Programming

Conceptual Understanding Of A Computer System

2020-02-11T12:53:00.001-08:00

Computer System Concepts and Components

A computer is more than a high-powered collection of electronic devices performing a variety of information processing chores. A computer is a system, an interrelated combination of components that performs the basic system functions of input, processing, output, storage, and control, thus providing end users with a powerful information processing tool. Understanding the computer as a computer system is vital to the effective use and management of computers.

Simply speaking computer is a calculating device. The name is derived from the Latin word "computare" meaning “to compute”, and can be applied as properly to an abacus or an adding machine as to the modern computer. However, the concept of computer has come to mean a special type of programing machine having some basic characteristics;

* Fast and reliable

* Receive, process and store information

* A multitasking machine perform quickly, accurately ( running different programs at thesame time).

Following are some definitions of computer which will clear your concept;

An electronic machine can store and process information. It is defined as stored program digital computing system.

A Computer is an electronic device of wires, transistors, circuits, instructions and data can transmit, store and manipulate information.

A Computer is a machine that accepts data and processes that data (data may be numbers, letters or both or even sounds). Information is turned into electrical pulses so that it may be processed by sorting, collating and deleting mathematical manipulation and other forms of data processing.

What is Computer?

A computer is system of hardware devices organized according to the following system functions;

Input: The input devices of a computer system include keyboards, touch screens, pens, electronic mice, optical scanners, and so on.

Processing: The central processing unit( CPU) is the main processing component of a computer system. (In microcomputers, it is the main microprocessor.) In particular, the electronic circuits of the arithmetic-logic unit one of the CPU’s major components, perform the arithmetic and logic functions required in computer processing.

Output: The output devices of a computer system include video display units, printers, audio response units , and so on, They convert electronic information produced by the computer system into human intelligible form for presentation to end users.

Storage: The storage function of a computer system takes place in the storage circuits of the computer’s primary storage unit, or memory, and in secondary storage devices such as magnetic disk and tape units. These devices store data and program instructions needed for processing.

Control: The control unit of the CPU is the control component of a computer system. Its circuits interpret computer program instructions and transmit directions to the other components of the computer system.

The Central Processing Unit.

The central processing unit is the most important hardware component of a computer system. It is also known as the CPU, the central processor or instruction processor, and the main microprocessor in a microcomputer. Conceptually, the circuitry of a CPU can be subdivided into two major subunits the arithmetic-logic unit and the control unit. The CPU also includes circuitry for devices such as registers and cache memory for high –speed, temporary storage of instruction operations, input/output, and telecommunications support.

The control unit obtains instructions from software segments stored in the primary storage unit and interprets them. Then it transmits electronic signals to the other components of the computer system to perform required operations. The arithmetic-logic unit performs required arithmetic and comparison operations .A computer can make logical changes from one set of program instructions to another (e.g, overtime pay versus regular pay calculations) based on the results of comparisons made in the ALU during processing.

Main Memory and Primary Storage Unit.

A computer’s primary storage unit is commonly called main memory, and holds data and program instructions between processing steps and supplies them to the control unit and arithmetic-logic unit during processing. Most of a computer’s memory consists of microelectronic semiconductor memory chips known as RAM (random access memory ). The contents of these memory chips can be instantly changed to store new data. Other, more permanent memory chips called ROM (read only memory) may also be used.

Secondary storage devices like magnetic disks and optical disks are used to store data and programs and thus greatly enlarge the storage capacities of computer system. Also, since memory circuits typically lose their contents when electric power is turned off, most secondary storage media provide a more permanent type of storage.

Classification of Computers

Analog Computers: It accepts analog input and provide analog output information. it represents physical quantities like acceleration, temperature, distance or voltages in mechanical or electrical circuits and does not need any storage device. Examples of analog computer are thermometer, speedometer and analog clock.

Digital Computer: This computer accept digital input and provide digital output after processing information and the operation are in binary system of 0 and 1. By manipulating the binary digits and numbers it can perform any task like analyze data, mathematical calculations etc. Examples of digital computers are Apple Macintosh, IBM PC.

Hybrid Computer: This computer is the combination of both analog and digital computers in terms of speed and accuracy. Hybrid computers can measure physical and digital quantities. Examples of hybrid computer is the machine measure heartbeat in hospital, devices installed fuel pumps. Etc.

Microsoft Word

2020-02-10T02:59:00.001-08:00

Microsoft Word

Sometimes called Winword, MS Word, or Word, Microsoft Word is a word processor published by Microsoft. It is one of the office productivity applications included in Microsoft Office. Originally developed by Charles Simonyi and Richard Brodie, it was first released in 1983.

Microsoft Word is available for the Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS, Android, and Apple iOS. It could also be run on the Linux operating system using WINE.

What is Microsoft Word used for?

What does the Microsoft Word editor look like?

Where do you find or start Microsoft Word?

What are the uses of Microsoft Word?

How many lines are there on a page in Microsoft Word?

What type of files can Microsoft Word create and use?

Example of a Microsoft Word .doc file.

Why use Word instead of a plain-text editor?

Why use Word instead of a WordPad?

Related pages.

Microsoft Word help and support.

What is Microsoft Word used for?

Microsoft Word allows you to create professional-quality documents, reports, letters, and résumés. Unlike a plain text editor, Microsoft Word has features including spell check, grammar check, text and font formatting, HTML support, image support, advanced page layout, and more.

What does the Microsoft Word editor look like?

Below is an overview of a Microsoft Word 2010 document.

Where do you find or start Microsoft Word?

If you have Microsoft Word or the entire Microsoft Office package installed on Microsoft Windows, you can find Microsoft Word in your Start menu.

Keep in mind that new computers do not include Microsoft Word. It must be purchased and installed before it can be run on your computer. If you do not want (or cannot afford) to purchase Microsoft Word, you can use a limited version for free at the Microsoft Office website.

Note

There are also free word processing programs you can try that are very similar to Microsoft Word.

If Microsoft Word is installed on your computer, but you can't find it in your Start menu, use the following steps to manually launch Microsoft Word:

Open My Computer.

Click on or select the C: drive. If Microsoft Office is installed on a drive other than the C: drive, select that drive instead.

Navigate to the Program Files (x86) folder, then the Microsoft Office folder.

In the Microsoft Office folder, if there is a root folder, open that folder. Then open the OfficeXX folder, where XX is the version of Office (e.g., Office16 for Microsoft Office 2016). If there is no root folder, look for and open a folder having "Office" in the name.

Look for a file named WINWORD.EXE and click or double-click that file to start the Microsoft Word program.

What are the uses of Microsoft Word?

Microsoft Word is a word processor and like other word processors it's capable of helping the user create a variety of different types of documents. We've included our full list of the top uses of a word processor on our word processor page.

How many lines are there on a page in Microsoft Word?

By default, there are 25 lines on one page in Microsoft Word.

What type of files can Microsoft Word create and use?

Early versions of Microsoft Word primarily created and used the .doc file extension, while newer versions of Word create and use the .docx file extension.

More recent versions of Microsoft Word can create and open the following types of files:

.doc, .docm, .docx

.dot, .dotm, .dotx

.htm, .html

.mht, .mhtml

.odt

.pdf

.rtf

.txt

.wps

.xps

.xml

Example of a Microsoft Word .doc file

You can download an example of a Microsoft Word .doc document by clicking the Microsoft Word .doc file link.

Why use Word instead of a plain-text editor?

Microsoft Word offers many features not possible in a traditional text editor or a plain-text file. Reasons you'd use Microsoft Word instead of a plain-text file include the ability to change the formatting (e.g., center text), change the font, insert pictures, and much more.

Algol Programming

2020-02-10T02:45:00.001-08:00

History

ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language) is one of several high level languages designed specifically for programming scientific computations. It started out in the late 1950's, first formalized in a report titled ALGOL 58, and then progressed through reports ALGOL 60, and ALGOL 68. It was designed by an international committee to be a universal language. Their original conference, which took place in Zurich, was one of the first formal attempts to address the issue of software portability. ALGOL's machine independence permitted the designers to be more creative, but it made implementation much more difficult. Although ALGOL never reached the level of commercial popularity of FORTRAN and COBOL, it is considered the most important language of its era in terms of its influence on later language development. ALGOL�s lexical and syntactic structures became so popular that virtually all languages designed since have been referred to as "ALGOL - like"; that is they have been hierarchical in structure with nesting of both environments and control structures.

Significant Language Features

ALGOL was the first second-generation programming language and its characteristics are typical of the entire generation. First consider the data structures, which are very close to first generation structures. In ALGOL 60 the block structure was introduced: the ability to create blocks of statements for the scope of variables and the extent of influence of control statements. Along with that, two different means of passing parameters to subprograms; call by value and call by name. Structured control statements: if - then - else and the use of a general condition for iteration control were also features, as was the concept of recursion: the ability of a procedure to call itself.

One of the greatest impacts ALGOL 60 had was a result of its description as found in Naur (1963). A major contribution of this report was the introduction of BNF notation for defining the syntax of the language. Overall, ALGOL is considered to be perhaps the most orthogonal programming language, meaning it has a relatively small number of basic constructs and a set of rules for combining those constructs. Every construct has a type associated with it and there are no restrictions on those types. In addition, most constructs produce values. Several of ALGOL�s other characteristics are listed below:

Dynamic Arrays - one for which the subscript range is specified by variables so that the size of the array is set at the time storage is allocated.

Reserved Words - the symbols used for keywords are not allowed to be used as identifiers by the programmer.

User defined data types - allow the user to design data abstractions that fit particular problems very closely.

Areas of Application

ALGOL was used mostly by research computer scientists in the United States and in Europe. Its use in commercial applications was hindered by the absence of standard input/output facilities in its description and the lack of interest in the language by large computer vendors. ALGOL 60 did however become the standard for the publication of algorithms and had a profound effect on future language development.

PRINICIPAL TERMS

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ALGOL

The name ALGOL is a contraction from ALGOrithmic Language. It was developed by a committee of American and European computer scientists at ETH, in Zurich, Switzerland, as a language for the display of algorithms. The detailed specifications for the language were first reported in 1960, as ALGOL-58, and there have been several revisions and variations of the language since its inception.

These include the updated ALGOL-60, ALGOL-N, ALGOL-68, ALGOL-W and Burroughs Extended ALGOL. The language was developed from the FORTRAN language, which appeared in 1956. Both ALGOL and FORTRAN strongly influenced the development of later languages such as BASIC, PL/1 and PL/C, Euler and Pascal. Many ALGOL programmers agree that the development of ALGOL-68 made the language much more complex and less elegant than the previous version ALGOL-60, ultimately leading to its fall into disfavor with computer users. It is now one of the oldest and least used of all programming languages.

PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS

The syntax of ALGOL is rather logical, using natural-language reserved keywords such as comment, begin and end and the “:” (colon) character to identify standard arithmetical operators. The ALGOL program format utilizes a two-part “block” structure in its main loop that has since become a familiar feature of most modern computer languages such as C/C++, Java and many others. The first block, called the “head,” consists of a series of type declarations similar to those used in FORTRAN type declaration statements.

As can be seen, comment lines for documentation are identified by the keyword comment, and procedures are identified by the keyword procedure followed by the name of the procedure. The second block, which is the main part of the program, consists of a sequence of statements that are to be executed. It is initiated by the keyword begin and terminated by the keyword end. In fact this is the common structure of ALGOL procedures, and the program format supports procedures within procedures.

THE ALGOL LEGACY

While the ALGOL programming language was overshadowed by the FORTRAN programming language and did not become popular, it featured a number of innovative aspects that have since become staples of essentially all major programming languages. In particular, the nested procedure structure foreshadowed the object-oriented programming style. It was the first language to make use of start-end identifiers as block delimiters, a convention that has carried over in object-oriented languages using function delimiters such as the { and } brace characters.

ABSTRACT

The ALGOL programming language was developed in 1958 as a program for the display of algorithms. It was elegant and included several design features that have since become staple features of advanced programming languages. ALGOL programs and procedures employ a head-body format, and procedures can be nested within other procedures. ALGOL was the first programming language to make use of start-end delimiters for processes within procedures, a feature now common in advanced object-oriented programming languages. The language allowed recursion and iterative procedures, dynamic array structures, and user-defined data types. Despite its elegance and advanced features, however, ALGOL never became widely used and is now one of the oldest programming languages.

C++ Programming

2020-02-10T02:35:00.001-08:00

Structure of a program

The best way to learn a programming language is by writing programs. Typically, the first program beginners write is a program called "Hello World", which simply prints "Hello World" to your computer screen. Although it is very simple, it contains all the fundamental components C++ programs have:

// my first program in C++

#include <iostream>

int main()

std::cout << "Hello World!";

Hello World!

Edit & Run

The left panel above shows the C++ code for this program. The right panel shows the result when the program is executed by a computer. The grey numbers to the left of the panels are line numbers to make discussing programs and researching errors easier. They are not part of the program.

Let's examine this program line by line:

Line 1: // my first program in C++

Two slash signs indicate that the rest of the line is a comment inserted by the programmer but which has no effect on the behavior of the program. Programmers use them to include short explanations or observations concerning the code or program. In this case, it is a brief introductory description of the program.

Line 2: #include <iostream>

Lines beginning with a hash sign (#) are directives read and interpreted by what is known as the preprocessor. They are special lines interpreted before the compilation of the program itself begins. In this case, the directive #include <iostream>, instructs the preprocessor to include a section of standard C++ code, known as header iostream, that allows to perform standard input and output operations, such as writing the output of this program (Hello World) to the screen.

Line 3: A blank line.

Blank lines have no effect on a program. They simply improve readability of the code.

Line 4: int main ()

This line initiates the declaration of a function. Essentially, a function is a group of code statements which are given a name: in this case, this gives the name "main" to the group of code statements that follow. Functions will be discussed in detail in a later chapter, but essentially, their definition is introduced with a succession of a type (int), a name (main) and a pair of parentheses (()), optionally including parameters.

The function named main is a special function in all C++ programs; it is the function called when the program is run. The execution of all C++ programs begins with the main function, regardless of where the function is actually located within the code.

Lines 5 and 7: { and }

The open brace ({) at line 5 indicates the beginning of main's function definition, and the closing brace (}) at line 7, indicates its end. Everything between these braces is the function's body that defines what happens when main is called. All functions use braces to indicate the beginning and end of their definitions.

Line 6: std::cout << "Hello World!";

This line is a C++ statement. A statement is an expression that can actually produce some effect. It is the meat of a program, specifying its actual behavior. Statements are executed in the same order that they appear within a function's body.

This statement has three parts: First, std::cout, which identifies the standard character output device (usually, this is the computer screen). Second, the insertion operator (<<), which indicates that what follows is inserted into std::cout. Finally, a sentence within quotes ("Hello world!"), is the content inserted into the standard output.

Notice that the statement ends with a semicolon (;). This character marks the end of the statement, just as the period ends a sentence in English. All C++ statements must end with a semicolon character. One of the most common syntax errors in C++ is forgetting to end a statement with a semicolon.

You may have noticed that not all the lines of this program perform actions when the code is executed. There is a line containing a comment (beginning with //). There is a line with a directive for the preprocessor (beginning with #).

Java Programming

2020-02-08T13:51:00.001-08:00

Learn Java Programming

Java is a popular general-purpose programming language and computing platform. It is fast, reliable, and secure. According to Oracle, the company that owns Java, Java runs on 3 billion devices worldwide.

Considering the number of Java developers, devices running Java, and companies adapting it, it's safe to say that Java will be around for many years to come.

This guide will provide everything you need to know about Java programming language before you learn it. More specifically, you will learn about features of Java programming, its applications, reasons to learn it, and how you can learn it the right way.

Java Tutorial

INTRODUCTION

Java Hello World

Java JVM, JRE and JDK

Java Data Types

Java Operators

Java Input and Output

Java Expressions & Blocks

Java Comment

FLOW CONTROL

Java if...else

Java switch Statement

Java for Loop

Java for-each Loop

Java while Loop

Java break Statement

Java continue Statement

JAVA OOP (I)

Java Class and Objects

Java Methods

Java Constructor

Java Access Modifiers

Java this keyword

Java Lambda Expression

Java Recursion

Java instanceof Operator

JAVA OOP (II)

Java Inheritance

Java Method Overriding

Java super Keyword

Abstract Class & Method

Java Interfaces

Java Polymorphism

Java Encapsulation

JAVA OOP (III)

Nested & Inner Class

Java Static Class

Java Anonymous Class

Java Singleton

Java enum Class

Java enum Constructor

Java enum String

Java Reflection

JAVA EXCEPTION HANDLING

Java Exceptions

Java Exception Handling

Java throw and throws

Java catch Multiple Exceptions

Java try-with-resources

JAVA LIST

Java Collections Framework

Java Collection Interface

Java List Interface

Java ArrayList

Java Vector

Java Stack

JAVA QUEUE

Java Queue Interface

Java PriorityQueue Interface

Java Deque Interface

Java LinkedList

Java ArrayDeque

Java BlockingQueue Interface

Java ArrayBlockingQueue

Java LinkedBlockingQueue

JAVA MAP

Java Map Interface

Java HashMap

Java LinkedHashMap

Java WeakHashMap

Java EnumMap

Java SortedMap Interface

Java NavigableMap Interface

Java TreeMap

Java ConcurrentMap Interface

Java ConcurrentHashMap

JAVA SET

Java Set Interface

Java HashSet

Java EnumSet

Java LinkedhashSet

Java SortedSet Interface

Java NavigableSet Interface

Java TreeSet

Java Algorithms

We are working hard to create easy to follow step by step Java tutorial. Subscribe now, and we'll let you know once the tutorial is complete.

Enter Your Email

What is Java Programming Language?

Before getting started on Java programming, lets get familiarized with the language first.

Why Java was Created? A Brief History

Features of Java Programming Language

Java is platform independent

Java was built with the philosophy of "write once, run anywhere" (WORA). The Java code (pure Java code and libraries) you write on one platform (operating system) will run on other platforms with no modification.

To run Java, an abstract machine called Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is used. The JVM executes the Java bytecode. Then, the CPU executes the JVM. Since all JVMs works exactly the same, the same code works on other operating systems as well, making Java platform-independent.

An object-oriented Language

There are different styles of programming. Object-oriented approach is one of the popular programming styles. In object-oriented programming, a complex problem is divided into smaller sets by creating objects. This makes your code reusable, has design benefits, and makes code easier to maintain.

Many programming languages including Java, Python, and C++ has object-oriented features. If you are serious about programming, you should definitely learn object-oriented style of programming.

Python Programming

2020-02-08T13:49:00.001-08:00

Learn Python Programming

Python is a powerful multi-purpose programming language created by Guido van Rossum.

It has simple easy-to-use syntax, making it the perfect language for someone trying to learn computer programming for the first time.

This is a comprehensive guide on how to get started in Python, why you should learn it and how you can learn it.

However, if you have knowledge of other programming languages and want to quickly get started with Python, visit Python tutorial page.

Learn Python programming from the ease of your phone.

Download learn Python app on Android.

Download learn Python app on App Store.

Python Tutorials

INTRODUCTION

Getting Started

Keywords & Identifiers

Statements & Comments

Python Variables

Python Datatypes

Python Type Conversion

Python I/O and Import

Python Operators

Python Namespace

FLOW CONTROL

Python if...else

Python for Loop

while Loop

break and continue

Pass Statement

Looping Technique

FUNCTIONS

Python Function

Function Argument

Python Recursion

Anonymous Function

Python Global, Local and Nonlocal

Python Global Keyword

Python Modules

Python Package

DATATYPES

Python Numbers

Python List

Python Tuple

Python String

Python Set

Python Dictionary

Python Nested Dictionary

Python Arrays

Python Matrix

List Comprehension

FILE HANDLING

File Operation

Python Directory

Python Exception

Exception Handling

User-defined Exception

OBJECT & CLASS

Python OOP

Python Class

Python Inheritance

Multiple Inheritance

Operator Overloading

ADDITIONAL TUTORIALS

Iterators

Generators

Closures

Decorators

Shallow and Deep Copy

@property

Python Assert

Get latest updates, articles and tutorials on Python programming.

Enter Your Email

What is Python (Programming)? - The Basics

Before getting started, lets get familiarized with the language first.

Python is a general-purpose language. It has wide range of applications from Web development (like: Django and Bottle), scientific and mathematical computing (Orange, SymPy, NumPy) to desktop graphical user Interfaces (Pygame, Panda3D).

The syntax of the language is clean and length of the code is relatively short. It's fun to work in Python because it allows you to think about the problem rather than focusing on the syntax.

More information on Python Language:

History of Python

Features of Python Programming

Applications of Python

Reasons to Choose Python as First Language

Simple Elegant Syntax

Programming in Python is fun. It's easier to understand and write Python code. Why? The syntax feels natural. Take this source code for an example:

a = 2

b = 3

sum = a + b

print(sum)

Even if you have never programmed before, you can easily guess that this program adds two numbers and prints it.

Not overly strict

You don't need to define the type of a variable in Python. Also, it's not necessary to add semicolon at the end of the statement.

Python enforces you to follow good practices (like proper indentation). These small things can make learning much easier for beginners.

Expressiveness of the language

Python allows you to write programs having greater functionality with fewer lines of code. Here's a link to the source code of Tic-tac-toe game with a graphical interface and a smart computer opponent in less than 500 lines of code. This is just an example. You will be amazed how much you can do with Python once you learn the basics.

Great Community and Support

Python has a large supporting community. There are numerous active forums online which can be handy if you are stuck. Some of them are:

Learn Python subreddit

Google Forum for Python

Python Questions - Stack Overflow

Run Python on Your Operating System

You will find the easiest way to run Python on your computer (Windows, Mac OS X or Linux) in this section.

Install and Run Python in Mac OS X

Install and Run Python in Linux (Ubuntu)

Install and Run Python in Windows

Go to Download Python page on the official site and click Download Python 3.6.0 (You may see different version name).

Pascal Programming

2020-02-08T09:38:00.001-08:00

Pascal - Overview

Fortran Programming

2020-02-08T09:31:00.001-08:00

Introduction to Fortran

Created by Declan Valters on July 30, 2018

Tutorial aims:

1. Understand what the Fortran progamming langauge is

2. Learn about a brief history of Fortran

3. Understand how Fortran differs to other programming languages

4. Learn some of the basic syntax of the Fortran language

5. Learn how to compile a basic Fortran program

6. Learn how to compile, configure, and run a larger Fortran program

What is Fortran?

Fortran is a computer programming language that is extensively used in numerical, scientific computing. While outwith the scientific community, Fortran has declined in popularity over the years, it still has a strong user base with scientific programmers, and is also used in organisations such as weather forecasters, financial trading, and in engineering simulations. Fortran programs can be highly optimised to run on high performance computers, and in general the language is suited to producing code where performance is important.

Fortran is a compiled language, or more specifically it is compiled ahead-of-time. In other words, you must perform a special step called compilation of your written code before you are able to run it on a computer. This is where Fortran differs to interpreted languages such as Python and R which run through an interpreter which executes the instructions directly, but at the cost of compute speed.

A brief Fortran history

Fortran was originally named after the contraction of Formula Translation, highlighting Fortran’s origins as a language designed specifically for mathematical calculations. Fortran was developed in the early 1950s and the first ever Fortran program ran in 1954 - making Fortran fairly unusual among programming languages in that it predates the modern transistor computer - the first Fortran program ran on the IBM 704 vacuum tube computer! Fortran has outlived several nation states since its conception, and still is in wide use today in a number of specialised scientific communities. Unfortunately Fortran is often referred to as an ‘outdated’ or ‘legacy’ programming language. I disagree with this description, as although Fortran has a long history, the language continues to be updated, new features are developed and added to the Fortran language standard, and there is still a strong community behind Fortran. The latest Fortran standard was released in 2018, bringing many new features and keeping Fortran a relevant, highly performant language for contemporary scientific computing challenges.

Getting a feel for Fortran

Perhaps you have previously used other programming languages, such as Python, R, or MATLAB, which have developed with easy to understand syntax in mind, and with a programming style that favours more rapid development time at the expense of computational performance. Fortran will seem different to these languages in many ways, but the principles of programming remain broadly the same, and some syntax is shared or similar to elements of other programming languages.

We are going to start with a ‘high-level’ view of a very simple Fortran program. Don’t worry about every piece of syntax and keyword at the minute - we’re just going to look at the overall general structure.

This program calculates the area of a triangle using Heron’s formula.

! ------------------------------------------------------

! Compute the area of a triangle using Heron's formula

! ------------------------------------------------------

PROGRAM HeronFormula

IMPLICIT NONE

REAL :: a, b, c ! three sides

REAL :: s ! half of perimeter

REAL :: Area ! triangle area

LOGICAL :: Cond_1, Cond_2 ! two logical conditions

READ(*,*) a, b, c

WRITE(*,*) "a = ", a

WRITE(*,*) "b = ", b

WRITE(*,*) "c = ", c

WRITE(*,*)

Cond_1 = (a > 0.) .AND. (b > 0.) .AND. (c > 0.0)

Cond_2 = (a + b > c) .AND. (a + c > b) .AND. (b + c > a)

IF (Cond_1 .AND. Cond_2) THEN

s = (a + b +

Basic Programming

2020-02-08T09:29:00.001-08:00

The History of the BASIC Programming Language

Flipboard

The advent of the personal computer was crucial to the success of BASIC.

Tim Martin/Aurora/Getty Images

By Mary Bellis

Updated January 27, 2019

In the 1960s, computers ran on gigantic mainframe machines, requiring their special rooms with powerful air-conditioning to keep them cool. The mainframes received their instructions from punch cards by computer operators, and any instructions given to a mainframe required writing a new piece of software, which was the realm of mathematicians and nascent computer scientists.

BASIC, a computer language written at Dartmouth college in 1963, would change that.

Beginnings of BASIC

The language BASIC was an acronym for Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. It was developed by Dartmouth mathematicians John George Kemeny and Tom Kurtzas as a teaching tool for undergraduates. BASIC was intended to be a computer language for generalists to use to unlock the power of the computer in business and other realms of academia. BASIC was traditionally one of the most commonly used computer programming languages, considered an easy step for students to learn before more powerful languages such as FORTRAN. Until very recently, BASIC (in the form of Visual BASIC and Visual BASIC .NET) was the most widely known computer language among developers.

The Spread of BASIC

The advent of the personal computer was crucial to the success of BASIC. The language was designed for hobbyists, and as computers became more accessible to this audience, books of BASIC programs and BASIC games surged in popularity. In 1975, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, the founding fathers of Microsoft,) wrote a version of BASIC for the Altair personal computer. It was the first product Microsoft sold. Later Gates and Microsoft wrote versions of BASIC for the Apple computer, and IBM's DOS which Gates provided came with its version of BASIC.

The Decline and Rebirth of BASIC

By the mid-1980s, the mania for programming personal computers had subsided in the wake of running professional software created by others. Developers also had more options, such as the new computer languages of C and C++. But the introduction of Visual Basic, written by Microsoft, in 1991, changed that. VB was based on BASIC and relied on some of its commands and structure, and proved valuable in many small business applications. BASIC .NET, released by Microsoft in 2001, matched the functionality of Java and C# with the syntax of BASIC.

List of BASIC Commands

Here are some of the commands associated with the earliest BASIC languages developed at Dartmouth:

HELLO — log in

BYE — log off

BASIC — start BASIC mode

NEW — name and begin writing a program

OLD — retrieve a previously named program from permanent storage

LIST — display the current program

SAVE — save the current program in permanent storage

UNSAVE — clear the current program from permanent storage

CATALOG — display the names of programs in permanent storage

SCRATCH — erase the current program without clearing its name

RENAME — change the name of the current program without erasing it

RUN — execute the current programs

STOP — interrupt the currently running program

Operating System

2020-02-08T09:21:00.000-08:00

Operating System Tutorial: What is, Introduction, Features & Types

What is an Operating System?

An Operating system (OS) is a software which acts as an interface between the end user and computer hardware. Every computer must have at least one OS to run other programs. An application like Chrome, MS Word, Games, etc needs some environment in which it will run and perform its task. The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer's language. It is not possible for the user to use any computer or mobile device without having an operating system.

In this tutorial, you will learn:

Examples of Operating System with Market Share

History Of OS

Features of Operating System

What is a Kernel?

Functions of an Operating System

Types of Operating system

Difference between Firmware and Operating System

Difference between 32-Bit vs. 64 Bit Operating System

The advantage of using Operating System

Disadvantages of using Operating System

Examples of Operating System with Market Share

Here is a list of Operating Systems with the latest MarketShare

OS Name Share

Windows 40.34

Android 37.95

iOS 15.44

Mac OS 4.34

Linux 0.95

Chrome OS 0.14

Windows Phone OS 0.06

History Of OS

Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape storage

The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early 1950s for their IBM 701

In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks

In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed

The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by purchasing the 86-DOS software from a Seattle company

The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when a GUI was created and paired with MS-DOS.

Features of Operating System

Here is a list commonly found important features of an Operating System:

Protected and supervisor mode

Allows disk access and file systems Device drivers Networking Security

Program Execution

Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking

Handling I/O operations

Manipulation of the file system

Error Detection and handling

Resource allocation

Information and Resource Protection

What is a Kernel?

The kernel is the central component of a computer operating systems. The only job performed by the kernel is to the manage the communication between the software and the hardware. A Kernel is at the nucleus of a computer. It makes the communication between the hardware and software possible. While the Kernel is the innermost part of an operating system, a shell is the outermost one.

Features of Kennel

Low-level scheduling of processes

Inter-process communication

Process synchronization

Context switching

Types of Kernels

There are many types of kernels that exists, but among them, the two most popular kernels are:

1.Monolithic

A monolithic kernel is a single code or block of the program. It provides all the required services offered by the operating system. It is a simplistic design which creates a distinct communication layer between the hardware and software.

2. Microkernels

Microkernel manages all system resources. In this type of kernel, services are implemented in different address space. The user services are stored in user address space, and kernel services are stored under kernel address space. So, it helps to reduce the size of both the kernel and operating system.

Functions of an Operating System

Function of an Operating System

In an operating system software performs each of the function:

Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and delete processes. It also provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication among processes.

Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task of allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this resources.

File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as organization storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.

Device Management: Device manag

comments

2020-02-08T07:37:00.000-08:00

Let's talk about "comments". Almost everyone has gone through news papers, and if you should look closely, you will find out that each of the paragraphs has a link to the "caption" or "heading" that is found on that particular paragraph. Note; mere looking at the caption, automatically it tells you what the paragraph is trying to talk about.

As regards to "programming", we call don't call it "caption" or "heading", rather it is known as "comments".

So quickly, as usually let's go down to the breaking down of terms.

The term "comments" what does it actually mean?.

* Comments: Just as the name implies, I see comments as a "tool" that enhances the readability of a "program".

Note: As a good programmer, it is advisable to use comments in the cause of programming.

Comments makes a program to be more "readable" and "understandable"

Note: Comments can be found anywhere in the "program".

Note: Every program must have a "program name".

Assuming I want to write a program to calculate the addition of two "matrices", when looking at my comments, program to calculate the addition of two matrices, anyone going through my program will know that my program is trying to talk about "matrix".

And we all know that in matrix, there are two main components which are the "rows" and "columns".

So that is what comment is all about.

Note: Comments are of different types, which are;

- Singled line comments: Just as the name implies, it's a type of comments that is used in a only one line. So when applying it in a program, the comments should only be on a striaght line.

- Double line/ multi line comments: When applying this, your comments will be on two lines or more.

So it is left for the programmer to decide on when and where to place the comments, etc.

Programming languages

2020-02-05T13:08:00.001-08:00

Tips

As s programmer, when considering the field (world) of "programming", you

should know that there are varieties of "programming languages". They are ambigious.

Note: It will be stressful for a "programmer" to master all the programming languages. This term is what I regard as "Jack of all trades, master of none".

So as a programmer, it is expedient to learn and master some of the programming languages and try to be professionals in them.

What really matters is "how far have you gone" with the programming languages you have learnt? .

Some upcoming "progrmmers" find it difficult to apply "programming". But programming is the simplest thing ever in the "world". The only thing the "programmers" needs to hold tight is just the "syntax" and "semantics" of that particular programming language. Thats all! .

Let's go down to breaking down of terms;

*Syntax: It deals with how "words" are being used ( the usage of a word ).

*Semantics :It has to do with the meaning of a word.

So as a good "programmer", you must apply these rules to perform effectively in the programming "world".

Practice makes perfect.

Just practice! practice!! practice!!!.