Astronomy Blog

Speed of Light. Why can't we reach the speed of Light?

2020-06-23T08:41:00.075+05:30

Friends, you must have seen some Characters and Spacecrafts in Science Fiction Films and Series which can travel faster than the speed of light, these characters not only satisfy us but, we also think that is it possible to travel faster than light? It might be disappointing for you to hear this but this is the truth, till now, according to science, we can never reach the speed of light!

So today I will tell you that what are the reasons that stop us from reaching the speed of light, and we will also prove this with a simple mathematical equation, so let's start. according to science, nothing in this universe can reach the speed of light, nor go faster than light. Even Albert Einstein said that the speed of light is the speed limit of this universe, a body can reach the speed of light, only when its mass is zero, which means that it should be massless, here I am talking about every object in the universe, not the universe itself, because after the big bang, the expansion speed of the universe was much more fast than light, anyway, why is it like that? why cant anything travels faster than light, let's understand this with some concepts and equations, faster than light travel is not possible because it breaks the principle of causality, you might be thinking that what is this causality? Let's understand how faster than light breaks the principle of causality, in simple word causality means the relationship between cause and effect,

If I talk about Causality principle it says that cause always precedes effect, which means without any cause there is no effect, let's take an example of an egg if we see an egg broken on the floor, we think that it may have fallen on the ground first and then had been broken, here the egg fell is cause and the break is the effect,

Whenever we talk about the speed of light, the biggest mistake is that we compare its the speed with other objects speed, it is very important for us to know that the speed of light is also the speed of Electromagnetic waves, and this is the fastest speed of information to go from one place to another in this universe, which means that light is that instrument from which we can see this universe, this is that speed in which time also passes in order and the principle of causality also not violates if a supernova explosion happens one year ago, and it's light reaches us now, that doesn't mean that that supernova happened today, this means that the explosion happened 1 year ago, but its information is reaching us today. But if information starts traveling faster than light, it will break the principle of causality, and then we would the whole process in a reverse order, which will be similar to time travel, for example: Suppose you are shot by a gun and then you get hurt, and the bullet reaches you afterward.

OK let's understand it with a more easy example. We know that the Reference Frame would be anything, light travels at a constant speed in a vacuum. Suppose you are this (fig), and you are standing in a compartment of a train which is going at a very high speed, and there mirrors on both of the sides of the compartment, and in the middle, there is a light bulb in the middle, when you will glow this bulb,you will observe that the photons, on the light will hit both of them at the same time, because in your reference frame, both mirror, bulb and the compartment are in stationary state

Now there is another person standing outside the train, who is seeing that the train is moving forward, what will happen, when you will glow the light bulb, in what manner the person standing outside the train will observe the same event? in his reference frame, mirror a is moving forward, whereas mirror B is going away from Photons, so in the Reference Frame of this person, he will observe that, that the Photons are first hitting the mirror A and then mirror B if someone asks you that photons are hitting which mirrors first? You will answer both. But if the same question is asked from that person, he will answer that the photons are hitting mirror A first and later on mirror B, then the question arises which of you is correct? actually, both of you are correct. The phenomena you are observing is not an illusion, but it is reality, which is called relativity of simultaneity, which says that, the timing of the same event occurring in Space can vary according to different Reference Frame.

OK assume that another person can travel faster than the speed of light because, in his reference frame, photons take less time to reach mirror a and more time in reaching mirror b, he waits for the photons to reach, mirror a, till this time, photons haven't reached mirror b, because this mirror is going away from photons, now he reaches to mirror b with the speed of light, because, his speed is faster than light, he has reached the mirror b, but the photons are still on the way, and now he breaks this mirror, that is why, in his reference frame, photons have never reached mirror b, but wait, what happened in your reference frame at that time? You see that mirror B is broken, but how? It will be a difficult task for you to understand this because for you, photons should reach both the mirrors at the same time, which means that no one had much time for photons to reach mirror A and then break mirror B, because, for you, photons should hit both the mirrors.

There is only 1 way to do so, which is that another person should go in the past and break the mirror B before the photons reached both of the mirrors,

This is violating causality principle, this was the example that tells us that faster than light travel is not possible. If you have read my God particle article, you must have remembered that, the whole universe is full of invisible fields, one of them is Higgs Field, every particle has to cross this field originally, all the particles in the universe travel at the speed of light, but after reaching this field, some particles interact very high with this field, some low and some do not, the higher the interaction of the particle with the Higgs field, higher will be it's mass, and therefore, the particle which interact very less with this field, the lower will be it's mass and the particle which does not interact with Higgs field, it remains mass less, and the mass less particle keep going at the speed of light, because photons never interact with Higgs field, they are completely mass less, and they always travel at the speed of light, which means that any particle remains mass less because it didn't interact with Higgs field, means that the particle did not experience any resistance or opposition in Higgs field, without any resistance or opposition there is no difference in the speed of these particles, and that is why they always keep traveling at their fastest possible speed in this universe, if any particle is mass less, it will always travel at the speed of light, if any particle has some mass, it's speed will always be less than the speed of light, and that is why faster than light seems to be impossible. Trying to stop a car which is completely stopped is foolishness

Same as that the case for going at the speed of light, if you haven't understood Higgs field, you can go and read it, in which I explained it to you in full detail. Till now, we have understood 2 reasons, which tells us that traveling at the speed of light is impossible. Let's know about the 3 rd example, which is the most famous among people. This is connected with the theory of Relativity, special theory of relativity tells us that, if the speed of a body increases, its mass also increases

Here many of you will say that I am saying wrong, that mass never increases, it is always constant. Let me tell you that you are right, but the mass you are talking about is rest mass. Rest mass never changes. but when a body is traveling at a very high speed, so its mass increases because of Relativity Equation, but when it comes to rest, it's mass again becomes as normal, means that as the speed of a body increases, its mass also increases, and when the mass increases, we have to provide it the energy of that proportion to accelerating, which means that even if a body reaches the speed of light, it's mass increases so much that it needs infinite energy to accelerate and giving infinite energy is impossible.it is foolishness to talk about a big object, as even an Electron can never reach the speed of light, because when it reaches the speed of light, it needs infinite energy to accelerate, and even the whole universe, hasn't this much amount of energy in it, a body can only reach 99.9% of light's speed not more than that. And now let's know about the last reason which makes faster than light travel impossible, this time we will use a simple math equation to show that we cannot reach the speed of light.

E=mc2, this is a world-famous equation, you might have heard about his somewhere. You might not know that this is an incomplete equation. Yes, you have heard right. this equation is only for the objects which are massless, and who which are at rest, if I talk about the equation, so it is this, e square = mc square whole square + pc whole square, here p = Momentum m= Mass and c= Speed of Light, and now,

You might have heard Pythagorean theorem which tells us that, it always follows in a right-angled triangle (Hypotenuse) 2= (perpendicular) 2+ (Base) 2, now if we see the last equation, it is similar to this equation, and now keeping this equation in mind,

If we make a right-angled triangle, it will be like this, in this Hypotenuse will be e, the base will be pc, and the height will me mc2,

Now we will use this triangle to see that, when E=mc2 comes, by Pythagorean Theorem we have this equation E2=(mc2)+(pc)2, where p is momentum, m is mass and c is the speed of light, we know that whenever a body is at rest, it's momentum which p will become 0 but when we keep p=0 in this equation, so the pc2 term will automatically become 0, and now we will get E=mc2, which we know as mass-energy equivalence equation, now let's see that what do we get in the case of photons, we are talking about massless particles, here mass will become 0, by which the whole (mc2)2 term will become 0, and we will get e2 = (pc)2, which is e= pc, which means e=pc is only when the mass of an object is 0,

we can also write the velocity of an object in this form V=c pc by before I start discussing further, lets first know that where did this relation came from? because many of you people will be thinking that where this came from. For the objects which have some mass, the pc side of this triangle will change into the magnitude of Pv, here v is representing the velocity of the object which has some mass and which is traveling. in this triangle, we can say sin a = PV by e, this is relation 1. We know that e= hc by lambda and p = h by lambda, now if we put E and p in relation 1, so we will get sin a = hv by Lambda, Lambda by hc, here the term h and lambda will get cut and we will get sin a = v by c, this is relation 2, if we look in this triangle, we can say that sin a = pc by e, this is relation 3, now if we equate relation 2 and 3, so we can say that v by c= pc by e, if we shift c to the right-hand side, we will get v= c pc by e, from this we can say that, if the velocity of a body will increase, the lenght of pc side will also increase, and the ratio of e and pc will get similar, but it can only go at 0.99 but it can never reach 1 because here, the mass of our object is not 0, which means that mc 2 side will never end, from which e will never get equal to pc, which simply means that v will never get equal to c, this means that if an object has some mass, it will never reach the speed of light. We know that whenever a body's speed increases, it experiences time dilation, which means that for him, the time starts passing slowly. But but.......... have you ever thought that if you were light, how will you see this world, actually in this speed, time will completely stop for you and distances will contract. for example, if we see the light of a galaxy which was formed billions of years ago, we will think that, that the light took billions of years to reach us, but if we were light, it will not take too much of time for us to reach here, on the very next moment that light reached us, because, for light, the time has stopped and the distance between that galaxy and our Earth had become very short Only special theory of relativity tells us that what do we feel when we reach the speed of light and traveling at the speed of light or faster than that is impossible, says this theory. Maybe a new theory will replace this theory and make this speed possible, but for now, it is impossible. Theoretically, theories like warp drive and wormhole, which say that we can reach the speed of light, but they are still theories.

So friends, this much only for today, please let me know if you want me to explain something else through comment down below

Thank you.

Written by:

REUBEN DANIEL

Booetes Void

2020-06-08T08:38:00.002+05:30

Comet SWAN is coming!!! Are we about to die?

2020-06-01T14:56:00.006+05:30

A sky full of stars, twinkling stars, what a magic is in there, wether we are sad or happy, we always try to see that heaven of space, even if the Stars are silent they say a lot, we think that we should take time and talk to them when we don't have much things to do The above things are always in the mind of a stargazer like you and me, no matter the world is stopped, there is something going above us in the space, we have another chance to see a wonderful space event. the corner most edge of the solar system, which is Oort Cloud.(fig2)

Fig(2)

A comet is coming from there, which will cross the sun at a very low distance, even in the media there is a big talk about this comet,

So lets us know about this comet today, its name is SWAN which was found by Solar Wind Anisotropis Camera which is SWAN, it was operated by NASA's Heliospheric Observatory

but officialy its name is designated as C/2020 F8. Mr Michael Mattiazzo (fig3)

who discovered this comet, says that half of the credit of this discovery should go to Corona Virus because he discovered this comet in his backyard when the whole world was inside their houses during Lockdown. Michael works in pathology industry, but because of this Lockdown he got some extra time to complete his hobby which was comet hunting, he started scanning the images of NASA's SOHO observatory. The photo taken of 25th March he saw a small twinkling light in the
night sky which attracted him towards it, by the way it was the light of the hydrogen which was coming out of the comet. what happens is that when a comet gets closer to the sun the water ice inside it's
nucleus start vaporizing, because of the Ultravoilent rays of the sun the water molecules of the comet break up, and then Hydrogen atoms start to glow up, this was the light that Michael saw.
So comets are made up of frozen gas like methane ammonia water ice and also dust, when the comet reaches the sun it gets heated up and start glowing, but the comets which show a very nice phenomena to us are made (fig3).
up of dust because dust particles reflect sunlight more perfectly when reaching towards sun the gases expand, the solar winds expand the gases of the comets and it makes a very beautiful scene which is called it's tail

if a comet is made up of dust particles, so it's nucleus and it's tail will be more big, which we can see with our naked eyes, but if a comet is made up of gases, it will be more difficult to see it and if you saw it it
will appear bulgy and haunted, because the molecules of gases do not reflect the sunlight and to see the gas comets from naked eyes is very much difficult. even if we use binoculars and small telescopes, even then it is very difficult to see
them. So just guess that what this comet it made up of? if you say gas, fortunately you are right. First it was thought that it is orbiting the sun in an eliptical orbit, whose orbital period is of thousands of years and it was also thought that it orbited the sun only one time
but now it is not like that, this comet coming from ourt cloud seems to be vey young. the comets which come near to the sun are in a parabolic path not eliptical because the come for the first time from the edge of the universe and they directly all into the gravity of the sun and as soo

as they reach the sun they move again into the darkness (fig4) , where the get lost for a long time and go so fast that it seems to be a target from slingshot. the comets which have'nt interacted with sun, they are made up of a very volatile material like frozen nitrogen carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide etc.
whenever they interact with the sun for the first time they start glowing more brighter than our expectation as soon as the volatile ice gets extinghuished, they start to grow dim. the brightness of Celestrial bodies is calculated in numbers of magnitudes the stars which appear to be brighter, their magnitude is 0 and +1 and the most dim stars that we see from our eyes, their magnitude is +6 at 24 April the magnitude of this comet was +7.2 which means that we cannot see it from our naked eyes
and within one week it's magnitude decreased to +5.2 and this comet started appearing like a star in the night sky at 27 may it will be very close got our sun, 64.6 million Kilometres and then it's magnitude will become +5.2 and then it will appear like a medium brightness star
but it can be seen for the 5 days of the next month this comet will appear on the Pisces constellation the people who live in the southern hemisphere will be able to see the comet more clearly, but most of the countries are in the northern hemisphere and even India, where I live, so the people in the north will
have to use telescopes, you can see the comet 1 or 1.5 hours before sunrise, you have to see 10 degrees up in the north horizon, if you see it with more attention, you will definately see it. and just like this you can see it 1 or 1.5 hours after sunset. If you want to know more about this comet just go to

1.https://theskylive.com/c2020f8-tracker

that's all for it.

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Written by :

REUBEN DANIEL

The First Living Being in Space

2020-05-29T12:46:00.002+05:30

whenever we think about the first living being in space, the name that comes to our mind is Laika, but there were some more species of animals, like rats and flies, which had done space missions and there was even a monkey, whose name was

Albert 1, who took part in a suborbital flight, in 1948, which was not a proper mission. Just because of that we know about, Laika who did the first space mission, we are proud od Laika, because she was the only animal in this whole earth who did the space mission, but really..... was Laika a lucky dog? as we have seen in magazines and school books? So, what is the truth? today we will know about that

Before 1940, it was a difficult task for scientists to send humans in space. there was a question in their mind that can humans survive in space? that is why several animals were sent into space. 1957, Moscow, Russia, this time Laika was a stray dog who was roaming in the streets of Moscow, and at that time her age was 3 years, she didn't know that in human history, she will be the first dog to complete a proper space mission. and between this, the first-ever satellite of the world, Sputnik 1 was launched successfully, but in Sputnik 1, there was no living being, and then the scientists of Russia thought that we should a big living being into space, this time these scientists wanted to complete the second achievement in Space, that is why they had only 4 weeks to make a spacecraft for Laika, a later on that innocent dog, had to pay for this, the name of this spacecraft was Sputnik 2, which was specially designed for a dog, in the spacecraft, there was a carbon dioxide absorber, an oxygen generator and a fan to keep Laika cool, and even there was a one week supply for the dog and a stool and urine collector, the cabin of Sputnik 2 was so compact that there was no space left for the dog to roam around, so Sputnik 2 was designed in 28 days, and now they only wanted a dog. The soviet space scientists thought mandatory to take a stray dog because they had a habit of living in extreme conditions than that of a Domestic dog, which was ideal for this space mission, and then these space scientists found Laika, and they trained Laika for a space mission, the cabin of Sputnik 2 was very compact, so for that, she was kept in a small cage, so that she can easily sit in the cabin, and the time passed by, na the training of Laika was over and now she was ready to go to space, that time humans only had the knowledge of how to reach space but they did not know the way to come back from space, If we see, this mission was just like a suicide mission, but the only difference was that, that Laika didn't know that she is about to die in a few days, so before the mission one of the scientists took her to his house, and Laika to play with his child in the ending days of the dog. Now it was the time to say goodbye to Laika, so Laika was put inside the cabin of Sputnik 2, and she was also tied with a chain so that she cannot do any type of movement from her place, and then in this position, she was kept of 3 days on Earth, so that, she would have a habit of sitting in such position, 3rd November 1957, the last day of Laika, before closing the lid of the cabin, a technician there, kissed Laika on her nose and said her goodbye, knowing that she will never come back, and then Sputnik 2 was launched successfully and started to reach space with Laika, but from some technical problem, a part of the rocket was unable to detach from the rocket, I think that, that 4 weeks were not enough to make a spacecraft, and because f=of that, the temperature of Laika's cabin began to increase, and because of that, her heart rate became to reach

240 from 103, from this information, we come to know that, Laika had to face many problems from the heat. and for 3 hours, she kept fighting against death, and after 5 hours, the temperature of the cabin was too hight, that signals stopped coming from Laika's Cabin, and then Laika died, and after that, Sputnik 2 was as it is in the earth's orbit for 162 days and kept revolving the Earth for 2570 times, and after that, 14 th April 1958, Sputnik 2 entered in the atmosphere of the Earth and then it burned in the atmosphere with the dead body of Laika, and in 2008, the Russian government made a statue of Laika in her respect, the statue was made on the place, where Laika was trained, as you can see, a dog is standing above a rocket, who is Laika, we should never forget balidan of Laika, and there must be some contribution of Laika, that is why we can think about big space mission today. Do you think that we should

John Hadley

2020-05-27T13:56:00.001+05:30

John Dollond

2020-05-27T09:44:00.001+05:30

Isaac Newton

2020-05-26T11:56:00.003+05:30

Christiaan Huygens

2020-05-26T11:40:00.000+05:30

Joahness Kepler

2020-05-26T10:55:00.000+05:30

Hans Lippershay

2020-05-12T10:04:00.000+05:30

History of Telescopes

2020-05-05T10:57:00.016+05:30

The first telescopes were little more than hand-held wooden tubes, but they allowed Astronomers to discover mountains on the Moon and Moons around Jupiter. Today's giant telescopes let us see billions of light years into the far reaches of Space.

Like eyes, telescopes collect light and focus it to create an image. Unlike our eyes, however, telescopes can their sights into tiny targets and can add together the light they recieve over a long period. The bigger a telescope is, the more light it can collect and the sharper the image. With a large telescope, we can zoom on distant galaxies or volcanoes on Mars. The first telescopes used glass lenses, but big lenses bend under their own weight, so astronomers switched to mirrors to make telescopes bigger. In the largest telescopes, dozens of segments are arranged together to form one giant, curved mirror. Earth's atmosphere blurrs our view of space, so professional telescopes are build on mountains where the air is dry and still, or the telescopes are launched into Space like Hubble Space Telescope

The History of Telescopes can be traced to before the invention of the earliest known telescope, which appeared in 1608 in the Netherlands, when a patent was submitted by Hans Lippershey (fig2).
He was an Eyeglass Maker, although he did not recive his patent, the news of the invention soon spread across Europe.

The design of the early refracting telescope consisted of a convex objective lens and a concave eyepiece.Galelio improved on this design the following year and applied it to Astronomy. In 1611

Johaness Kepler (fig3) described how a far useful telescope could be made with a convex objective lens and a convex eyepiece lens. By 1665, Astronomers such as Christiaan Huygens

were buliding powerful unwiedly Keplerian Telescopes with compound eyepieces.

Isaac Newton is credited with building the first reflector telescope in 1668 with a design that incorporated a small flat diagonal mirror to reflect the light to an eyepiece mounted on the either side of the telecsope. Laurent Cassegrain in 1672 described the design of a reflector with a small convex secondary mirror to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror.

The Acromatic Lens, which greatly reduced colour abberations in objective lenses and allowed for shorter and more functional telescopes, first appeared in a 1733 telescope made by Chester Moore Hall, who did not publisize it. John Dollond learned of Hall's invention and began producing telescopes using it in commercial quantities starting in 1758.

Important developments in the reflecting telescopes by John Hadley's production of larger paraboloidal mirrors in 172; the process of silvering glass mirrors was introduced by Leon Foucault in 1857; the adoptation of long lasting aluminized coatings on reflector mirror in 1932.

The Ritchey Chretien variant of Cassegrain Reflector was invented around 1910, but not widely adopted until after 1950 many modern telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope use this design, gives a wider field of view than classic Cassegrain. During the period 1800-1900, reflectors suffered from problem with Speculum metal mirrors, and a considerable number of great reflectors were build from 60 Cintimetre to 1 Metre aperture culminating in the Yerkes Observatory refractor in 1897 however starting from the early 1900's a series of even larger reflectors with glass mirrors were build, including the Mount Wilson 60 inch (1.5) the 100 inch (2.5) metre Hooker Telescope (1917) and the 200 inch (5 metre) Hale Telescope(1948); essentially all major research telescopes since 1900's were reflectors. A number of 4 metre class (160) inch telescopes were build on higher altitude sights including Hawaii and the Chilean Desert in the 1975-1985 era.

The Development of the Computer controlled alt-azimuth mount in the 1970s and active optics in the 1980s enabled a new generation of even larger telescopes, starting 10-metre (400 inch) Keck telescopes in 1993/1996, and a number of 8-metre telescopes including the ESo Very Large Telescopes, Gemeni observatory and Subaru Telescope.

The era of radio telescopes (along with radio astronomy) was born with Karl Guthe Jansky's serendipitous discovery of an astronomicalradio source in 1931. Many types of telescopes were developed in the 20th century for a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. The development of space observatories after 1960 allowed access to several bands impossible to observe from the ground, including X-rays and longer wavelength infrared bands.

Optical Telescopes

How simple telescopes work?

A telescope uses a lens or a mirror to collect light from the distant objects and focus it create an image

Mars

2020-05-05T10:56:00.000+05:30

Venus

2020-05-05T10:50:00.000+05:30

Jupiter

2020-05-05T10:49:00.018+05:30

The largest planet of all, Jupiter is more than twice as all the planets combined. Unlike rocky worlds, such as Earth or Mars, Jupiter is a gas giant- a vast, spinning globe of gas and liquid with no solid surface.

Jupiter is 1,300 times greater in volume than Earth, and the pull of its gravity is so great that it bends the paths of comets and asteroids flying through the Solar System. If our Earth is in danger from comets and asteroids, all these comets will go and hit Jupiter rather than hitting us. Despite the planet's great size, it spins quickly, giving it a day less than 10 hours long. The rapid rotation makes Jupiter bulge visibly at its equator and whips its clouds into horizontal stripes and swirling storms. The largest storm- The Great Red Spot (fig.2)- is bigger than Earth, so bigger that over three Earths can be fit in it. Lightning Storms flicker throught the blackness on Jupiter's night side, and the whole planet is surrounded by belts of lethal radiation that would make a manned mission extermely dangerous.

(fig.2)

It is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun, but two-and-a-half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. Jupiter is one of the brightest objects visible to the naked eye in the night sky, and has been known to ancient civilizations since before recorded history. It is named after the Roman god Jupiter. When viewed from Earth, Jupiter can be bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows, and is on average the third-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus.

Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium, though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of molecules. It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements, but like the other giant planets, Jupiter lacks a well-defined solid surface. Because of its rapid rotation, the planet's shape is that of an oblate spheroid (it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator). The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes, resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope. Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere. Jupiter has 79 known moons, including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of these, has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury.

Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to visit Jupiter, making its closest approach to the planet on December 4, 1973; Pioneer 10 identified plasma in Jupiter's magnetic field and also found that Jupiter's magnetic tail was nearly 800 million kilometers long, covering the entire distance to Saturn. Jupiter has been explored on a number of occasions by robotic spacecraft, beginning with the Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions from 1973 to 1979, and later by the Galileo orbiter, which arrived at Jupiter in 1995. In late February 2007, Jupiter was visited by the New Horizons probe, which used Jupiter's gravity to increase its speed and bend its trajectory en route to Pluto. The latest probe to visit the planet is Juno, which entered into orbit around Jupiter on July 4, 2016. Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice-covered liquid ocean of its moon Europa

Formation and Migration

Astronomers have discovered 696 planetary systems with multiple planets. Regularly these systems include a few planets with masses several times greater than Earth's (super-Earths), orbiting closer to their star than Mercury is to the Sun, and sometimes also Jupiter-mass gas giants close to their star. Earth and its neighbor planets may have formed from fragments of planets after collisions with Jupiter destroyed those super-Earths near the Sun. As Jupiter came toward the inner Solar System, in what theorists call the grand tack hypothesis, gravitational tugs and pulls occurred causing a series of collisions between the super-Earths as their orbits began to overlap.Researchers from Lund University found that Jupiter's migration went on for around 700,000 years, in a period approximately 2–3 million years after the celestial body started its life as an ice asteroid far from the sun. The journey inwards in the solar system followed a spiraling course in which Jupiter continued to circle around the sun, albeit in an increasingly tight path. The reason behind the actual migration relates to gravitational forces from the surrounding gases in the solar system. Jupiter moving out of the inner Solar System would have allowed the formation of inner planets, including Earth.However, the formation timescales of terrestrial planets resulting from the grand tack hypothesis appear inconsistent with the measured terrestrial composition. Moreover, the likelihood that the grand tack actually occurred in the solar nebula is quite low.

Physical Characteristics

Jupiter is composed primarily of gaseous and liquid matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System. It has a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator. The average density of Jupiter, 1.326 g/cm³, is the second highest of the giant planets, but lower than those of the four terrestrial planets.

Composition

Jupiter's upper atmosphere is about 88–92% hydrogen and 8–12% helium by percent volume of gas molecules. A helium atom has about four times as much mass as a hydrogen atom, so the composition changes when described as the proportion of mass contributed by different atoms. Thus, Jupiter's atmosphere is approximately 75% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with the remaining one percent of the mass consisting of other elements. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds. There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia. Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found. The interior contains denser materials—by mass it is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements.

The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Helium is also depleted to about 80% of the Sun's helium composition. This depletion is a result of precipitation of these elements into the interior of the planet.

Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more ices and are thus now termed ice giants.

Mass and Size

Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center. Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense: its volume is that of about 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as massive.Jupiter's radius is about 1/10 the radius of the Sun,and its mass is 0.001 times the mass of the Sun, so the densities of the two bodies are similar.

Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had much more mass than it does at present, it would shrink. For small changes in mass, the radius would not change appreciably, and above about 500 (1.6 Jupiter masses) the interior would become so much more compressed under the increased pressure that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved, as in high-mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter masses.

Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the smallest red dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radius than Jupiter. Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from the Sun; the amount of heat produced inside it is similar to the total solar radiation it receives.This additional heat is generated by the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism through contraction. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 2 cm each year.When it was first formed, Jupiter was much hotter and was about twice its current diameter.

Internal Structure of Jupiter

Jupiter was expected to either consist of a dense core, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 78% of the radius of the planet, and an outer atmosphere consisting predominantly of molecular hydrogen,or perhaps to have no core at all, consisting instead of denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the center, depending on whether the planet accreted first as a solid body or collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk. However, the Juno mission, which arrived in July 2016,found that Jupiter has a very diffuse core, mixed into the mantle. A possible cause is an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally solid Jovian core.

Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.2858 MPa and critical temperature of only 32.938 K. In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. It is convenient to treat hydrogen as gas extending downward from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km, and as liquid in deeper layers. Physically, there is no clear boundary—the gas smoothly becomes hotter and denser as one descends. Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere. Rainfalls of extraterrestrial diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune.

The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism. At the pressure level of 10 bars (1 MPa), the temperature is around 340 K (67 °C; 152 °F). At the phase transition region where hydrogen—heated beyond its critical point—becomes metallic, it is calculated the temperature is 10,000 K (9,700 °C; 17,500 °F) and the pressure is 200 GPa. The temperature at the core boundary is estimated to be 36,000 K (35,700 °C; 64,300 °F) and the interior pressure is roughly 3,000–4,500 GPa.

Atmosphere

Jupiter has the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, spanning over 5,000 km (3,000 mi) in altitude. Because Jupiter has no surface, the base of its atmosphere is usually considered to be the point at which atmospheric pressure is equal to 100 kPa (1.0 bar).

Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed of ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide. The clouds are located in the tropopause and are arranged into bands of different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are sub-divided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 m/s (360 km/h) are common in zonal jets. The zones have been observed to vary in width, color and intensity from year to year, but they have remained sufficiently stable for scientists to give them identifying designations.

The cloud layer is only about 50 km (31 mi) deep, and consists of at least two decks of clouds: a thick lower deck and a thin clearer region. There may also be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia layer. Supporting the idea of water clouds are the flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth. The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior.

The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change color when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons.These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.

Jupiter's low axial tilt means that the poles constantly receive less solar radiation than at the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports more energy to the poles, balancing out the temperatures at the cloud layer.

Observation

So, let's talk about the observation of Jupiter.

Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon and Venus); at times Mars is brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as −2.94 at opposition down to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun. The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33. The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 29.8 arc seconds. Favorable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through perihelion, an event that occurs once per orbit.

Earth overtakes Jupiter every 398.9 days as it orbits the Sun, a duration called the synodic period. As it does so, Jupiter appears to undergo retrograde motion with respect to the background stars. That is, for a period Jupiter seems to move backward in the night sky, performing a looping motion.

Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth never exceeds 11.5°: Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained. A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere. A large telescope will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.

The Brightest Object in the Universe

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(1)

Hey guys, I am Reuben and welcome to my blog, today I will tell you about the brightest object in the universe. If I ask you what is the brightest object in the daytime? You will definately say that it is sun. and it is right. Our sun is the nearest star and is enough bright that no light can compete it in the daytime. But the thing is that there are many stars in the universe which are many many much bugger than our sun. Astronomers who study stars use two technical words to calculate the intensity.
The Light that we see of stars including sun is called Appearent magnitude as the word says appear
it depends on two major factors
1. The actual light of star
2.And the distance of the object from us because the stars are very are from us they appear to be very dim.

Even our moon which has'nt its own light appears to be brighter than the other stars. but this is not a fair compedition. if we place a 100 watt bulb in a few inches front of our eyes will appear same as our sun but we all know that if we will look both of them from the same dist there will be no compedition of both of them. so today we will know about the brightest object in the universe so appearnet magnitude is of no use today we need to know about their actual brightness which is called absolute magnitude so today we will look to a scale the will tell us the absolute magnitude in which numbers are arranged from higher to lower number "higher the number lower is its brightness but lower the number higher is its brightness" so lets take a look at our sun which looks very bright but if we look it from a fair distance comparing with other stars and objects using the scale will be 4.8 which is not bad. well lets look at the brightest star in the sky after sun which is sirius it is brightest star in the night sky
and it is 4.8 light years away from us. its absolute magnitude is 1.6 which is 22 times brighter than sun is is very bright rightso now what do you think about this star its name is R136A1 it is not only 256 times bigger than sun but is one of the brightest stars in the universe its absolute brightness is not like our sun which is 4.6 but its absolute brightness -12.6 that means it is
680 thousand times brighter than sun. if it would be in place of sun its one sight can damage our eyes forever but even this star is not the brightest object in the universe. As you know when giant stars die the is a huge blast called supernova of hypernova but not only this happens when it blasts there are two very strange rays given out of the star which are called Gama Ray Burst
which is much much more brighter than the star which produces much energy that our sun will produce 10000000000 years. this is a very unique event in the universe and theres a star that is about to explode its name is WR104 according to scientists if it will explode in injust 10 seconds its gamma rays will destroy 25% of the earth's ozone layer and from that to be continued {3:26)

IC1101 Galaxy

2020-04-21T11:47:00.002+05:30

Most Unusual Planets in the Universe

2020-04-21T11:25:00.022+05:30

Friends there are millions of planets in the universe who orbit their sun but there are many other planets in the universe which are a beauty of nature
so today i have got you some information about some planets which are very strange, i am sure you will definately be surprised after hearing this .

Tres 2 b

This is the most dark and black colored planet in the universe. It is situated nearly 750 light years away from our solar system. the most strange thing about this planet is that it reflects only 1% light that falls on it. This can be demonstrated by a simple talk that, earth reflects a huge amount of light and gives it to our moon so that we are able to see the moon very clearly
and the another strange thing about this planet is that is looks red as if a huge log or coal is burning. the temprature of this planet is about 1100 degree Celsius. some scientists think that there may be smoke on all over the planetthat is why it dos'nt reflect most light

55 Cancri E

This is one another strange planet, it may solve the problem of your girlfriend or your wife. you red right this is the planet that girls and women will love this planet a lot. it is the most brightest planet in the universe, this is so because it is made up of diamond, this planet contains vary huge amount of diamond.

It is made up of 1/3 rd of pure diamond that is why diamonds are there, but before you dream of getting diamonds from that planet, you first need to know that it is 40 light years away from earth and it will take a lot of time for the humans to reach there, if we assume that we reached to that planet, what will happen is our earth will be a full of diamonds, and the value of diamonds will be zero. so it is better to see it from far and be happy

Glise 436 B

Have you ever seen fire on ice, your answer would be a big no, but our this planet is the most bizzare beacuse it is a big ball of ice, it is put on fire at a temparature of 439 degree celsius, you might be thinking that, that if this planet contains ice and fire, why dosen't it's ice melt? this is so because, the gravity of this planet is very strong. if ice melts it comes back in the form of ice

HD 189 773 B

Have you ever thought that you are walking on a road and suddenly there is a rain of glass, yes you heard right, on this planet tere is a rain of glass, this planet is full of silicon particles, that is why it's colour is blue, it's upper atmospheric layer is very hot, that is why these silicon particles get converted into glass and rotate at a speed of 4000 mile per hour.

WASP 12 B

Just like any other planet, this planet also rotates it sun, but this planet is very close to it's sun that is why, it has converted into a giant ball of fire, it is twice the size of Jupiter, but being so close to it's sun, it's 6 billion metric tonne material gets absorbed by it's star,

that it's shape has become an egg from a sphere

GLIE SE 581 C

This is an important planet for scientists because they thik that this planet may have aliens, by the way it is ery different from our earth, because it revolutes a red star, it means that if you stand there you will see a red sky,but the most stange thing is that it dosent rotates, it means that on one of it's side there is always day and on the other side tehre is always night, the temparature of face of the planet facing towards sun is so hot that, noone can live there
and on the other side that dosent faces towar

The Solar System

2020-01-15T15:12:00.001+05:30

Our local neighborhood in Space is called the Solar System. At its heart is the Sun, an ordinary star that is so close that it floods our planet with light. Trapped in its orbit by gravity are Earth and seven other planets, their many moons, and millions of comets and asteroids

The Sun's family

The solar system is a vast disc of material over 30 billion km (19 million miles) across, with the Sun

at its center. Most of it is empty space, but scattered throughout the countless solid objects bound to the Sun by gravity and orbiting (traveling around) it, mostly in the same direction. The biggest objects are almost perfectly round and are called planets. There are eight of them, ranging from the small rocky planet Mercury to gigantic Jupiter. The Solar System also hundreds of moons and dwarf planets, millions of Asteroids, and possibly millions or billions of comets.

The Sun and Planets

The sun is huge compared to even the biggest of the planets. Jupiter and it contains 99.8 % of the Solar System's entire mass. At nearly 1.4 million km (870,000 miles) wide, the Sun is ten times wider than Jupiter and over 1000 times massive. Yet even Jupiter is gigantic compared to Earth. The Solar System's eight planest form two distinct groups. The inner planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars
- are solid balls of rock and metal. In contrast, the outer planets are gas giants - enormous, swirling globes mode mostly of Hydrogen and Helium.

Orbital Plane

Exploring Space

2020-01-13T15:31:00.003+05:30

Hello guys, so today I will tell you about something on Exploring Space.

Galaxies

2020-01-13T15:31:00.001+05:30

Stars

2020-01-13T15:30:00.001+05:30

ISS

2020-01-11T15:41:00.004+05:30

1. Space Stations

Only 3 people have spent more than a year continuously in space, all of them on board a space station. These giant, orbiting spacecraft allow astronauts to spend long periods living and working off the planet.

A total of 10 manned space stations have orbited the Earth since 1971. The first one, Salyut 1, was small enough to be launched in one piece but had room for only 3 people. Larger space stations are built in orbit by joining room-like parts called Modules, which are constructed on Earth and launched separately. Astronauts used this method to build the International Space Station (ISS), fixing the first parts together in 1988. It is the largest man-made object ever to orbit Earth and is visible to the naked eye, looking like a bright star that sweeps across the sky just a few minutes. The ISS is used for scientific research, but Space Stations may one day be used as a staging post for manned missions to the planets.

2. International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station in low Earth orbit. The ISS programme is a joint project between 5 participating space agencies: NASA, Roscomos, JAXA, ESA, and CSA. The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements.
The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for the missions to the Moon and Mars. The ISS maintains an orbit with a height of at least 400 km by means of reboost
maneuvers using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting the Spacecraft. It circles the Earth every 93 minutes and about 16 times a day. The Station is divided into two parts, The Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) which is operated by Russia, The United States Orbital Segment (USOS) which is shared by many nations. The first ISS component was launched in 1988 with the first long term residents arriving on 2 November, 2000. Since then the station

The first person in space

2020-01-10T19:46:00.001+05:30

The First Person in Space

Some other space events of 2020

2020-01-08T14:41:00.001+05:30

Space events of 2020 part 2

Hi, again everyone today in part 2, I will tell you about some space events of 2020.

1. Uranus at opposition

On October 31, Sun, Earth, and Uranus will come in straight line respectively

2. Taurids Meteor Shower

It will be on November 5, up to 10 Meteors per hour.

3. Leonids Meteor Shower

Up to 15 Meteors per hour, at November 17.

4. Partial Lunar Eclipse

It will be the last Lunar Eclipse of 2020, visible over America, The Pacific & Japan on November 30

5. Gemenids Meteor Shower

The best Meteor Shower of the year, it can produce up to 120 streaks per hour

6. Total Solar Eclipse

On December 14, the last eclipse of 2020. Visible over South America

7. Conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn

Two gas giants will pass within 7 arches of each other, on December 22

8.Ursids Meteor Shower

The last Meteor Shower and the last event of 2020 on December 22.

With this I want to end my post, Thank You

Some other space events of 2020

2020-01-07T18:27:00.003+05:30

Space events of 2020 part 1

1. Partial Lunar Eclipse

On January 10 you will see a partial lunar eclipse. It will be visible from Europe, Africa, Asia, the Indian Ocean, and West Australia.

2. Lyrids Meteor Shower

It will be from April 22-23, the shower can produce 20 meteors per hour. Peaks a day before new Moon, so best has the best viewing conditions.

3. Eta Aquarids Meteor Shower

The shower can produce up to 60 Meteors per hour. Nearly full Moon will be a problem, on May 6.

4. Partial Lunar Eclipse

On June 5, it will be visible over most of Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia and the Indian ocean.

5. Annual Solar Eclipse

The moon will cover the Sun completely. Visible over East Africa, The Middle East, and Southern Asia on June 21.

6. Partial Lunar Eclipse

On the 5th of July, the 3 rd Lunar Eclipse of 2020, visible over North and South America and the Atlantic.

7. Jupiter at Opposition

Jupiter will make it's closest approach to Earth on July 14.

8. Saturn at opposition

On July 20, Saturn will make it's closest approach to Earth

9. Perseid Meteor Shower

This is one of the best Meteor Showers. Up to 60 Meteors per hour on August 13.

10. Neptune at opposition

On September 11, Neptune will make it's closest approach to Earth.

11. Mars at opposition

Mars will make it's closest approach to Earth. Best time to watch the Red Planet.

12. Orionids Meteor Shower

Another best Meteor Shower on October 22.

13. Blue Moon

On October 31,the second full moon of October as the only Blue Moon of 2020.