<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:blogger='http://schemas.google.com/blogger/2008' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd="http://schemas.google.com/g/2005" xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6295899168009502881</id><updated>2024-09-27T16:36:32.883+07:00</updated><category term="Filsafat Ilmu Pengetahuan"/><category term="Sistem Terintegrasi"/><category term="Skill"/><category term="Pengolahan Sinyal"/><category term="personal"/><title type='text'>tugasku</title><subtitle type='html'>@susuryana ||&#xa;suryana.anjani@gmail.com ||&#xa;&#xa;Fisika Teknik UGM 2010 || CSSMoRA UGM || SSF 2010 UGM || MIZUTAMA 2009</subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default?redirect=false'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><author><name>suryana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02976441663193225251</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>8</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>25</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6295899168009502881.post-6874353799824567501</id><published>2013-02-20T23:40:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2013-02-20T23:40:34.915+07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Sistem Terintegrasi"/><title type='text'>TEKNOLOGI CHIP</title><content type='html'>&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;WordSection1&quot;&gt;

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&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;TEKNOLOGI CHIP &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Anjani Suryana (37527)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Jurusan
Teknik Fisika FT UGM&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Jln. Grafika 2 Yogyakarta 55281 INDONESIA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;mailto:suryana.anjani@gmail.com&quot;&gt;suryana.anjani@gmail.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoHyperlink&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span class=&quot;MsoHyperlink&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Abstrak&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoHyperlink&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pada
tahun 1971, chip mikroprosesor 4040 pertama telah diproduksi oleh Intel untuk
sebuah konsorsium dua perusahaan Jepang. Chip 4004 mempunyai 2300 transistor
dan merupakan chip 4 bit, Chip-chip ini adalah dasar untuk perancangan
kalkulator yang diberi nama &lt;i&gt;Busicom&lt;/i&gt;
yang merupakan kalkulator &lt;i&gt;portable&lt;/i&gt;
pertama. Kalkulator ini adalah kalkulator 4 bit yang terdiri dari dua operasi
yaitu penambahan dan pengurangan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;PENDAHULUAN&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; style=&quot;mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;WordSection2&quot;&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;IC (Integrated Circuit)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;adalah nama lain chip. IC adalah piranti elektronis yang
dibuat dari material semikonduktor. IC atau chip merupakan cikal bakal dari
sebuah komputer dan segala jenis device yang memakai teknologi micro-controller
lainnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;IC ditemulan pada tahun 1958 oleh seorang
insinyur bernama Jack Kilby yang bekerja pada Texas Intruments mencoba
memecahkan masalah dengan memikirkan sebuah konsep menggabungkan seluruh
komponen elektronika dalam satu blok yang dibuat dari bahan semikonduktor.
Penemuan itu kemudian dinamakan IC (Integrated Circuit) atau yang kemudian lazim
disebut chip. Beberapa saat setelah itu, Robert Noyce, yang bekerja pada
Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation, menemukan hal serupa, meskipun mereka
bekerja pada dua tempat yang berbeda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Semenjak itu banyak riset yang dilakukan untuk
mengembangkan IC (integrated circuit) atau Chip hingga saat ini. Seorang
pendiri Intel, Gorden Moore, pada tahun 1965 memperkirakan bahwa jumlah
transistor yang terdapat dalam sebuah IC akan bertambah 2 kali setiap 18 bulan
sekali. Kecenderungan peningkatan jumlah transistor ini telah terbukti setelah
sekian lama dan diperkirakan akan terus berlanjut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Hal ini dapat dilihat pada perkembangan IC,
sebuah 64-Mbit DRAM yang pertama kali di pasaran pada tahun 1994, terdiri dari
3 juta transistor. Dan microprocessor Intel Pentium 4 terdiri lebih dari 42
juta transistor dan kira-kira terdapat 281 IC didalamnya. Bahkan berdasar pada
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductor (ITRS), diharapkan akan
tersedia sebuah chip yang terdiri dari 3 milyar transistor pada tahun 2008.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;IC sendiri dipergunakan untuk bermacam-macam
piranti, termasuk televisi, telepon seluler, komputer, mesin-mesin industri,
serta berbagai perlengkapan audio dan video.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Tahun 1969, &lt;i&gt;Intel Corporation &lt;/i&gt;yang dipelopori oleh
Bob Noice dan Gordon Moore membuat chip-chip memori untuk industri komputer
mainframe. Pada tahun 1971, chip mikroprosesor 4040 pertama telah diproduksi
oleh Intel untuk sebuah konsorsium dua perusahaan Jepang. Chip 4004 mempunyai
2300 transistor dan merupakan chip 4 bit, Chip-chip ini adalah dasar untuk
perancangan kalkulator yang diberi nama &lt;i&gt;Busicom&lt;/i&gt;
yang merupakan kalkulator &lt;i&gt;portable&lt;/i&gt;
pertama. Kalkulator ini adalah kalkulator 4 bit yang terdiri dari dua operasi
yaitu penambahan dan pengurangan. Chip 4040 ini cukup sukses yang kemudian
diikuti oleh mikroprosesor 8 bit pertama yaitu mikroprosesor 8008 dengan 3300
transistor. Ini merupakan mikroprosesor 8 bit sederhana dengan segala
keterbatasan sumber daya, kurangnya mekanisme &lt;i&gt;interrupt&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;multiplexed
address&lt;/i&gt; dan &lt;i&gt;data busses.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pada awal
tahun 1974 Intel mengeluarkan chip mikroprosesor 8 bit pertama yang kaya dengan
fitur-fitur, chip ini diberi nama Intel 8080 dengan 6000 transistor yang
digunakan sebagai mikroprosesor untuk komputer di rumah-rumah. Kesuksesan
mikroprosesor 8080 telah membuat perusahaan lain seperti Motorola
memperkenalkan chip 8-bit 6800, disbanding dengan 8080 chip ini mempunyai
perbedaan arsitektur tetapi meskipun demikian chip ini cukup popular dipasaran.
Pada tahun 1976, Zilog memperkenalkan mikroprosesor Z80 yang mana chip ini
lebih maju dibanding 8080. Hal ini disebabkan &lt;i&gt;instruction set&lt;/i&gt; Z80 cocok dengan 8080, dan hal ini pula yang
menyebabkan Z80 menjadi mikroprosesor paling sukses dipasaran pada zamannya.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Teknologi
semikonduktor terus berkembang sehingga memungkinkan manusia untuk membuat
piranti semikonduktor yang dapat diprogram &lt;i&gt;(programmable
device)&lt;/i&gt; sesuai dengan keperluan. Semikonduktor yang termasuk dalam jenis
ini antara lain mikroprosesor, mikrokontroller, CPLD &lt;i&gt;(Complex Programmable Logic Device) &lt;/i&gt;dan FPGA &lt;i&gt;(Field Programmable Gate Array)&lt;/i&gt;. Penggunaan piranti yang &lt;i&gt;programmable&lt;/i&gt; memiliki keuntungan,
terutama dalam hal penekanan biaya, penghematan ruang dan fleksibilitas yang
tinggi. Dengan manipulasi &lt;i&gt;software&lt;/i&gt;,
piranti &lt;i&gt;programmable&lt;/i&gt; dapat
meminimumkan penggunaan piranti fisik dan mengoptimalkan unjuk kerja sistem.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Itulah
beberapa penjelasan tentang sejarah chip dan perkembangannya sampai saat ini.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pada tulisan
ini saya akan sedikit membahas paper yang sebelumnya yaitu “ system embedded
pada kalkulalor “.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;PEMBAHASAN&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dalam dunia
digital,dikenal istilah chip elektronis,sebagaimana yang sudah dijelaskan bahwa
chip adalah suatu modul digital yang dapat melakukan suatu fungsi atau kerja
tertentu. Pada paper sebelumnya saya sedikit membahas tentang system embedded
pada kalkulator yang didalamnnya mempunyai chip mikrokontroller yaitu ATMEGA16
yang ditanamkan pada kalkulator tersebut. Ada dua jenis chip/IC yaitu; ASIC
(Aplication Specific Integrated Circuit). ASIC adalah chip khusus yang
diperoduksi oleh pabrik untuk menyelesaikan persoalan khusus (spesifik terhadap
masalah tertentu). Sementara programmable circuit adalah chip yang dapat
deprogram ulang untuk menjalankan fungsi yang bervariasi tergantung pada sang
pemakai atau user.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Ada beberapa
macam penggolongan chip,diantaranya ;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;FPGA
(Field Programmable Gate Array),adalah komponen elektronika yang dapat
deprogram ulang. Komponen ini trdiri dari gerbang- gerbang logika yang tersusun
sebagai array dengan hubungan antar gerbang yang dapat diatur lansung oleh
programmer. Selain itu FPGA biasanya juga memiliki elemen memori yang telah
tersemat. Salah satu produk FPGA yang terkenal berasal dari altera. Harga FPGA
relative lebih murah,chip ini juga dapat deprogram sesuai kebutuhan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;CPLD
(Complex Prgrammable Logic Device),adalah piranti yang dapat deprogram dengan
kompleksitas antara PAL dan FPGA secara arsitektural CPLD memberikan kedua
fitur dari kedua chip tersebut salah satu kemampuan chip tersebut adalah ia
dapat langsung berjalan/start up berkat adanya ROM internal.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;PAL
(Programmable Array oo Logic),adalah chip sederhana yang dapat di program
dengan dua jenis gerbang logika sebagai penyusun logic array. Arsitektur PAL
sangat sederhana gerbang-gerbang OR disusun membentuk array kemudian setiap
input yang ada disusun melintang terhadap input ke gerbang.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;ASIC
(application specific integrated circuit) adlah microchip atau semikonduktor
yang dirancang untuk aplikasi dengan fungsi yang sangat spesifik atau CPU
dengan keperluan khusus sesuai dengan keperluan chip tersebut dibuat.&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;&quot;&gt; ASIC biasanya digunakan pada produk
elektronik seperti kamera, handycam, printer, switch dan lain-lain. Rancangan
ASIC melibatkan banyak fungsi dari sebuah library dan mengintegrasikannya
kedalam sebuah sirkuit, dan biasanya didesain dalam format full&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;custom
design. Dengan menggunakan format ini ada beberapa
keuntungan yang didapatkan, antara lain penggunaan area yang lebih sedikit,
peningkatan performa serta kemampuan pengintegrasian dengan komponen analog.
ASIC modern saat ini biasanya terdiri dari processor 32-bit, blok memori
seperti&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;ROM&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;,&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;RAM&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;,&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;EEPROM, dan&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Flash&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;serta komponen lainnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Pada paper
sebelumnya saya membahas tentang embedded system pada kalkulator dengan
menggunakan IC ATMEGA16 sebagai otak/chip dari kalkulator tersebut yang juga
merupakan embedded system. Kalkulator dikatakan embedded system karena memiliki
keypad sebagai input,IC sebagai embedded system pada kalkulataor dan display
pada kalkulator tersebut merupakan output atau hasil keluaran dari input yang
kita masukan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Chip/IC yang digunakan
pada kalkulator yang sempat saya tuliskan dalam paper sebelumnnya adalah
ATMEGA16 yang merupakan salah satu dari FPGA,karena chip tersebut bias
deprogram ulang sesuai dengan kebutuhan user,dan tidak hanya dipakai pada
kalkulator saja melainkan juga bias dipakai pada beberapa peralatan elektronik
yang lainnya.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;KELEBIHAN DAN KEKURANGAN&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Adapun
keunggulan dan kekurangan pada chip-chip tersebut adalah ;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Keunggulan
pada FPGA adalah ;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Performansi : kemampuan disain
system yang dapat beroprasi pada frekuensi yang semakin tinggi.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Kepadatan dan kapasitas ;
kemampuan meningkatkan integrasi system,penempatan lebih banyak system dalam
sebuah chip,dan penggunan seluruh gate yang ada di dalam FPGA yang membuat
keefektifan harga perancangan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Mudah digunakan ; kemudahan
software yang mudah digunakan untuk perancangan dan kemampuan untuk menambah
disain baru pada system di FPGA yang sama pada saat yang berbeda&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Sedangakan
beberapa kekurangan dari FPGA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt; adalah sifat
program koneksinya yang masih volatile (menguap),sehingga jika aliran supply
terputus,program koneksinya akan hilang. Namun hal itu dapat diatasi dengan
menambahkan ROM pada rangkaiannya.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;ASIC pada
umumnya sama dengan cara kerja IC lainnya yaitu dengan menggunakan sel logika,
yang merupakan suatu entitas dalam elektronika dan matematika boolean yang
mengubah satu atau beberapa masukan logik menjadi sebuah sinyal keluaran logik.
Sel logika biasanya diimplementasikan secara elektronis menggunakan dioda atau
transistor, akan tetapi dapat pula dibangun menggunakan susunan
komponen-komponen yang memanfaatkan sifat-sifat elektromagnetik (&lt;em&gt;relay&lt;/em&gt;).
Tiap-tiap sel logika mempunyai beberapa jumlah masukan. Biasanya berjumlah dua
hingga 10 masukan. Sel-sel logika juga mempunyai keluaran yang berjumlah satu
atau dua, tergantung dari jenis fungsinya.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Sel logika dan
komponen lainnya disusun sedemikian rupa sehingga bisa digunakan untuk
keperluan khusus sesuai dengan tugas yang dikerjakannya, dan instruksi yang
ditempatkan pada chip tersebut adalah instruksi yang benar-benar bermanfaat
dengan tugas yang akan dilaksanakannya. Akibatnya, tentu biaya dari teknologi
tersebut akan lebih rendah, baik dari segi perancangan maupaun proses pabrikasi,
sehingga lebih bernilai ekonomis dan&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;powerful.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;4.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;KESIMPULAN&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Dalam dunia
digital,dikenal istilah chip elektronis,sebagaimana yang sudah dijelaskan bahwa
chip adalah suatu modul digital yang dapat melakukan suatu fungsi atau kerja
tertentu.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;FPGA (Field
Programmable Gate Array),adalah komponen elektronika yang dapat deprogram
ulang. Komponen ini trdiri dari gerbang- gerbang logika yang tersusun sebagai
array dengan hubungan antar gerbang yang dapat diatur lansung oleh programmer.
Selain itu FPGA biasanya juga memiliki elemen memori yang telah tersemat. Salah
satu produk FPGA yang terkenal berasal dari altera. Harga FPGA relative lebih
murah,chip ini juga dapat deprogram sesuai kebutuhan. Tiadah jauh pula dengan ASIC yang pada umumnya sama dengan cara kerja IC lainnya
yaitu dengan menggunakan sel logika.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;REFERENSI;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://tsulaksana.wordpress.com/2011/06/29/vlsi-fpga-fpaa-dan-vhdl/&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;http://tsulaksana.wordpress.com/2011/06/29/vlsi-fpga-fpaa-dan-vhdl&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://ndoware.com/asic-vs-fpga.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;http://ndoware.com/asic-vs-fpga.html&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: #009933; font-family: &amp;quot;Arial&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;adit279.wordpress.com/.../&lt;b&gt;asic&lt;/b&gt;-application-specific&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNoSpacing&quot; style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Calibri&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; style=&quot;mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;

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</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/feeds/6874353799824567501/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2013/02/teknologi-chip.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6874353799824567501'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6874353799824567501'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2013/02/teknologi-chip.html' title='TEKNOLOGI CHIP'/><author><name>suryana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02976441663193225251</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6295899168009502881.post-6652557283082396917</id><published>2013-02-20T17:20:00.000+07:00</published><updated>2013-02-20T17:20:35.320+07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Sistem Terintegrasi"/><title type='text'>SISTEM EMBEDDED</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 24pt; line-height: 36px;&quot;&gt;SISTEM EMBEDDED PADA KALKULATOR&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Anjani Suryana (37527)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;&quot;&gt;Jurusan Teknik Fisika FT UGM&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Sistem embedded merupakan computing device yang didesain dengan tujuan tertentu secara spesifik untuk melakukan fungsi tertentu. Sistem embedded terdiri dari perangkat keras dan perangkat lunak. Perangkat keras meliputi mikroprosesor atau mikrokontroler dengan penambahan memori eksternal, I/O dan komponen lainnya seperti sensor, keypad, LED, LCD, dan berbagai macam aktuator lainnya. Perangkat lunak embedded merupakan penggerak pada sistem embedded. Sebagian besar perangkat lunak sistem embedded real time memiliki program aplikasi yang spesifik yang didukung oleh Real Time Operating System (RTOS). Perangkat lunak embedded biasanya disebut firmware karena perangkat lunak tipe ini dimuat ke ROM, EPROM atau memory Flash. Sekali program dimasukkan kedalam perangkat keras maka tidak akan pernah berubah kecuali diprogram ulang.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Pada tugas ini saya akan mengambil contoh dari kalkulator yang merupakan salah satu dari system embedded. Dimana kalkulator adalah&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;sebuah mesin hitung sederhana seperti penjumlahan,pengurangan,pengalian dan pembagian sampai kepada kalkulator sains yang dapat menghitung rumus matematika. Fungsi terpenting dari hampir semua computer dan kalkulator adalah melakukan operasi-operasi aritmetik.operas-operasi ini&amp;nbsp; semuanya dilaksanakan didalam unit computer,didalam unit ini gate-gate logika dan flip-flop dikombinasikan sedimikian rupa sehingga dapat melakukan operasi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;penjumlahan,pengurangan,pengalian dan pembagian bilangan-bilangan biner.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Kalkulator adalah suatu alat berukuran relatif kecil namun memiliki manfaat yang sangat besar dalam melakukan perhitungan, baik perhitungan biasa, perhitungan akuntansi maupun perhitungan statistik.&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;Pada tahun 1642, Blaise Pascal yang pada waktu itu berumur 18 tahun, menemukan apa yang ia sebut sebagai kalkulator roda numerik untuk membantu ayahnya melakukan perhitungan pajak. Alat yang dinamakan Pascaline ini menggunakan delapan roda putar bergerigi untuk menjumlahkan bilangan hingga delapan digit. Tahun 1694, seorang matematikawan dan filsuf Jerman, Gottfred Wilhem von Leibniz memperbaiki Pascaline dengan membuat mesin yang dapat mengalikan. Sama seperti Pascaline, alat mekanik ini juga bekerja dengan menggunakan roda-roda gerigi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pada tahun 1820, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar menemukan mesin yang dapat melakukan empat fungsi aritmatik dasar, penjumlahan, pengurangan, perkalian, dan pembagian. Dengan penemuan alat yang dinamakan arithometer ini, maka kalkulator mekanik pada zaman itu mulai popular. Dengan kemampuannya dan juga lebih praktis dari kalkulator sebelumnya, arithometer banyak dipergunakan hingga masa Perang Dunia I. Pada 1892 William Burroughs, seorang mantan&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt;teller&lt;/em&gt;, memperkenalkan sebuah kalkulator pencetak yang cukup sukses meskipun bertenaga tangan.&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pada masa berikutnya, beberapa insinyur masih terus mengembangkan penemuan lainnya. Pada tahun 1903, John V. Atanasoff dan Clifford Berry mencoba membuat komputer elektrik yang menerapkan aljabar Boolean, sebuah perhitungan matematika yang dapat dinyatakan sebagai benar atau salah.&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pada tahun 1931, Vannevar Bush membuat sebuah kalkulator untuk menyelesaikan persamaan differensial. Mesin tersebut dapat menyelesaikan perhitungan-perhitungan yang selama ini dianggap rumit. Mesin tersebut sangat besar dan berat karena ratusan gerigi dan poros yang dibutuhkan untuk melakukan perhitungan.&lt;span class=&quot;apple-converted-space&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pada tahun 1935, seorang insinyur konstruksi berkebangsaan Jerman bernama Konrad Zuse membangun sebuah kalkulator mekanik untuk menangani perhitungan matematik yang ada di profesinya. Tak lama setelah keberhasilannya, Zuse memulai pembangunan pada peralatan elektronik terprogram yang ia selesaikan pada tahun 1938.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Dari sejarah kalkulator diatas disebutkan perkembangan kalkulator secara signifikan dari mulai kalkulator mekanik sampai terlahir kalkulator digital yang mampu menghitung persamaan persamaan aritmatik yang sampai sekarang banyak digunakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;Secara umum, sistem embedded bukan istilah didefinisikan secara ketat, seperti kebanyakan sistem memiliki beberapa unsur diperpanjang atau programabilitas.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Kalkulator di disain dan di program dengan tujuan tertentu supaya memudahkan kita dalam proses menghitung,ada beberapa program yang ditanamkan pada kalkulator untuk tujuan-tujuan tertentu seperti menghitung persamaan-persamaan aritmatik. Pada umumnya program ditanamkan pada sebuah Integrated circuit (IC).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;Gbr . IC Atmega 16&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Mirkokontroler&amp;nbsp;AVR&amp;nbsp;(Alf and Vegard’s Risc processor) standar memiliki arsitektur 8 bit, dimana semua instruksi dikemas dalam kode 16-bit, dan sebagian besar intruksi dieksekusi dalam 1(satu) siklusclock.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;AVR&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;berteknologi&amp;nbsp;RISC&amp;nbsp;(Reduced Instruction Set Computing),sedangkan&amp;nbsp;MCS51&amp;nbsp;berteknologi&amp;nbsp;CISC (Complex Intruction Set Computing).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;AVR&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;dapat dikelompokkan menjadi empat kelas, yaitu keluargaAttiny, keluarga&amp;nbsp;AT902xx, keluarga&amp;nbsp;Atmega, dan keluarga&amp;nbsp;AT86RFxx. Pada dasarnya yang membedakan masing-masing kelas adalah memori, peripheral, dan fungsinya. Silahkan buka www.atmel.com untuk informasi lebih lanjut tentang berbagai variasi&amp;nbsp;AVR. Untuk mikrokontroler&amp;nbsp;AVR&amp;nbsp;yang berukuran lebih kecil, silahkan mencobaAtmega8,&amp;nbsp;Attiny2313&amp;nbsp;dengan ukuran&amp;nbsp;Flash Memory&amp;nbsp;2KB dengan dua input analog.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Mikrokontroler pada dasarnya diprogram dengan bahasa&amp;nbsp;assembler. Tetapi&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Saat ini mikrokontroler dapat deprogram dengan menggunakan bahasa tingkat tinggi sepert&amp;nbsp;BASIC,&amp;nbsp;PASCAL&amp;nbsp;atau&amp;nbsp;C. Bahasa tingkat tinggi tersebut memiliki beberapa keuntungan dibandingkan dengan bahasa asembler :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;·&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Lebih mudah membangun program dengan menggunakan bahasa tingkat tinggi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;·&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Perbaikan program lebih mudah jika program dibangun menggunakan bahasa tingkat tinggi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;·&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Testing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;program didalam bahasa tingkat tinggi lebih mudah&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;·&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Bahasa tingkat tinggi lebih banyak dikenal dan&amp;nbsp;error&amp;nbsp;program yang dibuat dapat dihindari&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;·&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Mudah mendokumentasikan sebuah program tingkat tingggi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Meskipun demikian, bahasa tingkat tinggi juga memiliki beberapa kelemahan, contohnya ukuran kode memori biasanya besar, dan program y&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;an&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;g dibangun&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;menggunakan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;bahasa&amp;nbsp;asembler&amp;nbsp;biasanya bekerja cepat dibangdingkan dengan program yang dibangun menggunakan bahasa tingkat&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;t&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IN&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;inggi.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Didalam mikrokontroler Atmega16 terdiri dari:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Saluran I/O ada 32 buah, yaitu Port A, Port B, Port C, dan Port D.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;ADC (Analog to Digital Converter)&amp;nbsp;10 bit sebanyak 8&amp;nbsp;channel.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Tiga buah&amp;nbsp;Timer/Counter&amp;nbsp;dengan kemampuan perbandingan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;IT&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IT&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;CPU yang terdiri dari 32 register.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;IT&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;IT&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;131 intruksi andal yang umumnya hanya membutuhkan 1 siklusclock.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Watchdog Timer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;dengan oscilator internal.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Dua buah&amp;nbsp;Timer/Counter&amp;nbsp;8 bit.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Satu buah&amp;nbsp;Timer&amp;nbsp;/Counter&amp;nbsp;16 bit.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Tagangan operasi 2.7 V - 5.5 V pada Atmega16.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Internal&amp;nbsp;SRAM&amp;nbsp;sebesar 1KB.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Memory Flash&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;sebesar 16KB dengan kemampuan&amp;nbsp;Read While Write.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Unit interupsi internal dan eksternal.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Port&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;antarmuka&amp;nbsp;SPI.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;EEPROM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;sebesar 512 byte dapat diprogram saat operasi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Antar muka komparator analog.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;4 channel&amp;nbsp;PWM.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;32x8 general&amp;nbsp;purpose register.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Hampir mencapai 16 MIPS pada Kristal 16 MHz.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;à&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;Port USART&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;programmable untuk komunikasi serial&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #20124d; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;Pada IC inilah program ditanamkan sesuai dengan kebutuhan. Berikut adalah diagram blok mikrokontroler ATMEGA16.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRlfC-1jYOR4H2nlLJ-swEurtggFiihxIteOwXpVOXziXD3LdRurLQTK7CJgTv8WvDs-ADGWYJXPMl-olL_QR_geLvEfb53SnYiSXl3nNePW3JSKixjtHHjKbs72pemT0fBRL1IDWTyWNo/s1600/sk3.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRlfC-1jYOR4H2nlLJ-swEurtggFiihxIteOwXpVOXziXD3LdRurLQTK7CJgTv8WvDs-ADGWYJXPMl-olL_QR_geLvEfb53SnYiSXl3nNePW3JSKixjtHHjKbs72pemT0fBRL1IDWTyWNo/s1600/sk3.jpg&quot; height=&quot;320&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;Gbr . diagram blok Mikrokontroler Atmega16&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Gambar diatas menunjukan fungsi dari mikrokontroler atmega16 yang tertanam pada salah satu kalkulator yang di disain dan diperogram untuk melakukan tujuan tertentu seperti menyelesaikan perhitungan aritmatika Dll. IC diatas juga bias dikataka sebagai system embedded pada kalkulator,dimana sebagai inputannya&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;adalah beberapa keypad pada kalkulator.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicW-1js74XA9qI4SLJK5DeiUKsV9gJrCnMSqIknUNv1FV6uDriMuiqwDtFwUKNhqOXbmyD8sJ7g_Qlevud5peEA75Wh2lZaaDtYcrNfKe9m5qu1vFwh_NbqQc94rouY2-Ob4n04SHUX8R8/s1600/kalkulator.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicW-1js74XA9qI4SLJK5DeiUKsV9gJrCnMSqIknUNv1FV6uDriMuiqwDtFwUKNhqOXbmyD8sJ7g_Qlevud5peEA75Wh2lZaaDtYcrNfKe9m5qu1vFwh_NbqQc94rouY2-Ob4n04SHUX8R8/s1600/kalkulator.jpg&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;Gbr . keypad pada kalkulator&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Pada kalkulator terdiri dari tiga bagian yaitu : inpu,proses dan output. Keypad pada kalkulatoe berperan sebagai masukan atau input yang akan diproses melalui system embedded yang diwakili oleh integrated circuit (IC) pada ATMEGA16 sebagai pemeroses data inputan sehingga menghasilkan keluaran atau output yang sesuai dengan yang diinginkan oleh user. Berikut adalah contoh dari output sebuah kalkulator saintifik&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;Gbr . output pada kalkulator&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;Oleh karena itu,kesimpulan dari tulisan diatas adalah bahwa kalkulator merupakan system embedded yang memiliki keypad sebagai input,IC ATMEGA16 sebagai mikrokontroler pemroses data,dan LCD pada kalkulator menunjukan output dari data tersebut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;b&gt;Referensi ;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #009933; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;en.wikipedia.org/wiki/&lt;b&gt;Embedded&lt;/b&gt;_&lt;b&gt;system&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_hitung&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_hitung&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoHyperlink&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;http://blog.azmifauzan.net/wp-content/uploads/2007/10/embedded-system.pdf&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;http://blog.azmifauzan.net/wp-content/uploads/2007/10/embedded-system.pdf&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoHyperlink&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.scribd.com/doc/61202883/Kalkulator&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;http://www.scribd.com/doc/61202883/Kalkulator&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoHyperlink&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.engineeringtown.com/kids/index.php/penemuan/161-sejarah-kalkulator&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;http://www.engineeringtown.com/kids/index.php/penemuan/161-sejarah-kalkulator&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoHyperlink&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;http://atmel88.blogspot.com/2011/07/sistem-kontrol-tertutup-mikrokontroler.html&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;http://atmel88.blogspot.com/2011/07/sistem-kontrol-tertutup-mikrokontroler.html&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;MsoHyperlink&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 17px;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://rezkyjoe.blogspot.com/2011/03/makalah-embedded-system.html&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;http://rezkyjoe.blogspot.com/2011/03/makalah-embedded-system.html&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/feeds/6652557283082396917/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2013/02/sistem-embedded_20.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6652557283082396917'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6652557283082396917'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2013/02/sistem-embedded_20.html' title='SISTEM EMBEDDED'/><author><name>suryana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02976441663193225251</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjElzjKGmZMsZiSb2Fo6m6elgNC_spdQRJTVzk46L0pYQ2JXUXUcMj1chLVR9uPCTQkBtYdBbTyDYJzXpeschgzMKsMiVa0nAyIbefh3ICVS9l4i6UFqZyCzd3om6PF86cnNip0k620acAp/s72-c/DisplayImage.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6295899168009502881.post-6608870795959709213</id><published>2013-02-20T11:52:00.001+07:00</published><updated>2013-02-20T17:17:37.381+07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Filsafat Ilmu Pengetahuan"/><title type='text'>REVISI TAKSONOMI BLOOM</title><content type='html'>&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;WordSection1&quot;&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;PESPEKTIF PENGETAHUAN BERDASARKAN
TAKSONOMI BLOOM&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;Anjani Suryana (37527) &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;Jurusan Teknik Fisika FT UGM &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
Jln. Grafika 2 Yogyakarta 55281 INDONESIA&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;mailto:Suryana.anjani@gmail.com&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot;&gt;Suryana.anjani@gmail.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Pengetahuan adalah hasil pengindraan manusia atau hasil
tahu seseorang terhadap objek melalui indra yang dimilikinya
(mata,hidung,mulut,telinga,dan sebagainya). Dengan sendirinya pada saat indra
menghasilkan sebuah pengetahuan adalah sangat dipengaruhi oleh intensitas
perhatian dan persepsi terhadap objek. Sebagian besar pengetahuan seseorang
diperoleh dari indra pendengaran dan penglihatan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; style=&quot;mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;WordSection2&quot;&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Taksonomi
bloom merujuk pada taksonomi yang dibuat untuk tujuan pendidikan. Dalam hal ini
tujuan pendidikan dibagi menjadi beberapa domain/ranah dan setiap domain
tersebut dibagi lagi menjadi lebih rinci berdasarkan tingkatannya.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Tujuan
pendidikan dibagi kedalam 3 domain,yaitu;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Domain
kognitif&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Domain
afektif&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Domain
psikomotor&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Dari
setiap ranah tersebut dibagi kembali kedalam beberapa kategori dan subkategori
yang berurutan secara bertinggkat,mulai dari tingkah laku yang sederhana sapai
tingkah laku yang paling kompleks. Tingkah laku dalam setiap tingkat di
asumsikan menyertakan juga tingkah laku dari tingkat yang paling rendah.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Domain kognitif
digunakan untuk mengukur kemahiran intelektual,sedangkan domain afektif
digunakan untuk mengukukur kemahiran generik,yang telah diterapkan kepada
pelajar melalui penglibatan pelajar dalam persatuan-persatuan dan juga dalam
berbagai perbincangan secara berkumpulan seperti dalam kursus rekabentuk sistem
dan sebagainya. Dan&amp;nbsp; domain psikomotor
bertujuan untuk mengukur kemahiran praktikal dan teknikal.kemahiran ini diterapkan
melalui latihan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Kemahiran
kognitif merupakan domain taksonomi yangg digunakan untuk mengukur kemahiran
intelektual berdasarkan satu hirarki kognitif yang disusun dati tingkatan
rendah ke tingkatan tinggi yaitu;
pengetahuan,pemahaman,aplikasi,analisis,sintesis dan penilaian. Taksonomi ini
dikenalkan pada tahun 1956 oleh Benjamin S. Bloom untuk tujuan pendidikan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Pada tahun
1990-an terdapat beberapa perubahan telah dilakukan secara berperingkat. Antara
perubahan yang telah dilaksanakan adalah perubahan terminologi. Sebagai contoh,
tema pengetahuan,pemahaman,aplikasi,analisis,sintesis dan penilaian ditukarkan
kepada mengingat,memahami,mengaplikasi,menganalisis,menilai dan membina.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;&quot;&gt;Setiap kategori dalam
revisi taksonomi bloom terdapat subkategori yang memiliki kata kunci berupa
kata yang berasosiasi dengan kategori tersebut. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Mengingat
:
mengurutkan,menjelaskan,mengidentifikasi,menamai,menempatkan,mengulangi,menemukan
kembali dsb.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Memahami:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;menafsirkan,meringkas,mengklarisikasikan,membandingkan,menjelaskan,membeberkan
dsb.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Mengaplikasikan
:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Melaksanakan,menjalankan,menggunakan,melakukan,mempraktekan,memilih,menyusun,memulai,menyelesaikan,mendeteksi
dll.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Menganalisis
:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Menguraikan,membandingkan,mengorganisir,menyusun ulang,mengubah
stuktur,mengkerangkakan,menyusun outline,mengintegrasikan,membedakan,menyamakan
dll.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Mengevaluasi
:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Menyusun hipotesi,mengkritik,memprediksi,menilai,menguji,membenarkan,menyalahkan
dll.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--[if !supportLists]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Berkreasi
:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Merancang,membangun,merencanakan,memproduksi,menemukan,membaharui,menyempurnakan,memperkuat,memperindah
dll.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Dalam
berbagai aspek dan setelah melalui revisi,taksonomi bloom tetap menggambarkan
suatu proses pembelajaran,cara kita memproses suatu informasisehingga dapat
bermanfaat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Pada taksonomi yang lama dimensi
pengetahuan dimasukan ke jenjang paling bawah,sedangkan pada taksonomi yang
baru pengetahuan bemar-benar dipisah dari dimensi proses kognitif. Hal ini
disebabkan dimensi pengetahuan berbeda dengan dimensi kognitif. Pengetahuan
merupakan kata benda sedangkan proses kognitif merupakan kata kerja. &lt;i&gt;Pengetahuan dibagi menjadi 4 dimensi&lt;/i&gt;,yaitu;&lt;b&gt;1).&lt;/b&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;pengetahuan faktual&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;u&gt;
&lt;/u&gt;yang berupa potongan-potongan informasi yang terpisah-pisah atau unsur
dasar yang ada dalam suatu disiplin ilmu tertentu.ada dua macam pengetahuan
faktual yaitu pengetahuan pengetahuan tentang terminologi dan pengetahuan tentang
bagian detail dan unsur-unsur. &lt;b&gt;2) &lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;pengetahuan konseptual&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;, yaitu
pengetahuan yang menunjukan saling berkaitan antara&amp;nbsp; unsur-unsur dasar dalam stuktur yang lebih
besar dan semuanya berfungsi besama-sama. Ada 3 macam pengetahuan konseptual
yaitu pengetahuan tentang kalsifikasi dan kategori,pengetahuan tentang prinsip
dan generalisasi dan pengetahuan tentang teori,model dan stuktur. &lt;b&gt;3) &lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;pengetahuan
prosedural&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt; yaitu pengetahuan tentang bagaimana mengerjakan
sesuatu,baik yang bersifat rutin maupun yang baru. Seringkali pengetahuan
prosedural berisi langkah-langkah yang harus diikuti dalam mengerjakan suatu
hal tertentu, seprti; pengetahuan tentang keterampilan khusus yang berhubungan
dengan suatu bidang tertentu,pengetahuan tentang teknik dan metode yg berhubungan
dengan suatu bidang tertentu,dan pengetahuan tentang kriteria untuk menentukan
kapan suatu prosedur tepat untuk digunakan. &lt;b&gt;4) &lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;pengetahuan metakognitif &lt;/u&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;mencakup
tentang kognisi secara umum dan pengetahuan tentang diri sendiri yang meliputi
; pengetahuan strategik,pengetahuan tentang tugas kognitif termasuk di dalamnya
pengetahuan tentang konteks dan kondisi yang sesuai dan pengetahuan tentang
diri sendiri.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;KESIMPULAN.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;Menurut
bloom dan skinner pengetahuan adalah kemampuan seseorang untuk mengungkapkan kembali
apa yang diketahuinya dalam bentuk bukti jawaban baik lisan maupun tulisan.
Bukti atau tulisan tersebut merupakan suatu reaksi dari suatu stimulasi yang
berupa pertanyaan baik lisan atau tulisan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: SV;&quot;&gt;REFERENSI ;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: #009933; font-family: &amp;quot;Arial&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt;&quot;&gt;repository.usu.ac.id/.../3/Chapter%20II.pdf&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iaincirebon.ac.id/maksum/?p=14&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; font-family: &amp;quot;Arial&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt;&quot;&gt;http://www.iaincirebon.ac.id/maksum/?p=14&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: #009933; font-family: &amp;quot;Arial&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: #009933; font-family: &amp;quot;Arial&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt;&quot;&gt;repository.usu.ac.id/bitstream/.../Chapter%20II.pdf&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: #009933; font-family: &amp;quot;Arial&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt;&quot;&gt;revisi taksonomi bloom dan pengembangan soal&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: #009933; font-family: &amp;quot;Arial&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; style=&quot;mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;

&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/feeds/6608870795959709213/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2013/02/revisi-taksonomi-bloom.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6608870795959709213'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6608870795959709213'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2013/02/revisi-taksonomi-bloom.html' title='REVISI TAKSONOMI BLOOM'/><author><name>suryana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02976441663193225251</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6295899168009502881.post-6586094617067178963</id><published>2013-02-19T03:24:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2013-02-20T17:19:02.889+07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Filsafat Ilmu Pengetahuan"/><title type='text'></title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;WordSection1&quot;&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 22pt; line-height: 33px;&quot;&gt;PESPEKTIF PENGETAHUAN BERDASARKAN TAKSONOMI BLOOM&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 16pt; line-height: 24px;&quot;&gt;Anjani Suryana (37527)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;Jurusan Teknik Fisika FT UGM&amp;nbsp;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;Jln. Grafika 2 Yogyakarta 55281 INDONESIA&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;a href=&quot;mailto:Suryana.anjani@gmail.com&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot;&gt;Suryana.anjani@gmail.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;Pengetahuan adalah hasil pengindraan manusia atau hasil tahu seseorang terhadap objek melalui indra yang dimilikinya (mata,hidung,mulut,telinga,dan sebagainya). Dengan sendirinya pada saat indra menghasilkan sebuah pengetahuan adalah sangat dipengaruhi oleh intensitas perhatian dan persepsi terhadap objek. Sebagian besar pengetahuan seseorang diperoleh dari indra pendengaran dan penglihatan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 14px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; style=&quot;page-break-before: always;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Taksonomi bloom merujuk pada taksonomi yang dibuat untuk tujuan pendidikan. Dalam hal ini tujuan pendidikan dibagi menjadi beberapa domain/ranah dan setiap domain tersebut dibagi lagi menjadi lebih rinci berdasarkan tingkatannya.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Tujuan pendidikan dibagi kedalam 3 domain,yaitu;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst&quot; style=&quot;text-indent: -0.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Domain kognitif&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle&quot; style=&quot;text-indent: -0.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Domain afektif&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;MsoListParagraphCxSpLast&quot; style=&quot;text-indent: -0.25in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Domain psikomotor&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Dari setiap ranah tersebut dibagi kembali kedalam beberapa kategori dan subkategori yang berurutan secara bertinggkat,mulai dari tingkah laku yang sederhana sapai tingkah laku yang paling kompleks. Tingkah laku dalam setiap tingkat di asumsikan menyertakan juga tingkah laku dari tingkat yang paling rendah.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Domain kognitif digunakan untuk mengukur kemahiran intelektual,sedangkan domain afektif digunakan untuk mengukukur kemahiran generik,yang telah diterapkan kepada pelajar melalui penglibatan pelajar dalam persatuan-persatuan dan juga dalam berbagai perbincangan secara berkumpulan seperti dalam kursus rekabentuk sistem dan sebagainya. Dan&amp;nbsp; domain psikomotor bertujuan untuk mengukur kemahiran praktikal dan teknikal.kemahiran ini diterapkan melalui latihan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Kemahiran kognitif merupakan domain taksonomi yangg digunakan untuk mengukur kemahiran intelektual berdasarkan satu hirarki kognitif yang disusun dati tingkatan rendah ke tingkatan tinggi yaitu; pengetahuan,pemahaman,aplikasi,analisis,sintesis dan penilaian. Taksonomi ini dikenalkan pada tahun 1956 oleh Benjamin S. Bloom untuk tujuan pendidikan.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Pada tahun 1990-an terdapat beberapa perubahan telah dilakukan secara berperingkat. Antara perubahan yang telah dilaksanakan adalah perubahan terminologi. Sebagai contoh, tema pengetahuan,pemahaman,aplikasi,analisis,sintesis dan penilaian ditukarkan kepada mengingat,memahami,mengaplikasi,menganalisis,menilai dan membina.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Setiap kategori dalam revisi taksonomi bloom terdapat subkategori yang memiliki kata kunci berupa kata yang berasosiasi dengan kategori tersebut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJJu1CFIsMGPVpNQjuCM5BfCqAtMpGh86M_bfSQjWzgGu9OZBAjIIcS9rGGA1xrdbRs2G-pg8YLmukToVUNSu9O2ZEcxVEqdxK0NnHajQyFrlOgmyb0isniZ03kUaD225TF0Mh6LZrM2ot/s1600/Taksonomi-Bloom-2.jpg&quot; imageanchor=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJJu1CFIsMGPVpNQjuCM5BfCqAtMpGh86M_bfSQjWzgGu9OZBAjIIcS9rGGA1xrdbRs2G-pg8YLmukToVUNSu9O2ZEcxVEqdxK0NnHajQyFrlOgmyb0isniZ03kUaD225TF0Mh6LZrM2ot/s1600/Taksonomi-Bloom-2.jpg&quot; height=&quot;299&quot; width=&quot;320&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;Diagram Taksonomi Bloom&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;i&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Mengingat : mengurutkan,menjelaskan,mengidentifikasi,menamai,menempatkan,mengulangi,menemukan kembali dsb.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Memahami:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;menafsirkan,meringkas,mengklarisikasikan,membandingkan,menjelaskan,membeberkan dsb.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Mengaplikasikan :&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Melaksanakan,menjalankan,menggunakan,melakukan,mempraktekan,memilih,menyusun,memulai,menyelesaikan,mendeteksi dll.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Menganalisis :&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Menguraikan,membandingkan,mengorganisir,menyusun ulang,mengubah stuktur,mengkerangkakan,menyusun outline,mengintegrasikan,membedakan,menyamakan dll.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Mengevaluasi :&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Menyusun hipotesi,mengkritik,memprediksi,menilai,menguji,membenarkan,menyalahkan dll.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;è&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Times New Roman&#39;; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Berkreasi :&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Merancang,membangun,merencanakan,memproduksi,menemukan,membaharui,menyempurnakan,memperkuat,memperindah dll.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &#39;Lucida Sans Unicode&#39;, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 13px;&quot;&gt;Dalam berbagai aspek dan setelah melalui revisi,taksonomi bloom tetap menggambarkan suatu proses pembelajaran,cara kita memproses suatu informasisehingga dapat bermanfaat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;SV&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;REFERENSI ;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #009933; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://repository.usu.ac.id/.../3/Chapter%20II.pdf&quot;&gt;repository.usu.ac.id/.../3/Chapter%20II.pdf&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: white; color: #009933; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.iaincirebon.ac.id/maksum/?p=14&quot;&gt;http://www.iaincirebon.ac.id/maksum/?p=14&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/u&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/feeds/6586094617067178963/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2013/02/pespektif-pengetahuan-berdasarkan.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6586094617067178963'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6586094617067178963'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2013/02/pespektif-pengetahuan-berdasarkan.html' title=''/><author><name>suryana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02976441663193225251</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJJu1CFIsMGPVpNQjuCM5BfCqAtMpGh86M_bfSQjWzgGu9OZBAjIIcS9rGGA1xrdbRs2G-pg8YLmukToVUNSu9O2ZEcxVEqdxK0NnHajQyFrlOgmyb0isniZ03kUaD225TF0Mh6LZrM2ot/s72-c/Taksonomi-Bloom-2.jpg" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6295899168009502881.post-808954900912283471</id><published>2012-10-18T12:26:00.000+07:00</published><updated>2013-02-20T17:38:03.921+07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Skill"/><title type='text'>Essay Writing The Basics</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;b&gt;What Does a Good Essay Need?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;An academic essay aims to persuade readers of an idea based on evidence.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;An academic essay should answer a question or task.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;It should have an argument.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;It should try to present or discuss something: develop a ‘thesis’ or a set of closely related points - by reasoning and&amp;nbsp;evidence.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;An academic essay should include relevant examples, supporting evidence and information from academic texts or&amp;nbsp;credible sources.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;1. Starting Your Essay&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Although there are some basic steps to writing an assignment, essay writing is not a linear process.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;display: inline !important;&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;You might work through the different stages a number of times in the course of writing an essay.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;
&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
For example, you may go back to the reading and notetaking stage if you find another useful text, or perhaps to reread&amp;nbsp;to locate specific information.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;Start work early&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
You can’t write a successful essay unless you give yourself enough time&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
to read, research, think and write. Don’t procrastinate or leave it until the&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
last minute; start as early as possible.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;Define the question and analyse the task&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Writing down everything you know about a topic is not enough to make&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
a good academic essay. Analysing, then answering the essay’s question&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
or task is central.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Be sure that you understand exactly what the question requires you&amp;nbsp;to do.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Identify the key words (like discuss or analyse) and clarify the approach&amp;nbsp;you are required to take.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;2. Researching Your Topic&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;
One of the first steps in essay writing is researching. You&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;
must research your essay by reading and finding relevant&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;
information. Reading on the topic enables you to develop a&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;
thesis and answer the essay question.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;Where to Start?&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Your starting point for your essay is your initial response to the essay topic or question. Your response is based on what&amp;nbsp;you already know. But this is only the starting point. You then need to research, question your response, and find some&amp;nbsp;evidence to help form your answers.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;Reading for Your Essay&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Begin reading for the essay as early as possible. This will give you&amp;nbsp;plenty of time to familiarise yourself with the topic and develop&amp;nbsp;your ideas. When you begin to look at your readings more closely,&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
remember to read with a purpose. Ask yourself:&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;What do I already know about the topic?&amp;nbsp;Start with what you&amp;nbsp;know. If a topic is unfamiliar, do some introductory reading.&amp;nbsp;Look at your lecture notes and course readings for help.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;What do I need to read to be able to answer the essay&amp;nbsp;question?&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Is this material useful to my topic/argument?&amp;nbsp;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Can I use this material to support my answer?&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;Taking Notes From Your Readings&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
When you read in-depth and find information relevant to your&amp;nbsp;essay, note it down. Your notes will be the basis of your essay.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Don’t take notes during your first reading. If you are using&amp;nbsp;photocopies, underline or highlight relevant information. You can&amp;nbsp;return to it when you reread and take notes.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Always make notes with the question clearly in mind. You must use evidence to support your argument, so look carefully&amp;nbsp;for relevant information. This can include summaries or direct quotes from texts, useful examples, case studies or&amp;nbsp;statistics.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Make a note of any sources of information you use. Copy down all the bibliographic details of what you read. Include&amp;nbsp;author, date, title, publisher and place of publication. For journal articles, include volume and issue numbers. This will&amp;nbsp;help with your referencing.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;3. Organising Your Ideas&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Now begin organising your thoughts into an answer.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Your notes should help you to do this.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;Thinking it Through&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Essay writing requires both creative and critical thinking.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Creative thinking encourages you to broaden your ideas. Try&amp;nbsp;techniques like brainstorming or mindmapping.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Critical thinking encourages you to narrow the focus or scope&amp;nbsp;of your ideas (for example, asking why an example is important&amp;nbsp;to your argument).&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Your essay should include both points in favour of and against&amp;nbsp;your argument. You need to evaluate these points - that is, explain&amp;nbsp;why one argument is more important than the other.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;4. Writing the Essay&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;Drafting&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Writing a draft essay will help you work out:&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;what you need to say&amp;nbsp;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;how you will answer the question&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;which evidence and examples you will use&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;whether you have enough information&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Write a first draft to try out the structure and framework of your&amp;nbsp;essay. Once you have a draft, you can work on writing well.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;Structure&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Structure your essay in the most effective way to communicate&amp;nbsp;your ideas and answer the question. All essays should include the&amp;nbsp;following structure:&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;1. Introduction&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Answer the question and provide a summary or ‘road map’ of your&amp;nbsp;essay. Tell the reader what you are going to talk about and what&amp;nbsp;you believe the answer to be. Keep it brief, but mention all your&amp;nbsp;main ideas.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;2. Body&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
The body of your essay is where you answer the question by&amp;nbsp;developing a discussion. Here, you show your knowledge and&amp;nbsp;grasp of material you have read. Offer exposition and evidence.&amp;nbsp;Use relevant examples and authoritative quotes to support your&amp;nbsp;argument. If your question has more than one part, structure the&amp;nbsp;body into sections that deal with each part of the question.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;3. Conclusion&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
The conclusion rounds off the essay. Relate it back to your main&amp;nbsp;ideas or points and reiterate your answer to the question. NEVER&amp;nbsp;introduce new information in your conclusion. The conclusion&amp;nbsp;moves from specific to general.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;Essay Paragraphs&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Each paragraph in the body of the essay should contain:&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;ol style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;a topic sentence (or main idea sentence) that states your point;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;an explanation of the point you’re making;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;evidence. Most of the time, your point should be supported by some form of evidence from your reading, or by an&amp;nbsp;example drawn from the subject area.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Don’t just leave the evidence hanging there - analyse it! Comment on the implication/significance/impact and finish off&amp;nbsp;the paragraph with a critical conclusion you have drawn from the evidence.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;5. Referencing Your Essay&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;All academic essays MUST contain references. Referencing guards against plagiarism, a serious&amp;nbsp;academic offence.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Plagiarism is copying someone else’s words or ideas and presenting them as your own. Make sure you are familiar with&amp;nbsp;the referencing style your faculty or school requires. Most Schools/Faculties have guides specifying the system they&amp;nbsp;prefer. Often Schools/Faculties don’t mind which system you use as long as it is consistent. If this is the case, use the&amp;nbsp;system you are most comfortable with.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;b&gt;Reference Lists&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Remember to list all the books and articles you use for the essay in a Reference List. This is a list of all works cited in&amp;nbsp;your essay, and should be the final page.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;6. Editing Your Essay&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;Most essays are dramatically improved by careful&amp;nbsp;editing. Good essays are the product of writing and&amp;nbsp;rewriting. If you have time, put your essay aside for a&amp;nbsp;few days before you begin to edit. This gives you time&amp;nbsp;to gain a perspective on what you have written and to&amp;nbsp;think further about your answer and arguments.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Don’t despair when you find faults in your essay - this is part of&amp;nbsp;the editing process. If you find that you need more information, or&amp;nbsp;your argument has holes in it, keep calm and concentrate on fixing&amp;nbsp;any problems.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Once you have a well-organised and fairly complete draft:&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;ul style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Revise sentences. Make sure the words you use mean what&amp;nbsp;you think they mean. A good dictionary is a useful tool.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Check transition signals. Be sure that a reader can follow the&amp;nbsp;sequences of ideas from sentence to sentence, and from&amp;nbsp;paragraph to paragraph.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Check punctuation and spelling.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;7. Handing Your Essay In&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;READ the assignment guidelines in your course outlines and find out how your lecturer/tutor would&amp;nbsp;like assignments presented. Make sure you have complied with their requirements and that you&amp;nbsp;know when and where your essay should be handed in.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;In General:&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;ol style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Make sure you know when, where or to whom your assignment should be handed in. Most schools have a box for &amp;nbsp;students to submit their essays.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Don’t hand in your essay in a plastic folder or sleeve (unless you are asked to do so). &lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Use double-line spacing and a readable font (size 12 at least) &lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Essays should be legible so make sure your essay is easy to read. If possible, type your essay. If not, write neatly on &amp;nbsp;every second line.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Use a cover sheet (available from your school office). &lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Number pages and use wide margins. &lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Print on one side of the page only. &lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Make sure you have an extra copy.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/feeds/808954900912283471/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2012/10/essay-writing-basics.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/808954900912283471'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/808954900912283471'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2012/10/essay-writing-basics.html' title='Essay Writing The Basics'/><author><name>suryana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02976441663193225251</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6295899168009502881.post-6261409083093930326</id><published>2012-10-18T11:27:00.004+07:00</published><updated>2013-02-20T17:39:36.238+07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Skill"/><title type='text'>An Examination of AC/HVDC Power Circuits for Interconnecting Bulk Wind Generation with the Electric Grid</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;b&gt;1. Introduction&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Increasing share of wind energy systems has prompted a concomitant attention to their integration into major electrical transmission systems, i.e., the grid. Particularly, the promise for large scale generation in offshore and remote locations due to the meteorological consistency of the wind in such locations make bulk power transmission from generation centers to load locations a critical aspect of the emerging future. Despite this promise, the issue of wind turbine interconnection and bulk power transmission to the existing distribution networks has not yet been solved with certainty. High voltage direct current (HVDC) systems have been proposed by numerous authors [1–10] as a solution for integrating renewable and existing sources of energy together in configuration similar to Figure 1. Here, several power converters are used to interface multiple generation sources and load locations in a multi-terminal HVDC interconnection with power converters that may be integrated with each turbine (Cluster 1), or integrated with a group of turbines (Cluster 2). The subject of this paper is an examination of alternative power converter topologies that may be applied in the HVDC&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Although the HVDC power converters may generally be used in either sending or receiving mode, this paper will concentrate on sending power from a generation source using one of the two canonical power converter topologies, current sourced converters (CSCs) or voltage sourced converters (VSCs). In general VSC technologies appear to be favored against the CSC to realize future HVDC installations for a variety of reasons. But a more critical analysis is necessary to establish this generalization in a definitive manner. Additionally, a new HVDC power conversion approach has recently emerged which can be potentially transformerless and utilizes a modular multi-level converter (MMLC). This converter belongs to the aptly named “bridge of bridge” converter (BoBC) family, and holds promise to be a competitive solution in the future of HVDC [11–13]. The performance trade-offs between the three types of converters have not been definitively presented in the literature, particularly in view of the application to bulk power transmission in regard to utility integration of wind power. To be sure, a comparative evaluation of particular solutions for a given application may be made on the basis of several features. Salient power circuit features include: harmonics of waveforms, operating losses, ratings of power converters, reactive component requirements, transformer kVA requirements, and complexity of control. Given the degree of variability based on the application a definitive evaluation appears to be a formidable task. Therefore, in order to maintain a focus in the evaluation, a particular benchmark application is considered in this paper. Furthermore, the evaluation is limited to solutions that feature superior waveform quality arising from high frequency or high pulse number switching with nearly sinusoidal line current waveforms. A focused analytical modeling and design study of a candidate application using the different approaches is performed in order to evaluate their performance. The comparison criteria used for the&amp;nbsp;evaluation include voltage, current and power throughput ratings of the main power circuit components (including transformers, capacitors, and semiconductors), quality of terminal voltage and current waveforms in terms of harmonics, and losses in power semiconductors. Although the trade-offs of complete systems using these alternative approaches may be a complex function of market trends, economic factors and engineering development, and would change considerably with respect to time and location, a preliminary estimate of these metrics together provide a basis for making a first order trade-off among these approaches. In today’s state of the art, doubly fed induction generators operating in the low voltage regime (480/690 V) are most commonly used to realize wind turbine installations. As turbine power levels steadily increase into the 5 MW+ levels, low voltage machine designs become impractical from an efficiency perspective [14]. Following this trend, wind turbine manufacturers may be expected to migrate to medium voltage generators that may be tied to the electric grid via a single power converter. The focus of this paper is to call attention to the properties of the CSC, VSC, and BoBC and compare them in a benchmark application in following this trend. A brief background discussion of each converter is provided in Section 2 and a detailed comparison including a benchmark design follows in Section 3. Section 4 provides a summary of the conclusions.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;b&gt;2. HVDC Converter Topologies, a Brief Review&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/b&gt;This section introduces each of the three converter topologies in consideration and provides a background overview on their operation. Common topologies for each converter as well as operating characteristics are provided. These characteristics are explored further and compared in Section 3. While the review here is brief, and focuses on the salient features from the view of a comparative evaluation, a more detailed discussion on functioning installations of these representative technologies may be found elsewhere [12]. Notably, for a more comprehensive discussion on CSCs in wind applications, the readers may be refer to recent works [15–21]. Similarly, a detailed discussion on the operational features of VSCs in wind generation applications may be found in [8,20–28], while a description and operational features of the BoBC/MMLCs may be found in [13,29–35].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2.1. Current Sourced Converter (CSC)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Since its inception in the 1950’s the current sourced converter (CSC) has been the workhorse of HVDC transmission systems. Despite a gradual evolution of valve designs and harmonic suppression techniques, the conversion process has remained unchanged. Generation voltage is increased with a step-up transformer operating at the power frequency and rectified to feed a current stiff dc bus as shown in Figure 2(a), consisting of 6-pulse CSCs. In order to maintain the comparative evaluation to be of reasonable complexity while preserving the essential structural elements, the CSC illustration shown in Figure 2(a), along with sub-module realization Figure 2(b) is considered in this study. The results may be suitably modified to study alternative realizations if desired.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;To improve system harmonics CSCs typically use transformers with multiple secondary windings phase shifted from one another to drive independent thyristor bridges. A series or parallel connection of the 6-pulse thyristor bridges results in a higher pulse frequency converter for enhanced performance.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;The switching device of each of the six arms of the rectifier bridge is made up of N sub-modules connected in series to obtain the desired voltage blocking rating. Each sub-module contains a single semiconductor switch, usually a thyristor or an SCR. The rectified output is filtered using an inductor, which may be a discrete component or the transmission line’s inherent inductance, which gives the converter its “current stiff” property. Current stiffness combined with phase controlled rectification make the CSC robust against HVDC line faults.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Although the CSC is capable of bidirectional power flow, this requires a voltage reversal at the dc terminals when the bridges are realized with thyristors that conduct current in one direction. In practice, bi-directional power flow for CSCs may be achieved by advancing the firing angle to reverse polarity of the output voltage while maintaining current direction thus reversing power flow. However, one should exercise caution in relying on this technique in multi-terminal networks, a simple voltage reversal of the dc terminals alone may not fulfill all the requirements of power flow management across each of the terminals.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/feeds/6261409083093930326/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2012/10/an-examination-of-achvdc-power-circuits.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6261409083093930326'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/6261409083093930326'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2012/10/an-examination-of-achvdc-power-circuits.html' title='An Examination of AC/HVDC Power Circuits for Interconnecting Bulk Wind Generation with the Electric Grid'/><author><name>suryana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02976441663193225251</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6295899168009502881.post-8909227484972213632</id><published>2012-10-17T09:15:00.003+07:00</published><updated>2013-02-20T17:22:18.581+07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Pengolahan Sinyal"/><title type='text'>Signal Processing in a Tiny Nutshell</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; trbidi=&quot;on&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;1.
Signals and Systems&lt;/b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;a)
Periodic signals&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Continuous:
x(t) = x(t+T), with T = period&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Discrete:
x[n] = x[n+N], with N = period&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;b)
Fundamental signals&lt;/i&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Exponential
(e) and Sinusoidal: connected through the Euler relation&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Unit
Impulse (d) and Unit Step (u): connected through integration and
differentiation&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;2.
Linear Time-Invariant Systems&lt;/b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;a)
Linearity means superposition.&lt;/i&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;When
you add up several inputs, then you simply add up the corresponding outputs.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x1
--&amp;gt; [system] --&amp;gt; y1&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x=x1+x2+...
--&amp;gt; [system] --&amp;gt; y=y1+y2+...&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Meanwhile,
Time-Invariant means constant characteristics of the system over time. When you
delay an input, then you simply also delay the output.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x1(t)
--&amp;gt; [system] --&amp;gt; y1(t)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x1(t-td)
--&amp;gt; [system] --&amp;gt; y1(t-td)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;b&gt;b) Any
signal can always be represented as a sum of time-shifted impulses.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x(t) =
x(t1)d(t-t1) + x(t2)d(t-t2) + ...&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;i&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;b&gt;c) If
we have an unit impulse (d) as the input signal, then the output signal is
called the &quot;impulse response&quot; (h) of the LTI system.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;b&gt;d
--&amp;gt; [system] --&amp;gt; h&lt;/b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;b&gt;d) By
referring to 2b) and 2c), we see that any pair of input signal (x) and output
signal (y) can be expressed as follows:&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x(t) =
x(t1)d(t-t1) + x(t2)d(t-t2) + ... --&amp;gt; [system] --&amp;gt; y(t) = x(t1)h(t-t1) +
x(t2)h(t-t2) + ...&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;This is
usually referred to as &quot;Convolution&quot;:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Discrete
system: y[n] = SUM (x[k] h[n-k]), from k=-INF to k=INF --&amp;gt; y[n]=x[n]*h[n]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Continuous
system: y(t) = INTEGRAL (x(T) h(t-T)) dT, from T=-INF to T=INF --&amp;gt;
y(t)=x(t)*h(t)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;e) If
we have an unit step (u) as the input signal, then the output signal is called
the &quot;step response&quot; (s) of the LTI system.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;u
--&amp;gt; [system] --&amp;gt; s&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Uniquely,
the impulse response (h) and the step response (s) of any LTI system can be
related with a simple relation&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Discrete
--&amp;gt; h[n] = s[n] - s[n-1]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Continuous
--&amp;gt; h(t) = d(s(t))/dt&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;3.
Fourier Series representation of periodic signals&lt;/b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;a) If
we have an exponential signal (e) as the input signal, then the output signal
is just the same exponential signal multiplied by a multiplication factor (H).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x(t) =
e^jwt --&amp;gt; [system] --&amp;gt; y(t) = H(jw) x e^jwt&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;H(jw)=
INTEGRAL (h(T) e^-jwt) dT, from T=-INF to T=INF --&amp;gt; H(jw) is also called as
the &quot;Function Transfer&quot; of the LTI system.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;This
unique property shows that an exponential signal is an EIGENFUNCTION of a LTI
system, while the multiplication factor H is an EIGENVALUE of the LTI system.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;b) Any
PERIODIC signal can always be represented as a sum of COMPLEX EXPONENTIAL
signals with different AMPLITUDES (a_k) and different HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
(kw0).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x(t) =
SUM (a_k x e^jkw0t), from k=-INF to k=INF&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Conversely,
we can also always determine the amplitudes a_k&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;a_k =
1/T x INTEGRAL (x(t) e^-jkw0t) dt, for INTEGRAL RANGE = T&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;The two
equations above are referred to as the SYNTHESIS equation and the ANALYSIS
equation, respectively.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;c) The
method in 3c) is not only applicable to continuous signals but also to discrete
signals.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x[n] =
SUM (a_k e^jkw0n), for SUM RANGE = N&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;a_k =
1/N x SUM (x[n] e^-jkw0n)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;d) We
could also represent any PERIODIC signal as a sum of sinusoidal signals with
different amplitudes and different harmonic frequencies. However, by choosing
to use complex exponential signals, rather than sinusoidal signals, we take
advantage of the special property of exponential signals&amp;nbsp;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;4.
Filtering&lt;/b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;a)
Filters are LTI systems that process a signal based on its frequency, i.e.
using the Fourier-series representation of the signal. In one type of
applications, we would like to construct frequency-shaping filters. For
example, see the frequncy shaping of electrical signals in an audio system.&amp;nbsp;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;b) In
another type of applications, we would like to construct various
frequency-selective filters: lowpass, highpass, bandpass, bandstop. We can
construct a continuous Lowpass filter using a simple RC electrical circuit
(Section 3.10.1). We can also construct continuous Highpass filters using a
simple RC electrical circuit (Section 3.10.2). The same methods can also be
applied for constructing discrete filters in digital systems&amp;nbsp;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;c)
REVIEW. So far we have understood how to represent PERIODIC signals as Fourier
series. Most of signals, however, are non-periodic. Next week we will see how
to deal with these non-periodic signals.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;5.
Fourier Transform representation of aperiodic signals&lt;/b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;a)
Fourier showed us that any APERIODIC signal can be approximated as a PERIODIC
signal, with the period T approaching INF. As T become sufficiently large, the
distance between a_k coefficients in the frequency spectrum become sufficiently
small such that the a_k spectrum become more continuous. Eventually, the
ANALYSIS and SYNTHESIS equations then become the FORWARD and INVERSE Fourier
Transform equations, respectively.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x(t) =
1/2pi INTEGRAL (X(jw) e^jwt) dw, from w=-INF to w=INF&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;X(jw) =
INTEGRAL (x(t) e^-jwt) dt, from t=-INF to t=INF&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Hence,
any APERIODIC continuous signal can be represented with the Fourier Transform.
Note that all signals (both periodic and non-periodic) can be represented as a
Fourier Transform, but only periodic signals can be represented as a Fourier
series.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;b) The
convolution and multiplication properties of the Continuous Fourier Transform
makes your life much easier. The complicated procedure of convolution in the
time-domain can now be replaced by a simple procedure of multiplication in the
frequency-domain.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;y(t)=x(t)*h(t)
&amp;lt;--&amp;gt; Y(jw)=X(jw)H(jw)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Conversely,
a multiplication in the time-domain corresponds to a convolution in the
frequency-domain.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;y(t)=x(t)h(t)
&amp;lt;--&amp;gt; Y(jw)= 1/2pi (X(jw)*H(jw))&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;c) The
methods described in 5a) and 5b) can also be applied for discrete signals.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x[n] =
1/2pi INTEGRAL (X(e^jw) e^jwn) dw, for w=2pi&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;X(e^jw)
= SUM (x[n] e^-jwn), from n=-INF to n=INF&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;y[n]=x[n]*h[n]
&amp;lt;--&amp;gt; Y(e^jw)=X(e^jw)H(e^jw)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;y[n]=x[n]h[n]
&amp;lt;--&amp;gt; Y(e^jw)= 1/2pi INTEGRAL (X(e^jTHETA) H(e^j(w-THETA))) dTHETA, for
THETA=2pi&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;d)
There is a DUALITY between the Fourier Series and Transforms; see Table 5.3 in
page 396 for details. There also exist a useful duality between Fourier
Transform pairs; examples: top-hat &amp;lt;--&amp;gt; sinc; flat(constant) &amp;lt;--&amp;gt;
single pulse; sinusoidal &amp;lt;--&amp;gt; train of pulses&amp;nbsp;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;6. Time
and frequency characterization&lt;/b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;a) The
Fourier Transform of any signal has a magnitude-phase representation.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Continuous:
X(jw) = |X(jw)| e^jPHASE_X(jw)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Discrete:
X(e^jw) = |X(e^jw)| e^jPHASE_X(e^jw)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Similarly,
the frequency response of a LTI system also has a magnitude-phase
representation.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Y(jw) =
H(jw)X(jw)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;|Y(jw)|
= |H(jw)||X(jw)| --&amp;gt; this leads to a magnitude amplification&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;PHASE_Y(jw)
= PHASE_H(jw) + PHASE_X(jw) --&amp;gt; this leads to a phase shift&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;b) If
the phase shift at the frequency domain is a linear function of the frequency
w, then the consequence in the time domain is straightforward, i.e. a time
shift. However, in many applications, the phase shift is a nonlinear function
of the frequency w, resulting in a non-straightforward consequence in the time
domain.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;c) An
LTI system with |H(jw)| = 1 and PHASE_H(jw) = 0 is a system that do nothing, as
if it does not exist.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;d) To
evaluate a frequency-selective filter, we should also be careful with its
time-domain properties. For example, an ideal lowpass filter is defined as
follows:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;H(jw)=1
for |w|&amp;lt;=wc&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;H(jw)=0
for |w|&amp;gt;wc&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Be
careful, however that the magnitude characteristic alone is not enough. In
particular, if the phase characteristic has a nonlinear function of the
frequency w, then the time-domain representation of the filter might have
undesired time-warped forms.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;On top
of that, remember that the the impulse response of an ideal lowpass filter
(with a tophat form) is a sinc function. When the frequency range of the filter
is made shorter, then the sinc-formed impulse response in the time-domain will
get wider, which might be undesired.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Moreover,
the step-response of the lowpass filter might also suffer, resulting in
&#39;ringing&#39;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;e)
Non-ideal filters are sometimes MORE desirable than ideal filters, because they
allow us to optimize between the time-domain properties and the
frequency-domain properties. For instance, some transition between the bandpass
region and the bandstop region may be introduced in the frequency domain to
provide a trade-off that allows for a better step response (i.e. with very
small ringing) in the time domain.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;7.
Sampling&lt;/b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;a) By
performing sampling based on impulses, any continuous signal can be converted
into a discrete signal.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;x_s(t)
= x(t) SUM (d(t-nTs)), from n=-INF to n=INF, with Ts as the sampling period.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;Conversely,
any discrete signal can be converted back into a continuous signal by
performing interpolation in between the discrete data.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;b) The
Nyquist sampling theorem states that, for any signal that is band-limited in
the frequency domain (X(jw)=0 for |w|&amp;gt;wM), then the time-domain
representation of the signal can be determined by its samples, if the sampling
frequency is higher than twice the highest frequency of the signal (wS &amp;gt;
2wM).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;c) If
the sampling frequency is equal to, or lower than, twice the highest frequency
of the signal to be sampled, then the frequency-domain representation of the
sampled signal will not resemble the sampled signal anymore (this phenomenon is
called aliasing), such that the time-domain representation will also not
resemble the sampled signal anymore. A visual example regarding aliasing is
provided by the stroboscope experiment;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;d) In
many applications, processing of continuous signal is done by the following
procedure: sample the continuous signal and convert it into a discrete signal
(i.e. using ADC); process the discrete signal using digital systems;
interpolate data in the discrete signal and convert it back into a continuous
signal (i.e. using DAC).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;e)
REVIEW. in the 1st week, we have seen several basic types of signals. We now
understand why they are important to study LTI systems:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-)
Sinusoidal: useful to develop Fourier Series and Transform.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-)
Exponential (e): also useful to develop Fourier Series and Transform, but even
more useful than Sinusoidal signals due to their unique property as the
EIGENFUNCTION of the LTI system being analyzed. Using Exponential signals as
input allows us to identify the TRANSFER FUNCTION H(jw) of the LTI system.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-) Unit
Step (u): useful to identify the Step Response of the LTI System, which is
frequently a very important characteristic of the LTI system in the time
domain.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-) Unit
Impulse (d): useful to identify the Impulse Response of the LTI system being
analyzed, which in turn allows us to develop the concepts of Convolution,
Fourier Series, and Fourier Transform.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;f) In
principle, Fourier Transform methods can be performed using either continuous
systems or discrete systems. Using discrete systems, however, provide a
significant advantage in industrial applications: it allows us to develop the
so-called Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), which uses a special discrete algorithm
that is very efficient and very fast. More details on FFT will be given after
the Midterm Exam.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;g) For
those of you who are curious about the relations between Fourier Series,
Fourier Transform, Laplace Transform, and Z-Transform, the following comparison
may help:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-)
Continuous Fourier Series can represent only continuous periodic signals, by
using a sum of purely imaginary exponentials.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-)
Discrete Fourier Series can represent only discrete periodic signals, by using
a sum of purely imaginary exponentials.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-)
Continuous Fourier Transform can represent both periodic and non-periodic
continuous signals, by using a sum of purely imaginary exponentials.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-)
Discrete Fourier Transform can represent both periodic and non-periodic
discrete signals, by using a sum of purely imaginary exponentials.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-)
Laplace Transform can represent both periodic and non-periodic discrete
signals, by using a sum of complex exponentials (containing both real and
imaginary exponentials).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;color: #333333; font-family: &amp;quot;Tahoma&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;-) Z
Transform can represent both periodic and non-periodic discrete signals, by
using a sum of complex exponentials (containing both real and imaginary
exponentials).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/feeds/8909227484972213632/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2012/10/signal-processing-in-tiny-nutshell.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/8909227484972213632'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/8909227484972213632'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2012/10/signal-processing-in-tiny-nutshell.html' title='Signal Processing in a Tiny Nutshell'/><author><name>suryana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02976441663193225251</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6295899168009502881.post-1329563648895690277</id><published>2012-10-17T03:42:00.002+07:00</published><updated>2013-02-20T17:40:30.757+07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="personal"/><title type='text'>The chemistry of living system</title><content type='html'>The human body is an amazingly complex,higly versatile,chemical system . it operates continously at a relatively uniform temperature of 37 degrees C and creates daily,from a very large number of widely varied and variable raw materials,a tremendous variety of products,many of them unbelievably complex. It does this through thousands of chemical reaction,many of which can be accomplished in the laboratory,if at all,only at elevated temperatures. For all of these chemical process,the body generates its own energy from the food and oxygen which it taken in.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; The study of the substances found in living organism,including the chemical reaction occuring in such system,has traditionally been increesing concern with,and many new discoveries related to, the molecular structure of many substances in living organism and the molecular&amp;nbsp;mecanism for the process characteristic of living system. The term molecular biology has been applied to describe much of this field of study.</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/feeds/1329563648895690277/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2012/10/the-chemistry-of-living-system.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/1329563648895690277'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/6295899168009502881/posts/default/1329563648895690277'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://suryanaanjani.blogspot.com/2012/10/the-chemistry-of-living-system.html' title='The chemistry of living system'/><author><name>suryana</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02976441663193225251</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry></feed>