a sample directly, e.g a card or known database entry.
Identification what is the input sample? identifying from all the templates which one is the closest match to the input sample.

Performance measurement

false accept rate (FAR) or false match rate (FMR): the probability that the system incorrectly declares a successful match between the input pattern and a non-matching pattern in the database. It measures the percent of invalid matches. These systems are critical since they are commonly used to forbid certain actions by disallowed people.
false reject rate (FRR) or false non-match rate (FNMR): the probability that the system incorrectly declares failure of match between the input pattern and the matching template in the database. It measures the percent of valid inputs being rejected.
receiver (or relative) operating characteristic (ROC): In general, the matching algorithm performs a decision using some parameters (e.g. a threshold). In biometric systems the FAR and FRR can typically be traded off against each other by changing those parameters. The ROC plot is obtained by graphing the values of FAR and FRR, changing the variables implicitly. A common variation is the Detection error trade-off (DET), which is obtained using normal deviate scales on both axes. This more linear graph illuminates the differences for higher performances (rarer errors).
equal error rate (EER): the rate at which both accept and reject errors are equal. ROC or DET plotting is used because how FAR and FRR can be changed, is shown clearly. When quick comparison of two systems is required, the ERR is commonly used. Obtained from the ROC plot by taking the point where FAR and FRR have the same value. The lower the EER, the more accurate the system is considered to be.
failure to enroll rate (FTE or FER): the percentage of data input is considered invalid and fails to input into the system. Failure to enroll happens when the data obtained by the sensor are considered invalid or of poor quality.
failure to capture rate (FTC): Within automatic systems, the probability that the system fails to detect a biometric characteristic when presented correctly.
template capacity: the maximum number of sets of data which can be input in to the system.

Performance

The following table shows the state of art of some biometric systems:

State of art of biometric recognition systems
Biometrics	EER	FAR	FRR	Subjects	Comment	Reference
Face	n.a.	1 %	10 %	37437	Varied lighting, indoor/outdoor	FRVT (2002)^[4]
Fingerprint	n.a.	1 %	0.1 %	25000	US Government operational data	FpVTE (2003)^[5]
Fingerprint	2 %	2 %	2 %	100	Rotation and exaggerated skin distortion	FVC (2004)^[6]
Hand geometry	1 %	2 %	0.1 %	129	With rings and improper placement	(2005)^[7]
Iris	<>	0.94 %	0.99 %	1224	Indoor environment	ITIRT (2005)^[8]
Iris	0.01 %	0.0001 %	0.2 %	132	Best conditions	NIST (2005)^[9]
Keystrokes	1.8 %	7 %	0.1 %	15	During 6 months period	(2005)^[10]
Voice	6 %	2 %	10 %	310	Text independent, multilingual	NIST (2004)^[11]

One simple but artificial way to judge a system is by EER, but not all the authors provided it. Moreover, there are two particular values of FAR and FRR to show how one parameter can change depending on the other. For fingerprint there are two different results, the one from 2003 is older but it was performed on a huge set of people, while in 2004 much less people were involved but stricter conditions have been applied. For iris, both references belong to the same year, but one was performed on more people, the other one is the result of a competition between several universities so, even if the sample is much smaller, it could reflect better the state of art of the field.

Issues and concerns

As with many interesting and powerful developments of technology, there are concerns about biometrics. The biggest concern is the fact that once a fingerprint or other biometric source has been compromised it is compromised for life, because users can never change their fingerprints. A theoretical example is a debit card with a personal Identification Number (PIN) or a biometric. Some argue that if a person's biometric data is stolen it might allow someone else to access personal information or financial accounts, in which case the damage could be irreversible. However, this argument ignores a key operational factor intrinsic to all biometrics-based security solutions: biometric solutions are based on matching, at the point of transaction, the information obtained by the scan of a "live" biometric sample to a pre-stored, static "match template" created when the user originally enrolled in the security system. Most of the commercially available biometric systems address the issues of ensuring that the static enrollment sample has not been tampered with (for example, by using hash codes and encryption), so the problem is effectively limited to cases where the scanned "live" biometric data is hacked. Even then, most competently designed solutions contain anti-hacking routines. For example, the scanned "live" image is virtually never the same from scan to scan owing to the inherent plasticity of biometrics; so, ironically, a "replay" attack using the stored biometric is easily detected because it is too perfect a match.

The television program Mythbusters attempted to break into a commercial security door equipped with biometric authentication as well as a personal laptop so equipped. While the laptop's system proved more difficult to bypass, the advanced commercial security door with "live" sensing was fooled with a printed scan of a fingerprint after it had been licked. Assuming the tested security door is representative of the current typical state of biometric authentication, that it was so easily bypassed suggests biometrics may not yet be reliable as a strong form of authentication.

Marketing of biometric products

Despite confirmed cases of defeating commercially available biometric scanners, many companies marketing biometric products (especially consumer-level products such as readers built into keyboards) still claim the products as replacements, rather than supplements, for passwords. Furthermore, regulations regarding advertising and manufacturing of biometric products are (as of 2006) largely non-existent. Given the low security, consumer-level products are most likely to be bought and used by most people, leading to the risk of large-scale economic and social problems associated with biometric identity theft.^{[citation needed]}

Sociological concerns

As technology advances, and time goes on, more and more private companies and public utilities will use biometrics for safe, accurate identification. However, these advances will raise many concerns throughout society, where many may not be educated on the methods. Here are some examples of concerns society has with biometrics:

Physical - Some believe this technology can cause physical harm to an individual using the methods, or that instruments used are unsanitary. For example, there are concerns that retina scanners might not always be clean.

Personal Information - There are concerns whether our personal information taken through biometric methods can be misused, tampered with, or sold, e.g. by criminals stealing, rearranging or copying the biometric data. Also, the data obtained using biometrics can be used in unauthorized ways without the individual's consent.

Danger to owners of secured items

When thieves cannot get access to secure properties, there is a chance that the thieves will stalk and assault the property owner to gain access. If the item is secured with a biometric device, the damage to the owner could be irreversible, and potentially cost more than the secured property. In 2005, Malaysian car thieves cut off the finger of a Mercedes-Benz S-Class owner when attempting to steal the car.

Uses and initiatives

Brazil

Since the beginning of the 20th century, Brazilian citizens have user ID cards. The decision by the Brazilian government to adopt fingerprint-based biometrics was spearheaded by Dr. Felix Pacheco at Rio de Janeiro, at that time capital of the Federative Republic. Dr. Pacheco was a friend of Dr. Juan Vucetich, who invented one of the most complete tenprint classification systems in existence. The Vucetich system was adopted not only in Brazil, but also by most of the other South American countries. The oldest and most traditional ID Institute in Brazil (Instituto de Identificação Félix Pacheco) was integrated at DETRAN (Brazilian equivalent to DMV) into the civil and criminal AFIS system in 1999.

Each state in Brazil is allowed to print its own ID card, but the layout and data are the same for all of them. The ID cards printed in Rio de Janeiro are fully digitized using a 2D bar code with information which can be matched against its owner off-line. The 2D bar code encodes a color photo, a signature, two fingerprints, and other citizen data. This technology was developed in 2000 in order to enhance the safety of the Brazilian ID cards.

By the end of 2005, the Brazilian government started the development of its new passport. The new documents started to be released by the beginning of 2007, at Brasilia-DC. The new passport included several security features, like Laser perforation, UV hidden symbols, security layer over variable data and etc.. Brazilian citizens will have their signature, photo, and 10 rolled fingerprints collected during passport requests. All of the data is planned to be stored in ICAO E-passport standard. This allows for contactless electronic reading of the passport content and Citizens ID verification since fingerprint templates and token facial images will be available for automatic recognition.

United States

The United States government has become a strong advocate of biometrics with the increase in security concerns in recent years, since September 11, 2001. Starting in 2005, US passports with facial (image-based) biometric data were scheduled to be produced. Privacy activists in many countries have criticized the technology's use for the potential harm to civil liberties, privacy, and the risk of identity theft. Currently, there is some apprehension in the United States (and the European Union) that the information can be "skimmed" and identify people's citizenship remotely for criminal intent, such as kidnapping. There also are technical difficulties currently delaying biometric integration into passports in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the rest of the EU. These difficulties include compatibility of reading devices, information formatting, and nature of content (e.g. the US currently expect to use only image data, whereas the EU intends to use fingerprint and image data in their passport RFID biometric chip(s)).

The speech made by President Bush on May 15, 2006, live from the Oval Office, was very clear: from now on, anyone willing to go legally in the United States in order to work there will be card-indexed and will have to communicate his fingerprints while entering the country. Many foreigners will have to subject themselves to these procedures, formerly only imposed to criminals and to spies, not to immigrants and visitors, and even less to citizens.

"A key part of that system [for verifying documents and work eligibility of aliens] should be a new identification card for every legal foreign worker. This card should use biometric technology, such as digital fingerprints, to make it tamper-proof." President George W Bush (Addresses on Immigration Reform, May 15, 2006)

The US Department of Defense (DoD) Common Access Card, is an ID card issued to all US Service personnel and contractors on US Military sites. This card contains biometric data and digitized photographs. It also has laser-etched photographs and holograms to add security and reduce the risk of falsification. There have been over 10 million of these cards issued.

According to Jim Wayman, director of the National Biometric Test Center at San Jose State University, Walt Disney World is the nation's largest single commercial application of biometrics.However, the US Visit program will very soon surpass Walt Disney World for biometrics deployment.

Germany

The biometrics market in Germany will experience enormous growth until 2009. “The market size will increase from approximately 12 million € (2004) to 377 million €” (2009). “The federal government will be a major contributor to this development” . In particular, the biometric procedures of fingerprint and facial recognition can profit from the government project . In May 2005 the German Upper House of Parliament approved the implementation of the ePass, a passport issued to all German citizens which contain biometric technology. The ePass has been in circulation since November 2005, and contains a chip that initially will hold a digital photo of the holder's face. “Starting in March 2007, fingerprints also will be stored on the chips – one from each hand” . “A third biometric identifier – iris scans – could be added at a later stage” . An increase in the prevalence of biometric technology in Germany is an effort to not only keep citizens safe within German borders but also to comply with the current US deadline for visa-waiver countries to introduce biometric passports . In addition to producing biometric passports for German citizens, the German government has put in place new requirements for visitors for apply for visas within the country. “Only applicants for long-term visas, which allow more than three months' residence, will be affected by the planned biometric registration program. The new work visas will also include fingerprinting, iris scanning, and digital photos” .

Germany is also one of the first countries to implement biometric technology at the Olympic Games to protect German athletes. “The Olympic Games is always a diplomatically tense affair and previous events have been rocked by terrorist attacks - most notably when Germany last held the Games in Munich in 1972 and 11 Israeli athletes were killed” .

Biometric technology was first used at the Olympic Summer Games in Athens, Greece in 2004. “On registering with the scheme, accredited visitors will receive an ID card containing their fingerprint biometrics data that will enable them to access the 'German House'. Accredited visitors will include athletes, coaching staff, team management and members of the media” .

Australia

Visitors intending to visit Australia may soon have to submit to biometric authentication as part of the Smartgate system, linking individuals to their visas and passports. Biometric data are already collected from some visa applicants by Immigration. Other applications include authentication of gym users etc.

Israel

Biometrics have been used extensively in Israel for several years. ^{[citation needed]}

The border crossing points from Israel to the Gaza Strip and West Bank are controlled by gates through which authorised Palestinians may pass. Thousands of Palestinians (upwards of 90,000) pass through the turnstiles every day to work in Israel, and each of them has an ID card which has been issued by the Israeli Military at the registration centres. At peak periods more than 15,000 people an hour pass through the gates. The ID card is a smartcard with stored biometrics of fingerprints, facial geometry and hand geometry. In addition there is a photograph printed on the card and a digital version stored on the smartcard chip. ^{[citation needed]}

Tel Aviv Ben Gurion Airport has a frequent flyer's fast check-in system which is based on the use of a smartcard which holds information relating to the holders hand geometry and fingerprints. For a traveller to pass through the fast path using the smartcard system takes less than 10 seconds. ^{[citation needed]}

The Immigration Police at Tel Aviv Airport use a system of registration for foreign workers that utilises fingerprint, photograph and facial geometry which is stored against the Passport details of the individual. There is a mobile version of this which allows the police to check on an individual's credentials at any time. ^{[citation needed]}

Iraq

Biometrics are being used extensively in Iraq to catalogue as many Iraqis as possible providing Iraqis with a verifiable identification card, immune to forgery. During account creation, the collected biometrics information is logged into a central database which then allows a user profile to be created. Even if an Iraqi has lost their ID card, their identification can be found and verified by using their unique biometric information. Additional information can also be added to each account record, such as individual personal history. This can help American forces determine whether someone has been causing trouble in the past. One major system in use in Iraq is called BISA. This system uses a smartcard and a users biometrics (fingerpint, iris, and face photos) to ensure they are authorized access to a base or facility.

Japan

Several banks in Japan have adopted palm vein authentication technology on their ATMs. This technology which was developed by Fujitsu, among other companies, proved to have low false rejection rate (around 0.01%) and a very low false acceptance rate (less than 0.00008%).

Magnetic stripe card

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Tue, 02 Oct 2007 15:28:00 +0000

A magnetic stripe card is a type of card capable of storing data by modifying the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles on a band of magnetic material on the card. The magnetic stripe, sometimes called a magstripe, is read by physical contact and swiping past a reading head. Magnetic stripe cards are commonly used in credit cards, identity cards, transportation tickets, an RFID tag, a transponder device and/or a microchip mostly used for business premises access control or electronic payment.

A number of International Organization for Standardization standards, ISO 7810, ISO 7811, ISO 7812, ISO 7813, and ISO 4909, define the physical properties of the card, including size, flexibility, location of the magstripe, and magnetic characteristics. They also provide the standards for financial cards, including the allocation of card number ranges to different card issuing institutions.

The magnetic stripe

The process of attaching a magnetic stripe to a plastic card was invented by IBM under a contract with the US government for a security system. Forrest Parry, an IBM Engineer, had the idea of securing a piece of magnetic tape, the predominant storage medium at the time, to a plastic card base. He became frustrated because every adhesive he tried produced unacceptable results. The tape strip either warped or its characteristics were affected by the adhesive making it technically unusable. After a frustrating day in the laboratory, trying to get the right adhesive, he came home with several pieces of magnetic tape and several plastic cards. As he walked in the door at home, his wife was ironing and watching TV. She immediately saw the frustration on his face and asked what was wrong. He explained the source of his frustration: inability to get the tape to "stick" to the plastic in a way that would work. She said, "Here, let me try the iron." She did and the problem was solved. The heat of the iron was just high enough to bond the tape to the card.

There were a number of steps required to convert the magnetic striped media into an industry acceptable device. These steps included: 1) Creating the international standards for stripe record content, including which information, in what format, and using which defining codes. 2) Field testing the proposed device and standards for market acceptance. 3) Developing the manufacturing steps need to mass produce the large number of cards required. 4) Adding stripe issue and acceptance capabilities to available equipment. These steps were initially managed by Jerome Svigals of the Advanced Systems Division of IBM, Los Gatos, California from 1966 to 1975.

In most magnetic stripe cards, the magnetic stripe is contained in a plastic-like film. The magnetic stripe is located 0.223 inches (5.66 mm) from the edge of the card, and is 0.375 inches (9.52 mm) wide. The magnetic stripe contains three tracks, each 0.110 inches (2.79 mm) wide. Tracks one and three are typically recorded at 210 bits per inch (8.27 bits per mm), while track two typically has a recording density of 75 bits per inch (2.95 bits per mm). Each track can either contain 7-bit alphanumeric characters, or 5-bit numeric characters. Track 1 standards were created by the airlines industry (IATA). Track 2 standards were created by the banking industry (ABA). Track 3 standards were created by the Thrift-Savings industry.

Magstripes following these specifications can typically be read by most point-of-sale hardware, which are simply generic general-purpose computers that can be programmed to perform specific tasks. Examples of cards adhering to these standards include ATM cards, bank cards (credit and debit cards including VISA and MasterCard), gift cards, loyalty cards, driver's licenses, telephone calling cards, membership cards, electronic benefit transfer cards (e.g. food stamps), and nearly any application in which value or secure information is not stored on the card itself. Many video game and amusement centers now use debit card systems based on magnetic stripe cards. An Example of one of these is ECS by Embed International.

Counterexamples of cards which intentionally ignore these standards include hotel keycards, most subway and bus cards, and some national prepaid calling cards (such as for the country of Cyprus) in which the balance is stored and maintained directly on the stripe and not retrieved from a remote database.

Magnetic stripe coercivity

Magstripes come in two main varieties: high-coercivity (HiC) at 4000 Oe and low-coercivity (LoC) at 300 Oe but it is not infrequent to have intermediate values at 2750 Oe. High-coercivity magstripes are harder to erase, and therefore are appropriate for cards that are frequently used or that need to have a long life. Low-coercivity magstripes require a lower amount of magnetic energy to record, and hence the card writers are much cheaper than machines which are capable of recording high-coercivity magstripes. A card reader can read either type of magstripe, and a high-coercivity card writer may write both high and low-coercivity cards (most have two settings, but writing a LoC card in HiC may sometimes work), while a low-coercivity card writer may write only low-coercivity cards.

In practical terms, usually low coercivity magnetic stripes are a light brown color, and high coercivity stripes are nearly black; exceptions include a proprietary silver-colored formulation on transparent American Express cards. High coercivity stripes are resistant to damage from most magnets likely to be owned by consumers. Low coercivity stripes are easily damaged by even a brief contact with a magnetic purse strap or fastener. Because of this, virtually all bank cards today are encoded on high coercivity stripes despite a slightly higher per-unit cost.

Magnetic stripe cards are used in very high volumes in the mass transit sector, replacing paper based tickets with either a directly applied magnetic slurry or hot foil stripe. Slurry applied stripes are generally less expensive to produce and are less resilient but are suitable for cards meant to be disposed after a few uses.

Financial cards

There are up to three tracks on magnetic cards used for financial transactions, known as tracks 1, 2, and 3. Track 3 is virtually unused by the major worldwide networks such as VISA, and usually isn't even physically present on the card by virtue of a narrower magnetic stripe. Point-of-sale card readers almost always read track 1, or track 2, and sometimes both, in case one track is unreadable. The minimum cardholder account information needed to complete a transaction is present on both tracks. Track 1 has a higher bit density (210 bits per inch vs. 75), is the only track that may contain alphabetic text, and hence is the only track that contains the cardholder's name.

The information on track 1 on financial cards is contained in several formats: A, which is reserved for proprietary use of the card issuer, B, which is described below, C-M, which are reserved for use by ANSI Subcommittee X3B10 and N-Z, which are available for use by individual card issuers:

Track one, Format B:

Start sentinel — one character (generally '%')
Format code="B" — one character (alpha only)
Primary account number — up to 19 characters
Field Separator — one character (generally '^')
Name — two to 26 characters
Field Separator — one character (generally '^')
Expiration date — four characters
Service code — three characters
Discretionary data — may include Pin Verification Key Indicator (PVKI, 1 character), Pin Verification Value (PVV, 4 characters), Card Verification Value or Card Verification Code (CVV or CVK, 3 characters)
End sentinel — one character (generally '?')
Longitudinal redundancy check (LRC) — one character

LRC is a form of computed check character.

The format for track 2 was developed by the banking industry (ABA). This track is written with a 5-bit scheme (4 data bits + 1 parity), which allows for sixteen possible characters, which are the numbers 0-9, plus the six characters : ; < = > ? . The selection of six punctuation symbols may seem odd, but in fact the sixteen codes simply map to the ASCII range 0x30 through 0x3f, which defines ten digit characters plus those six symbols. The data format is as follows:

Start sentinel — one character (generally ';')
Primary account number — up to 19 chars
Separator — one char (generally '=')
Expiration date — four characters
Service code — three characters
Discretionary data — as in track one
End sentinel — one character (generally '?')
LRC — one character

Note: It is possible for these strips to be completely erased if brought close to high strength Neodymium magnets

Driver's Licenses (USA)

The data stored on magnetic stripes on American driver's licenses is specified by the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators (AAMVA).

The following data is stored on track 1:

Start Sentinel - one character (generally '%')
State or Province - two characters
City - unknown length
Field Separator - one character (generally '^')
Last Name - unknown length
Field Separator - one character (generally '$')
First Name - unknown length
Field Separator - one character (generally '$')
Middle Name - unknown length
Field Separator - one character (generally '^')
Address - unknown length
Field Separator - one character (generally '^')
Unknown (spaces on mine) - unknown length
End Sentinel - one character (generally '?')

The following data is stored on track 2:

ISO Issuer Identifier Number (IIN)
Drivers License / Identification Number
Field Separator — generally '='
Expiration Date
Birth date (YYYYMMDD)
DL/ID# overflow

The following data is stored on track 3:

Template V#
Security V#
Postal Code
Class
Restrictions
Endorsements
Sex
Height
Weight
Hair Color
Eye Color
ID#
Reserved Space
Error Correction
Security

Other card types

Smart cards are a newer generation of card containing an integrated circuit chip. The card may have metal contacts connecting the card physically to the reader, while contactless cards use a magnetic field or radio frequency (RFID) for proximity reading.

'Hybrid' smart cards include a magnetic stripe in addition to the chip — this is most commonly found in a payment card, so that the cards are also compatible with payment terminals that do not include a smart card reader.

Physical security

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Tue, 02 Oct 2007 15:21:00 +0000

Physical security describes measures that prevent or deter attackers from accessing a facility, resource, or information stored on physical media. It can be as simple as a locked door or as elaborate as multiple layers of armed guardposts.

Elements and design

Spikes atop a barrier wall

The field of security engineering has identified three elements to physical security:

obstacles, to frustrate trivial attackers and delay serious ones;
alarms, security lighting, security guard patrols or closed-circuit television cameras, to make it likely that attacks will be noticed; and
security response, to repel, catch or frustrate attackers when an attack is detected.

In a well designed system, these features must complement each other. There are four layers of physical security:

Environmental design
Mechanical and electronic access control
Intrusion detection
Video monitoring

The initial layer of security for a campus, building, office, or physical space uses environmental design to deter threats. Some of the most common examples are also the most basic - barbed wire, warning signs and fencing, concrete bollards, metal barriers, vehicle height-restrictors, site lighting and trenches.

Electronic access control

The next layer is mechanical and includes gates, doors, and locks. Key control of the locks becomes a problem with large user populations and any user turnover. Keys quickly become unmanageable forcing the adoption of electronic access control. Electronic access control easily manages large user populations, controlling for user lifecycles times, dates, and individual access points. For example a user's access rights could allow access from 0700 to 1900 Monday through Friday and expires in 90 days.

The third layer is intrusion detection systems or alarms. Intrusion detection monitors for attacks. It is less a preventative measure and more of a response measure. Although some would argue that it is a deterrent. Intrusion detection has a high incidence of false alarms. In many jurisdictions, law enforcement will not respond to alarms from intrusion detection systems.

Closed-circuit television sign

The last layer is video monitoring systems. Like intrusion detection, these are not much of a deterrent. Video monitoring systems are more useful for incident verification and historical analysis. For instance, if alarms are being generated and there is a camera in place, the camera could be viewed to verify the alarms. In instances when an attack has already occurred and a camera is in place at the point of attack, the recorded video can be reviewed. Although the term closed-circuit television (CCTV) is common, it is quickly becoming outdated as more video systems lose the closed circuit for signal transmission and are instead transmitting on computer networks. Advances in information technology are transforming video monitoring into video analysis. For instance, once an image is digitized it can become data that sophisticated algorithms can act upon. As the speed and accuracy of automated analysis increases, the video system could move from a monitoring system to an intrusion detection system or access control system. It is not a stretch to imagine a video camera inputting data to a processor that outputs to a door lock. Instead of using some kind of key, whether mechanical or electrical, a person's visage is the key.

Private factory guard

Intertwined in these four layers are people. Guards have a role in all layers, in the first as patrols and at checkpoints. In the second to administer electronic access control. In the third to respond to alarms. And in the fourth to monitor and analyze video. Users obviously have a role also by questioning and reporting suspicious people. Aiding in identifying people as known versus unknown are identification systems. Often photo ID badges are used and are frequently coupled to the electronic access control system. Visitors are often required to wear a visitor badge.

For example, the response force must be able to arrive on site in less time than it is expected that the attacker will require to breach the barriers; and

persuading them that the likely costs of attack exceed the value of making the attack.

For example, ATMs (cash dispensers) are protected, not by making them invulnerable, but by spoiling the money inside when they are attacked. Attackers quickly learned that it was futile to steal or break into an ATM if all they got was worthless money covered in dye.

Conversely, safes are rated in terms of the time in minutes which a skilled, well equipped safe-breaker is expected to require to open the safe. These ratings are developed by highly skilled safe breakers employed by insurance agencies, such as Underwriters Laboratories. In a properly designed system, either the time between inspections by a patrolling guard should be less than that time, or an alarm response force should be able to reach it in less than that time.

Hiding the resources, or hiding the fact that resources are valuable, is also often a good idea as it will reduce the exposure to opponents and will cause further delays during an attack, but should not be relied upon as a principal means of ensuring security (see security through obscurity and inside job).

Door security

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Tue, 02 Oct 2007 15:02:00 +0000

Door security relates to prevention of door-related burglaries. Such break-ins take place in various forms, and in a number of locations; ranging from front, back and side doors to garage doors.

Common Residential Door Types

The following are the types of doors typically used in residential applications: solid wood door, panel doors (hollow and solid core), metal skinned wood-edged doors and metal edge-wrapped doors. Typically, door frames are solid wood. Residential doors also frequently contain windows.

Security Weakness of Common Residential Door Types

Security tests by Consumer Reports Magazine in the 1990s found that many residential doors fail or delaminate when force is applied to them. Solid wood doors withstood more force than the very common metal skinned wood-edged doors used in newer construction. A broad range door manufacturer, Premdor (now Masonite) once stated in one of its 1990s brochures entitled "Premdor Entry Systems" page 6 that "The results of tests were overwhelming, Steel edged doors outperform wood-edged doors by a ratio of 7 to 1 When you consider the practically two-thirds of all illegal entries were made through doors... One hit of 100 lb strike force broke the wood-edged stile and opened the door. To actually open the steel-edged door required 7 strikes of 100 lb pressure." Most door manufactures offer a number of different types of doors with varying levels of strength.

Consumer Reports Magazine also reported in its test results that door frames often split with little force applied and lower quality deadbolts simply failed when force was applied to the door.

The Chula Vista Residential Burglary Reduction Project which studied over 1,000 incidents; "We also learned what prevention techniques seemed to have little effect on whether a burglary would be successful. Methods found to have relatively low effectiveness included: sliding glass door braces, such as wooden dowels, as opposed to sliding door channel or pin locks; deadbolts installed in the front door only; and outdoor lights on dusk-to-dawn timers... burglars typically ransacked or vandalized at least 25% of the homes they burglarized..." The Chula Vista Residential Burglary Reduction Project - Summary

Burglary Tactics

The Chula Vista Residential Burglary Reduction Project there were the following findings: "From victim interviews, we learned that in 87% of the break-ins that occurred when intruders defeated locked doors with tools such as screwdrivers or crowbars, the burglars targeted "the one door that had no deadbolt lock."... not one burglar attempted to break a double-pane window during the course of successful or attempted burglary." The Chula Vista Residential Burglary Reduction Project - Summary

Door security devices

Alarms

Deadbolts - many manufacturers make deadbolts that are resistant to impact failure, picking and lock bumping^{[citation needed]}. However, most deadbolts are not pick-resistant^{[citation needed]}. Consumer Reports Magazine's testing showed that many manufacturers make deadbolts that break apart and otherwise fail when force is applied to the door.

Door strike reinforcers - general there are two products: frame reinforces (one, metal strips installed vertically on or behind the door frame and two, strike pocket reinforcers whereby 3" screws are often provided to tie the deadbolt pocket beyond the thin door frame material, and directly to the stud or other wall).

Deadbolt / door / frame reinforcements - various products are made to prevent delamination and or splitting of the door frame - metal wraps can be placed under the deadbolt and wrap the door edge to prevent delamination and heavy duty products that place plates on either side the door and/or frame which are tied together with screws or bolts prevent delamination.

Door Chains - allows the doors to be opened slightly.

Secondary, internal locks - sliding bolts, hooks and specialty latches, or more accurately, metal blocks or bars mounted internally.

Door viewers - small fish-eye lenses that allow residents to view outside.

Door Windows - There are three common methods to add security to windows in or beside doors - one, security films (coatings applied to the glass in windows to reinforce it), two, security bars and grates, and three breakage resistant plexiglas, lexan and other glass replacement products.

Hinge screws - longer 3" screws, and specialized screws that prevent the door from being simply pushed in after removing the hinge pins.

Sliding door /patio door locks - there are numerous specialized products to prevent sliding doors from being defeated easily.

Visibility - Most police departments recommend shrubs be cleared from near doorways to reduce the chance of a burglar being hidden from public view.

home security

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Tue, 02 Oct 2007 14:15:00 +0000

Burglar alarm

Burglar (or intrusion), fire and safety alarms are found in electronic form today. Sensors are connected to a control unit via either a low-voltage hardwire or narrowband RF signal, which is used to interact with a response device. The most common security sensors indicate the opening of a door or window or detect motion via passive infrared (PIR). In new construction systems are predominately hardwired for economy while in retrofits wireless systems may be more economical and certainly quicker to install. Some systems are dedicated to one mission, others handle fire, intrusion, and safety alarms simultaneously. Sophistication ranges from small, self-contained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-zoned systems with color-coded computer monitor outputs. Many of these concepts also apply to portable alarms for protecting cars, trucks or other vehicles and their contents (i.e., "car alarms"). See also fire alarm control panel for specific fire system issues. Burglar alarms are sometimes referred to as alarm systems, see burglar alarm control panel for a discussion of hard-wired burglar alarm system design.

System connections

The trigger signal from each sensor is transmitted to one or more control unit(s) either through wires or wireless means (radio, line carrier, infrared). Wired systems are convenient when sensors (such as smoke detectors) require power to operate correctly, however, they may be more costly to install. Entry-level wired systems utilize a Star network topology, where the panel is at the center logically, and all devices "home run" its wire back to the panel. More complex panels use a Bus network topology where the wire basically is a data loop around the perimeter of the facility, and has "drops" for the sensor devices which must include a unique device identifier integrated into the sensor device itself. Wired systems also have the advantage, if wired properly, of detecting tampering with the wiring connections. Wireless systems, on the other hand, often use battery-powered transmitters which are easier to install, but may reduce the reliability of the system if the sensors are not supervised, or the batteries maintained. Depending on distance, construction materials, or one or more wireless repeaters may be required to get the signal reliably back to the alarm panel. Hybrid systems utilize both wired and wireless sensors to achieve the benefits of both. Transmitters, or sensors can also be connected through the premises electrical circuits to transmit coded signals to the control unit (line carrier). The control unit usually has a separate channel or zone for burglar and fire sensors, and better systems have a separate zone for every different sensor, as well as internal "trouble" indicators (mains power loss, low battery, wire broken, etc).

Alarm connection and monitoring

The desired result of an alarm system is to cause an appropriate alarm output and response when the sensors indicate the valid conditions for triggering of the alarm. The ability of the panel to communicate back to the Monitoring Center is crucial to the concept of monitoring, and it is often overlooked or down played.

Depending upon the application, the alarm output may be local or remote or a combination. Local alarms do not include monitoring, though may include indoor and/or outdoor sounders (e.g. motorized bell or electronic siren) and lights (e.g. strobe light) which may be useful for signaling an evacuation notice for people during fire alarms, or where one hopes to scare off an amateur burglar quickly. However, with the widespread use of alarm systems (especially in cars), false alarms are very frequent and many urbanites tend to ignore alarms rather than investigating, let alone contacting the necessary authorities. In short, there may be no response at all. In rural areas (e.g., where nobody will hear the fire bell or burglar siren) lights or sounds may not make much difference anyway, as the nearest responders could take so long to get there that nothing can be done to avoid losses.

Remote alarm systems are used to connect the control unit to a predetermined monitor of some sort, and they come in many different configurations. High-end systems connect to a central station or responder (eg. Police/ Fire/ Medical) via a direct phone wire (or tamper-resistant fiber optic cable), and the alarm monitoring includes not only the sensors, but also the communication wire itself. While direct phone circuits are still available in some areas from phone companies, because of their high cost they are becoming uncommon. Direct connections are now most usually seen only in Federal, State, and Local Government buildings, or on a school campus that has a dedicated security, police, fire, or emergency medical department. More typical systems incorporate a digital telephone dialer unit that will dial a central station (or some other location) via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and raise the alarm, either with a synthesized voice or increasingly via an encoded message string that the central station decodes. These may connect to the regular phone system on the system side of the demarcation point, but typically connect on the customer side ahead of all phones within the monitored premises so that the alarm system can seize the line by cutting-off any active calls and call the monitoring company if needed. Encoders can be programmed to indicate which specific sensor was triggered, and monitors can show the physical location (or "zone") of the sensor on a list or even a map of the protected premises, which can make the resulting response more effective. For example, a water-flow alarm, coupled with a flame detector in the same area is a more reliable indication of an actual fire than just one or the other sensor indication by itself. Many alarm panels are equipped with a backup dialer capability for use when the primary PSTN circuit is not functioning. The redundant dialer may be connected to a second phone line, or a specialized encoded cellular phone, radio, or internet interface device to bypass the PSTN entirely, to thwart intentional tampering with the phone line(s). Just the fact that someone tampered with the line could trigger a supervisory alarm via the radio network, giving early warning of an imminent problem (e.g., arson). In some cases a remote building may not have PSTN phone service, and the cost of trenching and running a direct line may be prohibitive. It is possible to use a wireless cellular or radio device as the primary communication method. There is controversy within the alarm industry as to the usage of the Internet as a primary signaling method, due to the twin issues of the immediacy and urgency of an alarm signal, and the lack of quality of service within the current design of the public internet.

Monitored alarms and speaker phones allow for the central station to speak with the homeowner and/or intruder. This may be beneficial to the owner for medical emergencies. For actual break-ins, the speaker phones allow the central station to urge the intruder to cease and desist as response units have been dispatched.

The list of services to be monitored at a Central Station has expanded over the past few years to include: Intrusion Alarm Monitoring; Fire Alarm & Sprinkler Monitoring; Critical Condition Monitoring; Medical Response Monitoring; Elevator Telephone Monitoring; Hold-Up or Panic Alarm Monitoring; Duress Monitoring; Auto Dialer tests; Open & Close Signal Tracking, or Supervision; Open & Close Reporting; Exception Reports; and PIN or Passcode Management. Increasingly, the Central Stations are making this information available directly to end users via the internet and a secure log-on to view and create custom reports on these events themselves.

Alarm response

Depending upon the zone triggered, number and sequence of zones, time of day, and other factors, the monitoring center can automatically initiate various actions. They might be instructed to call the ambulance, fire department or police department immediately, or to first call the protected premises or property manager to try to determine if the alarm is genuine. They could also start calling a list of phone numbers provided by the customer to contact someone to go check on the protected premises. Some zones may trigger a call to the local heating oil company to go check on the system, or a call to the owner with details of which room may be getting flooded. Some alarm systems are tied to video surveillance systems so that current video of the intrusion area can be instantly displayed on a remote monitor, not to mention recorded.

The first video home security system was patented (patent #3,482,037) on December 2, 1969 to Marie Brown, an African American inventor. The system used television surveillance.

Access control and bypass codes

To be useful, an intrusion alarm system is deactivated or reconfigured when authorized personnel are present. Authorization may be indicated in any number of ways, often with keys or codes used at the control panel or a remote panel near an entry. High-security alarms may require multiple codes, or a fingerprint, badge, hand-geometry, retinal scan, encrypted response generator, and other means that are deemed sufficiently secure for the purpose.

Failed authorizations should result in an alarm or at least a timed lockout to prevent "experimenting" with possible codes. Some systems can be configured to permit deactivation of individual sensors or groups. Others can also be programmed to bypass or ignore individual sensors (once or multiple times) and leave the remainder of the system armed. This feature is useful for permitting a single door to be opened and closed before the alarm is armed, or to permit a person to leave, but not return. High-end systems allow multiple access codes, and may even permit them to be used only once, or on particular days, or only in combination with other users' codes (i.e., escorted). In any case, a remote monitoring center should arrange an oral code to be provided by an authorized person in case of false alarms, so the monitoring center can be assured that a further alarm response is unnecessary. As with access codes, there can also be a hierarchy of oral codes, say, for furnace repairperson to enter the kitchen and basement sensor areas but not the silver vault in the butler's pantry. There are also systems that permit a duress code to be entered and silence the local alarm, but still trigger the remote alarm to summon the police to a robbery.

Fire sensors can be "isolated", meaning that when triggered, they will not trigger the main alarm network. This is important when smoke and heat is intentionally produced. The owners of buildings can be fined for generating False alarms that waste the time of emergency personnel.

False / no alarms

System reliability can be a problem when it causes nuisance alarms, false alarms, or fails to alarm when called for. Nuisance alarms occur when an unintended event evokes an alarm status by an otherwise properly working alarm system. A false alarm also occurs when there is an alarm system malfunction that results in an alarm state. In all three circumstances, the source of the problem should be immediately found and fixed, so that responders will not lose confidence in the alarm reports. It is easier to know when there are false alarms, because the system is designed to react to that condition. Failure alarms are more troublesome because they usually require periodic testing to make sure the sensors are working and that the correct signals are getting through to the monitor. Some systems are designed to detect problems internally, such as low or dead batteries, loose connections, phone circuit trouble, etc. While earlier nuisance alarms could be set off by small disturbances, like insects or pets, newer model alarms have technology to measure the size/weight of the object causing the disturbance, and thus are able to decide how serious the threat is, which is especially useful in burglar alarms.

finance security

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 15:02:00 +0000

A security is a fungible, negotiable instrument representing financial value. Securities are broadly categorized into debt and equity securities such as bonds and common stocks, respectively. The company or other entity issuing the security is called the issuer. What specifically qualifies as a security is dependent on the regulatory structure in a country. For example private investment pools may have some features of securities, but they may not be registered or regulated as such if they meet various restrictions.

Securities may be represented by a certificate or, more typically, by an electronic book entry interest. Certificates may be bearer, meaning they entitle the holder to rights under the security merely by holding the security, or registered, meaning they entitle the holder to rights only if he or she appears on a security register maintained by the issuer or an intermediary. They include shares of corporate stock or mutual funds, bonds issued by corporations or governmental agencies, stock options or other options, limited partnership units, and various other formal investment instruments that are negotiable and fungible.

Classification

Securities may be classified according to the following categories:

Issuer
Currency of denomination
Ownership rights
Term to maturity
Degree of liquidity
Income payments
Tax treatment

By Type of Issuer

Issuers of securities include commercial companies, government agencies, local authorities and international and supranational organizations (such as the World Bank). Debt securities issued by a government (called government bonds or sovereign bonds) generally carry a lower interest rate than corporate debt issued by commercial companies. Interests in an asset -- for example, the flow of royalty payments from intellectual property—may also be turned into securities. These repackaged securities resulting from a securitization are usually issued by a company established for the purpose of the repackaging—called a special purpose vehicle (SPV). See "Repackaging" below. SPVs are also used to issue other kinds of securities. SPVs can also be used to guarantee securities, such as covered bonds.

New capital: Commercial enterprises have traditionally used securities as a means of raising new capital. Securities may be an attractive option relative to bank loans depending on their pricing and market demand for particular characteristics. Another disadvantage of bank loans as a source of financing is that the bank may seek a measure of protection against default by the borrower via extensive financial covenants. Through securities, capital is provided by investors who purchase the securities upon their initial issuance. In a similar way, governments may raise capital through the issuance of securities (see government debt).

Repackaging: In recent decades securities have been issued to repackage existing assets. In a traditional securitisation, a financial institution may wish to remove assets from its balance sheet in order to achieve regulatory capital efficiencies or to accelerate its receipt of cash flow from the original assets. Alternatively, an intermediary may wish to make a profit by acquiring financial assets and repackaging them in a way which makes them more attractive to investors.

By Type of Holder

Investors in securities may be retail, i.e. members of the public investing other than by way of business. The greatest part in terms of volume of investment is wholesale, i.e. by financial institutions acting on their own account, or on behalf of clients. Important institutional investors include investment banks, insurance companies, pension funds and other managed funds.

Investment: The traditional economic function of the purchase of securities is investment, with the view to receiving income and/or achieving capital gain. Debt securities generally offer a higher rate of interest than bank deposits, and equities may offer the prospect of capital growth. Equity investment may also offer control of the business of the issuer. Debt holdings may also offer some measure of control to the investor if the company is a fledgling start-up or an old giant undergoing 'restructuring'. In these cases, if interest payments are missed, the creditors may take control of the company and liquidate it to recover some of their investment.

Collateral: The last decade has seen an enormous growth in the use of securities as collateral. Purchasing securities with borrowed money secured by other securities is called "buying on margin." Where A is owed a debt or other obligation by B, A may require B to deliver property rights in securities to A. These property rights enable A to satisfy its claims in the event that B becomes insolvent. Collateral arrangements are divided into two broad categories, namely security interests and outright collateral transfers. Commonly, commercial banks, investment banks and government agencies are significant collateral takers.

Debt and Equity

Securities are traditionally divided into debt securities and equities.

Debt

Debt securities may be called debentures, bonds, notes or commercial paper depending on their maturity and certain other characteristics. The holder of a debt security is typically entitled to the payment of principal and interest, together with other contractual rights under the terms of the issue, such as the right to receive certain information. Debt securities are generally issued for a fixed term and redeemable by the issuer at the end of that term. Debt securities may be protected by collateral or may be unsecured, and, if they are unsecured, may be contractually "senior" to other unsecured debt meaning their holders would have a priority in a bankruptcy of the issuer. Debt that is not senior is "subordinated".

Corporate bonds represent the debt of commercial or industrial entities. Debentures have a long maturity, typically at least ten years, whereas notes have a shorter maturity. Commercial paper is a simple form of debt security that essentially represents a post-dated check with a maturity of not more than 270 days.

Money market instruments are short term debt instruments that may have characteristics of deposit accounts, such as certificates of deposit, and certain bills of exchange. They are highly liquid and are sometimes referred to as "near cash". Commercial paper is also often highly liquid.

Euro debt securities are securities issued internationally outside their domestic market in a denomination different from that of the issuer's domicile. They include eurobonds and euronotes. Eurobonds are characteristically underwritten, and not secured, and interest is paid gross. A euronote may take the form of euro-commercial paper (ECP) or euro-certificates of deposit.

Government bonds are medium or long term debt securities issued by sovereign governments or their agencies. Typically they carry a lower rate of interest than corporate bonds, and serve as a source of finance for governments. U.S. federal government bonds are called treasuries. Because of their liquidity and perceived low risk, treasuries are used to manage the money supply in the open market operations of non-US central banks.

Sub-sovereign government bonds, known in the U.S. as municipal bonds, represent the debt of state, provincial, territorial, municipal or other governmental units other than sovereign governments.

Supranational bonds represent the debt of international organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, regional multilateral development banks and others.

Equity

An equity security is a share in the capital stock of a company (typically common stock, although preferred equity is also a form of capital stock). The holder of an equity is a shareholder, owning a share, or fractional part of the issuer. Unlike debt securities, which typically require regular payments (interest) to the holder, equity securities are not entitled to any payment. In bankruptcy, they share only in the residual interest of the issuer after all obligations have been paid out to creditors. However, equity generally entitles the holder to a pro rata portion of control of the company, meaning that a holder of a majority of the equity is usually entitled to control the issuer. Equity also enjoys the right to profits and capital gain, whereas holders of debt securities receive only interest and repayment of principal regardless of how well the issuer performs financially. Furthermore, debt securities do not have voting rights outside of bankruptcy. In other words, equity holders are entitled to the "upside" of the business and to control the business.

Stock

Hybrid

Hybrid securities combine some of the characteristics of both debt and equity securities.

Preference shares form an intermediate class of security between equities and debt. If the issuer is liquidated, they carry the right to receive interest and/or a return of capital in priority to ordinary shareholders. However, from a legal perspective, they are capital stock and therefore may entitle holders to some degree of control depending on whether they contain voting rights.

Convertibles are bonds or preferred stock which can be converted, at the election of the holder of the convertibles, into the common stock of the issuing company. The convertibility, however, may be forced if the convertible is a callable bond, and the issuer calls the bond. The bondholder has about 1 month to convert it, or the company will call the bond by giving the holder the call price, which may be less than the value of the converted stock. This is referred to as a forced conversion.

Equity warrants are options issued by the company that allows the holder of the warrant to purchase a specific number of shares at a specified price within a specified time. They are often issued together with bonds or existing equities, and are, sometimes, detachable from them and separately tradable. When the holder of the warrant exercises it, he pays the money directly to the company, and the company issues new shares to holder.

Warrants, like other convertible securities, increases the number of shares outstanding, and are always accounted for in financial reports as fully diluted earnings per share, which assumes that all warrants and convertibles will be exercised.

The Securities Market

Primary and Secondary Market

The public securities markets can be divided into primary and secondary markets. The distinguishing difference between the two markets is that in the primary market, the money for the securities is received by the issuer of those securities from investors, whereas in the secondary market, the money goes from one investor to the other. When a company issues public stock for the first time, this is called an Initial Public Offering (IPO). A company can later issue more new shares, or issue shares that have been previously registered in a shelf registration. These later new issues are also sold in the primary market, but they are not considered to be an IPO. Issuers usually retain investment banks to assist them in administering the IPO, getting SEC approval, and selling the new issue. When the investment bank buys the entire new issue from the issuer at a discount to resell it at a markup, it is called an underwriting, or firm commitment. However, if the investment bank considers the risk too great for an underwriting, it may only assent to a best effort agreement, where the investment bank will simply do its best to sell the new issue.

In order for the primary market to thrive, there must be a secondary market, or aftermarket, where holders of securities can sell them to other investors for cash, hopefully at a profit. Otherwise, few people would purchase primary issues, and, thus, companies and governments would be unable to raise money for their operations. Organized exchanges constitute the main secondary markets. Many smaller issues and most debt securities trade in the decentralized, dealer-based over-the-counter markets.

In Europe, the principal trade organization for securities dealers is the International Capital Market Association. In the U.S., the principal organization for securities dealers is the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association. The Bond Market Association represents bond dealers globally.

Public Offer and Private Placement

In the primary markets, securities may be offered to the public in a public offer. Alternatively, they may be offered privately to a limited number of qualified persons in a private placement. Often a combination of the two is used. The distinction between the two is important to securities regulation and company law. Privately placed securities are often not publicly tradable and may only be bought and sold by sophisticated qualified investors. As a result, the secondary market is not as liquid.

Another category, sovereign debt, is generally sold by auction to a specialised class of dealers.

Listing and OTC Dealing

Securities are often listed in a stock exchange, an organised and officially recognised market on which securities can be bought and sold. Issuers may seek listings for their securities in order to attract investors, by ensuring that there is a liquid and regulated market in which investors will be able to buy and sell securities.

Growth in informal electronic trading systems has challenged the traditional business of stock exchanges. Large volumes of securities are also bought and sold "over the counter" (OTC). OTC dealing involves buyers and sellers dealing with each other by telephone or electronically on the basis of prices that are displayed electronically, usually by commercial information vendors such as Reuters and Bloomberg.

There are also eurosecurities, which are securities that are issued outside their domestic market into more than one jurisdiction. They are generally listed on the Luxembourg Stock Exchange or admitted to listing in London. The reasons for listing eurobonds include regulatory and tax considerations, as well as the investment restrictions.

International Debt Market

London is the centre of the eurosecurities markets. There was a huge rise in the eurosecurities market in London in the early 1980s. Settlement of trades in eurosecurities is currently effected through two European computerised systems called Euroclear (in Belgium) and Clearstream (formerly Cedelbank in Luxembourg).

The main market for Eurobonds is the EuroMTS, owned by Borsa Italiana and Euronext.the

Physical Nature of Securities

Certificated Securities

Securities that are represented by certificates are called certificated securities. They may be bearer or registered.

Bearer Securities

Bearer securities are completely negotiable and entitle the holder to the rights under the security (e.g. to payment if it is a debt security, and voting if it is an equity security). They are transferred by delivering the instrument from person to person. In some cases, transfer is by endorsement, or signing the back of the instrument, and delivery.

Regulatory and fiscal authorities sometimes regard bearer securities negatively, as they may be used to facilitate the evasion of regulatory restrictions and tax. In the United Kingdom, for example, the issue of bearer securities was heavily restricted firstly by the Exchange Control Act 1947 until 1963. Bearer securities are very rare in the United States because of the negative tax implications they may have to the issuer and holder.

Registered Securities

In the case of registered securities, certificates bearing the name of the holder are issued, but these merely represent the securities. A person does not automatically acquire legal ownership by having possession of the certificate. Instead, the issuer (or its appointed agent) maintains a register in which details of the holder of the securities are entered and updated as appropriate. A transfer of registered securities is effected by amending the register.

Uncertificated Securities and Global Certificates

Modern practice has developed to eliminate both the need for certificates and maintenance of a complete security register by the issuer. There are two general ways this has been accomplished.

Uncertificated Securities

In some jurisdictions, such as France, it is possible for issuers of that jurisdiction to maintain a legal record of their securities electronically...

Global Certificates and Book Entry Interests

In the United States, the corporation laws typically do not permit securities to be issued without being represented by one or more registered certificates. In order to facilitate the electronic transfer of interests in securities, a system has developed whereby issuers deposit a single global certificate representing all the outstanding securities of a class or series with a universal depository. This depository is called the Depository Trust Corporation, or DTC. DTC is a non-profit cooperative owned by approximately thirty of the largest Wall Street players that typically act as brokers or dealers in securities. These thirty banks are called the DTC participants. DTC, through a legal nominee, owns each of the global securities on behalf of all the DTC participants.

All securities traded through DTC are in fact held, in electronic form, on the books of various intermediaries between the ultimate owner, e.g. a retail investor, and the DTC participants. For example, Mr. Smith may hold 100 shares of Coca Cola, Inc. in his brokerage account at local broker Jones & Co. brokers. In turn, Jones & Co. may hold 1000 shares of Coca Cola on behalf of Mr. Smith and nine other customers. These 1000 shares are held by Jones & Co. in an account with Goldman Sachs, a DTC participant, or in an account at another DTC participant. Goldman Sachs in turn may hold millions of Coca Cola shares on its books on behalf of hundreds of brokers similar to Jones & Co. Each day, the DTC participants settle their accounts with the other DTC participants and adjust the number of shares held on their books for the benefit of customers like Jones & Co. Ownership of securities in this fashion is called beneficial ownership. Each intermediary holds on behalf of someone beneath him in the chain. The ultimate owner is called the beneficial owner. This is also referred to as owning in "Street name".

Other Depositories: Euroclear and Clearstream

Besides DTC, two other large securities depositories exist, both in Europe: Euroclear and Clearstream.

Divided and Undivided Security

The terms "divided" and "undivided" relate to the proprietary nature of a security.

Each divided security constitutes a separate asset, which is legally distinct from each other security in the same issue. Pre-electronic bearer securities were divided. Each instrument constitutes the separate covenant of the issuer and is a separate debt.

With undivided securities, the entire issue makes up one single asset, with each of the securities being a fractional part of this undivided whole. Shares in the secondary markets are always undivided. The issuer owes only one set of obligations to shareholders under its memorandum, articles of association and company law. A share represents an undivided fractional part of the issuing company. Registered debt securities also have this undivided nature.

Fungible and Non-fungible Security

The terms "fungible" and "non-fungible" relate to the way in which securities are held.

If an asset is fungible, this means that when such an asset is lent, or placed with a custodian, it is customary for the borrower or custodian to be obliged at the end of the loan or custody arrangement to return assets equivalent to the original asset, rather than the identical asset. In other words, the redelivery of fungibles is equivalent and not in specie (identical).

Undivided securities are always fungible by logical necessity. Divided securities may or may not be fungible, depending on market practice. The clear trend is towards fungible arrangements.

Regulation

In the United States, the public offer and sale of securities must be either registered pursuant to a registration statement that is filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) or are offered and sold pursuant to an exemption therefrom. Dealing in securities is heavily regulated by both the federal authorities (SEC) and state authorities. In addition the industry is heavily self policed by Self Regulatory Organizations (SROs), such as the NASD or the MSRB.

Due to the difficulty of creating a general definition that covers all securities, Congress attempts to define "securities" exhaustively (and not very precisely) as: "any note, stock, treasury stock, security future, bond, debenture, certificate of interest or participation in any profit-sharing agreement or in any oil, gas, or other mineral royalty or lease, any collateral-trust certificate, preorganization certificate or subscription, transferable share, investment contract, voting-trust certificate, certificate of deposit for a security, any put, call, straddle, option, or privilege on any security, certificate of deposit, or group or index of securities (including any interest therein or based on the value thereof), or any put, call, straddle, option, or privilege entered into on a national securities exchange relating to foreign currency, or in general, any instrument commonly known as a 'security'; or any certificate of interest or participation in, temporary or interim certificate for, receipt for, or warrant or right to subscribe to or purchase, any of the foregoing; but shall not include currency or any note, draft, bill of exchange, or bankers' acceptance which has a maturity at the time of issuance of not exceeding nine months, exclusive of days of grace, or any renewal thereof the maturity of which is likewise limited." - Section 3a item 10 of the 1934 Act.

The US Courts have developed a broad definition for securities that must then be registered with the SEC. There is an investment of money, a common enterprise and expectation of profits to come primarily from the efforts of others. See SEC v. W.J. Howey Co. and SEC v. Glenn W. Turner Enterprises, Inc

Human security

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 14:25:00 +0000

Human security refers to an emerging paradigm for understanding global vulnerabilities whose proponents challenge the traditional notion of national security by arguing that the proper referent for security should be the individual rather than the state. Human security holds that a people-centered view of security is necessary for national, regional and global stability.

The concept emerged from a post-Cold War, multi-disciplinary understanding of security involving a number of research fields, including development studies, international relations, strategic studies, and human rights. The United Nations Development Programme's 1994 Human Development Report^[1] is considered a milestone publication in the field of human security, with its argument that insuring "freedom from want" and "freedom from fear" for all persons is the best path to tackle the problem of global insecurity. Human security is now frequently referred to in a wide variety of global policy discussions and often taught in universities as part of international relations, globalization, or human rights studies.

Critics of the concept argue that its vagueness undermines its effectiveness; that it has become little more than a vehicle for activists wishing to promote certain causes; and that it does not help the research community understand what security means or help decision makers to formulate good policies.

Concept

The end of the Cold War is often seen as the moment where human security gained real recognition because of the belief that, with the relaxation of ideological hostilities between the US and USSR in the early 1990s, real progress could be made to address the root causes of global insecurity. Increasing levels of global interdependence further solidified the growing consensus that today's security threats go beyond our traditional understanding of defense threats, (e.g. attack from another state) to include poverty, economic inequality, diseases, human rights abuses, environmental pollution, and natural disasters. Those who argue for the adoption of a human security agenda believe that if our security apparatuses focused more on protecting individual citizens and groups from threats that may endanger their basic survival, rather than simply on perceived threats to the nation state, the world would be a more secure place.

UNDP's 1994 Definition

Dr. Mahbub ul Haq first drew global attention to the concept of human security in the United Nations Development Programme's 1994 Human Development Report and sought to influence the UN's 1995 World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen. Since then, human security has been receiving more attention from the key global development institutions, such as the World Bank.

The UNDP's 1994 Human Development Report's definition of human security argues that the scope of global security should be expanded to include threats in seven areas:

Coloured world map indicating Human Development Index (as of 2003). Countries coloured green exhibit high human development, those coloured yellow/orange exhibit medium human development, and those coloured red exhibit low human development.

Economic security — Economic security requires an assured basic income for individuals, usually from productive and remunerative work or, as a last resort, from a publicly financed safety net. In this sense, only about a quarter of the world’s people are presently economically secure. While the economic security problem may be more serious in developing countries, concern also arises in developed countries as well. Unemployment problems constitute an important factor underlying political tensions and ethnic violence.

Food security — Food security requires that all people at all times have both physical and economic access to basic food. According to the United Nations, the overall availability of food is not a problem, rather the problem often is the poor distribution of food and a lack of purchasing power. In the past, food security problems have been dealt with at both national and global levels. However, their impacts are limited. According to UN, the key is to tackle the problems relating to access to assets, work and assured income (related to economic security).

Health security — Health Security aims to guarantee a minimum protection from diseases and unhealthy lifestyles. In developing countries, the major causes of death are infectious and parasitic diseases, which kill 17 million people annually. In industrialized countries, the major killers are diseases of the circulatory system, killing 5.5 million every year. According to the United Nations, in both developing and industrial countries, threats to health security are usually greater for poor people in rural areas, particularly children. This is mainly due to malnutrition and insufficient supply of medicine, clean water or other necessity for healthcare.

Environmental security — Environmental security aims to protect people from the short- and long-term ravages of nature, man-made threats in nature, and deterioration of the natural environment. In developing countries, lack of access to clean water resources is one of the greatest environmental threats. In industrial countries, one of the major threats is air pollution. Global warming, caused by the emission of greenhouse gases, is another environmental security issue.

Personal security — Personal security aims to protect people from physical violence, whether from the state or external states, from violent individuals and sub-state actors, from domestic abuse, or from predatory adults. For many people, the greatest source of anxiety is crime, particularly violent crime.

Community security — Community security aims to protect people from the loss of traditional relationships and values and from sectarian and ethnic violence. Traditional communities, particularly minority ethnic groups are often threatened. About half of the world’s states have experienced some inter-ethnic strife. The United Nations declared 1993 the Year of Indigenous People to highlight the continuing vulnerability of the 300 million aboriginal people in 70 countries as they face a widening spiral of violence.

Political security — Political security is concerned with whether people live in a society that honors their basic human rights. According to a survey conducted by Amnesty International, political repression, systematic torture, ill treatment or disappearance was still practised in 110 countries. Human rights violations are most frequent during periods of political unrest. Along with repressing individuals and groups, governments may try to exercise control over ideas and information.

Freedom from Fear vs Freedom from Want

In an ideal world, each of the UNDP's seven categories of threats would receive adequate global attention and resources. Yet attempts to implement this human security agenda have led to the emergence of two major schools of thought — "Freedom from Fear" and "Freedom from Want". While the UNDP 1994 report originally argued that human security requires attention to both freedom from fear and freedom from want, divisions have gradually emerged over the proper scope of that protection (e.g. over what threats individuals should be protected from) and over the appropriate mechanisms for responding to these threats.

Freedom from Fear — This school seeks to limit the practice of Human Security to protecting individuals from violent conflicts. This approach argues that limiting the focus to violence is a realistic and manageable approach towards Human Security. Emergency assistance, conflict prevention and resolution, peace-building are the main concerns of this approach. Canada, for example, was a critical player in the efforts to ban landmines and has incorporated the "Freedom from Fear" agenda as a primary component in its own foreign policy.

Freedom from Want — According to UNDP 1994, "Freedom from Want" school focuses on the basic idea that violence, poverty, inequality,diseases, and environmental degradation are inseparable concepts in addressing the root of human insecurity. Different from "Freedom from Fear", it expands the focus beyond violence with emphasis on development and security goals. Japan, for example, has adopted the broader "Freedom from Want" perspective in its own foreign policy and in 1999 established a UN trust fund for the promotion of Human Security.

Relationship with traditional security

Human security and traditional or national security are not mutually exclusive concepts. Without human security, traditional state security cannot be attained and vice-versa.

Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648

Traditional security is about a state's ability to defend itself against external threats. Traditional security (often referred to as national security or state security) describes the philosophy of international security predominance since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and the rise of the nation-states. While international relations theory includes many variants of traditional security, from realism to idealism, the fundamental trait that these schools share is their focus on the primacy of the nation-state.

Relationship with development studies

Human security also challenged and drew from the practice of international development.

Traditionally, embracing liberal market economics was considered to be the universal path for economic growth, and thus development for all humanity. Yet, continuing conflict and human rights abuses following the end of the Cold War and the fact that two-thirds of the global population seemed to have gained little from the economic gains of globalization^[8], led to fundamental questions about the way development was practiced.

Under human security, poverty and inequality are considered root causes of individual vulnerability. The paper Development and Security by Frances Stewart argues that security and development are deeply interconnected.

Human security forms an important part of people’s well-being, and is therefore an objective of development.
An objective of development is “the enlargement of human choices”. Insecurity cuts life short and thwarts the use of human potential, thereby affecting the reaching of this objective.
Lack of human security has adverse consequences on economic growth, and therefore development.
Some development costs are obvious. For example, in wars, people who join the army or flee can no longer work productively. Also, destroying infrastructure reduces the productive capacity of the economy.
Imbalanced development that involves horizontal inequalities is an important source of conflict.
Therefore, vicious cycles of lack of development which leads to conflict, then to lack of development, can readily emerge. Likewise, virtuous cycles are possible, with high levels of security leading to development, which further promotes security in return.

[edit] Gender and human security

Gender plays an important role in human security since oftentimes gender inequality gives rise to skewed distribution of resources or neglect in areas vital to individual security. Female susceptibility to domestic violence provides one example.

A survey conducted by World Health Organization in 2005 shows that one-sixth of women in the world suffer from family violence. They are mainly beaten by their husbands or partners, which then results in physical and mental health problems, even suicide. Other surveys indicate that half of the women who die from homicides are killed by, or abused to death by their partners. Shelter is one of the human security needs, but for many women these shelters are unsafe and potentially life-threatening.

Prevention

Prevention is another vital tenant of the human security paradigm. According to the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, "the international community spent approximately $200 billion on conflict management in seven major interventions in the 1990s… but could have saved $130 billion through a more effective preventive approach."

The human security approach advocates that more efforts and resources need to be invested in:

accurate knowledge of early warning - the knowledge of the fragility of the situation and the risks associated with it for one to anticipate a possible disaster
understanding of measures for prevention - policy measures available that are capable of preventing the disaster from becoming true, and -
willingness to apply those measures - the party involved, especially the states themselves, have a political will to follow the measures

Many efforts have been made to tackle these prerequisites. For example, new types of NGOs, dedicated exclusively to detecting early warning signs of conflict, such as the International Crisis Group, were set up. ^[11] The UN General Assembly and Security Council in 2000 adopted resolutions recognizing the vital role of all parts of the United Nations system in conflict prevention. ^[12] The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) has also developed a number of innovative internal mechanisms and practices toward preventing conflict in Europe.

Prevention in the area of natural disasters is also crucial. A human security approach would improve disaster preparedness by identifying risk-prone areas and encouraging families to move or develop insurance and coping mechanisms; or by teaching earthquake-resistant building techniques and irrigation and planting techniques that acknowledge fragile environments. Direct investment in disaster preparation, and targets for reducing disaster risk have been called for strongly by those who work in disaster preparedness.

Despite these encouraging moves, there is still a lack of expertise, human resources, and particularly the political will to provide accurate and reliable early-warning information. Many states are still reluctant to accept any internationally endorsed preventive measures. They fear that internationalization of the problem will result in further external “interference” and spark a slippery slope to intervention.

Poverty and economic inequality

Poverty and economic inequality are root causes of global insecurity and hence receive much attention within the human security approach. Currently, one fifth of the world’s population (equivalent to 1.2 billion) experience extreme poverty with an income of less than $1 a day. A significant portion of this population reside in Africa and Asia. An addition of 1.6 billion to this population live on less than $2 a day, totaling 2.8 billion out of 6 billion of world's people live in poverty and daily insecurity.

There are four main policy actions related to poverty and inequality that promote human security

Encouraging growth that reaches the extreme poor Healthy and sustainable growth is the mix of policies that support productivity, employment creation, enterprise and human resource development.

There has to be an emphasis on basic education as a prime mover of change.
Wide dissemination of basic economic entitlements (through education and training, land reform, credit) broadens access to the opportunities offered by the market economy.
State action has to be judiciously combined with the use of the market economy.
A wide range of institutional interventions is required to enhance capabilities, promote social opportunities and support market arrangements.

Supporting sustainable livelihoods and decent work Workplace is where most people build or lose their economic security. There are some ways that can help the people to gain security in the workplace. Workers unions empower people to represent their needs and thus to protect their human security. Long-term firm loyalty and relationships also provide security. Changes in the global economy have altered production and work patterns. Some trends, such as a growing informal sector and increasing female participation in the work force, have had a significant impact on the availability of jobs, especially for low-skill level workers. Because of these trends there is the needs to deal with environmental factors, address gender asymmetries in livelihoods and support microcredit initiatives to enable poor people to participate in economic activity.

Providing social protection for all situations Social Protection aims to provide a social minimum to ensure that every person is able to enjoy the basic quality of life. Governments, business and citizens are required to take measures to ensure that there is adequate social protection for all, including the working poor and those not in paid work. Such measures should include employer and employee-based contributions to unemployment insurance, pensions, training as well as government-subsidized social assistance (through public works).

These measures can provide a minimum economic and social standard, based on dialogue with all social actors, for those in chronic poverty as well as those who suffer temporary economic hardship during economic downturns and other crises. Policies and programmes to address the special needs of children, the elderly and the disabled should also be incorporated into social protection arrangements.

Humanitarian intervention

The application of human security is highly relevant within the area of humanitarian intervention, as it focuses on addressing the deep rooted and multi-factorial problems inherent in humanitiarian crises, and offers more long term resolutions. However, the implementation of humanitarian intervention has been debated because of its various problems and failed projects such as the interventions in Srebrenica and Somalia, as well as the consequences of non-intervention, as witnessed in the Rwandan genocide. This debate pushed United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan to pose a challenge to the international community to find a new approach to humanitarian intervention that responded to its inherent problems.

The Responsibility to Protect

In 2001, the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) produced the "The Responsibility to protect", a comprehensive report detailing how the “right of humanitarian intervention” could be exercised. It was considered a triumph for the human security approach as it emphasized and gathered much needed attention to some of its main principles:

The protection of individual welfare is more important than the state. If the security of individuals is threatened internally by the state or externally by other states, state authority can be overridden.

Addressing the root causes of humanitarian crises (e.g. economic, political or social instability) is a more effective way to solve problems and protect the long-term security of individuals.

Prevention is the best solution. A collective understanding of the deeper social issues along with a desire to work together is necessary to prevent humanitarian crises, thereby preventing a widespread absence of human security within a population (which may mean investing more in development projects).

Human security has been suggested to be particularly useful in examining the causes of conflicts that explain and justify humanitarian interventions. Additionally, it could also be a paradigm for identifying, prioritizing and resolving large transnational problems. However, human security still faces difficulties concerning the scope of its applicability, as large problems requiring humanitarian intervention usually are built up from an array of socio-political, cultural and economic problems that may be beyond the limitations of humanitarian projects. On the other hand, successful examples of the use of human security principles within interventions can be found. One example is the independence of East Timor in 1999.

East Timor The establishment of East Timorese independence from Indonesia in 2002 can be partially credited to a successful international humanitarian effort and can be seen to vindicate the human security ideal. Prior to independence, East Timor was plagued by massive human rights abuses by pro-Indonesian militias and an insurgency war led by indigenous East Timorese against Indonesian forces. After the resignation of President Suharto and an East Timorese vote for independence, the UN and international community were forced to respond to growing post-referendum violence. These peacekeeping missions eventually safeguarded and moved the country into full independence.

The UN also created the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) peace-keeping force that were present not simply to address the military and traditional security priorities, but also that helped to manage nation-building projects, coordinated humanitarian, rehabilitation and development assistance and organised civil services for the country. Additionally, education and training programs were instituted by UNTAET to strengthen civil society and create an economically viable domestic environment.Thus security was moved beyond just military concerns to encompass health, education and development - all crucial to the security of the individual, but usually ignored by state-centric security analysis.

Anti Personnel Landmines

State Parties to the Ottawa Treaty

Arms control is also an important priority for Human Security advocates, closely linked with the Freedom from Fear agenda. An oft-claimed example of this is the Ottawa Convention banning anti-personnel landmines. The Convention has been described as an illustration of how human security can work in the real world, as a coalition of like-minded powers, along with civil society worked together to eliminate anti-personnel land mines. The process leading up to the formation of the Convention was quite a departure from that of traditional security instruments with massive involvement from non-government groups and civil society - it could almost be seen as NGO's bringing governments to the negotiating table. Viewing mines through the human security lens helped to focus the debate on the impact on individuals, as opposed to the survival of the state; and is possibly a key reason for the Convention's success.

In contrast to traditional security discourses, which see security as focused on protecting state interests, human security argued that mines could not be viable weapons of war due to the massive collateral damage they cause, their indiscriminate nature and persistence after conflict. Whereas traditionally, states would justify these negative impacts of mines due to the advantage they give on the battlefield, under the human security lens, this is untenable as the wide-ranging post-conflict impact on the day-to-day experience of individuals outweighs the military advantage.

Since arms control was often considered impregnable by non-government groups, the Ottawa Convention was something of a watershed for human security, as it demonstrated the efficiacy of civil society pressure even in this reified area of international relations. Groups operated at all levels of civil society, with wide-ranging campaigns which demonstrated commitments from both a grass roots and top-down approach. In Ottawa, the negotiations were moved outside traditional disarmement forums, thus avoiding the entrenched logic of traditional arms control measures.

While critics of human security note the absence of the United States as a signatory to the treaty, considering this as a critical blow to its effectiveness, .

Terrorism

The global threat of terrorism is an important test case for the Human Security agenda Proponents argue that a Human Security approach would alleviate many of the deficiencies in a traditional, state-centered counter terrorist approach.Traditional measures uses international sanctions or military force, which directs against a specific country but not a specific target. Besides human casualties and unnecessary economic dislocation, it also fuels the feelings of unrest that may elevate to conflicts. State-centered measures for internal security, such as detention without trial, body searches and night raids, also threaten to erode the very civil liberties it seeks to protect.

Overall, human security proponents assert that these traditional measures seem to exacerbate the problem. They advocate that governments should focus on designing people-centered interventions to address enduring, underlying problems.

Any intervention to address the threat of terrosim must be context specific, acknowledge local culture and historiography. Interventions requires time to demonstrate success, but inclusionary practices will be influential in achieving human security. Concessions can be made including rebuilding of social infrastructure, economic investment, the provision of trauma counselling, inclusion of religious figures and active programs for reconciliation. Participation of a diverse group of actors including policy-makers, private enterprises, public service providers and social entrepreneurs will foster neutrality. We need to listen, actively promote symmetry in dialogue, and be ready to accommodate alternative discourses on the experience of modernity.

Human security also emphasizes the protection of human rights and respect for the rule of law. In many countries, some counter-terrorist measures violate human rights. Abuses include detention without judicial review; subjecting to torture during the transfer, return and extradition of persons between or within countries. They restrains citizens’ rights or freedoms, and breaches the principle of non-discrimination. Such violations arguably serve to exacerbate the threat of terrorism. Human security argues that a failure to respect human rights in one state may undermine international effort to cooperate to combat terrorism^[26], thus more effort should be invested in the effective inclusion of human rights protection.

Human security further emphasizes the needs to address physical, psychological and political dimensions. The psychological aspect highlights that the violence of a traditional military response simply begets further violence, provokes and consolidates support for those groups. Instead, sustainable victory in such conflict situations means “to win a battle for the society, for its mindsets and psychologies, to address sources of grievance and anxiety, and to shore up institutions of governance.”

Infectious disease

Human Security has long been argued that the "scope" of global security should be expanded to include the threat of infectious disease. The primary goal of human security is the protection of individuals, and infectious diseases (such as HIV/AIDS, SARS, and H5N1) are among the most serious threats to individuals around the world. Especially with the accelerating speed of globalization nowadays, the outbread of one infectious disease in one particular country can be bought to the others quickly by the intensification of international transportation. Given the transnational nature of infectious disease, the traditional unilateral, state-centered policy approaches to these threats by infectious diseases is ineffective over the long run. Therefore, adopting a people-centered Human Security model with its emphasis on prevention, individual empowerment, and treatment strategies delivered by an array of global actors is possibly a pioneering approach to deal with the increasing diversity of contagious diseases.

Human security supports broadening the responsibility for ensuring health security. It is shifting down from the national level to individuals, communities and civil organizations; and upward to international institutions and networks. Hence, modernizing international health rules and regulations, fostering partnerships between public and private sectors as well as enhancing communication and cooperation among states become more important.Take HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa as an example, the relatively low education level of people and insufficient penetration of knowledge about HIV/AIDS hinder people from realising the serious impacts of HIV/AIDS. Low levels of technology, the ineffective management of resources and implementation of corresponding policies by leaders further cause the spread of the disease uncontrollable. Human Security proponents argue that by focusing on health burdens faced by local communities and individuals our policy responses will be able to address the roots of the problem.

In addition, traditional approach of security is more of a rationale for maintaining the current power status of the state, this may sometimes outweigh individual's safety and health concerns. Apart from bewaring of military dangers, the state may also accentuate the protection of reputation as well as ensuring the state's economic development.

For example in China, prevention of international intervention of internal affairs and securing its tourism and economy might be the reasons of Chinese silence in the SARS epidemic in 2003. Its late disclosure of SARS data is one of the main reasons of the outbreak of SARS in other places.Even in the cases of H5N1, China has been suspected of concealing cases of bird-flu in several provinces for many months in 2005.

Sonagachi Project

In Calcutta, India, the Sonagachi Project, cited by UNAIDS as a "best-practice" model of working with women and men in prostitution, has reached more than 30,000 persons working in the commercial sex sector at risk of HIV/AIDS, mainly through peer-based outreach services.

This project demonstrates the collective power of different organizations and the government. It was initiated by the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health (AIIH&PH) in 1992 as the STD/HIV Intervention Programme (SHIP), in consultation with the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) of India, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare of West Bengal, and WHO. Later donors included NORAD, DfID, and HORIZONS/USAID. It also includes two non-governmental organization as partners, the Health and Eco-Defence Society and the Human Development and Research Institute.

In line with human security principles, the approach of this project is based on the needs of the individuals, which are then catered specifically. Sonagachi's peer educators help to stop the spread of HIV/AIDS among women and men in prostitution through strategies intended to earn their trust, to reduce their social isolation, to increase their social participation, and to confront stigma and discrimination.

Environmental degradation and extreme climates has direct impacts on human security as it means humans are prone to more natural disasters and are faced with decreasing resources. In addition, as the earth’s climate changes more rapidly, an increase in violent conflict is likely due to resource scarcity and an exacerbated North-South disparity. Sources of possible conflict include wide-spread refugee movement, a fall in global food production and reduction in water supply. Water and energy, for example, are essential resources which have led to military and political turmoil worldwide. Altered resource availability causing food shortages results in political disputes, ethnic tensions and civil unrests, which in turn is the basis for regional conflicts that eventually goes global. Furthermore, vulnerability to climate changes can be exacerbated by other non-climate factors such as HIV/AIDS, poverty, unequal access to resources and economic globalization , making Human Security all the more susceptible.

A more recent example of how global warming impacts human security is the Darfur conflict. Climate changes have brought the Sahara steadily into the south and droughts are more frequent in this piece of dry land, wiping out food produce. As a result there is less arable land with many people fighting for it. Indeed, a report by CNA corporation describes climate change as a “threat multiplier” in volatile parts of the world.

Nowadays, many still view global warming in terms of the national security framework. These national threats, however, can be easily transposed into a human security context. Peter Gleick, President of the Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security, considers the three biggest threats to national security to be: 1. Food shortages caused by reductions in agricultural production capacities 2. Shortages of safe drinking water due to flooding and droughts 3. Shortages of natural resources due to disruption caused by ice and storms. These threats are, in fact, inextricably linked with the impacts of Global warming on human security as a whole.

The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report points out various environmentally effective policies which different actors in different sectors can take to reduce the impact of global warming and many of which are familiar such as appliance standards and labelling and providing renewable energy incentives. Effective action to combat the issues of global warming and climate change requires changing individuals’ apathy into action to supplement and encourage existing channels for climate change response.

Criticisms

Ambiguity of the Concept

It remains unclear whether the concept of human security can serve as a practical guide. First, like “sustainable development”, the concept lacks a precise definition. Second, it is the supporters of human security that try to keep the term expansive and vague, so that "human security" can keep the coalition of middle power states, development agencies, and NGOs

Questions on the Practice

Further and deeper questions about this approach revolve around how this concept has been and could be practiced; whether or not the "human security" approach is the best tool for addressing global threats and how practical or feasible these measures are. The allocation of available resources alone may preclude addressing all of the varied threats to human security as outlined in the Human Development Report and Millennium Development Goals.

Moreover, it is doubtful if the world has extra time and effort to deal with so many aspects – intra-state conflicts, humanitarian interventions, economic security, environmental security and so on, while its work in alleviating inter-state conflicts is still far from perfect. The concept of human security, especially the Freedom from Want school, seems to be too idealistic.

State Sovereignty

Many concepts under human security, like humanitarian intervention, violate the traditional principle of state sovereignty - a deep-rooted concept. The Group of 77(G77) had expressed its specticism for fear it would lead to violations of state sovereignty. As states still serve as a major playing role in global affairs, the unwillingness of states to give in parts of their state sovereignty will make human security not really effective.

In addition, it is probable that human security would become another effective excuse for powerful states to bully the weak. It is argued that only powerful states, especially those from the West, can determine whose human rights justify departure from the principle of non-intervention - a resemblance of imperialism. Some even accused "the Responsibility to Protect" is merely a euphemism for American hegemony

Cyber-security regulation

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 14:08:00 +0000

In the United States government, Cyber-security regulation is directives from the Executive Branch and legislation from Congress that safeguards information technology and computer systems. The purpose of cyber-security regulation is to force companies and organizations to protect their systems and information from cyber-attacks. Cyber-attacks include viruses, worms, Trojan horses, phishing, denial of service (DOS) attacks, unauthorized access (stealing intellectual property or confidential information) and control system attacks. There are numerous measures available to prevent cyber-attacks. Cyber-security measures include firewalls, anti-virus software, intrusion detection and prevention systems, encryption and login passwords. Federal and state governments in the United States have attempted to improve cyber-security through regulation and collaborative efforts between government and the private-sector to encourage voluntary improvements to cyber-security.

Reasons for cyber-security

The United States government believes the security of computer systems is important to for two reasons. The increased role of Information Technology (IT) and the growth of the e-commerce sector have made cyber-security essential to the economy. Also, cyber-security is vital to the operation of safety critical systems, such as emergency response, and to the protection of infrastructure systems, such as the national power grid.

Federal government regulation

There are few federal cyber-security regulations, and the ones that exist focus on specific industries. The three main cyber-security regulations are the 1996 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, the 1999 Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act and the 2002 Homeland Security Act, which included the Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA). These three regulations mandate that healthcare organizations, financial institutions and federal agencies protect their systems and information . For example, FISMA, which applies to every government agency, “requires the development and implementation of mandatory policies, principles, standards, and guidelines on information security.” But, these regulations do not address numerous computer related industries, such as Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and software companies. Furthermore, these regulations do not specify what cyber-security measures must be implemented and require only a “reasonable” level of security. The vague language of these regulations leaves much room for interpretation. Bruce Schneier, founder of Cupertino’s Counterpane Internet Security, argues that companies will not make sufficient investments in cyber-security unless government forces them to do so. He also states that successful cyber-attacks on government systems still occur despite government efforts.

State government regulation

State governments have attempted to improve cyber-security by increasing public visibility of firms with weak security. In 2003, California passed the Notice of Security Breach Act which requires that any company that maintains personal information of California citizens and has a security breach must disclose the details of the event Personal information includes name, social security number, driver’s license number, credit card number or financial information. Several other states have followed California’s example and passed similar security breach notification regulations. These security breach notification regulations punish firms for their cyber-security failures while giving them the freedom to choose how to secure their systems. Also, this regulation creates an incentive for companies to voluntarily invest in cyber-security to avoid the potential loss of reputation and the resulting economic loss that can come from a successful cyber-attack.

In 2004, California passed California Assembly Bill 1950 which also applies to businesses that own or maintain personal information for California residents. This regulation dictates that businesses maintain a reasonable level of security and that these required security practices also extend to business partners. This regulation is an improvement on the federal standard because it expands the number of firms required to maintain an acceptable standard of cyber-security. However, like the federal legislation, it requires a “reasonable” level of cyber-security, which leaves much room for interpretation until case law is established.

Other government efforts

In addition to regulation, the federal government has tried to improve cyber-security by allocating more resources to research and collaborating with the private-sector to write standards. In 2003, the President’s National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace made the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) responsible for security recommendations and researching national solutions. The plan calls for cooperative efforts between government and industry “to create an emergency response system to cyber-attacks and to reduce the nation’s vulnerability to such threats.” In 2004, Congress allocated $4.7 billion toward cyber-security and achieving many of the goals stated in the President’s National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace Some industry security experts state that the President’s National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace is a good first step but is insufficient. Bruce Schneier stated that “The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace hasn’t secured anything yet.” However, the President’s National Strategy clearly states that the purpose is to provide a framework for the owners of computer systems to improve their security rather than the government taking over and solving the problem. Yet, companies that participate in the collaborative efforts outlined in the strategy are not required to adopt the discovered security solutions.

Proposed regulation

The U.S. Congress has proposed numerous bills that expand upon cyber-security regulation. The Consumer Data Security and Notification Act amends the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act to require disclosure of security breaches by financial institutions. Congressmen have also proposed “expanding Gramm-Leach-Bliley to all industries that touch consumer financial information, including any firm that accepts payment by a credit card.” Congress has proposed cyber-security regulations similar to California’s Notice of Security Breach Act for companies that maintain personal information. The Information Protection and Security Act requires that data brokers “ensure data accuracy and confidentiality, authenticate and track users, detect and prevent unauthorized activity, and mitigate potential harm to individuals.”

In addition to requiring companies to improve cyber-security, Congress is also considering bills that criminalize cyber-attacks. The Securely Protect Yourself Against Cyber Trespass Act (SPY ACT) is a bill of this type. This bill which focuses on phishing and spyware bill that was passed on May 23, 2005 in the United States House of Representatives and is currently in committee in the Senate. This bill “makes unlawful the unauthorized usage of a computer to take control of it, modify its setting, collect of induce the owner to disclose personally identifiable information, install unsolicited software, and tamper with security, anti-spyware, or anti-virus software.”

Pro-regulation opinions

While experts agree that cyber-security improvements are necessary, there is disagreement about whether the solution is more government regulation or more private-sector innovation. Many government officials and cyber-security experts believe that the private-sector has failed to solve the cyber-security problem and that regulation is needed. Richard Clarke states that, “Industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If industry doesn’t respond [to the threat], you have to follow through.” He believes that software companies must be forced to produce more secure programs. Bruce Schneier also supports regulation that encourages software companies to write more secure code through economic incentives. U. S. Rep. Rick Boucher (D-VA) proposes improving cyber-security by making software companies liable for security flaws in their code. In addition, to improving software security, Clarke believes that certain industries, such as utilities and ISPs, require regulation.

Anti-regulation opinions

On the other hand, many private-sector executives believe that more regulation will restrict their ability to improve cyber-security. Harris Miller, president of the Information Technology Association of America, believes that regulation inhibits innovation.^[31] Rick White, President and CEO of TechNet, also opposes more regulation. He states that, “The private-sector must continue to be able to innovate and adapt in response to new attack methods in cyber space, and toward that end, we commend President Bush and the Congress for exercising regulatory restraint.”^[32] Another reason many private-sector executives oppose regulation is because it is costly. Firms are just as concerned about regulation reducing profits as they are about regulation limiting their flexibility to solve the cyber-security problem efficiently.

Organizational Systems Security Analyst

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 14:05:00 +0000

The Organizational Systems Security Analyst (OSSA) is a technical vendor-neutral Information Security certification programme which is being offered in Asia. This programme consists of a specialized information security training and certification course and practical examination which technical Information Technology professionals can attend in order to become skilled and effective technical Information Security professionals and to prove their level of competence and skill by undergoing the examination.

Technical staff enrolling in the programme are taught and trained how to address the technical security issues they encounter in daily operations and how to methodically establish, operate and maintain security for their organization's computer network and computer systems infrastructure. It is developed by ThinkSECURE, an Information Security certification body and consultancy, and has been granted the "ISECOM-Approved" seal by the Institute for Security and Open Methodologies (ISECOM), an international security institution.

The OSSA programme does not focus on hacker's software as these quickly become obsolete as software patches are released. It first looks at security from a methodological perspective and draws lessons from Sun Tzu's "Art of War" to generate a security framework and then populate it with resources and tools by which the various security aims and objectives, such as "how to defend your server against a hacker's attacks" can be met.

Sun Tzu's 'Art of War' treatise is used to provide a guiding philosophy throughout the programme, addressing both offensive threats and the defensive measures needed to overcome them. The philosophy also extends to the sections on incident response methodology (i.e. how to respond to security breaches), computer forensics and the impact of law on security-related activities such as the recovery of information from a computer crime suspect's hard drive. Under the programme, students are given coursework and experience how to set up and maintain a complete enterprise-class security monitoring and defence infrastructure which includes firewalls, network intrusion detection systems, file-integrity checkers, honeypots and encryption. A unique attacker's methodology is also introduced to assist the technical staff with identifying the modus operandi of an attacker and his arsenal.

The generic title sections under the programme appear to comprise the following:

What is Information Security
Network 101
Defending your Turf & Security Policy Formulation
Defensive Tools & Lockdown
The 5E Attacker Methodology: Attacker Methods & Exploits
Wireless (In)Security
Incident Response & Computer Forensics
The Impact Of Law

Under each section are many modules, for example the defensive section covers the setting up of firewalls, NIDS, HIDS, honeypots, cryptographic software, etc.

The OSSA programme consists of both practical hands-on lab-based coursework and a practical hands-on lab-based certification examination. According to the ThinkSECURE website, the rationale for this is that only those who prove they can apply their skills and knowledge to a completely new and unknown exam setup will get certified and those who only know how to do exam-cramming by memorizing facts and figures and visiting brain dump sites will not be able to get certified. Compared to non-practical multiple-choice-question exam formats, this method of examination is beneficial for the Information Security industry and employers as a whole because it provides the following benefits:

makes sure only candidates who can prove ability to apply skills in a practical examination are certified.
stops brain-dumpers from attaining and devaluing the certification as a basis of competency evaluation.
protects people's and companies' money and time investment in getting certified.
helps employers identify technical staff who are more skilled.
provides the industry with a pool of competent, qualified technical staff.

Computer security

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 13:53:00 +0000

Computer security is an application of information security to both theoretical and actual computer systems. For sake of simplicity, issues regarding privacy should be handled under the subject of information privacy rights. For the purpose of this article, Computer security is a branch of computer science that addresses enforcement of 'secure' behavior on the operation of computers. The definition of 'secure' varies by application, and is typically defined implicitly or explicitly by a security policy that addresses confidentiality, integrity and availability (see CIA Triad)of electronic information that is processed by or stored on computer systems.

The traditional approach is to create a trusted security kernel that exploits special-purpose hardware mechanisms in the microprocessor to constrain the operating system and the application programs to conform to the security policy. These systems can isolate processes and data to specificer domains and restrict access and privileges of users. This approach avoids trusting most of the operating system and applicationes.

In addition to restricting actions to a secure subset, a secure system should still permit authorized users to carry out legitimate and useful tasks. It might be possible to secure a computer against misuse using extreme measures:

“ The only truly secure system is one that is powered off, cast in a block of concrete and sealed in a lead-lined room with armed guards - and even then I have my doubts. ”

Eugene H. Spafford, director of the Purdue Center for Education and Research in Information Assurance and Security. [1]
It is important to distinguish the techniques used to increase a system's security from the issue of that system's security status. In particular, systems which contain fundamental flaws^[1] in their security designs cannot be made secure without compromising their usability.^{[citation needed]} Most computer systems cannot be made secure even after the application of extensive "computer security" measures. Furthermore, if they are made secure, functionality and ease of use often decreases.

Computer security can also be seen as a subfield of security engineering, which looks at broader security issues in addition to computer security.

Secure operating systems

One use of the term computer security refers to technology to implement a secure operating system. Much of this technology is based on science developed in the 1980s and used to produce what may be some of the most impenetrable operating systems ever. Though still valid, the technology is almost inactive today, perhaps because it is complex or not widely understood. Such ultra-strong secure operating systems are based on operating system kernel technology that can guarantee that certain security policies are absolutely enforced in an operating environment. An example of such a Computer security policy is the Bell-LaPadula model. The strategy is based on a coupling of special microprocessor hardware features, often involving the memory management unit, to a special correctly implemented operating system kernel. This forms the foundation for a secure operating system which, if certain critical parts are designed and implemented correctly, can ensure the absolute impossibility of penetration by hostile elements. This capability is enabled because the configuration not only imposes a security policy, but in theory completely protects itself from corruption. Ordinary operating systems, on the other hand, lack the features that assure this maximal level of security. The design methodology to produce such secure systems is precise, deterministic and logical.

Systems designed with such methodology represent the state of the art of computer security and the capability to produce them is not widely known. In sharp contrast to most kinds of software, they meet specifications with verifiable certainty comparable to specifications for size, weight and power. Secure operating systems designed this way are used primarily to protect national security information and military secrets. These are very powerful security tools and very few secure operating systems have been certified at the highest level (Orange Book A-1) to operate over the range of "Top Secret" to "unclassified" (including Honeywell SCOMP, USAF SACDIN, NSA Blacker and Boeing MLS LAN.) The assurance of security depends not only on the soundness of the design strategy, but also on the assurance of correctness of the implementation, and therefore there are degrees of security strength defined for COMPUSEC. The Common Criteria quantifies security strength of products in terms of two components, security capability (as Protection Profile) and assurance levels (as EAL levels.) None of these ultra-high assurance secure general purpose operating systems have been produced for decades or certified under the Common Criteria.

Computer Security By Design

The technologies of computer security are based on logic. There is no universal standard notion of what secure behavior is. "Security" is a concept that is unique to each situation. Security is extraneous to the function of a computer application, rather than ancillary to it, thus security necessarily imposes restrictions on the application's behavior.

There are several approaches to security in computing, sometimes a combination of approaches is valid:
Trust all the software to abide by a security policy but the software is not trustworthy (this is computer insecurity).
Trust all the software to abide by a security policy and the software is validated as trustworthy (by tedious branch and path analysis for example).
Trust no software but enforce a security policy with mechanisms that are not trustworthy (again this is computer insecurity).
Trust no software but enforce a security policy with trustworthy mechanisms.

Many systems unintentionally result in the first possibility. Approaches one and three lead to failure. Since approach two is expensive and non-deterministic, its use is very limited. Because approach number four is often based on hardware mechanisms and avoid abstractions and a multiplicity of degrees of freedom, it is more practical. Combinations of approaches two and four are often used in a layered architecture with thin layers of two and thick layers of four.

There are myriad strategies and techniques used to design security systems. There are few, if any, effective strategies to enhance security after design.

One technique enforces the principle of least privilege to great extent, where an entity has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way even if an attacker gains access to one part of the system, fine-grained security ensures that it is just as difficult for them to access the rest.

Furthermore, by breaking the system up into smaller components, the complexity of individual components is reduced, opening up the possibility of using techniques such as automated theorem proving to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems. This enables a closed form solution to security that works well when only a single well-characterized property can be isolated as critical, and that property is also assessable to math. Not surprisingly, it is impractical for generalized correctness, which probably cannot even be defined, much less proven. Where formal correctness proofs are not possible, rigorous use of code review and unit testing represent a best-effort approach to make modules secure.

The design should use "defense in depth", where more than one subsystem needs to be violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds. Defense in depth works when the breaching of one security measure does not provide a platform to facilitate subverting another. Also, the cascading principle acknowledges that several low hurdles does not make a high hurdle. So cascading several weak mechanisms does not provide the safety of a single stronger mechanism.

Subsystems should default to secure settings, and wherever possible should be designed to "fail secure" rather than "fail insecure" (see fail safe for the equivalent in safety engineering). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure.

In addition, security should not be an all or nothing issue. The designers and operators of systems should assume that security breaches are inevitable. Full audit trails should be kept of system activity, so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks. Finally, full disclosure helps to ensure that when bugs are found the "window of vulnerability" is kept as short as possible.

Early History of Security By Design

The early Multics operating system was notable for its early emphasis on computer security by design, and Multics was possibly the very first operating system to be designed as a secure system from the ground up. In spite of this, Multics' security was broken, not once, but repeatedly. The strategy was known as 'penetrate and test' and has become widely known as a non-terminating process that fails to produce computer security. This led to further work on computer security that prefigured modern security engineering techniques producing closed form processes that terminate.

Secure Coding

If the operating environment is not based on a secure operating system capable of maintaining a domain for its own execution, and capable of protecting application code from malicious subversion, and capable of protecting the system from subverted code, then high degrees of security are understandably not possible. While such secure operating systems are possible and have been implemented, most commercial systems fall in a 'low security' category because they rely on features not supported by secure operating systems (like portability, et. al.). In low security operating environments, applications must be relied on to participate in their own protection. There are 'best effort' secure coding practices that can be followed to make an application more resistant to malicious subversion.

In commercial environments, the majority of software subversion vulnerabilities result from a few known kinds of coding defects. Common software defects include buffer overflows, format string vulnerabilities, integer overflow, and code/command injection.

Some common languages such as C and C++ are vulnerable to all of these defects (see Seacord, "Secure Coding in C and C++"). Other languages, such as Java, are more resistant to some of these defects, but are still prone to code/command injection and other software defects which facilitate subversion.

Recently another bad coding practise has come under scrutiny; dangling pointers. The first known exploit for this particular problem was presented in July 2007. Before this publication the problem was known but considered to be academic and not practically exploitable. ^[2]

In summary, 'secure coding' can provide significant payback in low security operating environments, and therefore worth the effort. Still there is no known way to provide a reliable degree of subversion resistance with any degree or combination of 'secure coding.'

Terms used in Computer Security

The following terms used in engineering secure systems are explained below.

Automated theorem proving and other verification tools can enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications.
Thus simple microkernels can be written so that we can be sure they don't contain any bugs: eg EROS and Coyotos.

A bigger OS, capable of providing a standard API like POSIX, can be built on a microkernel using small API servers running as normal programs. If one of these API servers has a bug, the kernel and the other servers are not affected: e.g. Hurd.

Cryptographic techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that data exchanged between systems can be intercepted or modified.
Strong authentication techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are.

Secure cryptoprocessors can be used to leverage physical security techniques into protecting the security of the computer system.

Chain of trust techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers.
Mandatory access control can be used to ensure that privileged access is withdrawn when privileges are revoked. For example, deleting a user account should also stop any processes that are running with that user's privileges.
Capability and access control list techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. The next sections discuss their use.

Some of the following items may belong to the computer insecurity article:

Do not run an application with known security flaws. Either leave it turned off until it can be patched or otherwise fixed, or delete it and replace it with some other application. Publicly known flaws are the main entry used by worms to automatically break into a system and then spread to other systems connected to it. The security website Secunia provides a search tool for unpatched known flaws in popular products

Backups are a way of securing information; they are another copy of all the important computer files kept in another location. These files are kept on hard disks, CD-Rs, CD-RWs, and tapes. Suggested locations for backups are a fireproof, waterproof, and heat proof safe, or in a separate, offsite location than that in which the original files are contained. Some individuals and companies also keep their backups in safe deposit boxes inside bank vaults. There is also a fourth option, which involves using one of the file hosting services that backs up files over the Internet for both business and individuals.
- Backups are also important for reasons other than security. Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes, may strike the building where the computer is located. The building can be on fire, or an explosion may occur. There needs to be a recent backup at an alternate secure location, in case of such kind of disaster. The backup needs to be moved between the geographic sites in a secure manner, so as to prevent it from being stolen.
Anti-virus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart and eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware).
Firewalls are systems which help protect computers and computer networks from attack and subsequent intrusion by restricting the network traffic which can pass through them, based on a set of system administrator defined rules.
Access authorization restricts access to a computer to group of users through the use of authentication systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer - such as through an interactive logon screen - or individual services, such as an FTP server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as passwords, identification cards, and, more recently, smart cards and biometric systems.
Encryption is used to protect the message from the eyes of others. It can be done in several ways by switching the characters around, replacing characters with others, and even removing characters from the message. These have to be used in combination to make the encryption secure enough, that is to say, sufficiently difficult to crack. Public key encryption is a refined and practical way of doing encryption. It allows for example anyone to write a message for a list of recipients, and only those recipients will be able to read that message.
Intrusion-detection systems can scan a network for people that are on the network but who should not be there or are doing things that they should not be doing, for example trying a lot of passwords to gain access to the network.
Social engineering awareness - Keeping employees aware of the dangers of social engineering and/or having a policy in place to prevent social engineering can reduce successful breaches of the network and servers.

Capabilities vs. ACLs

Within computer systems, the two fundamental means of enforcing privilege separation are access control lists (ACLs) and capabilities. The semantics of ACLs have been proven to be insecure in many situations (e.g., Confused deputy problem). It has also been shown that ACL's promise of giving access to an object to only one person can never be guaranteed in practice. Both of these problems are resolved by capabilities. This does not mean practical flaws exist in all ACL-based systems — only that the designers of certain utilities must take responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws.

Unfortunately, for various historical reasons, capabilities have been mostly restricted to research operating systems and commercial OSs still use ACLs. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open source project in the area is the E language.

First the Plessey System 250 and then Cambridge CAP computer demonstrated the use of capabilities, both in hardware and software, in the 1970s, so this technology is hardly new. A reason for the lack of adoption of capabilities may be that ACLs appeared to offer a 'quick fix' for security without pervasive redesign of the operating system and hardware.

The most secure computers are those not connected to the Internet and shielded from any interference. In the real world, the most security comes from operating systems where security is not an add-on, such as OS/400 from IBM. This almost never shows up in lists of vulnerabilities for good reason. Years may elapse between one problem needing remediation and the next.

A good example of a secure system is EROS. But see also the article on secure operating systems. TrustedBSD is an example of an open source project with a goal, among other things, of building capability functionality into the FreeBSD operating system. Much of the work is already done.

Security guard

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 13:33:00 +0000

A security guard or security officer, is usually a privately and formally employed person who is paid to protect property, and/or assets, and/or people. Often, security officers are uniformed and act to protect property by maintaining a high visibility presence to deter illegal and/or inappropriate actions, observing (either directly, through patrols, or by watching alarm systems or video cameras) for signs of crime, fire or disorder; then taking action and/or reporting any incidents to their client, employer and emergency services as appropriate. Since at least the Middle Ages in Europe, the term watchman was more commonly applied to this function.

Functions and duties

Private Security Officer ( United States )

As some security companies use as their motto the job of a security officer is to "detect, deter, observe and report." Security officers are not normally required to make arrests (but have the authority to make a citizen's arrest) or otherwise act as police officers, except in some (notably United States) jurisdictions in which the security officer is invested with arrest powers like those of a county sheriff. In contrast to the above mentioned motto, a Private Security Officer's actual primary duty is prevention of crime. Security personnel do enforce company rules and can act to protect lives and property. In fact, they frequently have a contractual obligation to provide these actions. Security Officers are often trained to perform arrest and control procedures (including handcuffing and restraints), operate emergency equipment, perform first aid, CPR, take accurate notes and write effective reports, and perform other tasks as required by the property they are protecting. Many security officers are required to go through additional training mandated by the state for the carrying of weapons such as batons, firearms, and pepper spray. Some officers are required to complete police certification for special duties, such as Private Police Officers. Positions are also set to grow in the U.S., with 350,000 new security jobs expected over the next decade.^[1] In recent years, due to elevated threats of terrorism, some security officers are required to have bomb-threat training and/or emergency crisis training.

One major economic justification for security personnel is that insurance companies (particularly fire insurance carriers) will give substantial rate discounts to sites which have a 24-hour presence; for a high risk or high value venue, the discount can often exceed the money being spent on its security program. This is because having security on site increases the odds that any fire will be noticed and reported to the local fire department before a total loss occurs. Also, the presence of security personnel (particularly in combination with effective security procedures) tends to diminish "shrinkage," theft, employee misconduct and safety rule violations, property damage, or even sabotage. Many casinos hire security guards to protect the money when transferring it from the casino to the casino's bank.

Security personnel may also perform access control at building entrances and vehicle gates by ensuring that employees and visitors display proper passes or identification before entering the facility. Security officers are often called upon to respond to minor emergencies (lost persons, lockouts, dead vehicle batteries, etc.) and to assist in serious emergencies by guiding emergency responders to the scene of the incident and documenting what happened on an incident report. Security Officers (usually armed for this function) are frequently contracted to respond in a similar fashion as police officers until a given situation at a client location is under control and/or public authorities arrive on the scene.

Patrolling is usually a large part of a Security Guards duties. Often these patrols are logged by use of a guard tour patrol system, formerly mechanical clock-based systems but more and more electronic systems are in use. The term Regular Patrol is a term that, although often used, is discouraged in the Security Industry for use of more precise terms. The Fixed Post, Patrol Post and Roving or Random Patrol are terms coming into favour

Although security officers are a distinct type of personnel from either police officers or the military, ^{[citation needed]}in the United States a very high proportion of security personnel, including most senior management personnel, are either former or retired members of one or both services.^{[citation needed]} Many security officers who don't fit this profile (young people in particular) use the job as a springboard into a police career.^{[citation needed]}

Types of security personnel and companies

Security personnel are classified as either of the following

"in-house" or "proprietary" (i.e. employed by the same company or organization they protect, such as a mall, theme park, or casino); formerly often called works police or security police in the United Kingdom
"contract," working for a private security company which protects many locations.
"Public Security," "Private Police Officers," or security police
"Private Patrol Officers", vehicle patrol officers that protect multiple client premises.

Industry terms for various security personnel include: Security guards, security agents, watchmen, security officers, safety patrol, Armed Security, Private Police, Company police, Loss Prevention, Bodyguards, Executive Protection Agents, or Access Managers. Other job titles in the security industry include dispatcher, receptionist, driver, supervisor, alarm responder, mall security officer, private patrol officer, Private Patrol Operator, and manager.

Controversy exists within the private security industry regarding the job titles of "security guard" as opposed to "security officer" and "security agent." ^{[citation needed]} State and local governments sometimes regulate the use of these terms by law -- for example, certain words and phrases that "give an impression that he or she is connected in any way with the federal government, a state government, or any political subdivision of a state government" are forbidden for use by California security licensees by Business and Professions Code Section 7582.26. So the terms "private homicide police" or "special agent" would be unlawful for a security licensee to use in California. Similarly, in Ontario, Canada, the Private Security and Investigative Services Act specifically prohibits private security personnel from using the terms detective, private detective, law enforcement, police, or officer. Recent changes to the act have also introduced restrictions on uniform and vehicle colours and markings to make private security personnel clearly distinctive from police personnel.

There is general agreement, however, that there is a marked difference between persons performing the duties historically associated with watchmen, and persons who take a more active role in protecting persons and property. The former, often called "guards," are taught the mantra "observe and report," are minimally trained, and not expected to deal with the public or confront criminals. The latter are often highly trained, sometimes armed depending on local laws and regulations, and are more likely to interact with the general public and to confront the criminal element. These employees tend to take pride in the title "Security Officer" or "Protection Officer" and disdain the label of "guard." Ironically enough, there may be no relationship between duties performed and compensation -- many mall "security officers" who are exposed to serious risks make less per hour than "industrial security guards" with less training and responsibility.^{[citation needed]} How ever there are now more positions in the security role that separates not just the title but the job its self. The role of guard has progressed and so has the areas for which security people are needed. All security jobs vary in pay and duties now.

The term "agent" is particularly problematic in the security industry because it can describe a civil legal relationship between a person and their employee, hireling or contractor ("agent of the owner" in California PC 602) but also describes a person in government service ("Special Agent Jones of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.") However we should then also consider the fact that this title is also made to banking agents, loan agents and real estate agents. Titles are problematic or perhaps redundant if one understands the profession. Security "agents" found in loss prevention and personal or executive protection (bodyguards) typically work in plainclothes, without a uniform, and are usually highly trained to act lawfully in direct defense of life or property. There is also confusion with bail enforcement agents, or as they are popularly known "bounty hunters," who are sometimes regulated by the same agencies which regulate private security.

Security personnel are cautioned ^{[citation needed]}(as to whom makes this caution is unknown and has yet to be confirmed that it is or is not an issue in some states) that identifying themselves to citizens or police as "officers," particularly in a high threat or tactical situation, may result in mistaken identity, charges of impersonating a peace (police) officer, or even serious injury or death if police are believe that they are confronting an armed criminal as opposed to rescuing a lawfully armed private employee. The term "guard," may prevent potentially lethal confusion when interfacing with law enforcement agencies and dispatchers (varies with each state's law enforcement community and laws).

Licensing

Most counties require a license to work as a security guard, [1] although 10 U.S. states require no licensing.^{[citation needed]} Of the licensing states, 19 do not require any training and many have minimal training requirements.^{[citation needed]} This license may include a criminal background check and/or training requirements. Most security guards do not carry weapons and have the same powers of arrest as a private citizen, called a "private person" arrest, "any person" arrest, or "citizen's arrest." If weapons are carried, additional permits and training are usually required. Normally armed security guards are used (in the USA) to protect sensitive sites such as government and military installations, banks or other financial institutions, and nuclear power plants. However, armed security is quickly becoming a standard for vehicle patrol officers and on many other non-government sites. Armed private security is much rarer in Europe and other developed countries (and unknown in some, such as the United Kingdom). In developing countries (with host country permission), armed security composed mostly of ex-military personnel is often used to protect corporate assets, particularly in war-torn regions. In Canada, contract Security Guards are not armed. They are not permitted to carry a firearm, or any type of defensive weapon.[2] Nor are they allowed to carry handcuffs or other restraint devices without the proper training, which is in contrast to their "In-House Security" counterparts that have no restrictions or mandatory training in regards to handcuffs or restraint devices^{[citation needed]}.

As a requirement of the Private Security Industry Act 2001, the UK now requires all Contract Security Guards to have a valid SIA (Security Industry Authority) license. Licenses are valid for three years and require the holders to undergo formal training, also to pass mandatory Criminal Records Bureau checks.

In Canada, private security falls under the jurisdiction of Canada's ten provinces. The laws in all provinces require that contract security companies and their employees be licensed. The requirements for licensing vary but many provinces require that security guards either successfully complete a training program before being issued a license or have previous experience as a peace officer (i.e. a police officer). In British Columbia contract Security Businesses, and Employees must be licensed, while "In-House" Security Organizations and Employees are currently exempt from Provincial Legislation. New Legislation is currently going through the legislative process to better regulate the Security Industry in BC. ^{[citation needed]}

In August 2007, Malaysia banned hiring of foreign security guards following a rape and murder of a student by a Pakistani security guard.

Security guards and the police

Security personnel are not police officers, unless they are Security police, but are often confused with them due to similar uniforms and behaviors, especially on private property. Security personnel derive their powers not from the state, as public police officers do, but from a contractual arrangement that give them 'Agent of the Owner' powers. This includes a nearly unlimited power to question with the freedom of an absence of probable cause requirements that frequently dog public law enforcement officers. Additionally, as legal precedents have further restrained the traditional police officers' power of "officer discretion" regarding arrests in the field, requiring a police officer to arrest minor lawbreakers, private security personnel still enjoy such powers of discretion largely due to their private citizen status.^{[citation needed]} Since the laws regarding the limitations of powers generally have to do with public law enforcement, private security is relatively free to utilize non-traditional means to protect and serve their clients' interests. This does not come without checks, however, as private security personnel do not enjoy the benefit of civil protection, as public law enforcement officers do, and can be sued directly for false arrests and illegal actions if they commit such acts.

Some jurisdictions do commission or deputize security officers and give them limited additional powers, particularly when employed in protecting public property such as mass transit stations. This is a special case that is often unique to a particular jurisdiction or locale.

Some security officers with police powers, typically employed directly by governmental agencies, are called security police. Typically these are police whose duties primarily involve the security of a government installation, and are also a special case. Other municipalities have occasionally entered into special contracts with security agencies to provide patrol services in public areas and these personnel are sometimes referred to as Private Police Officers.

Sometimes police officers work as security personnel while not on duty. This is usually done for extra income, and work is particularly done in hazardous jobs such as bodyguard work and bouncers outside nightclubs. In some countries, including the United Kingdom, it is illegal for police officers to take private security work.

Except in these special cases, a security guard who misrepresents himself as a police officer is committing a crime. However, security personnel by their very nature often work in cooperation with police officials. Police are called in when a situation warrants a higher degree of authority to act upon reported observations of the security personnel that could not be directly acted upon safely by the security personnel.

In British Columbia, Canada contract Security Guards are NOT permitted to carry firearms(guns), batons, pepper spray, or handcuffs. ^{[citation needed]}The fine for doing so is $575,^{[citation needed]} and the possibility of losing their Security License. Provincial Inspectors, designated as Special Provincial Constables conduct inspections to ensure compliance with Provincial Regulations. "In-House" Security organizations, and their employees are currently exempt from Provincial Regulations. This means "In-House" Security Officers could, if permitted by their employer, carry and use handcuffs, and/or a baton. The Province of BC is currently re-drafting the provincial legislation to cover all security, and certain restrictions, as the current legislation is 26 years old. ^{[citation needed]}

Criticisms

The field of private contract security is often a low paying job, and as with any low paying job in many cases adequate background checks are not performed. But an exception is Armed Security where extensive background check must be performed per State, Federal and local laws and regulations for the purpose of issuing firearm permits. As well, many persons might engage in security work as a secondary job, which can reduce their level of dedication. ^[5] As well, many work double shifts (shifts of 16 to 24 hours), which can reduce effectiveness and attentiveness.

In British Columbia, Canada, the field of "In-House" Security usually pays more money per hour than it's contract counterpart. Contract Security usually pays their Guards between $9-14 per hour, while most "In-House" organizations pay their personnel between $14-21 per hour.

Economist Robert B. Reich, in his 1991 book The Work of Nations, stated that in the United States, the number of private security guards and officers was comparable to the number of publicly-paid police officers. He used this phenomenon as an example of the general withdrawal of the affluent from existing communities whose governments provide public services; instead, the wealthy provide their own premium services, through voluntary, exclusive associations. As taxpayer resistance has limited government budgets, and as the demand for secure homes in gated communities has grown, these trends have continued in the 1990's and 2000's.

History

The vigiles were soldiers assigned to guard the city of Rome, often credited as the origin of both security personnel and police, although their principal duty was as a fire brigade. There have been night watchmen since at least the Middle Ages in Europe; walled cities of ancient times also had watchmen. A special chair appeared in Europe sometime in the late Middle Ages, called the watchman's chair; this unupolstered wooden chair had a forward slanting seat to prevent the watchman from dozing off during his watch.

Notable security guards

The security guard Frank Wills detected the Watergate burglars, ultimately leading to the resignation of Richard M. Nixon as President of the United States.
Christoph Meili, night guard at a Swiss bank, became a whistle blower in 1997, bringing out that the bank destroyed records of holocaust victims whose money the bank was supposed to return their heirs.
In 2001, Gary Coleman, former child actor, was employed as a shopping mall security guard in the Los Angeles area. Whilst shopping for a bullet-proof vest for his job, Coleman assaulted a female autograph collector. Coleman said he felt "threatened by her insistence" and punched her in the head.[3] He was later charged for the assault and ordered to pay her $1,665 for hospital bills.
Derrick Brun, an unarmed security guard employed by the Red Lake School District in Minnesota, was praised by President Bush for his heroic role in the 2005 Red Lake High School Massacre: "Derrick's bravery cost him his life, and some Americans honor him... ...Although he was unarmed, Derrick ignored the pleas of a colleague to run for his life... ...by engaging the assailant; he bought vital time for a fellow security guard to rush a group of students to safety."
In 1980, musician John Lennon was fatally shot in front of his own apartment house, The Dakota, by a former security guard, Mark David Chapman.

Unionization

In June, 1947, the United States Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act placing many restrictions on labor unions. Section 9 (B) (3) of the act prevents the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) from certifying for collective bargaining any unit which mixes security employees with non-security employees. That restriction makes it illegal for security employees to join any union that also represents other types of employees. They may only be part of an independent, "security-only" union, not affiliated with any coalition of other types of labor unions such as the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO).

Two of the largest security unions are the Security, Police, and Fire Professionals of America (SPFPA) and the United Government Security Officers of America (UGSOA).

In 1948 with the Taft-Hartley restrictions well into effect, the Detroit, Michigan area security guards of United Auto Workers (UAW) Amalgamated Local 114 were forced to break away and start a separate "Plant Guards Organizing Committee". The NLRB ruled that as an affiliate of the CIO, the committee was indirectly affiliated with production unions and therefore ineligible for certification under the new restrictions. The committee was then forced to completely withdraw from the CIO and start the independent United Plant Guard Workers of America. By the 1990s, this union had evolved to include many other types of security officers and changed its name to the SPFPA.

In 1992, the USGOA was formed. It specializes in organizing federal, state, and local government security officers, but since May, 2000 has been open to representing other types of security personnel as well.

There is controversy surrounding recent efforts by certain unions to become involved in the security industry, such as the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) because it primarily represents janitors, trash collectors, and other building service employees.

Depending on individual locations & companies, Security Officers in Canada are part of the United Food and Commercial Workers Union (UFCW Local 333) or the United Steelworkers Union (the Canadian wing of the United Steelworkers Union of America (USWA)). In contrast to the union restrictions in the United States, Canadian security officers may be in a Canadian Labour Congress (CLC)-affiliated union or in the same union with other classifications of employees.

Global Secure Systems

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 13:31:00 +0000

Global Secure Systems is a hands-on IT security consultancy and managed service provider with a list of blue-chip clients and business partners.

Prior to April 2001 Global Secure Systems Ltd operated under the company name of Global Technology Associates Ltd (GTA). GTA started providing security products and services in the UK in 1997. Since then, the company has become best known for the GNAT Box firewall family, a product devised and developed by Florida-based GTA, Inc. The GTA branding however, become a victim of the product's tremendous success: the general attitude to the GTA name has been "You're the GNAT Box people, aren't you"?

GTA gained a wider recognition within the UK security market place for their extensive product portfolio, and in April 2001 became Global Secure Systems Ltd (or GSS).

GSS has evolved into something that is more than just a IT Security distributor. GSS work with NHS Trusts, local government, central government, education, major financial institutions, travel, retail, manufacturing as well as small businesses.

GSS has exceptional vendor relationships with a history stretching beyond the standard vendor-reseller conformity. GSS were Websense partners before they were even called Websense and were also the first in the UK to provide clients with EMU (now SurfControl email).

Today there are several divisions within the group: Global Secure Systems for end-user sales; Global Secure Technical Services for managed technical services, penetration testing, configuration testing and training courses and G-Stor for storage solutions.

GSS & Carlin Motorsport

GSS have enjoyed a long relationship with Carlin Motorsport and have been commercial supporters of the team since it began. GSS supply the technology and expertise that ensures Calin's technical data is kept secure both at the track and at their factory in Aldershot.

Homeland security

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 13:21:00 +0000

Homeland security is the term generally used to refer to the broad national effort by all levels of government--federal, state, local and tribal--to protect the territory of the United States from hazards both internal and external, natural and man-made, as well as the Department of Homeland Security itself.

Homeland security is officially defined by the National Strategy for Homeland Security as "a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, reduce America's vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do occur," . Because the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) includes the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) it has responsibility for preparedness, response and recovery to natural disasters as well.

The term became prominent in the United States following the September 11, 2001 attacks; it had been used only in limited policy circles prior to these attacks.

Homeland security is generally used to refer to the broad national effort by all levels of government--federal, state, local and tribal--to protect the territory of the United States from hazards both internal and external as well as the Department of Homeland Security itself.

Homeland security is also usually used to connote the civilian aspect of this effort; "homeland defense" refers to its military component, led chiefly by the US Northern Command headquartered in Colorado Springs, Colo.

The scope of homeland security includes:

Emergency preparedness and response (for both terrorism and natural disasters), including volunteer medical, police, Emergency Management and fire personnel;
Domestic intelligence activities, largely today within the FBI;
Critical infrastructure protection;
Border security, including both land and maritime borders;
Transportation security, including aviation and maritime transportation;
Biodefense;
Detection of nuclear and radiological materials;
Research on next-generation security technologies.

Criticism

Homeland security both as a concept and in its application has been criticized on a number of counts, the more important of those being

Conflicts, real and perceived, exist between the Constitution, textually, and its historical interpretation, on one hand, and laws and procedures implemented as part of "Homeland Security", most importantly around the rights of citizens to privacy and protection from arbitrary searches and seizures
Conflict exist between bodies of international law, both ratified by the United States and not, and ideas, procedures and actions covered under the broad umbrella of "Homeland Security". Most important among these
- The notion of "unlawful combatant". The United States Government has attempted to create a new notion that would somehow extract individuals captured by a military force from under the protection of the Geneva Convention. While the United States has only been a signatory to portions of the Geneva Convention, most international law is squarely based on it, and argument can been brought that by benefiting from the workings of international law, the US Government is vicariously bound by the documents on which that law rests.
- Undercover action of agents of the US Government in foreign, sovereign countries, whether with or without the knowledge of the respective foreign governments poses serious legal problems, especially in countries that practice a separation of legal and administrative systems. Occasionally such agents are held to appear before courts, a situation which the US Government prefers to not conceive, mostly because it has no theoretical solution, although in practice a political solution can sometimes be achieved.
While the costs of "Homeland Security" can be estimated with some accuracy, it is inherently impossible to gauge the benefits incurred. There are those who argue that the entire effort is misplaced and misled, and has no positive effect whatsoever. It is certainly true that the effort has no demonstrable positive effect, but it can be argued that it necessarily would not, by its nature. The point is sometimes carried further, considering "Homeland Security" a form of security theater, not directed at any positive results, but merely at giving the population the impression that work is being done, on the social engineering view that such display of work will have a calming effect through false induction, "work is being done so positive results are being obtained". It can be argued such calming effect is in fact a positive result, being a natural antagonism of terror, which is presumably the motive of terrorists.

In the United States

In the United States, the concept of "homeland security" extends and recombines responsibilities of much of the executive branch, including the National Guard, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the United States Coast Guard, the former Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), the former U.S. Customs Service, the Secret Service, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA). The George W. Bush administration has consolidated many of these activities under the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS), a new cabinet department established as a result of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. However, much of the nation's homeland security activity remains outside of DHS; for example, the FBI and CIA are not part of the Department, and other agencies such as the Department of Defense and Department of Health and Human Services play a significant role in certain aspects of homeland security. Homeland security is coordinated at the White House by the Homeland Security Council, currently headed by Frances Townsend. Homeland security is the term generally used to refer to the broad national effort by all levels of government--federal, state, local and tribal--to protect the territory of the United States from hazards both internal and external, natural and man-made, as well as the Department of Homeland Security itself.

Homeland security is officially defined by the National Strategy for Homeland Security [1] as "a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, reduce America's vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do occur," . Because the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) includes the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) it has responsibility for preparedness, response and recovery to natural disasters as well.

The term became prominent in the United States following the September 11, 2001 attacks; it had been used only in limited policy circles prior to these attacks.

The scope of homeland security includes:

Emergency preparedness and response (for both terrorism and natural disasters), including volunteer medical, police, Emergency Management and fire personnel; Domestic intelligence activities, largely today within the FBI; Critical infrastructure protection; Border security, including both land and maritime borders; Transportation security, including aviation and maritime transportation; Biodefense; Detection of nuclear and radiological materials; Research on next-generation security technologies.

Outside the United States

Other nations around the world have also reorganized government activities consistent with homeland security. For example, in 2003 Canada created a Ministry of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness led by Deputy Prime Minister Anne McLellan. Many European nations' homeland security efforts are led by their interior ministries, and they are increasingly coordinating their homeland security activities at the European Commission. The Labor Party in Australia has called for the creation of an Australian Department of Homeland Security, but the Liberal Party-led government has opposed this move. Similarly, the Conservative Party opposition in the United Kingdom has called for the creation of a Department of Homeland Security.

Password security

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 13:07:00 +0000

A password is a form of secret authentication data that is used to control access to a resource. The password is kept secret from those not allowed access, and those wishing to gain access are tested on whether or not they know the password and are granted or denied access accordingly.

The use of passwords goes back to ancient times. Sentries guarding a location would challenge for a password. They would only allow a person in if they knew the password. In modern times, passwords are used to control access to protected computer operating systems, mobile phones, cable TV decoders, automated teller machines (ATMs), etc. A typical computer user may require passwords for many purposes: logging in to computer accounts, retrieving email from servers, accessing files, databases, networks, web sites, and even reading the morning newspaper online.

Despite the name, there is no need for passwords to be actual words; indeed passwords which are not actual words are harder to guess (a desirable property), but are generally harder for users to remember (an undesirable property). Note that password is often used to describe what would be more accurately called a passphrase. Passcode is sometimes taken to imply that the information used is purely numeric, such as the personal identification number (PIN) commonly used for ATM access. Passwords are generally short enough to be memorized.

Designing a personal, user-friendly password

Passwords vary in the degree of public awareness, security protection and frequency of change. The most public, and therefore least secure, password might be one that is given to members of a group, a committee or some other organization. For instance, "publiclibrary", "internet" or "AAAfinancecommittee" are all examples of easily remembered passwords, more or less publicly known passwords.

Less easily attacked passwords might be built from such a basic form, for instance, "smith12nov34street" or "AAAchairpersonSUE". These are slightly more secure, but being relatively easily predictable should not be relied upon to actually block unauthorized access. Effective access control requires passwords which are more difficult to guess or to find automatically, less publicly known (ideally not at all), and these are the subject of much of the rest of this article.

Security and convenience

In controlling access to anything, trade-offs are made between security and convenience. If a resource is protected by a password, then security is increased with a consequent loss of convenience for users. The amount of security and inconvenience inherent in a particular password system or policy are affected by several factors addressed below. However, there is generally no one universal 'best' way to set a balance between security and convenience for all cases.

Some password protected systems pose little or no risk to a user if compromised, for example a password allowing access to a free information web site with no confidential data. Others pose modest economic or privacy risk, as for instance a password used to access e-mail or a security lock code for a mobile telephone. Still others could have very serious consequences if compromised, such as passwords used to limit access to AIDS treatment records, control a power transmission grid, or access to personnel records (consider the risk of identity theft in this instance).

Factors in the security of a password system

The security of a password-protected system depends on several factors. The system must, of course, be designed for sound overall security, without which no password protection can have any significance. Early passwords on many systems were limited to a few numbers, or upper-case-letters, only often in prescribed patterns limiting the number of possible passwords. Most passwords today usually have fewer such limits. User input is determined by several limiting factors: allowable inputs (numbers / letters, non-visual codes and/or other keys / device inputs), minimum & maximum of time required for input, availability of cut / delete / paste / copy for input, and error/noise tolerance errors in the password or communications input. Some system administrators also enforce other limitations on passwords, such as compulsory change schedules, safe-password analysis feedback, and compulsory length / composition limits. See computer security and computer insecurity.

Here are some password management issues that must be considered:

Rate at which an attacker can try out guessed passwords

The rate at which an attacker can submit guessed passwords to the system is a key factor in determining system security. Some systems impose a long time out (several seconds) after a small number (e.g., a maximum of three) of failed password entry attempts. Absent other vulnerabilities, such systems can be secure with relatively simple passwords, if they are not easily guessed. Examples of passwords that are easily guessed include the name of a relative or pet, an automobile license plate number, and such default passwords as admin, 123456, or letmein.

Other systems store or transmit a cryptographic hash of the password in a manner that makes the hash value accessible to an attacker. When this is done, and it is very common (to most observers' surprise or despair), an attacker can work off-line, rapidly testing candidate passwords against the true password's hash value.

Lists of common passwords are widely available and can further speed the process. (See Password cracking.) A sufficiently complex password used in a system with a good hash algorithm can defeat such attacks as the work factor imposed on such an attacker can be made impossible in practice. Passwords that are used to generate cryptographic keys, e.g. for disk encryption or Wi-Fi security, are also subject to high rate guessing. Stronger passwords are needed in such systems.

Form of stored passwords

Some computer systems store passwords, against which to compare user attempts, as cleartext. If an attacker gains access to such an internal password file, all passwords would be compromised. If some users employ the same password for multiple accounts, those will be compromised as well. More secure systems store each password in a cryptographically protected form, so access to the actual password will be difficult for a snooper who gains internal access to the system, while validation still remains possible.

Email is sometimes used to distribute passwords. Since most email is sent as cleartext, it is available without effort during transport to any eavesdropper. Further, it will be stored on at least two computers as cleartext -- the sender's and the receipients's. If it passes through intermediate systems during its travels, it will likely be stored on those as well. Emailed passwords are generally an insecure method of distribution.

A common cryptographically based scheme stores only a "hashed" form of the plaintext password. When a user types in a password on such a system, it is run through the hashing algorithm, and if the hash value generated from the user's entry matches the hash stored in the password database, the user is permitted access. The hash value is created by applying a cryptographic hash function to a string consisting of the submitted password and, usually, another value known as a salt. The salt prevents attackers from building a list of hash values for common passwords. MD5 and SHA1 are frequently used cryptographic hash functions. A modified version of DES was used in early Unix systems.

The UNIX DES function was iterated to make the hash function slow, to further frustrate automated guessing attacks, and used the password candidate as a key to encrypt a fixed value, thus blocking yet another attack on the password hashing system. A more flexible function for iterated hashed passwords is described in PKCS-5.

If the hash function is well designed, it will be computationally infeasible to reverse it to find the plaintext directly. However, many systems do not protect their hashed passwords adequately, and if an attacker can gain access to hashed values he can use widely available tools which compare the encrypted outcome of every word from some collection, such as a dictionary. Long lists of possible passwords in many languages are widely available (eg, on the Internet) and the tools try common variations as well. The existence of these dictionary attack tools demonstrates the relative strengths of different password choices against such attacks. Use of a key derivation function can reduce this risk.

A poorly designed hash function can make attacks feasible even if a strong password is chosen. See LM hash for a widely deployed example.

Methods of verifying a password over a network

A variety of methods have been used to verify passwords in a network setting:

Simple transmission of the password

Passwords can be vulnerable to interception (ie, "snooping") while being transmitted to the authenticating machine or person. If the password is carried as electrical signals on unsecured physical wiring between the user access point and the central system controlling the password database, it is subject to snooping by wiretapping methods. If it is carried as packetitzed data over the Internet, anyone able to watch the packets containing the logon information can snoop with a very low probability of detection.

An example of cleartext transmission of passwords is this website. When you log into your Wikipedia account (if you are not an administrator) your username and password are sent from your computer through the Internet via cleartext. Anyone can read them in transit and potentially log into your account. But because anyone can gain access to the site—without logging in—there is little need to encrypt transmissions.

Another example of transmission vulnerability is email. Emailed passwords may be read by anyone with access to the transmission medium. Using client-side encryption will only protect transmission from the POP server to the client. Previous or subsequent relays of the email will not be protected and the email will be stored on multiple computers in cleartext.

Transmission through encrypted channels

The risk of interception of passwords sent over the Internet can be reduced by, among other approaches, using the Transport Layer Security (TLS, previously called SSL) feature built into many Internet browsers. Most browsers display a closed lock icon when TLS is in use. See cryptography for other ways in which the passing of information can be made more secure.

Hash-based challenge-response methods

Unfortunately, there is a conflict between stored hashed-passwords and hash-based challenge-response authentication; the latter requires a client to prove to a server that he knows what the shared secret (ie, password) is, and to do this, the server must be able to obtain the shared secret from its stored form. On Unix-type systems doing remote authentication, the shared secret usually becomes the hashed form and has the serious limitation of exposing passwords to offline guessing attacks.

Zero-knowledge password proofs

Rather than transmitting the password, password-authenticated key agreement systems can perform a zero-knowledge password proof, which proves knowledge of the password without exposing it.

Moving a step further, augmented systems for password-authenticated key agreement (e.g. AMP, B-SPEKE, PAK-Z, SRP-6) avoid both the conflict and limitation of hash-based methods; An augmented system allows a client to prove knowledge of the password to a server, where the server knows only a (not exactly) hashed password, and where the unhashed password is required to gain access.

Procedures for changing passwords

Usually, a system must provide a way to change a password, either because a user believes the current password has been (or might have been) compromised, or as a precautionary measure. If a new password is passed to the system in an unencrypted form, security can be lost (e.g., via wiretapping) even before the new password can even be installed in the password database. If the new password is given to a compromised employee, little is gained. Some web sites include the user-selected password in an unencrypted confirmation e-mail message, with the obvious increased vulnerability.

Identity management systems are increasingly used to automate issuance of replacements for lost passwords, a feature called self service password reset. The user's identity is verified by asking questions and comparing the answers to ones previously stored (ie, at account initialization). Typical questions include "Where were you born?," "What is your favorite movie?" or "What is the name of your pet?" In many cases the answers to these questions can be relatively easily guessed, determined by research, or obtained through social engineering, and so this is less than reliable as a verification technique. While many users have been trained never to reveal a password, few consider the name of their favorite movie to require similar care.

Password longevity

"Password aging" is a feature of some operating systems which forces users to change passwords frequently (eg, quarterly, monthly or even more often), thus ensuring that a stolen password will become unusable more or less quickly. Most users are not so familiar with passwords and computers as to be comfortable with this, so such policies usually earn some protest and foot-dragging at best and hostility at worst. These features are therefore not always used. In any case, the security benefits are limited because attackers often exploit a password as soon as it is compromised. In many cases, particularly with administrative or "root" accounts, once an attacker has gained access, he can make alterations to the operating system that will allow him future access even after the initial password he used expires (one example of this is a rootkit).

Forcing password change too frequently may make users more likely to forget which password is current, and there is a consequent temptation for users to either write their password down or to reuse an earlier password, which may negate any added security benefit. Implementing such a policy requires careful consideration of the relevant human factors.

Number of users per password

Sometimes a single password controls access to a device, for example, for a network router, or password-protected mobile phone. However, in the case of a computer system, a password is usually stored for each user name, thus making all access traceable (save, of course, in the case of users sharing passwords). A would-be user must give a name as well as a password. If the user supplies a password matching the one stored for the supplied user name, he or she is permitted further access into the computer system. This is also the case for a cash machine, except that the user name is the account number stored on the bank customer's card, and the PIN is usually quite short (4 to 6 digits).

Allotting separate passwords to each user of a system is preferable to having a single password shared by legitimate users of the system, certainly from a security viewpoint. This is partly because users are more willing to tell another person (who may not be authorized) a shared password than one exclusively for their use. Single passwords are also much less convenient to change because many people need to be told at the same time, and they make removal of a particular user's access more difficult. Per-user passwords are also essential if users are to be held accountable for their activities, such as making financial transactions or viewing medical records.

Design of the protected software

Common techniques used to improve the security of software systems protected by a password include:

not echoing the password on the display screen as it is being entered or obscuring it as it is typed by using asterisks or circular blobs
allowing passwords of adequate length (some Unix systems limited passwords to 8 characters).
requiring users to re-enter their password after a period of inactivity
enforcing a password policy to ensure strong passwords
requiring periodic password changes
assigning passwords at random
providing an alternative to keyboard entry
using encrypted tunnels or password-authenticated key agreement to prevent network attacks on transmitted passwords

Some of the more stringent policy enforcement measures can pose a risk of alienating users, possibly decreasing security.

Factors in the security of an individual password

Studies of production computer systems have for decades consistently shown that about 40% of all user-chosen passwords are readily guessed automatically, and still more with some individual research regarding a particular user. Password strength is the likelihood that a password cannot be guessed or discovered by an unauthorized person or computer. Passwords easily guessed are termed weak or vulnerable; passwords very difficult or impossible to guess are considered strong.

Alternatives to passwords for access control

The numerous ways in which reusable passwords can be compromised has prompted the development of other techniques. Unfortunately, few of them have become universally available for users seeking a more secure alternative.

Single-use passwords. Having passwords which are only valid once makes many potential attacks ineffective. Most users find single use passwords extremely inconvenient. They have, however, been widely implemented in personal online banking, where they are known as TANs. As most home users only perform a small number of transactions each week, the single use issue has not lead to significant customer dissatisfaction in this case.
Security tokens are similar to single-use passwords, but the value to be entered is displayed on a small fob and changes every minute or so.
Access controls based on public key cryptography e.g. ssh. The necessary keys are too large to memorize (but see proposal Passmaze) and must be stored on a local computer, security token or portable memory device, such as a flash disk or floppy disk.
Biometric methods promise authentication based on unalterable personal characteristics, but currently (2005) have high error rates and require additional hardware to scan, for example, fingerprints, irises, etc. They have proven easy to spoof in some famous incidents testing commercially available systems and, because these characteristics are unalterable, they cannot be changed if compromised, a highly important consideration in access control as a compromised access token is necessarily insecure.
Single sign-on technology is claimed to eliminate the need for having multiple passwords. Such schemes do not relieve user and administrators from choosing reasonable single passwords, nor system designers or administrators from ensuring that private access control information passed among systems enabling single sign-on is secure against attack. As yet, no satisfactory standard has been developed.
Non-text-based passwords, such as graphical passwords or mouse-movement based passwords.[3] Another system requires users to select a series of faces as a password, utilizing the human brain's ability to recall faces easily.[4]

Graphical passwords are an alternative means of authentication for log-in intended to be used in place of conventional password; they utilize images instead of text. In many implementations, the user is required to pick from a series of images in the correct sequence in order to gain access.

While some believe that graphical passwords would be harder to crack, others suggest that people will be just as likely to pick common images or sequences as they are to pick common passwords.^{[citation needed]}

Website password systems

Passwords are used on websites to authenticate users and are usually server-side, meaning the browser sends the password to the server (by HTTP POST), the server checks the password and sends back the relevant content (or an access denied message). This process eliminates the possibility of local reverse engineering as the code used to authenticate the password does not reside on the local machine.

The transmission of the password through the browser in plaintext means it can be intercepted along its journey to the server. Most web authentication systems use SSL to establish an encrypted session between the browser and the server. This is done automatically by the browser and ensures integrity of the session.

So-called website password and membership management systems often involve the use of Java or JavaScript code existing on the client side (meaning the visitor's web browser) HTML source code (for example, AuthPro). Drawbacks to such systems are the relative ease in bypassing or circumventing the protection by switching off JavaScript and Meta redirects in the browser, thereby gaining access to the protected web page. Others take advantage of server-side scripting languages such as ASP or PHP to authenticate users on the server before delivering the source code to the browser. Popular systems such as Sentry Login and Password Sentry take advantage of technology in which web pages are protected using such scripting language code snippets placed in front of the HTML code in the web page source saved in the appropriate extension on the server, such as .asp or .php. For additional security, many of the larger websites, such as Yahoo and Google, use the Python programming language for controlling and maintaining secrecy of the pages they dynamically serve to the browser and completely obfuscate any reference to file names in the URL that appears in the address window of the browser.

False security

It is customary to design password-verification systems such that the user cannot see what he/she types: instead of echoing the characters typed, a series of question marks or asterisks is displayed.This may have been a good idea once—in the days of UNIX time-sharing systems, where users talked to a computer via terminals, or in terminals or computers shared by many users, as in libraries, where it is actually possible for someone to look over the user's shoulder—but it has significant disadvantages. Most importantly, if a person makes a typing mistake once, he/she is likely to make it twice, unless he/she can actually see what characters were typed: muscles tend to repeat themselves. In the worst case, this can happen when the user is initially creating a password and is required to type it twice. A person who twice typed a password that is different from the intended one will never be able to use it: this is a common reason for a user to get an "invalid password" error every time he/she tries to log in. Unfortunately, this a common occurrence, and it is an occurrence that is an inevitable result of misguided design principles.

Password cracking

Attempting to crack passwords by trying as many possibilities as time and money permit is a brute force attack. A related method, rather more efficient in most cases, is a dictionary attack. In a dictionary attack, all words in one or more dictionaries are tested.

There are several programs available for password auditing and recovery such as L0phtCrack, John the Ripper, and Cain; some of which use password design vulnerabilities (as in the Microsoft LANManager system) to increase efficiency. Some are useful to system administrators as any password which can be found using one of these programs is most definitely a weak password and should be rejected as an unacceptable password choice.

According to Bruce Schneier, the most commonly used password is password1. ^[1]

History of passwords

Passwords or watchwords have been used since ancient times. Polybius describes the system for distribution watchwords in the Roman military as follows:

The way in which they secure the passing round of the watchword for the night is as follows: from the tenth maniple of each class of infantry and cavalry, the maniple which is encamped at the lower end of the street, a man is chosen who is relieved from guard duty, and he attends every day at sunset at the tent of the tribune, and receiving from him the watchword - that is a wooden tablet with the word inscribed on it - takes his leave, and on returning to his quarters passes on the watchword and tablet before witnesses to the commander of the next maniple, who in turn passes it to the one next him. All do the same until it reaches the first maniples, those encamped near the tents of the tribunes. These latter are obliged to deliver the tablet to the tribunes before dark. So that if all those issued are returned, the tribune knows that the watchword has been given to all the maniples, and has passed through all on its way back to him. If any one of them is missing, he makes inquiry at once, as he knows by the marks from what quarter the tablet has not returned, and whoever is responsible for the stoppage meets with the punishment he merits.

Passwords have been used with computers since the earliest days of computing. MIT's CTSS, one of the first time sharing systems, was introduced in 1961. It had a LOGIN command that requested a user password. "After typing PASSWORD, the system turns off the printing mechanism, if possible, so that the user may type in his password with privacy." ^[3] Robert Morris invented the idea of storing login passwords in a hashed form as part of the Unix operating system. His algorithm, know as crypt(3), used a 12-bit salt and invoked a modified form of the DES algorithm 25 times to reduce the risk of dictionary attacks.

Wireless security

noreply@blogger.com (padma) — Sun, 09 Sep 2007 12:43:00 +0000

Security risks

The risks to users of wireless technology have increased as the service has become more popular. There were relatively few dangers when wireless technology was first introduced. Crackers had not yet had time to latch on to the new technology and wireless was not commonly found in the work place. However, there are a great number of security risks associated with the current wireless protocols and encryption methods, and in the carelessness and ignorance that exists at the user and corporate IT level. Cracking methods have become much more sophisticated and innovative with wireless. Cracking has also become much easier and more accessible with easy-to-use Windows-based and Linux-based tools being made available on the web at no charge.

Wireless being used to crack into non-wireless networks

Some organizations that have no wireless access points installed do not feel that they need to address wireless security concerns. In-Stat MDR and META Group have estimated that 95% of all corporate laptop computers that were planned to be purchased in 2005 were equipped with wireless. Issues can arise in a supposedly non-wireless organization when a wireless laptop is plugged into the corporate network. A cracker could sit out in the parking lot and break in through the wireless card on a laptop and gain access to the wired network.

Types of unauthorized access to company networks

Accidental association

Unauthorized access to company wireless and wired networks can come from a number of different methods and intents. One of these methods is referred to as “accidental association”. When a user turns on a computer and it latches on to a wireless access point from a neighboring company’s overlapping network, the user may not even know that this has occurred. However, it is a security breach in that proprietary company information is exposed and now there could exist a link from one company to the other. This is especially true if the laptop is also hooked to a wired network.

Malicious association

“Malicious associations” are when wireless devices can be actively made by crackers to connect to a company network through their cracking laptop instead of a company access point (AP). These types of laptops are known as “soft APs” and are created when a cracker runs some software that makes his/her wireless network card look like a legitimate access point. Once the cracker has gained access, he/she can steal passwords, launch attacks on the wired network, or plant trojans. Since wireless networks operate at the Layer-2 level, Layer-3 protections such as network authentication and virtual private networks (VPNs) offer no barrier. Wireless 802.1x authentications do help with protection but are still vulnerable to cracking. The idea behind this type of attack may not be to break into a VPN or other security measures. Most likely the cracker is just trying to take over the client at the Layer-2 level.

Ad-hoc networks

Ad-hoc networks can pose a security threat. Ad-hoc networks are defined as peer-to-peer networks between wireless computers that do not have an access point in between them. While these types of networks usually have little protection, encryption methods can be used to provide security.

Non-traditional networks

Non-traditional networks such as personal network Bluetooth devices are not safe from cracking and should be regarded as a security risk. Even barcode readers, handheld PDAs, and wireless printers and copiers should be secured. These non-traditional networks can be easily overlooked by IT personnel who have narrowly focused on laptops and access points.

Identity theft (MAC spoofing)

Identity theft (or MAC spoofing) occurs when a cracker is able to listen in on network traffic and identify the MAC address of a computer with network privileges. Most wireless systems allow some kind of MAC filtering to only allow authorized computers with specific MAC IDs to gain access and utilize the network. However, a number of programs exist that have network “sniffing” capabilities. Combine these programs with other software that allow a computer to pretend it has any MAC address that the cracker desires, and the cracker can easily get around that hurdle.

Man-in-the-middle attacks

A man-in-the-middle attacker entices computers to log into a computer which is set up as a soft AP (Access Point). Once this is done, the hacker connects to a real access point through another wireless card offering a steady flow of traffic through the transparent hacking computer to the real network. The hacker can then sniff the traffic. One type of man-in-the-middle attack relies on security faults in challenge and handshake protocols to execute a “de-authentication attack”. This attack forces AP-connected computers to drop their connections and reconnect with the cracker’s soft AP. Man-in-the-middle attacks are enhanced by software such as LANjack and AirJack, which automate multiple steps of the process. What once required some skill can now be done by script kiddies. Hotspots are particularly vulnerable to any attack since there is little to no security on these networks.

Denial of service

A Denial-of-Service attack (DoS) occurs when an attacker continually bombards a targeted AP (Access Point) or network with bogus requests, premature successful connection messages, failure messages, and/or other commands. These cause legitimate users to not be able to get on the network and may even cause the network to crash. These attacks rely on the abuse of protocols such as the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP).

Network injection

In a network injection attack, a cracker can make use of access points that are exposed to non-filtered network traffic, specifically broadcast network traffic such as “Spanning Tree” (802.1D), OSPF, RIP, and HSRP. The cracker injects bogus networking re-configuration commands that affect routers, switches, and intelligent hubs. A whole network can be brought down in this manner and require rebooting or even reprogramming of all intelligent networking devices.

Counteracting risks

Risks from crackers are sure to remain with us for any foreseeable future. The challenge for IT personnel will be to keep one step ahead of crackers. Members of the IT field need to keep learning about the types of attacks and what counter measures are available.

Methods of counteracting security risks

There are many technologies available to counteract wireless network intrusion, but currently no method is absolutely secure. The best strategy may be to combine a number of security measures.

There are three steps to take towards securing a wireless network:

All wireless LAN devices need to be secured
All users of the wireless network need to be educated in wireless network security
All wireless networks need to be actively monitored for weaknesses and breaches

MAC ID filtering

Most wireless access points contain some type of MAC ID filtering that allows the administrator to only permit access to computers that have wireless functionalities that contain certain MAC IDs. This can be helpful; however, it must be remembered that MAC IDs over a network can be faked. Cracking utilities such as SMAC are widely available, and some computer hardware also gives the option in the BIOS to select any desired MAC ID for its built in network capability.

Static IP Addressing

Disabling at least the IP Address assignment function of the network's DHCP server, with the IP addresses of the various network devices then set by hand, will also make it more difficult for a casual or unsophisticated intruder to log onto the network. This is especially effective if the subnet size is also reduced from a standard default setting to what is absolutely necessary and if permitted but unused IP addresses are blocked by the access point's firewall. In this case, where no unused IP addresses are available, a new user can log on without detection using TCP/IP only if he or she stages a successful Man in the Middle Attack using appropriate software.

WEP encryption

WEP stands for Wired Equivalency Privacy. This encryption standard was the original encryption standard for wireless. As its name implies, this standard was intended to make wireless networks as secure as wired networks. Unfortunately, this never happened as flaws were quickly discovered and exploited. There are several Open Source utilities like aircrack-ng, weplab, WEPCrack or airsnort that can be used by crackers to break in by examining packets and looking for patterns in the encryption. WEP comes in different key sizes. The common key lengths are currently 128- and 256-bit. The longer the better as it will increase the difficulty for crackers. However, this type of encryption has seen its day come and go. In 2005 a group from the FBI held a demonstration where they used publicly available tools to break a WEP encrypted network in three minutes. WEP protection is better than nothing, though generally not as secure as the more sophisticated WPA-PSK encryption. A big problem is that if a cracker can receive packets on a network, it is only a matter of time until the WEP encryption is cracked.

WPA

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) is an early version of the 802.11i security standard that was developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance to replace WEP. The TKIP encryption algorithm was developed for WPA to provide improvements to WEP that could be fielded as firmware upgrades to existing 802.11 devices. The WPA profile also provides optional support for the AES-CCMP algorithm that is the preferred algorithm in 802.11i and WPA2.

WPA Enterprise provides RADIUS based authentication using 802.1x. WPA Personal uses a pre-shared Shared Key (PSK) to establish the security using an 8 to 63 character passphrase. The PSK may also be entered as a 64 character hexadecimal string. Weak PSK passphrases can be broken using off-line dictionary attacks by capturing the messages in the four-way exchange when the client reconnects after being deauthenticated. Wireless suites such as aircrack-ng can crack a weak passphrase in less than a minute. WPA Personal is secure when used with ‘good’ passphrases or a full 64-character hexadecimal key.

WPA2

WPA2 is a WiFi Alliance branded version of the final 802.11i standard. The primary enhancement over WPA is the inclusion of the AES-CCMP algorithm as a mandatory feature. Both WPA and WPA2 support EAP authentication methods using RADIUS servers and preshared key (PSK) based security.

802.1X

This is an IEEE standard for access of wireless and wired LANs. It provides for authentication and authorization of LAN nodes. This standard defines the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) which uses a central authentication server. Unfortunately, during 2002 a Maryland professor discovered some shortcomings.

LEAP

This stands for the Lightweight Extensible Authentication Protocol. This protocol is based on 802.1X and helps minimize the original security flaws by using WEP and a sophisticated key management system. This also uses MAC address authentication. LEAP is not safe from crackers. THC-LeapCracker can be used to break Cisco’s version of LEAP and be used against computers connected to an access point in the form of a dictionary attack.

PEAP

This stands for Protected Extensible Authentication Protocol. This protocol allows for a secure transport of data, passwords, and encryption keys without the need of a certificate server. This was developed by Cisco, Microsoft, and RSA Security.

TKIP

This stands for Temporal Key Integrity Protocol and the acronym is pronounced as tee-kip. This is part of the IEEE 802.11i standard. TKIP implements per-packet key mixing with a re-keying system and also provides a message integrity check. These avoid the problems of WEP.

RADIUS

This stands for Remote Authentication Dial In User Service. This is an AAA (authentication, authorization and accounting) protocol used for remote network access. This service provides an excellent weapon against crackers. RADIUS was originally proprietary but was later published under ISOC documents RFC 2138 and RFC 2139. The idea is to have an inside server act as a gatekeeper through the use of verifying identities through a username and password that is already pre-determined by the user. A RADIUS server can also be configured to enforce user policies and restrictions as well as recording accounting information such as time connected for billing purposes.

WAPI

This stands for WLAN Authentication and Privacy Infrastructure. This is a wireless security standard defined by the Chinese government.

Smart cards, USB tokens, and software tokens

This is a very high form of security. When combined with some server software, the hardware or software card or token will use its internal identity code combined with a user entered PIN to create a powerful algorithm that will very frequently generate a new encryption code. The server will be time synced to the card or token. This is a very secure way to conduct wireless transmissions. Companies in this area make USB tokens, software tokens, and smart cards. They even make hardware versions that double as an employee picture badge. Currently the safest security measures are the smart cards / USB tokens. However, these are expensive. The next safest methods are WPA2 or WPA with a RADIUS server. Any one of the three will provide a good base foundation for security. The third item on the list is to educate both employees and contractors on security risks and personal preventive measures. It is also IT's task to keep the company workers' knowledge base up-to-date on any new dangers that they should be cautious about. If the employees are educated, there will be a much lower chance that anyone will accidentally cause a breach in security by not locking down their laptop or bring in a wide open home access point to extend their mobile range. Employees need to be made aware that company laptop security extends to outside of their site walls as well. This includes places such as coffee houses where workers can be at their most vulnerable. The last item on the list deals with 24/7 active defense measures to ensure that the company network is secure and compliant. This can take the form of regularly looking at access point, server, and firewall logs to try and detect any unusual activity. For instance, if any large files went through an access point in the early hours of the morning, a serious investigation into the incident would be called for. There are a number of software and hardware devices that can be used to supplement the usual logs and usual other safety measures.

Steps in securing a wireless network

The following are some basic steps that are recommended to be taken to secure a wireless network; in order of importance:

Turn on encryption. WPA2 encryption should be used if possible. WPA encryption is the next best alternative, and WEP is better than nothing.
Change the default password needed to access a wireless device — Default passwords are set by the manufacturer and are known by crackers. By changing the password you can prevent crackers from accessing and changing your network settings.
Change the default SSID, or network name — Crackers know the default names of the different brands of equipment, and use of a default name suggests that the network has not been secured. Change it to something that will make it easier for users to find the correct network. You may wish to use a name that will not be associated with the owner in order to avoid being specifically targeted.
Disable file and print sharing if it is not needed — this can limit a cracker's ability to steal data or commandeer resources in the event that they get past the encryption.
Access points should be arranged to provide radio coverage only to the desired area if possible. Any wireless signal that spills outside of the desired area could provide an opportunity for a cracker to access the network without entering the premises. Directional antennas should be used, if possible, at the perimeter directing their broadcasting inward. Some access points allow the signal strength to be reduced in order to minimise such signal leakage.
Divide the wired and wireless portions of the network into different segments, with a firewall in between. This can prevent a cracker from accessing a wired network by breaking into the wireless network.
Implement an overlay Wireless intrusion prevention system to monitor the wireless spectrum 24x7 against active attacks and unauthorized devices such as Rogue Access Points. These systems can detect and stop the most subtle or brute force methods of wireless attacks, and provide you with deep visibility into the use and performance of the WLAN.

Here are some often-recommended security steps that are not usually of any benefit against experienced crackers (they will however prevent the larger group of inexperienced users from gaining access to your network easily, should they find your password). These are:

Disabling the SSID broadcast option — Theoretically, hiding the SSID will prevent unauthorized users from finding the network. In fact, while it will prevent opportunistic users from finding the network, any serious cracker can simply scan your other network traffic to find the SSID. It will also make it harder for legitimate users to connect to the network, since they must know the SSID in advance and type it in to their equipment. Hiding the SSID will not prevent anyone from reading the data that is transmitted, only encryption will do that.

Enabling MAC address filtering — MAC address filtering will prevent casual users from connecting to your network by maintaining a list of MAC addresses that are allowed access, (or not) but a serious cracker will simply scan your network traffic to find a MAC address that is allowed access, then change their equipment to use that address. Any new equipment will require another MAC address to be added to the list before it can be connected. Again, enabling MAC address filtering will not prevent anyone from reading the data that is transmitted without encryption.

Mobile Devices and Wireless IPS

With increasing number of mobile devices with 802.1x interfaces, security of such mobile devices becomes a concern. While open standards such as Kismet [external link] is targeted towards securing laptops, access points solutions should extend towards covering mobile devices also. Host based solutions for mobile handsets and pda's with 802.1x interface.

Security within mobile devices fall under two categories:

Protecting against ad-hoc networks
Connecting to rogue access points
Mutual authentication schemes such as wpa2 as described above

It should be noted that wireless ips alone does not gurantee complete security on a device. Its part of a bigger solution.